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Encyclopaedia Britannica
4
GOB
Gobbo OBBO (Pietro Paolo Cortonese, fo called),
fi VJT a celebrated painter of fruit and landfcapes, was
God‘ born at Cortona in 1580, and learned the principles of
defign from his father ; but was afterwards the difciple
of one Crefcentio at Rome, and perfe&ed himfelf in the
moft eflential parts of his profeffion, by ftudying after
nature, with judgment and accuracy. His merit foon
recommended him to the notice and efteem of the moft
able judges at Rome; and as he excelled equally in
painting fruit and landfcape, he found a generous pa¬
tron in cardinal Borghefe, who employed him to adorn
his palace. The fruit which he painted had fo true
and expreffive an imitation of nature, that nothing
could pofiibly be more exatt; and by his thorough
knowledge of the chiaro-fcuro, he gave an extraordi¬
nary roundnefs and relief to every objedf. But his
greateft excellence confifted in his colouring ; for in
defign he was not remarkably fuperior to others. He
died in 1640.
GOBELIN (Giles), a famous French dyer, in the
reign of Francis I. difcovered a method of dying a
beautiful fcarlet, and his name has been given ever fince
to the fineft French fcarlets. His houfe, in the fuburb
of St Marcel at Paris, and the river he made ufe of,
are ftill called the Gobelins. An academy for drawing,
and a manufa&ory of fine tapeftries, were ere&ed in
this quarter in 1666 ; for which reafon the tapeftries
are called the Gobelins.
GOBIUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fiflies belong¬
ing to the order of thoracici. They have two holes
between the eyes, four rays in the membrane of the
gills, and the belly-fins are united in an oval form.
There yare eight fpecies, principally diilinguifhed by
the number of rays in their fins.
GOBLET, or Gobelet, a kind of drinking cup,
or bowl, ordinarily of a round figure, and without ei¬
ther foot or handle. The word is French, gobelet;
which Salmafius, and others, derive from the barba¬
rous Latin A/#. Budeus deduces it from the Greek
XUTtX^.ov, a jort 0j cup'
GOD, one of the many names of the Supreme
Being. See Christianity, Metaphysics, Moral
Philosophy, and Theology.
God is alio ufed in fpeaking of the falfe deities of
the heathens, many of which were only creatures to
. which divine honours and worihip were fuperftitioufly
paid.
The Greeks and Latins, it is obfervable, did not
mean by the name God, an all-perfe& being, whereof
eternity, infinity, omniprefence, &c. were eflential at-
Vol.VIII. Parti.
GOD
tributes : with them, the word only implied an excel- God,
lent and fuperior nature ; and accordingly they give Godal-
the appellation gods to all beings of a rank or clafs muig'
higher and more perfect than that of men ; and efpe-
cially to thofe who were inferior agents in the divine
adminiftration, all fubjeft to the one Supreme. Thus
men themfelves, according to their fyftcm, might be¬
come gods after death ; iuafmuch as their fouls might
attain to a degree of excellence fuperior to what they
were capable of in-life.
The firft divines, father Boflu obferves, were the
poets : the two funftions, though now feparated, were
originally combined; or, rather, were one and the fame
thing.
Now the great variety of attributes in God, that is,
the number of relations, capacities, and circumftances,
wherein they had occafion to confider him, put thefe
poets, &c. under a neceffity of making a partition, and
of feparating the divine attributes into feveral perfons;
becaufe the weaknefs of the human mind could not
conceive fo much power and a&ion in the fimplicity
of one fingle'dlvine nature. Thus the omnipotence of
God came to be reprefented under the perfon ^nd ap¬
pellation of Jupiter ; the wifdom of God, under that
of Minerva ; the juftice of God, under that of Juno.
The firft idols ot falfe gods that are faid to have been
adored, were the ftars, fun, moon, &c. on account of
the light, heat, and other benefits, which we derive
from them. Afterwards the earth came to be deified,
for furnilhing fruits neceflary for the fubfiftence of men
and animals j then fire and water became obje&s of di¬
vine worfliip, for their ufefulnefs to human life. In
procefs of time, and by degrees, gods became multi¬
plied to infinity; and there was fcarce any thing but the
weaknefs or caprice of fome devotee or other elevated
into the rank of deity ; things ufelefs or even deftruc-
tive not excepted. See Mythology.
GODALMING, a town of England, in the coun¬
ty of Surry, on the river Wey, 35 miles from London.
It is a corporation ; by whofe charter their chief ma-
giftrate is a warden chofen yearly, who has 8 brethren
his afliftants. The parifh is divided into 9 tithings.
Its river abounds with good fifli; and drives a grift-
mill, two paper-mills, and three corn-mill*; over which
river a new bridge was begun July zzd 1783. Her«
is a manufa&ory of mixed and blue kerfeys, alfo a ma-
nufaftory of ftockings ; and the place is alfo famous
for liquorice, and ftore of peat that burns better than
pit-coal: but a woman of this town (Mary Tofts) in
1726 endeavoured to render it infamous, by a pretend-
GOD [ :
Goddard ed delivery of rabbets; by which, however, (he for
Godfathers ^ome puzzled fome noted phyficians, anatomifts,
. . ° ' &c. In 1739, the fmall-pox carried off above 500
perfons here in 3 months, which was more than a third
of the inhabitants. -
GODDARD (Jonathan), an eminent phyfician
and chemift, and one of the firft promoters of the
Royal Society, was born about the year 1617. He
was elefted a fellow of the college of phylicians in
1646, and appointed reader of the anatomical le&ure
in that college in 1647. As he took part againft
Charles I. accepted the wardenfhip of Merton-college,
Oxford, from Oliver Cromwell when chancellor, and
fat foie reprefentative of that univerfity in Cromwell's
parliament, he was removed from his wardenfhip in a
manner difgraceful to him by Charles II. He was
however then profeffor of phyfic at Grefham college,
to which he retired, and continued to attend thofe
meetings that gave birth to the Royal Society ; upon
the firll eflablifhment of which, he was nominated one
of the council. Being fully perfuaded that the pre¬
paration of medicines was no lefs the phyfician’s duty
than the prefcribing them, he condantly prepared his
own ; and in 1668 publifhed a treatife recommending
his example to general pra&ice. He died of an apo-
pleftic fit in 1674: an^ memory was preferved by
the drops that bore his name, othcrwife called Gutta
Anglicana, the fecret of which he fold to Charles 11.
for 50001. and which Dr Lifter affures us was only
the volatile fpirit of raw filk re&ified with oil of cin¬
namon or fome other effential oil. But he claims more
particular regard, if what bifhop Seth Ward fays be
true, that he was the firft Englifhman who made that
noble aftronomical inftrument, the telefcope.
GODDESS, a heathen deity of the female fex.
The ancients had almoft as many goddeffes as gods:
fuch were, Juno the goddefs of air, Diana the goddefs
of woods, &c. and under this chara&er were reprefented
the virtues, graces, and principal advantages of life;
truth, juftice, piety, liberty, fortune, victory, &c. .
It was the peculiar privilege of the goddefles to be
reprefentedmaked ou medals; for it was fuppofed that
the imagination muft be awed and reftrained by the
confideration of the divine chara&er.
GODEAU (Anthony), bifhop of Grade and Vence
in France, was born at Dreux in 1605. He was a
very voluminous writer, both in profe and verfe ; but
his principal works are, 1. An ecclefiajlical hijlory,
3 vols. folio, containing the firft eight centuries only,
as he never finifhed more. 2. Tranjlation of the Pfalms
into French verfe; which was fo well approved, that
even thofe of the reformed religion preferred it to that
of Marat. He died in 1671.
GODFATHERS and Godmothers, perfons who,
at the baptifm of infants, anfwer for their future con-
duft, and folemnly promife that they will renounce
the devil and all his works, and follow a life of piety
and virtue; and by this means lay themfelves under an
indifpenfable obligation to inftruA them, and watch
over their condudt.
This cuftom is of great antiquity in the Chriftian
church ; and was probably inftituted to prevent chil¬
dren being brought up in idolatry, in cafe their parents
died before they arrived at years of difcretion.
The number of godfathers and godmothers is re-.
5 ] GOD
duced to two, in the church of Rome 5 and three, in Godfrey
the church of England; but formerly they had as fj,
many as they pleafed. Godftow.
GODFREY (of Bouillon), prince of Lorrain, a v
moft celebrated crufader, and viAorious general. He
was chofen general of the expedition which the Chri-
ftians undertook for the recovery of the Holy Land,
and fold his dukedom to prepare for the war. He
took Jerufalem from the Turks in 1099 ; but his
piety, as hiftorians relate, would not permit him to
wear a diadem of gold in the city where his Saviour
had been crowned with thorns. The fultan of Egypt
afterwards fent a terrible army againft him; which he
defeated, with the flaughter of about 100,000 of-the
enemy. He died in 1160.
GODMANCHESTER, a town of Huntingdon-
fhire, 16 miles from Cambridge, and 57 from London.
It has a bridge on the Oufe, oppofite to Huntingdon;
was formerly a Roman city, by the name of Durofi-
ponte, where many Roman coins have been often dug
up ; and according to old writers, in the time of the
Saxons it was the fee of a biihop, and had a caftle built
by one Gorman a Danifh king, from which the town
was called Gorrrianchefter. It is reckoned one of the
largeft villages in England, and is feated in a fertile
foil, abounding with corn. It is faid that no town in
England kept more ploughs at work than this has done.
The inhabitants boaft they formerly received our kings
as they made a progrefs this way, with nine fcore
ploughs at a time, finely adorned with their trappings,
&c. James l. made it a corporation by the name of
two bailiffs, 12 affiftants, and the commonalty of the
borough of Godmanchefter. Here is a fchool, called
the Free Grammar-School of queen Elizabeth. On
the weft fide of the to wn is a noble though ancient feat
of the Earl of Sandwich. Near this place, in the Lon¬
don road between Huntingdon and Caxton, is a tree
well known to travellers by the name of Beggar's-
Bufti.
GODOLPHIN (John), an eminent Englifh civi¬
lian, was born in the ifland of Scilly in 1617, and
educated at Oxford. In 1642-3, he was created doc¬
tor of civil law ; in 1653, he was appointed one of the
judges of the admiralty ; and at the Reftoration, he
was made one of his majefty’s advocates. Fie was
efteemed as great a mailer of divinity as of his own
faculty ; and publiihed, 1. The holy limbeck. 2. The
holy arbour. 3. A view of the admiral’s jurifdiAion.
4. The orphan’s legacy. 5. Repertorium canonicumt
&c. He died in 1678.
GODSTOW, a place northweft of Oxford, in a
fort of ifland formed by the divided ftreams of the Ifis
after being joined by the Evenlode. It is noted for
catching of filh and dreffing them ; but more fo for
the ruins of that nunnery which fair Rofamond quit¬
ted for the embraces of Henry II. The people fhow
a great hole in the earth here, where they fay is a fub-
terraneous paffage, which goes under the river to
Woodftock, by which fire ufed to pafs and repafs.
Little more remains at prefent than ragged walls, fcat-
tered over a confiderable extent of ground. An arched
gateway, and another venerable ruin, part of the tower
of the conventual church, are ftill (landing. Near the
altar in this church fair Rofamond was buried, but the
body was afterwards removed by order of a biftiop of
Lincoln,
GOD r 3 1 G O L
Godwin Lincoln, the rif;tor. The only entire part is fmall, mountain from the Hebrew Gog chafan, “ the fortrefs Gogg/es
II formerly a private chapel. Not many years fince a' of Gbg.,, He maintains that Prometheus, faid to be 11
. ftone coffin, laid to have been Rofamond’s, who per- chained to Caucafus by Jupiter, is Gog, and no other. Gt>lcuP<k*»
v haps was removed from the church to this place, was There is a province in Iberia called the Gogarefte. " ' ^
to he feen here. The building has been put to various Laftly, the generility believe, that Gog and Ma-
ufes, and at prefent ferves occafionally for a liable. gog, mentioned in Ezekiel and the Revelations, are to
GODWIN (Francis), fucceffivdy bilhop of Lati- be taken in an allegorical-fenfe, for i'ueh princes as were
daff and Hereford, was born 1111367. He was emi- enemies-tb the church and faints. Thus many by Gog
uent for his learning and abilities; being a good mathe- in Ezekiel underhand Antiochus Epiphanes,' the per-
matician, an excellent philofopher, a pure Latinill, and fecutor of thofe Jews who were firm to their religion ;
an accurate hiftorian. He underllood the true theory of and by the pei-fon of the fame name in the Revela-
the moon’s mfltion a century before it was generally tions1, they fuppofe Antichrill to be meant; the great
known. He firlt llarted thofe'hints afterwards purfued enemy of the church and faithful. Sorhe have eedea*
by Bilhop Wilkin-s, in his “Secret and fwiftitieffengervoured to prove that Gog, fpoken of in Ezekiel, and
and publilhed “ A catalogue of the lives of Englilh Ca.nbyfes' king of Perlia, were one and the fame per'-
bilhops.” He has neverthelefs, been accufed as a great fon ; and that Gog and Magog in the Revelations de-
iimoniac, for omitting no opportunity of difpofing of note all the enemies of the church, who ftlould be per-
preferments.in order to provide for his children. ..He fecutors of it to the confummation of ages,
died in 1648. ; / GOGGLES, in furgery, are inllruments ufed fot’
Godwin (Thomas), a learned Englilh writer bora curing; fquinting, or that diftortion of.the eyes ifrhidi
in 1517, was mailer of the free-fehbol at Abihgtbn in occafions this difbrder. They are ffiort conical fubes,
Berkfhire; where he educated a great many youths; compofad of ivory llained black, with a thin plate of
who became eminent both in church and Hate. His the fame ivory fixed in the tubes near their anterior
works Ihow him to have been a man of great learning; extremities* Through the centre of each of theie
fuch as, Hijloria Roman* anthologia, Synopjis anti quit a- plates is a.fmall circular hole, about the fize of the pu-
tum Hebraicarum, Mofes & Aaron, Florilegium Phrafi- pil of the eye, for the tranfmiffion of the rays of light.
con, &c. He died in 1642. Thefe goggles muft be continually worn in the dav-
Godwin, or Goodwin Sands, famous fand-banks off time, till the mufcks of the eye are brought to a£t re-
the coalt of Kent, lying between the N. and S. Fore*' guiarly and uniformly, fo as to-dire£t the pupil ftraight
land ; and as they run parallel with the coaft for three forwards ; and by thefe means the cure will be..fob»er
leagues together, at about two leagues aind a half di- or later effefled.
ftant from it, they add to the fecurity of that capa- GOGMAGOG-hillS, are hills fo called, three,
cious road, the Downs : for while the land flickers miles from Cambridge,, remarkable for the intrench-
Ihips with the wind from fouth-wdl to north-weft'tohly, ment& and other works call up there : whence'foi/rfd
thefe fands break all the force of the fea when the wind fuppofe it was a Roman camp ; and others, that it was
is at eail fouth-eaft. The moft dangerous wind, when; the work of the Danes.
blowing hard on the Downs, is the fouth fouth-weft. GOGUET (Antbny-Yves). a French writer, and
Thefe fands occupy the fpace that was formerly a large author of a celebrated work, intitled, UOrigine (lA
trabl of low ground-belonging to Godwyn earl of Kent; Leix,, des Arts, dis~ Stie^esr LA di kur Progrti' ched
father of King Harolch; and which being afterward les ancieiis Peoples,. 1758,. 3 vols, 4to. His hither,
given to the monaftery of St Auguftin at Canterbury, was an advocate,.and he was born at Paris in 1716.
the abbot neglecting to keep in repair the wall that He was very unpromiling asi to abilities, and reckoned)
defended it from the fea, the whole trad was drowned, even dull in his early years ; but his underitanding de--
according to Salmon, in the year hog, leaving thefe vdoping itfelf, he applied to letters, and'at length pro-
fends, upon which fo many ihtps have fince been duced the abovework.. The reputation he gained by
wrecked. it was great : but he enjoyed it a very fliort time, dv-
GODWlT, in orinthology. See S colop Ai. ing the fame year of the fmallpox ; which diWder,' it
GOG and Magog, two names generally joined to- feems, he always dreaded. It is remarkable, that Con-t
gether in feripture, (Ezek. xxxviii. 2. 3. &c. xxxix.. rad Fugere, to whom he left his library ami his MSS,
j, 2, &c. Rev. xx. 8.) Mofes fpeaks of Magog the was fo deeply affeded with the death of his. friend, as
£un of Japhet, but fays nothing of Gog, (Gen. x. 2. to die himfelf three days after him. The above work
I. Chr. i. 5.) Gog was prince of Magog, according has been tranflated into Euglilh,' and. puMilhed in 3.
to Ezekiel. Magog lignifies the country or people, vols. 8vo.
and Gog the king of that country. The generality of GOLCONDA, a kingdom- of Afia, in the-peViin-•
the ancients made Magog the father of. the Scythians fula on this fide the Gangesi ’It is bounded on the.
and Tartars ; and feveral interpreters difeovered many north, by that of Orixa, oathew.ellbythat ofBa-
footlleps of their name in the provinces of Great.Tar. lagate,. on the fouth . by Bifnagar, and on the eaft'
tary. Others have been of opinion that the Per bans by the gidjih of Bengal.. It abounds in com, rice,
were the defeendapts of Magog and 1'orae have ima* ' and cattle; but that v. hieh refiders it moll rertiark.
gined that the Goths were deicended from Gog and able are the diamond-mines, they being theAnoit cbfl-
Magog ; and that the wars deferihe-d by Ezekiel,and ftderable'hrthe world: they are ufually purahafed of
undertaken by Gog againft the faints, are no other the black merchants,-who buy parcels ef g'fbuiitl to
than thofe which the Goths earned on in. the. fifth-age fearch for thefe precious Hones in; TheyTomkimes
again it the Raman empire. fail in meeting with any , and in others they find im-
Boehart haa placed Gog in the neighbourhood of merife richts.-They have aifamiiiesoffalt, fine iron for
Caucafus. He derives , the name of this celebrated fword-h&des, and curiomT callicoes and ehinfse*, 'll
Vom VIII. Part I. A a is
G O L
r 4 i
G O L
is fubjeA; to the Great Mogul; and has a town of the
fame name, feated at the foot of a mountain, being
one of the largeil in the Eaft Indies. It is about fix
miles: in circumference; and was formerly the refidence
of.the kings, till it was conquered by the Great Mogul.
It is now much frequented by the European merchants.
E. Long. 70. 10. N. Lat. 16. 30.
Magellan, as well as the former, when a thin film of
the metal is interpofed betwixt the eye and the lumi- ■*
nous body, is owing to tranfmitted light. “ The green
light (fay he) is tranfmitted in both cafes, fince all re-
fleeted colours are produced by the tranfmiffion of
light, as the ingenious philofopher Mr Delaval haa
lately difeovered and demonftrated in his very elabo-
GOLD, the moil, valuable of all the metals, is of a rate treatife on this fubjeft, ihferted in the fecond \
bright yellow colour when pure, but becomes more or
Id's white in .proportion as it is alloyed with other me¬
tals. It is the heavieft of all known bodies, platina
only excepted, its fpecific gravity being to that of di-
'ftilled water as 19.640 to 1000. It melts in a low
white heat; requiring, according to Mr Wedgewood'f
lume of the memoirs publiflted in 1785 by the Philo-
fophical Society of Manchefter.” Sir Ifaac Newton,
in his Optics (page 162, edition of 1730), accounts for
that phenomenon, faying, that “ gold foliated, and
held between the eyes and the light, looks of a greenilh
blue; and therefore (fays he) maffy gold lets into its
-calculation, 5237 degrees of Fahrenheit’s, or 3 2 of his body the blue rays to be reflefted to and fro within it,
own, thermometer for its fufion ; a heat greatly fupe- till they be ftopped and ftifled ; while it reflefts the
rior to that which melts filver or copper; the former yellow outwards, and therefore looks yellow.” It is
requiring only 4717, and the latter 4587 of Fahrenheit, therefore, in the two above cafes, that fome of the blue
Other metallurgifts, however, have differed, and aifert rays are tranfmitted along with the yellow ones ; and
that copper requires for its fufion a greater degree of both together appear of a bluiih-green. If gold be ex-
beat than either gold or filver. pofed to the joined rays of light, excepting only the
Gold is by far the moft tough and duftile, as well yellow ones, which we fuppofe ftopped after they were
s the moft malleable, of aft metals. According to
Cronftedt, one grain of it may be ftretched out fo as to
cover 98 Swediih ells, equal to 63.66 Englilh yards
of filver wire ; but Wallerius afferts, that a,grain of
gold may be ftretched in fuch a manner as to cover 500
ells of wire. At any rate, the extenfion is prodigious ;
for, according to the leaft of tbefe calculations, the mil-
feparated by a prifm, it only looks white like filver;
“ which (hows (fays Sir Ifaac Newton) that its yel«
lownefs arifes from the excels of intercepted rays tin¬
ging that whitenefs with their colour when they are let
to pafs. It is a pleafing obfervation to look with a deep
magnifier on various pieces of gold, filver, and Dutch
(copper) leaves between the eye and the funihine. The
lionth part of a grain of gold may be made vifible to particles of filver are feen in the form of oblong dark
tllP nnlcpH P VP. Nnr IS its TTIPuHpaKlIltv mfpnnr Its 1nrr\r\a xirifli frvrw** i t-if 1 mo Itlro *-» stt/at-It Vw~>4-*■**£» on
the naked eye. Nor is its mealleability inferior to its
du&ility. Boyle, quoted by Apligny in his Treatife
of Colours, fays, that one grain and an half of gold
may be beaten into 50 leaves of one inch fquare,which,
if interfered by parallel liens drawn at right angles to
each other, and diftant only the loodth part of an inch
from each other, will produce 25 millions of little
fquares, each very eafily difcernible by the naked eye.
Mr Magellan tells us, that its furface may be extended
by the hammer 159092 times. “ I am informed
(fays he) by an intelligent gold-beater in England,
that the fineft gold leaf is that made in new (kins, and
muft have an alloy of three grains of copper to the
ounce troy of pure gold, or elfe it would be too foft to
pafs over the irregularities of the (kins. He affirms,
that 80 books, or 2000 leaves of gold, each meafuiing .
3.3 fquare inches, viz. each leaf containing 10.89
fquare inches, weigh lefs than 384 grains. Each book,
therefore, pr 25 leaves, = 272.23 inches, weighs lefs
than 4.8 grains; fo that each grain of the metal will
produce 56.718 fquare inches.” From further calcu¬
lations it may be made to appear, that the thicknefs of
thefe leaves is lefs than ^^^th of an inch ; and that
\6 ounces .of gold would be fufficient to gild a filver
wire equaljn length to the whole circumference of the
globe.
. Gold is more elaftic than lead or tin, but lefs fo than
iron, or even copper. It grows hard and brittle by
hammering, but refumes its du&ility on being (lowly
heated. ; Gold leaf exhibits a fine green colour on be¬
ing interpofed between the eye and the beams of the
fqn or. any other-luminous body. When expofed for
fome time to.a ftrongheat, it becomes ignited, and at laft
melts, a (fuming at the fame time a fine bluiffi-green co¬
lour ; and, when cold, cryftallizes into quadrilateral
pyramids. This bluiffi-green colour, according to Mr
lumps, with fome iuterftices, like net-work, between
them : thofe of the copper-leaf are more numerous and
more regularly diftributed; but the particlesof the gold-
leaf appear like little green femitranfparent and fimilar .
particles, uniting between themfelves by nearly dia¬
phanous joints, as if they were forced to flatten in their
edges, rather than they would break their mutual co-
hefion with one another.”
Gold is more generally found native than, any other
metal; though Bergman informs us, that he does not
know an inftance of its ever being found perfe&ly free
of alloy. Kirwan fays it is feldom found fo ; being
generally alloyed with filver, copper, or iron, and fome-
times with all the three. According to Wallerius, na¬
tive goldA is found, 1. In folid mafles, in Hungary,
Tranfylvania, and Peru. 2. In grains in the Spaniffi
Weft Indies. 3. In a vegetable form, like the branches
or twigs of plants. 4. In a dru/ic figure, as if compo-
fed of groups or clufters of fmall particles united togei
ther, found in Hungary. 5. Compofed of thin plates,
or thin pellicles, covering other bodies, found in Sibe¬
ria. 6. In a cryftalline form in Hungary. .
The fame author informs us, that gold, in its regu-
line date, is formed either into angular cryftals com¬
pofed of yellow otftaedrons, or into yellow irregular
mafles, which (how a grain-like texture. Brunnich
fays, that the native gold found in leaves is always
cryftallized on the furface ; and with a magnifier they
may be feen of a triangular pyramidal form. He in¬
forms us alfo, that in Tranfylvania he procured a fpeci-
men of cubic native gold, but never faw it any where,
elfe. < .
Gold is alfo found in the form of thick folid pieces."
It is in general more frequently imbedded in quartz,
and mixed with it, than with any other ftone; and
the quartz in which the gold is found in the Hun¬
garian
G O L [ 5 ] G O I.
Gold garian mines, Mr Magellan tell us, is of a pecu- know by experience, that gold can be melted out of
—V”-' liar mild appearance. Sometimes, however, it is found thefe ores, even after they have been digefted in aqua
in limeftone, or in hornblende, &c. regia, and that gold likwife enters into their fulphu-
Europe is principally fupplied with gold from Chili rated regulus, there is the greateft reafon to believe,
and Peru in South America. A fmall quantity is that fome third fubitance, probably a metal, has by its
likewife imported from China and the coaft of Africa, admixture enabled the fulphur to unite with a certain
The principal gold mines of Europe are thofe of quantity of gold. Marcafites, however, contain, at
Hungary, and next to them the mines of Saltzburg. any rate, only a fmall quantity of the precious metal ;
The mines of Adelfors in Smoland are likewife work- and none is to be expe&ed from them in places where
ed to advantage ; and the veins of metal appeaf to be no gold is' in the neighbourhood. “ I am not per-
diffufed over a great traQ: of land. Some gold from fedtly clear (fays Cronftedt) whether the gold is real-
four to feven grains in the mark is alfo faid to be ex- ly difiblved and indurated, or, if I may fo exprefs
traded from the filver of the mines of Ofterfilvarberget myfclf, vitrified in the fchtrls; provided, by this ini-
in the province of Dalarne. Native gold has alfo neral body, we mean a garnet fubftance. But I have
been found in Lapland above Tornea, and in Weft- feen a piece of what is calledJhirl, whofe texture was
manland. In Peru it is found mixed with a ftony exa&ly like the Schemnitz blende ; and in this cafe it
matter not well known, from which it is extracted by might perhaps hold the fame contents.”
amalgamation. Mr Pallas mentions three gold mines 2. With Sulphur by means of Iron: Golden pyrites,
that are worked there, near the river Pyfchma, in or marcafitical gold-ore. This is a clofe and compad
which 500 men are employed. The metal is found fubftance of a bright yellow colour. Here the gold
in a powdery form, and alfo in thin plates or leaves, is faid to be mineralized by fulphur by means of
Sometimes kernels or lumps of a fpongy texture, and iron, becaufe it cannot be extracted by aqua regia or
very light, are met with which contain a good quan- by amalgamation. A kind of gold pyrites is found
tity of gold-duft. This gold-duft or wafh-gold is at Adelfors in the province of Smoland, which con-
ufually wafhed out of faads wherein it lies in the form tains an ounce or lefs of gold in an hundred weight of
of loofe grains or lumps. It is diftinguiflied by the the ore. The Tranfylvania gold pyrites, according
varioufly coloured fubftances wherewith it is mixed, to Brunnich, in which no gold can be perceived by
The metal is alfo found feparate from any' matrix the naked eye, contain from 50 to 100 and 110
in lumps or vifible grains mixed with fands. Thus it ounces and upwards in an hundred weight. Thofe
is met with in many rivers of Europe as well as the where the gold appears in the pyrites like ftrewed
other quarters of the world. It is alfo vifibly difperfed Spanifti fnuff, hold 250 ounces, but they are very fcarce.
through mafles of fand, particularly fuch as is of a The mountain of Faczebaya, near Zalathna, is remark-
yellowifh-red or violet colour; and in this ftate it is able for its gold pyrites; and here they feem aifo to
fo univerfally diffufed through every kind of earth, contain femimetallic parts.
that Mr Bergman thinks it the moft common of all The foBowing is M. Magellan’s method of account-
the metals, iron alone excepted. If too pounds ing for the union of gold with this kind of pyrites. “ It
©f fand contain 24 grains of gold, the feparatiqn is is well known, that gold may be difl’olved by liver of
faid to be worth attending to. In Africa 5 pounds fulphur. The procefs given for this purpofe by M.
©f fand often yield 63 grains of gold, or even more ; Apligny, p. 156 of his Treatife on Colours, is as fol-
and the heavieft fand, which is often black or red, lows. Reduce to powder four pounds of w. vtable alkali
contains the moft. In Hungary, however, only 10 (fait of tartar), and as many of fulphur, With one of
or 12 grains of gold are contained in 10,000 pounds of leaves of gold. Melt the mixture in a crucible with
fand; and even this trifling quantity has- been ex- its cover; pour the fufed matter oul on a marble
tra&ed, though with lofs. ftone ; pound it again when cold, and put the whole in
Gold is brought down with moft of the large ri- a matrefs with hot water; which being filtrated is of a
vers; even thofe which do not take their rife in moun- greeni fn yellow colour, containing the gold di {'Lived,
tains where gold is found. In Tranfylvania the river Now, as we know that hepar fulphuris has been found
ef Avanyos affords fubfiftence to upwards of 700 Gip- in feveral pyrites, and Mafeagni fays that he found it in
fey families, who colleft the gold from it. In thofe lagoons near Sienna in Italy; is it not very natu-
Brafil it is found in fuch abundance, that their tor- ral to conclude, that this noble metal may be leally
rents are often turned with great labour and expence mineralized in the auriferous pyrites ?”
into new beds, in order to gather the gold there de- 3. Auriferous Cinnabar, in which the metal is mine-
polited by the running waters.—It is alfo found there - ralized by means of quickfllver, faid to be found in
mingled with the earth in various fliapes and forms.— Hungary. Mr Sage fpeaks of a fpecimen of gold
It is likewife faid to be fometimes found in veins run- from Hungary, now in the French king’s cabinet at
Bing through beds of coals. Paris, which is cryftallizcd into quadrangular prifms
Gold is faid to be mineralized', when it is mixed of a grey-yellowifh colour and a brittle conflitencv,
with fome other fubftance in fuch a manner as not to which he fuppofes to be therefult of a mercurial amal-
be a&ed upon by aqua regia. In this manner gold gam of native gold.
is mineralized. * 4. I*he Schemnitz, Blende, in which the gold is mine-
1. By Sulphur. Many have infilled, that as' gold ralized by means of zinc andiron. Cronftedt informs
and fulphur are not found to have any chemical at- us, that the ores of zinc at Schemnitz in Hungary
tra&ion for one another, it is impoffible that marcafite contain a great deal of filver, and that this filver is
can contain any of the metal, or indeed that it can be very rich in gold. Piofeflbr Brunnich enumerates the
found in any ore containing fulphur; but fince we following varieties of this ore. 1. Where the metal
is.
Gold.
G O L [6
Gold, is mineralized by means of a cubic lead-ore, containing
filver found in the mines of Michaeli and fome places
in Tranfylvania. 2. By a copper pyrites with filver.
This kind of ore is called gilf in Hungary : it has a
compadl furface of a pale yellow colour; but muft
not for that reafon be confounded with the auriferous
pyrites. 3. The Cremnitz-ores in which the metal
is mineralized by means of red gilder ore. 4. By
means of antimony, in which it fometimes appears.
This kind is found at the foot of the Carpathian
mountains. 5. By cubic lead-ore, iron, and fome un¬
known volatile parts. This ore, as defcribed by Sco-
poli, is of a black, colour; the richeft pieces are la-
mellated almoft like an iron-glimmer, with a degree of
flexibility. The vein is quartz, which is fometimes
loofe, and the metal fcattered very minutely in it. It
is found in Tranfylvania. 6. Native gold, with black-
lead (or molybdsena), has been found near Rimezem-
bat in Upper Hungary; but our author (Profeflbr
Brunnich) has not had any opportunity of examining
whether it is mineralized by it or not. In all the
above fpecies, the gold is either entirely native, but
£o minutely divided, and fo loofely fcattered, that it
can only be feen through microfcopes, and often can¬
not be fetn at all before it is feparated by various pro-
cefles : or it may not be in the form of native gold,
but the metal as it were in embryo ; in which cafe fire
is neceffary to bring the conftituent parts together, and
to add thofe that are wanting ; in that cafe likewife it
is never without filver.
“ Tothefe (fays Mr Magellan) may be added the
following ores. 1. Gold, with arfenical pyrites, is
found alfo at Saltzberg in Tyrol, in mountains of
quartz and fchiftus. It contains only 25 grains in the
quintal; neverthelefs it affords a profit of L. 500 per
annum. 2. With a white, red, or vitreous filver-ore,
near Cremnitz and Schemnitz in Hungary. 3. With
a fulphurated ore of filver, iron, lead, and manganefe,
at Nagaya in Tranfylvania. Its fpecific gravity is
4.043, an(* it i® faid to. afford 10 ounces per quintal.
4. With fulphurated iron, copper, and manganefe, at
Nagaya.”
The ttrongefl heat of any furnace does not change
the metallic properties of gold. Kunckel and Boyle
made the experiment by expofing gold for feveral
months to the fire of a glafs-houfe. It appears, how¬
ever, that, by the violent heat of the fun-beams col¬
lected in the focus of a burning-glafs, fome alteration
may be produced in it. Homberg obferved that gold,
when expofed to the lens of Tfchirnhaufen, formed,
was volatilized, and even vitrified; and Macquer found,
that the metal, when expofed to the lens of Mr Tru-
datne, exhaled a fume which gilded filver, and was
therefore gold in a volatile Hate: the globule of melted
gold was agitated with a rapid circular motion, and
became covered with a dull and as it were calcifonn
pellicle ; and lattly, that a violet vitrification was form¬
ed on the middle of the globule. This vitrification
gradually extended, and produced a kind of button,
flatter, or of a larger curvature, than that of the glo¬
bule, and which ftuck upon it as the tranfparent cor¬
nea appears on the fclerotica of the eye. This glafs
increafed in fize, while the gold itfelf continually di-
minilhed: the fupport always appeared tinged with a
purple colour, feemingly produced by the abforptiou
1 G o L
of part of the glafs. Time did not permit him to vi- Gold,
trify a quantity of gold entirely. He obferves, that —v—
it is a neceffary condition that the violet glafs fhould
be reduced with combuftible matters, in order to juf-
tify the affertion that it is the calx of that perfedt me¬
tal, which would evidently appear to be the cafe if
it became revived into gold. But however this may
be, Mr Fourcroy is of opinion that this ought to be
confidered as a true vitrified calx of gold; and this
with the greater probability, as in many operations
with this metal the purple colour is conftantly produ¬
ced, and many preparations of gold are employed to
give that colour to enamel and porcelain. “ Gold
(fays he) is therefore calcinable like the other metals ;
and only requires, as likewife does filver, a ftronger
heat, and a longer time to unite with the bafe of air
than other metallic fubftances.” Mr Kirwan, on the
other hand, tells us, that “ gold expofed to the utmoft
heat of Mr Parker’s lens for fome hours, loft no fen-
fible part of its weight ; yet, when in contact with
earthy matters, it communicated a blue or purplifh
tinge to them; fo that he believes an exceeding faiall
portion of it might be dephlogifticated.”
This experiment with the lens of Mr Parker does
not invalidate that of Macquer: for either Trudaine’s
lens may be more powerful than Mr Parker’s; or the
air in France being more clear than in England,
the atftion of the fun muft be ftronger. We are af-
fured, however, that by means of the eleftric fire
gold may be inftantaneoofly calcined and even vitri¬
fied : whence we muft conclude, not only that gold
is really calcinable, but that the eledtric fire is al¬
moft infinitely more powerful than any other ; as
by its means we may in a moment accomplilh what
either cannot be done otherwife at all, or very imper-
fedlly, even by the fierceft fire we can raife. The
flame of a lamp blown by dephlogifticated air is alfo
found fufficient to volatilize gold.
Gold being thus indeftrudtible by the common ope¬
rations of fire, equally refills its flow adlion in the at-
mofphere. It is altogether exempted from rufting;
and though its furface becomes tarnifhed by expofure
to the air, it is merely in confequence of the depofi-
tion of foreign bodies upon it. Water produces no
change, fays Mr Fourcroy ; though, according to the
experiments of Lagaraye, it feems capable of dividing
it nearly in the fame manner as it does iron.
Gold combines with various metals ; and is com¬
monly alloyed in a certain proportion with copper,
which gives it a red colour and greater firmnefs than
it pofleffes when very pure, at the fame time that it
is thus rendered .more fufible. In this ftate it is ufed
for money, plate, and toys of different kinds. It is
fometimes alfo alloyed with filver, which deprives it
of its colour, and renders it very pale : this alloy, how¬
ever, is not made without fome difficulty, on account
of the very different fpecific gravities of the two me¬
tals, as Homberg obferved, who law them feparate du¬
ring their fufion. The alloy of gold with filver forms
the green gold of the jewellers and gold-beaters.
As gold has been rendered, by the univerfal con-
fent of mankind, the moft valuable fubftance in the
world, it is of great confequence to be able to dif-
cover its degree of purity, in order to “prevent the adul¬
terations which would naturally be pradifed, and to
pro-
G 0 L t
Gold, produce an equality of value in the different pieces
—v  diiperied in commerce. The chemical methods by
which this is accompli (bed, are related under the ar¬
ticles Chemistry, and Essaying of Metals. To
ascertain with precifion the quantity of imperfeft me¬
tal it may contain, a given mafs of gold is fuppofed
to contain 24 parts called carats; each carat being fup¬
pofed divided into 32 parts called thirty feconds of a
carat. If the gold after the operation has loit one
grain in 24, it is gold of 23 carats; if it has loft a
grain and a half, it is gold of 22 carats 16 thirty-fe-
conds, and fo on. The weight ufed in the effay of
gold is called the ejfay •weighty and ufually confifts of 24
grains ; it is divided into 24 carats, which are likewife
, fubdivided into 32 parts. An effay weight is likewife
ufed which weighs 12 grains; and is likewife divided in¬
to 24 carats, fubdivided again into thirty-feconds.
The fcarcity and great price of gold prevent its be¬
ing made into veffels or utenfils; but as its brilliancy
and colour are agreeable, methods have been found of
applying it to the furface of a great number of bodies,
which it thus not only beautifies, but by its indeftruc-
tibility preferves from the injuries of the atmofphere.
The art of applying it in this manner is ca\\t& gilding;
and the immenfe du&ility of gold already mentioned,
renders it capable of being applied in this' manner at
much lefs expence than cpuld be imagined. It is ufed
belides in gilding, either in a ftate of folution by acids,
or amalgamated with mercury, which are called •water-
gilding. It was formerly ufed in medicine, and gteat
virtues were afcribed to it ; whence the great number
of golden tin&ures, elixirs, &c. of quacks ; but all
thefe are now defervedly exploded, and the beft prac¬
titioners allow that gold, in whatfoever manner it be
prepared, is either ina&ive or dangerous.
Gold in its metallic ftate cannot be combined with
the vitrifiable earths, but its calces may ; for which
reafon they are often ufed in enamel-painting and in
porcelain, where they produce a beautiful violet-co¬
lour. Glafs is tinged by them of a beautiful red ; of
which we have an account in Neri’s art of gk#s-making;
though Dr Lewis fays he never could fucceed in ma¬
king the colour diffufe itfelf equally thronghout the
fubilance of the glafs. See Colouring of Glass.
The preparation of gold called aurum fulminans is
taken notice of under the article Ohemistry, nJ 1103,
M. Magellan takes notice ofitsextraordinary fulminating
property, and fays that itsfragor is 64 times-greater
than that of an equal quantity e»f gun-powder. Ac¬
cording to Bergman, the ftrength of the explofion is
176 times greater than that of gun-powder (20 grains
of aurum fulminans being equivalent to half a pound
of gun-powder). Bergman accounts for the amazing
ftrength of this explofion, by fuppcriing it owing to the
quantity of air extricated at the time; but this, ac¬
cording to his own account, cannot be at all fufficient
for fuch a purpofe ; and Magellan is of opinion that
“ this wonderful phenomenon feems not yet complete¬
ly accounted for by any hypothefis yet known.” See
the articles Chemistry, and Explosion.
“ It is on account of the Angular and excellent na¬
tural qualities of this metal (fays our author), which
are confiderably heightened by its fcarcity, that gold
is fo much valued among all the civilized nations of
the world.” Mr Paudlon, in his Metrologie, p. 94. fays.
7 1 G O L
that one cubic foot (French meafure) of gold is worth
2,153,000 livres tournoifes, or 89,708 guineas and feven
fhiilings, fuppoiing the Louis d’Or to be equal to the
guinea ; and that the rqfpedtive value of the fame cu¬
bic foot of gold is equal to 25.6 cubic feet of filver ;
each of this laft metal beihg reckoned worth about
84,000 French livres, or 3503 guineas and eight (hil¬
lings : fo that if we fuppofe the monied fpecie in
France to be but two milliards of French livres, ac¬
cording to the eftimation of Mr Neckar in his Trea-
tife upon the Commerce of Corn, the whole amount
Ihould make but a folid cube of gold lefs than 10 feet
on each fide. So trifling is the phyfical objedf that
excites the adlivity of 22 millions of the human fpe-
cies, the number that is faid to be that of the inhabi¬
tants of France.
We ihall clofe this article with fome obfervations by
M. Magellan on the ftate in which gold is found in the
bowels of the earth, and confequently of the origin of
gold ores. “ As to the natural exiftence of gold in
the bowels of the earth (fays he), there have been two
opinions among mineralogifts; fome pretending that it
is only found in its metallic or native form ; and others,
that it is fometimes found ■mineralised in an intimate
union with other fubftances. Mr Kirwan holds the
former, and the celebrated Bergman the latter. But,
fays Mr Kirwan, ‘ though Mr Bergman inclines to
the opinion of the mineralization, yet he is candid
enough to own, that the gold, when extracted from
this ore, is of a granular or angular form. It is there¬
fore very doubtful, whether it was not rather 'mixed,.
than truly combined with the fulphur and iron : and
its proportion being exceedingly fmall, fo that 100
pounds of the pyrites fcarcely contain an ounce of gold,
it is not a wonder that it fhould efcape the adlion of
aqua regia ; more efpeciaily as the nitrous acid becomes
fo phlogifticated by a&ing on the pyrites, as not to be
able to dephlogifticate the marine. Likewife mercury,
by reafon of the gold particles being enveloped in the
fulphureous iron, can have no accefs to it.”
“ Thefe arguments (fays M- Magellan) againft the
true mineralization of gold, are fully anfwered by the*
fadfs already mentioned. Befides, it is well known,
that gold can be combined and calcined, via fcca,
by the liver of fulphur and femimetals. This^being
acknowledged on both fides of - the queftion, why
fliould we infill on denying this mineralization, when it
is out of doubt, among mineralogifts of rank, that vol¬
canic fires have had a great fhare'in the convulfions and
revolutions of this globe, of which every one has the
moll convincing proofs almoft every where. The ac¬
count given by Mr Hacquet of the gold mines at
Nagy ag in Tranfylvania, the ancient Dacia, which-
lies about 450 latitude, offers the moft' convincing
proofs of this affertion. The country all round thefe
mines bears an inconteftabie appearance of being a vol¬
canic one ; and among-various other metals, there are
at leaft 13 kinds of gold ores, moft: of them mineralized.
Thefe are, I. Gold mineralized by fulphur, zinc, and
arfenic, in a grey-yellowilh volcanic ore, which is call¬
ed cottoners, or cotton-ore, on account of its lightnefs
and texture. 2. By iron and arfeuic, formed by ftra-
ta ; one containing black filver ore, then fpatum, ga¬
lena, quartz, and grey, gold ore : it yields about halt
an ounce in the too pounds. 3. By fulphur, antimo-
ity>»
G 0 L [8
Odd. ny, zinc, fome arfenic, and fometimcs iron : this is a
grcy gold ore mixed with fome quartz. 4. In the
form of crooked threads mixed with quartz and gyp-
feous fpath ; a poor mine. 5. Dendritiform, like the
mocho (lone, or the'agate from Aberftein in the Pa¬
latinate ; but thefe black dendrites are in 4 reddiih
ftone. 6. Amorphous, very compaft, in fmall grains,
with fpath and quartz. A quintal of it yields two oun-
ce§ of gold, and more of lilver. 7. By fulphur, great
part of zinc, and a little antimony and arfenic ; not
rich. 8. Of a black or dark-reddifh colour, contain¬
ing an auriferous pyrites; not rich. 9. Of a bluifli
colour, mineralized by fulphur, antimony, iron, and a
little arfenic mixed with lilver; very rich in gold,
xo. Partly laminated with needles of a blackilh yellow
colour : this gives 66 ounces of gold per of gold,
according to Scopoli. 11. Foliated with gypfeous
fpath and yellow pyrites. 12. In irregular lamina,
on a greyith argille. The gold looks like filver, and is
furrounded by fpars of a pale rofy colour. 13. In cry-
ilallized laminae from two to four lines diameter, of an
hexangular form, and very much refembling molybdana.
The vein was loft for fome time, but lately found again
on mining for letting out water from the main. This
ore is very rare, and has given 372 ounces per of
a mixed metal; five of which were gold, and one
lilver.
Method of Recovering Gold from Gilt Works. The
folubility of gold, and the indilfolability of filver, in a-
qua regia, affords a principle on which gold may be fe-
parated from the furface of filver ; and, on this foun¬
dation, different proceffes have been contrived, of which
the two following appear to be the belt.—Some pow¬
dered fal ammoniac, moiftened with aquafortis into the
confiftence of a pafte, is fpread upon the gilt filver,
and the piece heated till the matter fmokes and be¬
comes nearly dry: being then thrown into water, it is
rubbed with a fcratch brufh compofed of fine brafs-wire
bound together, by which the gold eafily comes off.
The other way is, by putting the gilt filver into com-
xnon aqua regia, kept fo hot as nearly to boil, and
turning the metal frequently till it becomes all over
black : it is then to be wafhed with a little water, and
rubbed with the fcratch brufti, to get off what gold the
aqua regia may have left. This laft method appears pre¬
ferable to the other; as the fame aqua regia may be
made to ferve repeatedly till it becomes faturated with
the gold, after which the gold may be recovered pure
by precipitation with folution of vitriol, as directed un¬
der the article Metallurgy.
For feparating gold from gilt copper, fome dire& a
folution of borax to be applied on the gilt parts, but
nowhere elfe, with a pencil, and a little powdered ful¬
phur to be fprinkled on the places thus moiftened ; the
principal ufe of the folution of borax feems to be to
make the fulphur adhere ; the piece being then made
red hot, and quenched in water, the gold is faid to be
fo far loofened, as to be wiped off with a brulh. O-
thers mix the fulphur with nitre and tartar, and form
the mixture with vinegar into a pafte, which is fpread
upon the gilt parts.
Schlutter recommends mechanical means, as being
generally the leaft expenfive, for feparating gold from
the furface both of filver and copper. If the gilt veffel
js round, the gold is conveniently got off by turning
] G O L
it in a lathe, and applying a proper tool, a Ikin being Gold,
placed underneath for receiving the fhavings: he fays ~—v—
it is eafy to colic61 into two ounces of lhavings all the
gold of a gilt veffel weighing thrice as many pounds.
Where the figure of the piece does not admit of this
method, it is to be properly fixed, and fcrapers-ap¬
plied of different kinds according to its fize, and fi¬
gure ; fome large, and furnilhed with two handles,
one at each end ; others fmall and narrow, for pene¬
trating into depreffed parts. If the gold cannot be
got off by either of thefe ways, the file mull be had
rccourfe to, which takes off more of the metal un¬
derneath than the turning tool or the fcrnper, parti¬
cularly than the forfner. The gold fcrapings or filings
may be purified from the filver or copper they
contain, by the methods deferibed under the article
Metallurgy.
The editors of \.hz Encyclopedic give a method of re¬
covering the gold from wood that has been gilt on a
water-fize: this account is extra&ed from a memoir or
the fame fubje£t, prefented to the Academy of Sciences
by M. de Montamy. The gilt wood is fteeped for a
quarter of an hour in a quantity of water fufficient to
cover it, made very hot: the fize being thus foftened,
the wood is taken out, and ferubbed, piece by piece,
in a little warm water, with Ihort ftiffbriftle brufhes of
different fizes, fome fmall for penetrating into the car¬
vings, and others large for the greater difpatch in flat
pieces. The whole mixture of water, fize, gold, &c.
is to be boiled to drynefs, the dry matter made red hot
in a crucible to burn off the fize, and the remainder
ground with mercury, either in a mortar, or, where
the quantity is large, in a mil!.
GoLD-CuaJl. See Guinea.
Gold-Wire, a cylindrical ingot of filver, fuperficially
gilt or covered with gold at the fire, and afterwards
drawn fucceflively through a great number of little
round holes, of a wire-drawing iron, each lefs than the
other, till it be fometimes no bigger than a hair of the
head. See Wire-Drawing.
It may ^j obferved that, before the wire be reduced
to this exccfiive finenefs, it is drawn through above
140 different holes; and that each time they draw it,
it is rubbed afrelh over with new wax, both to facili¬
tate its paffage, and to prevent the filver’s appearing
through it.
Gold-Wire flatted, is the former wire flatted be¬
tween two rollers of polifhed fteel, to fit it to be fpun
on a ftick, or to be ufed flat, as it is, without fpin-
ning, in certain ftuffs, laces, '“embroideries, &c. See
Stuff, &C.,
GoLu-Thread, or Spun-gold, is flatted gold, wrapped
or laid over a thread of filk, by twilling it with wheel
and iron-bobbins.
To difpofe the wirevto be fpun on filk, they pafs it
between two rollers of a little mill: thefe rollers are of
nicely poluned fteel, and about three inches in diame¬
ter. They are fet very clofe to each other, and turn¬
ed by means of a hapdle fattened to one of them, which
gives motion to the other. The gold wire in palling.
between the two is rendered quite flat, but without lo-
fing any thing of its gilding ; and is rendered fo ex¬
ceedingly thin and flexible, that it is eafily fpun on filk-
thread, by means of a hand-wheel, and fo wound on a
fpool or bobbin. See Wire- Drawing.
5 Gold-
G O L [
Gnn-Lcaf, or Beaten Gold, is gold beaten with a
hammer into exceeding thin leaves, fo that it is com¬
puted, that an ounce may be be beaten into 1600
leaves, each three inches fquare, in wfcikh date it takes
up more than 159,052 times its former furface. See
Gold-Leaf.
It mud be obferved, however, that gold is beaten
more or lefs, according to the kind or quality of the
work it is intended for ; that for the gold-wire drawers
to gild their ingots withal, is left much thicker than that
for gilding the frames of pictures, &c. See Gilding.
GoiD-Brocade. See Brocade.
Fulminating Gold. See Chemistry, n° 1103.
Mofaic Gold, is gold applied in pannels on a proper
ground, didributed into fquares, lozenges, and other
compartments ; part of which is fhadowed to raife or
heighten the red. See Mosaic.
Gold Plates for Enamelling are generally made of du¬
cat gold, whofe finenefs is from 23I- to 23^ carats; and
the fined gold is the bed for this purpofe, unlefs
where fome parts of the gold are left bare and uqpo-
lifhed, as in watch-cafes, fnuff-boxes, &c. for which pur¬
pofe a mixture of alloy is neceffary, and filver is pre¬
ferred to copper, becaufe the latter difpofes the plates
to tarnidi and turn green. See Enamelling.
Shell-GoLD, is that ufed by the gilders and illuminers,
and with which gold letters are written. It is made
by grinding gold leaves, or gold-beaters fragments,
with a little honey, and afterwards feparating the ho¬
ney from the powdered gold by means of water. When
the honey is wadied away, the gold may be put on
paper or kept in fhells; whence its name. When it
is ufed, it is diluted with gum-water or foap-fuds.
The German gold-powder, prepared from the Dutch
gold-leaf in the fame manner, is generally ufed; and
when it is well fcoured with varnilh, anfwers the end
in japanners gilding as well as the genuine.
GoiD-Size for burnifhed gilding is prepared of one
pound and an half of tobacco-pipe clay, half an ounce
of red chalk, a quarter of an ounce of black lead,
forty drops of fweet oil, and three drams fcf pure tal¬
low : grind the clay, chalk, and black lead, feparately,
very fine in water; then mi* them together, add the
oil and tallow, and grind the mixture to a due confid¬
ence.
Gold-fize of japanners may be made by pulverizing
gum animi and afphaltum, of each one ounce; red-lead,
litharge of gold, and umbre, of each one ounce and a
half, mixing them with a pound of linfeed-oil, and
boiling them, ebferving to ftir them till the whole be
incorporated, and appears on growing cold of the con¬
fidence of tar: drain the mixture through a flannel,
and keep it dopped up in a bottle for ufe. When it
is ufed, it mud be ground with as much vermilion as
will give it an opake body, and diluted with oil of
turpentine, fo that it may be worked freely with the
pencil. A Ample preparation confids of one pound
of linfeed oil and four ounces of gum animi ; powder
the gum, and mix it gradually with the boiling oil;
let it continue to boil till it becomes of the confidence
of tar ; drain it through a coarfe cloth; keep and ufe
it as the other.
Gold-Finch, in ornithology. See Fringilla.
Thefe are feed-birds of very curious colours, and
which, were they not fo common in this country, would
probably be very much edeemed.
Vol. VIII; Part I.
9 ] G O L
They are ufually taken about Michaelmas, and foon
become tame; but they differ very much in their fong.
—They frequently breed in the upper pSrt of plum-
trees, making their neds of the mofs that grows upon
apple-trees, and of wool; quilting the infide with all
forts of hairs they find upon the ground. They breed
three times a-year; and the young are to be taken with
the ned at about ten days old, and fed as follows -
Pound fome hemp-feed very fine in a mortar; then fift
it through a fieve, and add to it as much wheat-bread
as hemp-feed; and likewife a little flour of canary-
feeds : then with a fmall dick or quill take up as
much as the bignefs of a white-pea, and give them
feveral times a-day. This ought to be made freflt
every day : for if it is fuffered to four, it will fpoil
their domachs, caufing them to cad up their meat;
which if they do, it is very probable that they will
die.—Thefe young birds mud be carefully kept warm
till they can feed themfelves, for they are very tender.
In feeding, be fure to make your bird clean his bill
and mouth. If any of the meat falls upon his feathers,
take it off, or elfe he will not thrive. Such as eat
hemp-feed, to purge them, fliould have the feeds of
melons, fuccory, and mercury; or elfe let them have
lettuce and plantane for that purpofe. When there is
no need of purging, give them two or three times
a-week a little fugar or loam in their meat, or at the
bottom of the cage ; for all feeds have an oilinefs, fo
that if they have not fomething to abforb it, in length
of time it fouls their domachs, and brings on them a
flux, which is very dangerous.
GoLD-Fifh. See Cyprinus.
GOLDEN, fomething that has a relation to gold,
or confids of gold.
Golden-Calf, was a figure of a calf, which the
Ifraelites cad in that metal, and fet up in the wilder-
nefs to worihip during Mofes’s abfence into the mount;
and which that legiilator at his return burnt, grinded
to powder, and mixed with the water the people were
to drink of; as related in Exod. xxxii. The com¬
mentators have been divided on this article : the pul¬
verizing of gold, and rendering it potable, is a very
difficult operation in chemidry. Many, therefore,
fuppofe it done by a miracle: and the red, who allow
of nothing fupernatural in it, advance nothing but
conjectures as to the manner of the procefs. Mofes
could not have done it by fimple calcination, nor a-
malgamation, nor antimony, nor calcination; nor is
there one of thofe operations that quadrates with the
text.
M. Stahl has endeavoured to remove this difficulty.
The method Mofes made ufe of, according to this au¬
thor, was by diffolving the metal with hepar fulphuris ;
only, in dead of the vegetable alkali, he made ufe of
the Egyptian natron, which is common enough through¬
out the ead. See Chemisty, n° 1127.
Golden Fleece, in the ancient mythology, was the
fkin or fleece of the ram upon which Phryxus and
Hella are fuppofed to have fwam over the fea to Colchis;
and which being facrificed to Jupiter, was hung upon
a tree in the grove of Mars, guarded by two brazen-
hoof’d bulls, and a monflrous dragon that never flept;
but was taken and carried off by Jafon and the Argo¬
nauts.
Many authors have endeavoured to ffiow that this
fable is an allegorical reprefentation of fome real hif-
B tory,
G O L
.Golden torjr, particularly of the philofopher’s ftone. Others
11 have explained it by the profit of the wool-trade to
Goldfmith. Cokhis, or the gold which they commonly gathered
'' ^ there with fleeces in the rivers. See Argonauts.
Order of the Golden Fleece, is a military order infti-
tuted by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429.
It took its denomination from a reprefentation of the
golden fleece, borne by the knights on their collars,
which confitled of flints and fteels. The king of
Spain is now grand matter of the order, in quality of
duke of Burgundy : the number of knights is fixed
to thirty one.
It is ufually faid to have been inftituted on occafion
of an immenfe profit which that prince made by wool;
though others will have a chemical myftery couched
under it, as under that famous one of the ancients,
which the adepts contend to be no other than the fe-
cret of the elixir, w rote on the fleece of a (heep.
Oliver de la Marche writes, that he had fuggefted
to Philip I. archduke of Auftria, that the order was
inftituted by his grandfather Philip the Good duke
of Burgundy, with a view to that of Jafon ; and that
John Germain bifliop of Chalons, chancellor of the
order, upon this occafion made him change his opi¬
nion, and affured the young prince that the order had
been inftituted with a view to the fleece of Gideon.
William bifhop of Tournay, chancellor likewife of the
order, pretends that the duke of Burgundy had in
view both the golden fleece of Jafon and Jacob’s
fleece, i. e. the fpeckled fheep belonging to this patri¬
arch, according to agreement made with his father-in
law Laban. Which fentiment gave birth to a great
work of this prelate, in two parts : in the firft, under
the fymbol of the fleece of Jafon, is reprefented the
virtue of magnanimity, which a knight ought to pof-
fefs; and under the fymbol of the fleece of Jacob he
:reprefents the virtue of juftice.
Paradin is of the fame mind ; and tells us, that the
duke defigned to infinuate that the fabulous conqueft
which Jafon is faid to have made of the golden fleece in
Colchis, was nothing elfe but the conqueft; of virtue,
which gains a victory over thofe horrible monfters vice
and our evil inclinations.
Golden Number, in chronojogy, a number ftiowing
what year of the moon’s cycle any given year is. See
Chronology, n^ 27 —30.
Golden Rod, in botany. See Solidago.
Golden Rofe. The pope annually confecrates a
golden rofe on the fourth Sunday in Lent, which isfent
to princefles, or to fome church, as a mark of his pecu-
liar affeftion.
Golden Rule, in arithmetic, a rule or praxis, of
great ufe and extent in the art of numbers; where¬
by we find a fourth proportional to three quantities
given.
The golden rule is alfo called the Rule of Three and
Rule of Proportion. See its nature and ufe under the
article Arithmetic, n° 13.
GOLDENGEN, a town of Poland in the duchy
of Courland, with a handfome caftle, feated on the river
Weia, in E. Long. 2.2 31. N. Lat. 56. 48.
GOLDSMITH, or, as fome choofe to exprefs it,
fiherfrnith, an artift who makes veffels, utenfils, and
ornaments, in gold and filver.
The goldfmith’s work is either performed in the
g o L
mould, or beat out with the hammer or other engine. Goldfmtt*
All works that have raifed figures are caft in a
mould, and afterwards poli/hed and finiihed: plates
or dilhes, of fiber or gold, are beat out from thin
flat plates; and tankards, and other veflels of that
kind, are formed of plates foldered together, and
their mouldings are beat, not caft. Thebufinefs of the
goldfmiths formerly required much more labour than
it does at prefent; for they were obliged to hammer
the metal from the ingot to the thinnefs they wanted:
but there are now invented flatting mills, which reduce
metals to the thinnefs that is required, at a Very fmall
expence. The goldfmith,is to make his own moulds;
and for that reafon ought to be a good defigner, and
have a tafte in fculpture: he alfo ought to know enough
of metallurgy to be able to affay mixed metals, and to
mix the alloy.
The goldfmiths in London employ feveral hands
under them for the various articles of their trade: fuch
are the jeweller, the fnuff box and toy maker, the
filver-turner, the gilder, the burnifher, the chafer,
the refiner, and the gold-beater.
Goldfmiths are fuperior tradefmen : their wares
muft be affayed by the wardens of the company of
this name in London, and marked ; and gold is to be
of a certain touch. No goldfmith may take above one
fhilling the ounce of gold, befides what he has for the
fafhioning, more than the buyer may be allowed for
it at the king’s exchange; and here any falfe metal
lhall be feized and forfeited to the king. The cities
of York, Exeter, Briftol, &c. are places appointed
for the affaying wrought-plate of goldfmiths; alfo a
duty is granted on filver-plate of fixpence an ounce,
&c. Plate made by goldfmiths flrall be of a particular
finenefs, on pain of forfeiting xol. ; and if any parcel
of plate fent to the affayers is difeovered to be of a
coarfer alloy than the refpedlive ftandards, it may be
broken and defaced; and the fees for affaying are par¬
ticularly limited.
Goldsmith (Oliver), a celebrated Englifti writer,
was born at Rofcommon in Ireland in the year 1731.
His father, who poffeffed a fmall eftate in that county,,
had nine fons, of whom Oliver was the third. He
was originally intended for the church; and with that
view, after being well inftru&ed in the claffics, was,
with his brother the Rev. Henry Goldfmith, placed
in Trinity college, Dublin, about the latter end of
the year 1749. In this feminary of learning he con¬
tinued a few years, when he took a bachelor’s degree;
but his brother not being able to obtain any prefer¬
ment after he left the college, Oliver, by the advice
of Dean Goldfmith of Cork, turned his thoughts to
the ftudy of phyfic ; and, after attending fome co\*rfes
of anatomy in Dublin, proceeded to Edinburgh in the
year 1751, where he ftudied the feveral branches of,
medicine under the different profeffors in that univer-
fity. His beneficent,difpofition foon involved him in •
unexpefted difficulties ; and he was obliged precipi¬
tately to leave-Scotland, in confequence of engaging
himfelf, to pay a conliderable fum of money for a.
fellow-ftudent;
A few days after, about the beginning of the year
1754, he arrived at Sunderland, near Newcaftle,.
where he was arrefted at the fuit of a taylor in Edin¬
burgh, to whom, he had given fecurity for his friend..
%
[ 1° 1
G O L [
©oldfmith.By the’ good offices of Laughlm Maclane, Efq; and
J)r Sleigh, who were then in the college, he was
foon delivered out of the hands of the bailiff; and
took his paffage on board a Dutch fhip to Rotterdam,
where, after a fhort flay, he proceeded to Bruffels:
he then vifited great part of Flanders ; and after paf-
fing fome time at Strafbourg and Louvain, where he
obtained a degree of bachelor of phyfic, he accompanied
an Englifh gentleman to Berne and Geneva.
It is undoubtedly fa£t, that this ingenious unfortu¬
nate man travelled on foot moft part of his tour. He
had left England with very little money; and being
of a philofophical turn, and at that time pofleffing a
body capable of fuflaining every fatigue, and a heart not
eafily terrified at danger, he became an enthufiaft to
the defign he had formed of feeing the manners of dif¬
ferent countries. He had fome knowledge of the
French language and of mufic, and he played tolerably
well on the German flute ; which, from an amufe-
ment, became at fome times the means of fubfiftence.
His learning produced him a hofpitable reception at
tnoft of the religious houfes; and his mufic made him
welcome to the peafants of Flanders and other parts of
Germany. “ Whenever I approached,” he ufed to
fay, “ a peafant’s houfe towards night-fall, I played
one of my moft merry tunes; and that procured me
not only a lodging, but fubfiftence for the next d&y :
but in truth (his conftant expreffion) I muft own,
whenever I attempted to entertain perfona of a higher
rank, they always thought my performance odious,
and never made me any return for my endeavours to
pleafe them.”
On Mr Goldfmith’s arrival at Geneva, he was re¬
commended as a proper perfon for a travelling tutor
to a young man, who had been unexpectedly left a
confiderable fum of money by his uncle Mr S ,
formerly an eminent pawnbroker near Holborn. This
youth, who had been articled to an attorney, on re¬
ceipt of his fortune determined to fee the \*orld ;
and, on his engaging with his preceptor, made a
provifo that he fliould be permitted to govern him-
felf; and Goldfmith foon found his pupil underftood
the art of directing in money-concerns extremely well,
as avarice was his prevailing paffion. His queftions
were ufually how money might be fave l, and which
was the leaft expenfive courfe of travel; whether any
thing could be bought that would turn to account
when difpofed of again in London ? Such curiofities
on the way as could be feen for nothing he was ready
enough to look at; but if the fight of them was to
be paid for, he ufually aflerted that he had been told
they were not worth feeing. He never paid a bill
that he would not obferve how amazingly expenfive
travelling was ; and all this, though he was not yet
twenty-one. During Goldfmith’s continuance in Swit¬
zerland, he afiiduoufly cultivated his poetical talent,
of which he had given fome ftriking proofs while at
the college of Edinburgh. It was here he fent the
firft (ketch of his delightful poem called the Traveller
to his brother the clergyman in Ireland, who, giving
up fame and fortune, had retired with an amiable wife
to happinefs and obfcurity, on an income of only 40 1.
a-year.
From Geneva Mr Goldfmith and his pupil vifited
the fouth of France ; where the young man, upon
fome dtfagreement with his preceptor, paid him the GoldlVnuh*
fmall part of his falary which was due, and emb.’.rked f
at Marfeilles for England. Our wanderer was left once
more upon the world at large, and palled through a
variety of difficulties in traverfing the greateft part of
France. At length his curiofity being fatiated, he
bent his courfe towards England, and arri ved at Dover
the beginning'of the winter 1758. When he came to
London, his (lock of cadi did not amount to two livres.
An entire ftranger in this metropolis, his mind was
filled with the moft gloomy refleftions on his embar-
rafled fituation. With fome difficulty he difcovered
that part of the town in which his old acquaintance
Dr Sleigh refided. This gentleman received him with
the warmed affe&ion, and liberally invited him to
(hare his purfe till fome eftabliftiment could be procu¬
red for him. Goldfmith, unwilling to be a burden to-
his friend, a (hort time after eagerly embraced an of¬
fer which was made him to affift the late Rev. Dr
Milner in inftrudling the young gentlemen at the aca¬
demy at Peckham ; and acquitted himfelf greatly to
the Doftor’s fatisfa&ion for a (hort time : but having
obtained fome reputation by the criticifms he had
written in the Monthly Review, Mr Griffith, the pro¬
prietor, engaged him in the compilation of it; and,
refolving to purfue the profeffion of writing, he return¬
ed to London, as the mart where abilities of every kind
were fure of meeting diftin&ion and reward. As his
finances were by no means in a good (late, he deter*
mined to adopt a plan of the ftri&eft economy ; and
took lodgings in an obfcure court in the Old Bailey,
where he wrote feveral ingenious little pieces. The
late Mr Newberry, who at that time gave great en¬
couragement to men of literary abilities, became a
kind of patron to our young author ; and introduced
him as one of the writers in the Public Ledger, in
which his Citizen of the World originally appeared,
under the title of Chinefe Letters.
Fortune now feemed to take fome notice of a man
(he had long negledled. The fimplicity of his charac¬
ter, the integrity of his heart, and the merit of his
produtdions, made his company very acceptable to a
number of refpe&able families ; and he emerged from
his (habby apartments in the Old Bailey to the politer
air of the Temple, where he took handfome chambers,
and lived in a genteel ftyle. The publication of his
Traveller, and his Vicajr of Wakefield, was followed
by the performance of his comedy of the Good-natured
Man at Covent-Garden theatre, and placed him in the
firft rank of the poets of the prefent age.-
Among many other perfons of diftinftion who were
defirous to know him, was the duke of Northumber¬
land ; and the circumftance that attended his intro-
du&ion to that nobleman is worthy of being related,
in order to (how a ftriking trait of his chara&et. “ I
was invited ” faid the Doftor (as he was then univer-
fally called) “ by my friend Mr Piercy, to wait upon
the duke, in confequence of the fatisfa&ion he j had
received from the perufal of one of my produdhons.
I dreffed myfelf in the beft manner I could ; and,
after ftudying fome compliments I thought neceffary
on fuch an occafion, proceeded to Northumberland*
houfe, and acquainted the fervants that I had parti-'
cular bufinefs with his Grace. They (howed me into
an antichamber j where, after waiting fome time, a
£ 2 gentlemaa
G O L
G O L
Goldfmith. gentlemsn very genteely drefled made his appearance, defpondency. In this unhappy condition he was at- Goldfmith,
Taking him for the duke, I delivered all the fine tacked by a nervous fever, which, being improperly Goi^ f
things I had compofed in order to compliment him on
the honour he had done me : when, to my great afto-
Bilhment, he told me I had miftaken him for his mailer,
■who would fee me immediately. At that inllant the
duke came into the apartment; and L was fo confufed
on the occafion, that I wanted words barely fufficient
to exprefs the fenfe I entertained of the duke’s polite-
jjefs, and went away extremely chagrined at the blunder
I had committed.”
Another feature of his charafter we cannot help
laying before the reader. Previous to the publication
of his Deferted Village, the hookfeller had given him
L note for one hundred guineas for the copy, which
treated, terminated in his diffolution on the 4th of
April 1774.
As to his chara&er, it is ftrongly illuftrated by Mr
Pope’s line,
In wit a man, fimplicity a child.
The learned leifure he loved to enjoy was too often
interrupted by diftreffes which arofe from the liberality
of his temper, and which fometimes threw him into
loud fits of paffion : but this impetuofity was correfk-
ed upon a moment’s refle&ion ; and his fervants have
been known, upon thefe occafions, • purpofely to
throw themfelves in his way, that they might profit
by it immediately after; for he who had the good
the Do&or mentioned a few hours after to one of his fortune to be reproved, was certain of being re¬
friends : who obferved, it was a very great fum for fo warded for it. The univerfal efteem in which his
fliort a performance. “ In truth,” replied Goldfmith,
“ I think fo too ; I have not been eafy fince I recei¬
ved it; therefore I will go back and return him his
note which he abfolutely did ; and left it entirely
to the bookfeller to pay him according to the profits
produced by the fale of the piece, which turned out
very confiderable.
During the laft. rehearfal of his comedy intitled
She Hoops to Conquer, which Mr Coleman had no
opinion would fucceed, on the Doftor’s obje&ing to
the repetition of one of Tony Lumpkin’s fpeeches,
being apprehenfive it might injure the play, the ma¬
nager with great keennefs replied, “ Plha, my dear
Dodlor, do not be fearful of fquibs, when we have
poems were held, and the repeated pleafure they give
in the perufal, is a ftriking tell of their merit. He
was a lludious and corredl obferver of nature ; happy
in the feledlion of his images, in the choice of his
fubjeds, and in the harmony of his verfification ; and,
though his embarraffed fituation prevented him from
putting the laft hand to many of his produ&ions, his
Hermit, his Traveller, and his deferted Village, bid
fair to claim a place among the moft finilhed pieces in
the Englifh language.
Befides the works already mentioned, he wrote, 1.
Hiftory of the earth and animated nature, 6 vols 8yo.
2. Hiftory of England, 4 vols 8vo. 3. Hiftory of
Rome, 2 vols. 4. Abridgements of the two laft, for
been fitting almoft thefe two hours upon a barrel of the ufe of fchools. 5. A view of experimental philo-
gunpowder.” The piece, however, contrary to Mr fophy, 3 vols 8vo.; a pofthumous work, not efteemed.
Coleman’s expe&ation, was received with uncommon 6. Mifcellanies, &c.
applaufe by the audjence; and Goldfmith’s pride was GOLF, the name of a certain game among thr
fo hurt by the feverity of the above obfervation, that Scots, and faid to be peculiar to their country,
it entirely put an end to his friendfiiip for the gentle- 'Among them it has been very ancient; for there are
jnan that made it. ftatutes prohibiting it as early as the year 1457, left it
Notwithftanding the great fuccefs of his pieces, by fhould interfere with the fport of archery. It is
fome of which it is aflerted, upon good authority, he commonly played on rugged broken ground, cover-
cleared 18001. in one year, his circumftances were by ed with ftiort grafs, in the neighbourhood of the fea-
»o means in a profperous fituation; which was partly
owing to the liberality of his difpofition, and partly
to an unfortunate habit he had contra&ed of gaming ;
the arts of which he knew very little of, and confe-
ftiore. A field of this fort is in Scotland called /inks.
The game is generally played in parties of one or two
on each fide. Each party has an exceeding hard ball,
fomewhat larger than a hen’s egg. This they ftrike
quently became the prey of thofe who were unprincipled with a flender and elaftic club, of about four feet long,
enough to take advantage of his fimplicity. crooked in the head, and having lead run into it, to
Juft before his death he had formed a defign for ex- make it heavy. The ball being ftruck with this club.
ecuting an Univerfal Diftionary of Arts and Sciences
the profpeftus of which he a&ually publiftied. In
this work feveral of his literary friends (particularly
Sir Joftiua Reynolds, Dr Johnfon, Mr Beauclerc, and
Mr Garrick) had undertaken to furnifti him with
will fly to the diftance of 200 yards, and the game is
gained by the party who puts his ball into the hole
with the feweft ftrokes. But the game does not de^
pend folely upon, the ftriking of the longeft ball, but
alfo upon meafuring the ftrength of the ftroke, and ap-
articles upon different fubje&s. He had entertained plying it in fuch direction as to lay the ball in fmooth
the moft ianguine expeftations from the fuccefs of it. ground, whence it may be eafily moved at the next
The undertaking, however, did not meet with that ftroke. To encourage this amufement, the city of Edin-
encouragement from the bookfellers which he had burgh, A. D. 1744, gave to the company of golfers a
imagined it vvould undoubtedly receive ; and he ufed filver club, to be played for annually by the company,
to lament this circumftance almoft to the laft hour of the vidlor to append a gold or filver piece to the prize,
his exiftence. It has been played for every year fince, except the
He had been for fome years afflidled, at different years 1746, 1747. For their better accommodation,
times, with a violent ftrangury, which contributed 22 members of the company fubfcribed L. 30 each in
not a little to embitter the latter part of his life ; and the year 1768, for building a houfe, where their meet-
vhic.i, united with the vexations which he fuffered ings might be held. The fpot chofen for this pur-
upon other occafions, brought, on a kind of habitual pofe was the foutbweft corner of Leith links, where
G O L [ )
Golius, an area was taken in feu from the magillrates of Edin-
Goltzius. burgh, and a commodious houfe and tavern built upon it.
—-»   GOLIUS (James), a celebrated profelfor of Ara¬
bic and the mathematics at Leyden, was defcended
from a very honourable family, and born at the Hague
in the year 1596. He was put to the univerfity of
Leyden, where he ftudied under Erpinius ; and ha¬
ving made himfelf mailer of all the learned languages,
applied himfelf to the mathematics, phyfic, and divi¬
nity. He afterwards travelled into Africa and Afia ;
and became greatly elteemed by the king of Morocco,
and the fultan of the Turks. He at length returned
to Leyden, loaded with manufcripts; and in 1624, fuc-
ceeded Erpinius in the Arabic chair. As he had
been an eye-witnefs of the wretched Hate of Chriftia-
nity in the Mahometan countries, he was filled with
the compalfion of a fellow-chrillian ; and none ever fo-
licited for a place ®f honour and profit with greater
eagernefs, than he for procuring a new edition of the
New Teftament, in the original language, with a
tranflation into the vulgar Greek, by an Archiman¬
drite ; and as there are fome of thefe Chrillians who
ufe the Arabic tongue in divine fervice, he alfo took
care to have difperfed among them an Arabic tranfla¬
tion of the Confefiion of the Proteftants, together with
the Catechifm and Liturgy. In 1626, he was aifo
chofen profeflbr of mathematics ; and difcharged the
functions of both profeflbrlhips with the greateft ap-
plaufe during 40 years. He was likewife appointed
interpreter in ordinary to the Hates for the Arabic,
Turkilh, Perfian, and other eaftern languages, for
which’ he had an annual penfion, and a prefent of a
gold chain, with a very beautiful medal, which he
wore as a badge of his office. He publilhed, 1. The life
of Tamerlane, written in Arabic. 2. The hiftory of
the Saracens, written by Elmacin. 3. Alferganus’s
elements of Aftronomy, with a new verfion, and
learned commentaries. 4. An excellent Arabic lexicon.
5. A Perfian Di&ionary. He died in 1667.
GOLTZIUS (Henry), a famous engraver and
painter, born in 1558, at Mulbreck in the duchy of
Juliers. He was taught the art of engraving by Theo¬
dore Cuerenhert ; and fucceeded very wonderfully in
it, notwithllanding the difadvantage of a lame hand,
which was occafioned by his falling into the fire whilil
young. He was firft employed by his mafter, and af¬
terwards he worked for Philip Galle. Domeftic trou¬
bles and ill health occafioned him to travel. He went
through Germany into Italy ; and palled under a feign¬
ed name, that his ftudies might not be interrupted.
He vifited Bologna, Florence, Naples, and Venice,
conftantly applying himfelf to drawing from the antique
ftatues, and the works of the great mafter s. At Rome
he refided the longeft ; and there he produced feveral
excellent engravings from Polidoro Raphael, and other
eminent painters. On his return to his native coun¬
try he eftablilhed himfelf at Haerlem, where he engra¬
ved many of the drawings which he had made during
his abode in Italy. He died at Haerlem in 1617,
aged 59. He is faid to have been forty years old be¬
fore he began to paint: yet his pi&ures are fpoken of
with the greateft commendation ; but as he did not
produce any great number of them, they are of courfe
but rarely to be met with. As an engraver, he de-
3
3 ] G O L
ferves the higheft commendation. No man ever fur- Goltzius,
palled, and few have equalled, him in the command of Gombauldj,
the graver and freedom of execution. He copied the * ' j
ftyle of Albert Durer, Lucas of Leyden, and other old
mailers, with aftonilhing exadtnefs. Sometimes his en¬
gravings are neat in the extreme; at other times they
are performed in a bold open manner, without the
leaft reftraint. He alfo engraved feveral of his own
defigns on wood, in that manner which is diftinguilh-
ed by the appellation of chiqro-fcuro. Of his prints,
which are very numerous, it may here fuffice to fpecify
two or three of the moft celebrated : t. Six large
upright plates, known by the name of his majier-
pieces. Thefe, it is faid, he engraved to convince the
public that he was perfectly capable of imitating
the ftyles of Albert Durer, Lucas Van Leyden,
and other mailers, whofe works were then held in
higher eftimation than his own : for he had adopt¬
ed a new manner, which he purfued becaufe he thought
it fuperior, and not becaufe he was incapable of fol¬
lowing the others. It is reported that with one of
them, the Circumcifion, which he fmoked to give it the
more plaulible air of antiquity, he a&ually deceived fome
of the moft capital connoifleurs of the day ; by one
of whom it was bought for an original engraving of
Albert Durer. The fubjefts of thefe plates are; The
Annunciation of the Virgin ; the Meeting of the Vir¬
gin with Elizabeth, called the Vifitation; the Nativity
of Chrift ; the Circumcifion of Chrill $ the Adoration
of the wife Men; the holy Family, z The Judge¬
ment of Midas, a large plate lengthwife. 3. The Ve¬
netian Ball, a large plate lengthwife, from Theodore
Bernard. 4 The Boy and Dog, a middling fized up¬
right plate, from a defign of his own; an admirable
print. 5. The Necromancer, a middling fized upright
oval print, in chiaro-fcuro. 6. Night in her Chariot,
the fame.
Goltzius (Hubert), a learned German, born
at Venlo in the duchy of Gueldres in 1526. His fa¬
ther was a painter, and himfelf was bred to the art
under Lambert Lombard : but he did little at paint¬
ing, or at leaft his pi&ures are very fcarce ; for ha¬
ving a peculiar turn to antiquities, he devoted himfelf
to the ftudy of medals. He travelled through Ger¬
many, France, and Italy, to make colleftions, as well,
as to draw from thence all the lights he could to¬
wards clearing up ancient hiftory : he was the author
of feveral excellent works, in which he was fo accurate
and nice, that he had them printed at his own houfe,.
under his own corre&ion, and even engraved the plates
and medals with his own hand. His veneration for
Roman antiquities was fo great, that he gave all his
children Roman names: and married, for his fecond.
wife, the widow of the antiquarian Martinus Smetius ;
probably more for the fake of Smetius’s medals ani
inferiptions, than for his own fake ; and was punilhed
accordingly by her plaguing him all his life, if ihe did
not Ihorten it. He died in 1583.
GOMBAULD (John Ogier de), one of the beft:
French poets in the 17th century, and one of the firlt
members of the French academy, was born at St Juit
de Luflac. He acquired the efteem of Mary de Me-
dicis, and of the wits of his time. He was a Protef-
tant, and died in a very advanced age. He wrote
many,
GOM [14.] GOM
■©r.mbrson, rrsany works in verfe and profe. His epigrams, and
fome of his fonnets, are particularly efteemed.
GOMBROON, by the natives called Bander A-
lajft, a city of Perfia, fituated in N. Lat. 27. 40. E.
Long. 55. 30. The name of Gombroon^ or Comerong,
Captain Hamilton tells us, it had from the Portuguefe*
becaufe it was remarkable for the number of prawns
and (hrimps caught on its coafts, by them called come¬
rong. This city owes its wealth and grandeur to the
demolition of Ormus, and the downfal of the Portu-
guefe empire in the Eaft Indies. It is now juftly ac¬
counted one of the greateft marts in the Eaft, was
built by the great fhah Abas, and from him, al fome
think, obtained the name of hander Abqfli, which
fignifies the court of Abas. It ftands on a bay about
nine leagues to the northward of the eaft end of the
ifland of Kifhmilh, and three leagues from the famous
Ormus. The Englifti began to fettle here about the
year 1631, when, in confideration of their fervices
againft the Portuguefe, (hah Abas granted them half
the cuftoms of that port. This was confirmed by a
phirmaund, and duly regarded, till the Englifti began
‘to negleft the fervices they had ftipulated- Whether
the company has any emolument from the cuftoms at
prefent, is what we cannot pretend to afcertain. The
town is large, but its fituation bad; wanting almoft
every thing that contributes to the happinefs and even
fupport of life. Towards the land it is encompafied
by a fort of wall; and towards the fea are feveral fmall
forts, with a platform, and a caftle or citadel, mounted
with cannon to fecure it and the road from the at¬
tempts of an enemy by fea. The houfes in moft of
the ftreets are fo out of repair, fome half down, others
in a heap of rubbifti, that a ftranger would imagine
the town had been facked and ravaged by a barbarous
people ; not a veftige of the wealth really contained
in the place appearing in view. The bazars and (hops
round them are kept, for the moft part, by Banians,
whofe houfes are generally in good order. Moft of
the houfes are built with earth and lime, but fome of
the bed with (lone. Many of them have a fort of
ventilators at top, which contribute greatly to the
health of the inhabitants in the hot feafons of the
year. The moft fickly months here are April, May,
September, and Oftober. With fi(h and mutton the
inhabitants are well fupplied. Rice is imported from
India ; and wheat is fo plenty, that the poor fubfift
chiefly on bread and dates. The country hereabouts
abounds in the moft delicious fruits,as apricots, peaches,
pomegranates, pears, mangoes, grapes, quavas, plums,
fweet quinces, and water-melons. The apricots, how¬
ever, are fmall, and extremely dangerous if eaten to
excefs.
Thofe conveniences are more than overbalanced by
the fcarcity of frefti water, with which the inhabitants
-are fupplied from Afleen, a place feven miles diftant,
there not being a fpring or well in the town. Perfons
of condition keep a camel conftantly employed in
bringing frefti and wholefome water. Captain Hamil¬
ton gives it as his opinion, that one caufe of the un»
wholefomenefs of this city is the refledtion of the rays
of light from a high mountain to the north of it.
He fays, that when the beams are refle&ed from this
•mountain, they almoft. fire the air, and, for two or
three month* in the year, render the fituation into- Gombroond
lerable. For this reafon the people of condition retire 11 i
into the country, to pafs the heats of June, July, and Gomorrah.,
Auguft, The very fea, during this feafon, is affedted, ,
infomuch that the ftench is no lefs difagreeable than
that of putrid carcafes ; and this is increafed by the
quantities of (hell- fi(h left on the (bore, from which an
exhalation arifes that tarnilhes gold and filver, and is
lefs tolerable than the Sllge-water of a tight (hip. At
Afleen the Englifti fadtory have a country houfe and
gardens, to which they retire occafionally. Here they
have whole groves of Seville orange-trees, which
though not natural to the country, thrive very well,
and are always verdant, bearing ripe and green-fruit,
with bloftbms, all at the fame time. They have like-
wife tanks and ponds of fine frefli-water, with every
thing elfe that can moderate the heat of the climate,
and render life agreeable and elegant. About ten
miles from Afleen is a place called Minoa, where are
cold and hot natural baths, reckoned infallible in the
cure of all fcrophulous diforders, rheumatifms, and
other difeafes, by bathing.
Gombroon is extremely populous, on account of
the commerce carried on by the Dutch and Englifh
fadtories, as well as the natives. The Englifti fadtory
is clofe by the fea, at fome diftance from the Dutch,
which is a commodious and fine new building. A
great part of the company’s profits arifes from freights.
As the natives have not one good (hip of their own,
and are extremely ignorant of navigation, they freight
their goods for Surat, and other Indian marts, in
Englifli and Dutch bottoms, at an exorbitant rate.
The commodities of the Gombroon market are, fine
wines of different kinds, raifins, almonds, kifli-mifties,
prunellas, dates, piftachio-nuts, ginger, filks, car¬
pets, leather, tutty, galbanum, ammoniac, afa-fae-
tida, tragacaath, with other gums, and a variety of
(hop medicines.* Thefe are in a great meafure the
produce of Carmania, which they bring to Gombroon
in caravans. The Englifti company had once a fmall
fadtory in the province of Carmania, chiefly for the
fake of a fine wool produced there, and uied by the
hatters. The faid company had once a projedt of car¬
rying a breed of the Perfian goats to St Helena ; but
whether it was executed, or what fuccefs it met with,
we cannot fay. Although the company pay no cuf¬
toms, yet they ufually make a prefent to the (haban-
der, to avoid the trouble he has it in his power to give
them. All private traders with the company’s paffes,
enjoy the fame privileges, on paying two per cent, to
the company, one to the agent, and one to the bro¬
ker. All private trade, either by European or coun¬
try (hips, has long been engroffed by the company’s
fervants.
GOMERA, one of the Canary iflands lying between
Ferro and Teneriffe. It has one good town of the
fame name, with an excellent harbour, where the Spa-
ni(h fleet often take in refrdhments. They have corn
fufficient to fupply the inhabitants, with one fugar-
work, and great plenty of wine and fruits. It is fub-
jedt to the Spaniards, who conquered it in 1445'. W.
Long. 17. 10. N. Lat. 28. o.
GOMORRAH (anc. geog.), one of the cities of
the plain or of the vale of Sidddin in Judaea, deftroyed
to-
GON [i5l GON
fiomozla together with Sodom by fire from heaven, on account
II of the wickednefs of the people. To determine its
^ Gondar. particular fituation at prefent, is impoffxble.
GOMOZIA, in botany : A genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the tecrandria clafs of plants. The
corolla is campanulated, quadrifid above; there is no
calyx; the berry is bilocular.
GOMPHOSIS, in anatomy, that kind of articula¬
tion by which the teeth are fixed in the jaw-bone.
See Anatomy, n° 2.
GOMPHRiENA, globe amaranth, in botany:
A genus of the digynia order, belonging to the pen-
tandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 54th order, Mifcellanea. The ca¬
lyx is coloured; the exterior one triphyllous, or di-
phyllous, with two carinated connivent leaflets ; the
nectarium cylindrical, with ten teeth ; the capfule mo-
nofpermous. There are feven fpecies; but only one
of them is commonly cultivated in our gardens, viz. the
globofa. It hath an upright ftalk branching all round,
two or three feet high, garnilhed with oval, lanceolate,
and oppofite leaves ; and every branch and lide-lhoot
terminated by a clofe globular head of flowers, com-
poftd of numerous, very fmall ftarry florets, clofely
covered with dry fcaly calices placed imbricatim, per-
fiftent, and beautifully coloured purple, white, red,
or ftriped and variegated. The flowers themfelves
are fo fmall, and clofely covered with the fcaly cahces,
that they fcarce-ly appear. The numerous clofely
placed fcaly coverings being of a dry, firm, conflu¬
ence, coloured and glittering, collected into a com-
paft round head, about the fize of an ordinary cherry,
make a fine appearance. They are annual plants,
natives of India ; and require artificial heat to raife and
forward them to a proper growth, fo that they may
flower in perfe&ion, and produce ripe feed. They
flower from June to November ; and if the flowers are
gathered when at full growth, and placed out of the
fun, they will retain ther beauty feveral months.
GONAQUA, the name of a nation inhabiting
about the Cape, and fuppofed by Dr Sparman to
be a mixture of Hottentots and Caffres. See Hot¬
tentots.
GONDAR, the capital of AbyfEnia; fituated,
according to Mr Bruce’s obfervations, in Lat. 12.
34. 3°. and Long. 37. 33. o. E. from Greenwich.
It lies upon the top of a hill of confiderable height,
and confifls of about 10,000 families in rimes of peace.
The houfes are chiefly of clay, with roofs thatched in
the form of cones. A t the weft end of the town is the
king’s palace ; formerly, as Mr Bruce informs us, a
ftru&ure of confiderable confequence, being a large
fquare building four ftories high, flanked with fquate
towers, and affording from the top of it a magnificent
view of all the country fouthward to the lake Tzana.
It was built in the time of Facilidas, by mafons from
India, and by fuch Abyflinians as had been inftru&ed
in architecture by the Jefuits before their expulfion.
Great part of it is now in ruins, having been burnt
at different times; but there is ftill ample lodging in
the two loweft floors, the audience chamber being above
120 feet long. By the fide of this ftrudture, there have
been built by different kings apartments of clay only
in the fafhion of their own country. The palace, with
ali its contiguous buildings, is furrounded by a double
Zi
ftone wall thirty feet bigh and a mile and a half in Gondi,
circumference, with battlements upon the outer wall, Gondoia.
and a parapet roof between the outer and inner, by ^
which you can go along the whole and look into the
ftreet. The hill on which the town is built rifes
in the middle of a deep valley, through which run two
rivers: one of which, the Kakha, coming from the
Mountain of the Sun, flanks all the fouth of the
town; while the other, called the ylngrab, falling from
the Mountain Woggora, encompaffes it on the north
and north-eaft ; and both rivers unite at the bottom of
the hill about a quarter of a mile fouth of the town.
Upon the bank oppofite to Gondar, on the other fide
of the river, is a large town of Mahometans; a great
part of whom are employed in taking care of the
king’s and nobility’s equipage both when they take
the field and when they return from it. They are
formed into a body under proper qfficers ; but never
fight on either fide, being entirely confined to the
occupation juft mentioned, in which by their care and
dexterity in pitching and ftriking the tents, and in
leading and conducting the baggage-waggons, they
are of great fervice.—The valley of Gondar is de-
fcribed as having three outlets; one fouth, to Dem-
bea, Matftia, and the Agows; another on the north-
weft, towards Sennaar, over the Mountain of the Sun;
and the third north, leading to Waggora over the
high mountain Lamahnan, and fo on through Tigre
to the Red Sea.
GONDI (John Francis Paul), Cardinal de Retz,
was the fon of Philip Emanuel de Gondi, Count de
Joigny, lieutenant-general, &c. and was born in 1613.
From a doctor of the Sorbonne, he firft became co¬
adjutor to his uncle John Francis de Gondi, whom he
fucceeded in 1654 as archbifhop of Paris ; and was
finally made a cardinal. This extraordinary perfoa
has drawn his own charafter in his memoirs with im¬
partiality. He was a man who, from the greatett
degree of debauchery, and frill languiftring under its
confequences, made himftlf adored by the people as a
preacher. At the age of 23, he was at the head of
a confpiracy againft the life of Cardinal Richelieu ; he
precipitated the parliament into cabals, and the people
into fedition : he was (fays M. Voltaire) the firft bi-
flrop who carried on a civil war without the maik of
religion. However, his intrigues and fchemes turned
out fo ill, that he was obliged to quit Fiance ; and he
lived the life of a vagrant exile for five or fix years,
till the death of his great enemy Cardinal Mazarin
when he returned on certain ftipulated conditions.
After aflifting in the conclave at Rome, which chofe
Clement IX. he retired from the world, and ended
his life like a philofopher in 1679 ; which made Vol¬
taire fay, that in his youth he lived like Catiline, and
like Atticus in his old age. He wrote his Memoirs
in his retirement; the belt edition of which is that of
Amfterdam, 4 vols. i2mo. 1719.
GONDOLA, a flat boat, very long and narrow,
chiefly ufed at Venice to row on the canals. The
word is Italian, gondola. Du Cange derives it from
the vulgar Greek x.ov.liK*c, “ a bark,” or “ little Ihip
Lancelot deduces it from yonfv, a term in Athenseus for
a fort of vafe.
The middle-fized gondolas are upwards of thirty
feet long and four broad ; they always terminate at
eaeki
O O O [ 16
Gsndola each end in a very (harp point, which is raifed perpen-
{ || dicularly to the full height of a man.
Good. The addrefs of the Venetian gondoliers, in paffing
C—y-— a]ong their narrow canals, is very remarkable : there
are ufually two to each gondola, and they row by puih-
ing before them. The fore-man refts his oar on the
left fide of the gondola : the hind-man is placed on the
ftern, that he may fee the head over the tilt or co¬
vering of the gondola, and refts his oar, which is very
long, on the right fide of the gondola.
Gondola is alfo the name of a paffage-boat of fix
or eight oars, ufed in other parts of the coaft of Italy.
GONORRHOEA, an efflux of white, greeniffl, or
differently-coloured, matter from the urethra; moft
commonly owing to venereal infection. See Medicine,
and Surgery.
GONZAGA (Lucretia), was one of the moft il*
luftrious ladies of the 16th century; and much cele¬
brated for her wit, her learning, and her delicate ftyle.
Hortenfio Lando wrote a beautiful panegyric upon
her, and dedicated to her his dialogue of moderating
the paffions. Her beautiful letters have been collected
with the greateft care. We learn from thefe, that her
marriage with John Paul Manfrone was unhappy.—
She was married to him when ffle was not 14 years of
age, and his conduft afterwards gave her infinite un-
eafinefs. He engaged in a confpiracy againft the
duke of Ferrara; was detefted and imprifoned by
him ; but, though condemned by the judges, not put
to death. She did all in her power to obtain his en¬
largement, but in vain ; for he died in prifon, having
fhown fuch impatience under his misfortunes, as made
it imagined he had loft his fenfes. She never would
liften afterwards to any propofals of marriage, though
feveral were made to her. All that came from her
pen was fo much efteemed, that a colle&ion was made
even of the notes fhe writ to her fervants ; feveral
of which are to be met with in the edition of her
letters.
GOOD, in general, whatever is apt to increafe
pleafure, to diminilh pain in us; or, which amounts to
the fame, whatever is able to procure or preferve to us
the poffeffion of agreeable fenfations, and remove thofe
of an oppofite nature.
Moral Good denotes the right conduct of the fe¬
veral fenfes and paffions, or their juft proportion and
accommodation to their refpe&ive objects and rela¬
tions. See Morals.
Good jIbearing, (bonus gejlus,) fignifies an exaft car¬
riage or behaviour of a fubjeft towards the king and
the people, whereunto fome perfons upon their mifbe-
haviour are bound: and he that is bound to this, is
faid to be more ftriftly bound than to the peace ; be-
caufe where the peace is not broken, the furety de bono
gejlu may be forfeited by the number of a man’s com¬
pany, or by their weapons.
Good Behaviour, in law, an exaft carriage and beha¬
viour to the king and his people.
A juftice of the peace may, at the requeft of ano¬
ther, or where he himfelf fees caufe, demand furety
for the good behaviour ; and to that end the juftice
may iffue out his warranf againft any perfons whatfo-
ever, under the degree of nobility; but when it is a
nobleman, complaint is to be made in the court of
chancery, or king’s bench, where fuch nobleman may
N° 141. 1
1 GOO
be bound to keep the peace. Infants and feme-coverts, Good,
who ought to find furety by their friends, maybe bound v—
over to their good behaviour; as alfo lunatics, that
have fometimes lucid intervals, and all others who break' '
the peace, or being fufpe&ed to do it by affrays, af-
faults, battery, wounding, fighting, quarrelling, threat¬
ening, &c. A perfon may be likewife bound to his
good behaviour for a fcandalous way of living, keeping
bawdy-houfes, gaming houfes, &c. and fo may com¬
mon drunkards, whoremongers, common whores,
cheats, libellers, &c. He who demands furety for the
peace, on any violence offered, muft take an oath be¬
fore the juftice, that he goes in fear of his life, or fome
bodily harm, &c. and that it is not out of malice, but
from a regard to his own fafety.
Good-Breeding. See Good-Manners.
Good- Friday, a faft of the Chriftian church, in me¬
mory of the fufferings and death of JefusChrift. It is
obferved on the Friday in holy or pqffion week; and it
is called, by way of eminence, good, becaufe of the
bleffed effedls of our Saviour’s fufferings, which were a
propitiatory or expiating facrifice for the fins of the
world. The commemoration of our Saviour’s fufferings
has been kept from the very firft ages of Chriftianity,
and was always obferved as a day of the ftrifteft falling
and humiliation. Among the Saxons it was called
Long.Friday; but for what reafon, except on account
of the long fallings and offices then ufed, is uncertain.
On Good Friday the pope fits on a plain form; and,
after fervice is ended, when the cardinals wait on him
back to his chamber, they are obliged to keep a deep
filence, as a teftimony of their forrow. In the night of
Good-Friday, the Greeks perform the obfequies of our
Saviour round a great crucifix, laid on a bed of ftate,
adorned with flowers ; thefe the bilhops diftribute a-
mong the affiftants when the office is ended. The
Armenians, on this day, fet open a holy fepulchre, in
imitation of that of mount Calvary.
Goao-Hope, or Cape of Good-Hope, a promontory of
Africa, where theDutch have builtagood town and fort.
It is fituated in the country of the Hottentots; for an
account of whom, and of the country at large, with its
firft difeovery, fee the article Hottentots.
The Cape of Good-Hope has been generally efteem¬
ed the moft foutherly point of Africa, though it is not
truly fo. In Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay *, we are * p, jS.
told, that the land which projefts fartheft to the fouth
is a point to the call of it, called by the Englilh Cape
Lagullus ; a name corrupted from the original Portu-
guefe das Agulhas, which, as well as the French ap¬
pellation des Aiguilles, is deferiptive of its form, and
would rightly be tranflated Needle Cape.
On approaching the Cape, a very remarkable emi¬
nence may in clear weather be difeovered at a confider-
able diftance ; and is called the Table-mountain from its
appearance, as it terminates in a flat horizontal furface,
from which the face of the rock defeends almoft per¬
pendicularly. In the mild or fummer feafon, which
commences in September, and continues till March,
the Table Land or Mountain, is fometimes fuddenly
capped with a white cloud, by fome called the fpreading
of the Table-cloth. When this cloud feems to roll
down the fteep face of the mountain, it is a fure indi¬
cation of an approaching gale of wind from the fouth-
eaft; which generally blows with great violence, and
fome-
GOO
fometimes continues a day or more, but in common is
' of (hovt duration. On the hrft appearance of this
cloud, the ftiips in Table Bay begin to prepare for it,
by ftriking yards and top-marts, and making every
thing as fnug as poffible.—A little to the weftvvard of
the Table Land, divided by a fmall valley, (lands on
■ the right hand fide of Table Bay a round hill, call¬
ed the Sugar Loaf; and by many the Lion’s Head, as
there is a continuance from it contiguous to the fca,
called the Lion’s Rump ; and when you take a general
[ >7 1
GOO
Falfe Bay, on the fouth-eaft. fide of the Cape, is
more fecure than Table Bay during the 'prevalence of ”
the north-weft winds, but Hill lefs fo in ftrong gales from
the fouth-eaft. It is, however, lefs frequented, being
24 miles of very heavy road diftant from Cape Town,
whence almoft all neceftaries muft be procured. The
moft (heltered part of Faife Bay is a recefs on the weft
fide, called Simon’s Bay.”
The lateft and moft particular as well as apparently the
moft juft account of the Cape Town, concerning which
view of the whole, it very much refembles that animal voyagers have differed very much from one another in
with his head erecl. The Sugar Loaf or Lion’s Head,
and the Lion’s Rump, have each a flag-ftaff on them,
by which the approach of (hips is made known to the
governor, particularifing their number, nation, and the
quarter from which they come. To the eaftward, fe-
parated by a fmall chafm from the Table Land, (lands
Charles’s Mount, well known by the appellation of the
Devil’s Tower, or Devil's Head; and fo called from
the violent gufts of wind fuppofed to iffue from it
when it partakes of the cap that covers the Table
Land, though thefe gufts are nothing more than a de¬
gree of force the wind acquires in coming through the
chafm. When this phenomenon appears in the morn¬
ing, which is by no means fo frequent as in the even¬
ing, the failors have a faying, as the Devil’s Tower is
almoft contiguous to the Table Land, that the'old
their reprefentations, is that given by Mr White in his
Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales. From the (hip¬
ping, he obfervesf, the town appears pleafantly fituated, t P. 87.
but at the fame time fmall; a deception that arifes from
its being built in a valley with fuch ftupendous mountains
diredlly behind it. On landing, however, you are furpri-
fed, and agreeably difappointed, to find it not only ex-
tenfive, but well built, and in a good ftyle; the ftreets
fpacious, and interfefting each other at right angles with
great preciiion. This exa&nefs in the formation of the
ftreets, when viewed from the Table Land, is obferved
to be very great. The houfes in general are built of
(lone, cemented together with a glutinous kind of earth
which ferves as mortar, and afterwards neatly plaftered
and whitewaftied with lime. As to their height they do
common exceed two (lories, on account of the vio-
gentleman.is going to breakfaft ; if in the middle of lerice of the wind, which at fome feafons of the year blows
the day, that he is going to dinner; and if in the even¬
ing, that the cloth is fpread for fupper. Table-moun¬
tain rifes about 3567 feet above the level of the fea ;
the Devil’s Tower, about 3368 ; and the Lion’s Head,
27^4. In the neighbourhood of the latter lies Conjlan-
tia, a diftn‘61 confiding of two farms, wherein the fa¬
mous wines of that name are produced.
The above defcribed high lands form a kind of am¬
phitheatre about the Table-valley, where the Cape¬
town (lands. This is fituated at the bottom of the
middle height, or Table-mountain ; and almoft in the
centre of the Table Bay, fo called from that moun¬
tain.—This bay, it is obferved in Phillip's ' Voyage,
“ cannot properly be called a port, being by no means
a ftation of fecurity; it is expofed to all the vio¬
lence of the winds which fet into it from the fea ;
and is far from fufficiently fecured from thofe which
blow from the land. The gufts which defcend from
ith great flrength and fury. For the fame reafon thatch
has been ufually preferred to tiles or (hingles ; but the bad
eftedts that have proceeded from this mode when fires
happen, has induced the- inhabitants in all their new
buildings to give the preference to dates and tiles. The
lower parts of the houfes, according to the cuftom of
the Dutch nation, are not only uncommonly neat and
clean in appearance, but they are really fo ; and the
furniture is rather rich than elegant. But this is by no
means the cafe with the bed rooms or upper apart¬
ments; which are very barely and ill furnidled. The
itreets are rough, uneven, and unpaved. But many of
the houfes have a fpace flagged before the door; and b-
thers have trees planted before them, wdiich form a
pleafant (hade, and give an agreeable air to the ftreets.
The only landing-place is at the eaft end of the town,
w'here there' is a wooden quay running fome paces into
the fea, with feveral cranes on it for the convenience of
fummit of Table-mountain are fufficient to force loading and unloading the fcoots that come along fide.
(hips from their anchors, and even violently to annoy
perfons .on the (bore, by deftroying any tents or other
temporary edifices which may be erecled, and raifing
clouds of fine dull, which produce very troublefome
effe&s. A gale of this kind, from the fouth-eaft, blew
for three days fucceffively when Captain Cook lay here
in his firft voyage; at which time, he informs us, the
Kefolution was the only (hip in the harbour that had
not dragged her anchois. The (forms from the fea
.are (till more formidable ; fo much fo, that (hips
have frequently been driven by them from their ancho¬
rage, and wrecked at the head of the Bay. But thefe
accidents happen chiefly in the quactdt mouffon, or win¬
ter months, from May 14. to the fame day of Auguft;
during which time few (hips venture to anchor here.
Our fleet arriving later, lay perfeflly unmolefted'as
long as it was neceffary for it to remain in this ftation.
Vol. VIII. Fart I.
To this place excellent water is conveyed by pipes, which
makes the watering of ftiips both eafy and expeditious.
Clofe to the quay, on the left hand, (lands the caftle
and principal fortrefs; a ftrong extenfive work, having
excellent accommodations for the troops, and for many
of the civil officers belonging to the company. Within
the gates, the company have their principal (lores;
which are fpacious as well as convenient. This fort
covers and defends the eaft part of the town and har¬
bour, as Amfterdam fort does the weft part. The lat¬
ter, which has been built fince commodore Johnfton’s
expedition, and whereon both French and Dutch
judgment have been united to render it effetSual and
ftrong, is admirably planned and calculated to annoy
and harafs ftiips coming into the bay. Some fmaller
detached fortifications extend along the coaft, both to
the eaft and weft, and make landing, which was not
C the
GOO [ iB 1 G O R
G«od. the cafe before the late war, hazardous and difficult.
ln a word, Cape Town is at this time fortified with
ftrength, regularity, and judgment.
The governor’s houfe is delightfully fituated, nearly
in the centre of an extenfive garden, the property of
the Dutch Eaft India company, ufefully planted, and
at the fame time elegantly laid out. The governor’s
family make what ufe they pleafe of the produce of
the garden, which is various and abundant; but the
original intention of the company in appropriating fo
extenfive a piece of ground to this purpofe was, that
their hofpital, which is generally pretty full when their
fhips arrive after long voyages, may be well fupplied
with fruits and vegetables, and likewife that their fhips
may receive a fimilar fupply. This garden is as public
as St James’s park ; and for its handfome, pleafant,
and well-fhaded walks, is much frequented by perfons
of every defeription, but particularly by the fafhionable
and gay. At the upper end of the principal walk is a
fmall fpa.ee walled in for the purpofe of confining fome
large oilriches and a few deer; and a little to the right
of this is a fmall menagery, in which the company have
half a dozen wild animals and about the fame number
of curious birds.
There are two churches in the town; one large,
plain, and unadorned, for the Calvinifts, the prevail¬
ing fedt; and a fmaller one for the Lutherans. The
hofpital, which is large and extenfive, is fituated at the
upper end of the town, clofe to the company’s garden;
where the convalefcents reap the benefit of a wholefome
pure air, perfumed with the exhalations of a great va¬
riety of rich fruit trees, aromatic fhrubs, and odorous
plants and flowers; and likewife have the ufe of every
produftion of it.
Befides thejr hofpital, the Dutch Eaft India com¬
pany have feveral other public buildings, which tend
to improve the appearance of the town. The two
principal of thefe are, the ftables and a houfe for their
flaves. The former is a handfome range of buildings,
capable of containing an incredible number of horfes.
Thofe they have at the Cape are fmall, fpirited, and
full of life. The latter is a building of confiderable
extent, wdiere the flaves, both male and female, have
Separate apartments, in a very comfortable ftyle, to re¬
side in after the fatigues and toil of the day ; and there
are feveral officers placed over them, who have commo¬
dious apartments, and treat them humanely.
The inhabitants of the Cape, though in their per¬
fons large, ftcut, and athletic, have not all that phlegm
about them which is the charafteriftic of Dutchmen in
general. The phyfical influence of climate may in fome
degree account for this ; for it is well known that in
all fouthern latitudes the temper and difpofition of the
people are more gay, and that they are more inclined
to luxury and amufements of every kind, than the in¬
habitants of the northern hemifphere. The ladies are
lively, good-natured, and familiar ; and from a pecu¬
liar gay turn, they admit of liberties that would be
thought reprehen Able in England, though perhaps
they as Seldom overleap the bounds of virtue as the
women of other countries.
The heavy draft work about the Cape is moftly per¬
formed by oxen ; which are here brought to an un¬
common degree of ufefulnefs and docility. It is not
uncommon to fee 14, 16, and fometimes 18, in one of
their teams; when the roads are heavy, they fome- Good
times, though rarely, yoke 20 ; all which the Hotten- H
tots, Malays, and Cape flaves, have in the moft per- or ‘amia»
fe<?t fubje&ion and obedience. One of thefe fellows
places himfelf on the fore part of the waggon, or, when
loaded, on the top of the load, and wfith a tremendous
long whip, which from its iize he is obliged to hold in
both his hands, manages thefe creatures with inexpref-
fible addrefs. When he finds expedition needful, he can
make them keep whatever pace he choofes, either trot
or gallop (a gait performed or kept up with difficulty
by European oxen), and that with as much cafe as
if he was driving horfes. They likewife manage
horfes with the fame dexterity; and to fee one of
them driving three, four, five, and fometimes fix
pair, in hand, with one of thefe long whips, would
make the moft complete mafter of the whip in England
cut a defpicable figure. Carriages are not very nume¬
rous at the Cape, as the inhabitants in general travel
in covered waggons, which better fuit the roughnefs
of the country. The governor and fome few of the
principal people keep coaches, which are a good deal
in the Englifli ftyle, and always drawn by fix horfes.
Good Manners. See Manners.
GOOG1NGS, in fea-language, are clamps of iron
bolted on the ftern-poft of a ffiip, whereon to hang
the rudder and keep it fteady; for which purpofe there
is a hole in each of them, to receive a correfpondent
fpindle bolted on the back of the rudder, which turns
thereby as upon hinges.
GOOSE, in ornithology. See Anas. The goofe
was held in great efteem amongft the Romans, for ha¬
ving faved the Capitol from the invafion of the Gauls
by cackling and clapping its wings. Geefe wrere kept
in the temple of Juno ; and the cenfors, when they en¬
tered upon their office, provided meat for them. There
w-as alfo an annual feaft at Rome, at which they car¬
ried a filver image of a goofe in ftate ; and hanged a
dog, to punifti that animal becaufe he did not bark at
the arrival of the Gauls.
Goose-Ander, in ornithology. See Mergus.
GoosE-Berry, in botany. See Rises.
GoosE-Neck, in a (hip, a piece of iron fixed on the
one end of the tiller, to which the laniard of the
whip-ftaff or the wheel-rope comes, for (leering the
(hip.
Goose-Wing, in the fea-language. When a (hip
fails before, or with a quarter-wind on a frefli gale,
to make the more hafte, they lanch out a boom and
fail on the lee-fide; and a fail fo fitted, is called a
goofe-iving.
GOitCUM, a town of the United Provinces, in
South Holland, which carries on a confiderable trade
in cheefe and butter. It is fituated on the rivers
Ligne and Maefe, in E. Long. 4. 55. N. Lat.
51.49.
GORDIANUS I. (a Roman general), was for his
valour and virtues chofen emperor by the army in the
reign of Maximinus, A. D. 237; but his fon, whom,
he had affociateu with himfelf in the throne, being
(lain by Capellian, the governor of Mauritania for
ftjaximinus, Gordianus killed himfelf the fame year.
See Rome.
Gordianus III. (grandfon of the former), a re¬
nowned warrior, and ftyled The guardian of the Roman
iommau-
G O R 1 *9 ] G O R
I -Goniitvfi, commonwealth. He was treacheroufly aflaffinated by
* Gordius. Philippus, an Arabian, one of his generals ; who, to
' the eternal difgrace of the Romans of that era, fuc-
ceeded him in the empire, A. D. 244. See Rome.
GORDIAN-knot, in antiquity, a knot made in
the leathers or harnefs of the chariot of Gordius king
of Phrygia, fo very intricate, that there was no find¬
ing where it began or ended. The inhabitants had a
tradition, that the oracle had declared, that he who
untied this knot (hould be matter of Afia. Alexander
having undertaken it, was unable to accomplifh it;
when fearing left his not untying it fhould be deemed
an ill augury, and prove a check in the w'ay of his
conquefts, he cut it afunder with his fword, and thus
either accompliihed or eluded the oracle.
GORDIUS, the hair-worm, a genus of infefts
belonging to the clafs of vermes intejlina. There are
feveral fpecies, 1. The aquaticus, or water hair-worm,
is 10 or 12 inches in length, and of about the thicknefs
of a horfe hair: its (kin is fmooth and fomewhat gloffy,
without furrows; its colour pale yellowiih white all over,
except the head and tail, which are black and gloffy. The
body is rounded, and very ttender in proportion to its
length: the mouth is fmall, and placed horizontally; the
jaws are both of the fame length, and obtufe at their
extremities. This fpecies is common in our frefh waters,
more efpecially in clay, through which it paffes as a
fifh does through the water, and is the author of many
fprings. This is the worm that in Guinea and in fome
other of the hot countries gets into the fleih of the na¬
tives, and occafions great mifchief; with us, though fre¬
quent enough in water where people bathe, it never at¬
tempts this.—2. The argillaceus, or clay hair-worm,
is only a variation of the preceding one in colour, be¬
ing yellowifh at the extremities. It chiefly inhabits
the clay ; and Linnaeus calls that its proper element,
from its being generally dug out of it.—3. The me-
dinenfis, or mufcular hair-worm, is all over of a pale
yellowifh colour. It is a native of both Indies ; fre¬
quent in the morning dew, from whence it enters the
naked feet of the flaves, and occafions a difeafe much
known in thofe countries, and to which children are
very liable : it creates the moft troublefome itchings,
and too often excites a fever and inflammation, it
particularly infefts the mufcles of the arms and legs,
from whence it may be drawn out by means of a
piece of lilk or thread tied round the head : but the
greateft caution is neceffary in this Ample operation,
left the animal, by being drained too much, fhould
break; for if any part remains under the fkin, it quick¬
ly grows with redoubled vigour, and becomes a cruel,
and fometimes fatal enemy, to the poor flaves in par¬
ticular. Baths with infufions of bitter plants, and all
vermifuges, deflroy it.—4. The marinus, or fea hair¬
worm, is filiform, twitted fpirally, and lying flat, a-
* bout half an inch in length; of a whitifh colour,
fmooth, and fcarcely diminifhing at the head. It is
as great a tormentor of herrings, bleaks, and various
other fifh, as the gordlus medinenfis is of man. The
fiih when infefled with thefe animals rife to the fur-
face, and tumble about as if in great agony.
Gordius, king of Phrygia, and father of Midas,
was a poor hufbandman, with two yokes of oxen,
wherewith he ploughed his land and drew his wain.
Aa eagle fitting a long while upon one of his oxen,
he confulted the foothfayers; a virgin bid him facri- Gordon,
fice to Jupiter in the capacity of king. He married ' — y—^
the virgin, who brought forth Midas. The Perfians
inftrudled by the oracle to fet the firft perfon they met
in a wain upon the throne, met Gordius, and made him
king. Midas for this good fortune dedicated to Jupi¬
ter his father’s cart. The knot of the yoke, they fay,
was fo well twitted, that he who could unloofe it was
promifed the empire of Afia ; hence the proverb of
the Gordian knot had its original. See Gordian Knot.
GORDON (Alexander), an excellent draughtf-
man and a good Grecian, who refided many years in
Italy, vifited moft parts of that country, and had
alfo travelled into France, Germany, &c. was fecre-
trary to the Society for Encouragement of Learning;
and afterwards to the Egyptian Club, compofed of
gentlemen who had vifited Egypt (viz. lord Sandwich,
Dr Shaw, Dr Pococke, &c.) He fucceeded Dr
Stukely as fecretary to the Antiquarian Society, which
office he refigned in 1741 to Mr Jofeph Ames. He
went to Carolina with governor Glen, where, befides a
grant of land, he had feveral offices, fuch as regifter of
the province, &c.; and died a juftice of the peace,
leaving a handfome eftate to his family. He publifhed,
I. Itinerarium Septentrionale, or a Journey through molt
parts of the Counties of Scotland, in two parts, with 66
copperplates, 1726, folio. 2. Supplement to the Itme-
rarium, 1732, folio. 3. The Lives of Pope AlexanderVI.
and his fon Caefar Borgia. 4. A complete Hiftory of
the ancient Ampitheatres, 1730, 8vo. afterwards en¬
larged in a fecond edition. 5. An Effay towards ex¬
plaining the hieroglyphical figures on the Coffin of the
ancient Mummy belonging to Capt. WilliamLethieuller,
folio, with cuts. 6. Twenty-five Plates of all the
Egyptian Mummies and other Egyptian Antiquities in
England, 1739, folio.
Gordon (Thomas), noted for his tranflations and
political writings, was born at Kirkudbright in North
Britain. He came young to London ; where he fup*
ported himfelf by teaching languages, until he procu¬
red employment under the earl of Oxford in queen
Anne’s time, but in what capacity is not now known.
He firft diftinguifhed himfelf in the defence of Dr
Hoadley in the Bangorian controverfy ; which recom¬
mended him to Mr Trenchard, in conjun&ion with
whom he wrote the well-known Cato’s Letters, upon
a variety of important public fubjefts. Thefe were
followed by another periodical paper, under the title
of the Independent Whig ; which was continued fome
years after Mr Trenchard’s death, by Gordon alone,
againft the hierarchy of the church ; but with more
acrimony than was fhown in Cato’s Letters. At length
Sir Robert Walpole retained him to defend his admi-
niftration, to which end he wrote feveral pamphlets.
At the time of his death, July 28th 1 750, he was firft:
commiflioner of the wine licences, an office which he
had enjoyed many years. He was twice married. His
fecond wife was the widow of his great friend Tren¬
chard, by whom he had children. —He publifhed En-
glifh tranflations of Salluft and Tacitus, with additional
difcourfes to each author, which contain much good
matter. Alfo, two colleftions of his trafls have been
preferved : the firft intitled, A Cordial for Low-
fpirits, in three volumes; and the fecond. The Pil¬
lars of Prieftcraft and Orthodoxy fhaken, in two vo-
C 2 lumes.
G O R [ 20 ] G 0 R
Gordonia lames. But thefe, like many other poflrhumous things,
ii had better have been fiippreffed. In his tranflations as
. Gorged- we|j as j,js 0^her works he places the verbs at the ends
"v of fentences, according to the Latin idiom, in a very ftiff
and affefted manner.
GORDONIA, in botany: A genus of the polyan-
dria order, belonging to the monadelphia clafs of plants.
The calyx is fimple ; the ftyle five-cornered, with the
ftigma quinquefid; the capfule quinquelocular; the feeds
two-fold with a leafy wing. This is a tall and very
llraight tree, with a regular pyramidal head. Its leaves
are fhaped like thofe of the common bay, but ferrated.
It begins to bloffom in May, and continues bringing
forth its flowers the greateft part of the fummer. The
flowers are fixed to foot-ftalks, four or five inches long;
are monopetalous, divided into five fegments, encom-
paffing a tuft of ftamina headed with yellow apices;
which flowers, in November, are fucceeded by a co¬
nic capfula having a divided calyx. The capfula,
when ripe, opens, and divides into five fe&ions, dif-
clofing many fmall half-winged feeds. This tree re¬
tains its leaves all the year, and grows only in wet
places, and ufually in water. The wood is fomewhat
foft; yet Mr Catelby mentions his having feen fome
beautiful tables made of it. It grows in Carolina, but
not in any of the more northern colonies.
GORE, in heraldry, one of the abatements, which,
according to Gullim, denotes a coward. It is a figure
confifting of two arch lines drawn one from the finifter
chief, and- the other from the finifier bafe, both meet¬
ing in an acute angle in the middle of the fefs point.
See Heraldry.
GO REE, a fmall ifland of Africa, near Cape de
Verd, fubject to the French. It is a fmall fpot not
exceeding two miles in circumference, but its import¬
ance arifes from its fituation for trade fo near Cape
Verd, and it has been therefore a bone of contention
Between European nations. It was firfl poffeffed by
the Dutch, from whom, in 1663, it was taken by the
Englifh; but in [665 it was retaken by the Dutch,
and in 1677 fubdued by the French, in whofe poffef-
fion it remained till the year 1759, when the Britilh
arms were everywhere triumphant; and it was redu¬
ced by commodore Keppel, but reftored to the French
at the treaty of peace in 1763. It was retaken by
the Engliflr in the lall war, but again reftored at the
peace of 1783. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lat. 14.43.
Goree, the capital town of an ifland of the fame
name in Holland, eight miles South of Briel. E.
Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GOREY, a borough, fair, and poft town in the
county of Wexford, province of Leinfter, otherwife
called Ne-wlorough. It Hands about 18 miles north of
Wexford town, and 45 from Dublin. N. Lat. 52. 40.
W. Long. 6. 30. It fends two members to parlia¬
ment ; patronage in the family of Ram.
GORGE, in architecture, the narroweft part of the
Tufcan and Doric capitals, lying between the aftra-
gal, above the ftraft of the pillar, and the annulets.
Gorge, in fortification, the entrance of the plat¬
form of any work. See Fortification.
GORGED, in heraldry, the bearing of a crown,
coronet, or the like, about the neck of a lion, a fwan,
&c. and in that cafe it js faid, the lion or cygnet is
gorged with a ducal coronet, &e.
Gorged is alfo ufed when the gorge or neck of a Gorged 1
peacock, fwan, or the like bird, is of a different colour if '
or metal from the reft. argons,^
GORGET, a kind of breaft-plate like a half moon, T
with the arms of the prince thereon; worn by the of¬
ficers of foot. They are to be either gilt or filver,
according to the colour of the buttons on the uni¬
forms.
Gorget, or Gorgeret, in furgery, is the name
which the French give to the concave or cannulated
conduftor, ufed in lithotomy. See Surgery.
GORGONA, a fmall ifland of Italy, in the fea of
Tufcany, and near that of Corfica, about eight miles
in circumference ; remarkable for the large quantity of
anchovies taken near it. E. Long. 10. o. N. Lat.
43.22.
Gorgona, a fmall ifland of the South Sea, 12 miles
weft of the coaft of Peru, in America. It is indif¬
ferent high land, very woody, and. fome of the trees
are very tall and large, and proper for mafts. It is
about 10 miles in circumference, and hasfeveral Iprings
and rivulets of excellent water, but is fubjetl to con-
ftant rains. W. Long. 79. 3. S. Lat. 3. 30.
GORGONIA, in natural hiftory, a genus of zoo¬
phytes, which formerly were called ceratophytons, and are
known in Englifh by the names offen-fans, feafeathers,
and fea-whips. Linnaeus and Dr Pallas confider them as
of a mixed nature in their growth, between animals
and vegetables; but Mr Ellis fhows them to be true
animals of the polype kind, growing up in a branched
form refembling a flirub, and in no part vegetable.
They differ from the freih water polype in many of
their qualities, and particularly in producing from their
own fubftance a hard and folid fupport, ferving many
of the purpofes of the bone in other animals. This is
formed by a concreting juice thrown out from a pecu¬
liar fet of longitudinal parallel tubes, running along the
internal furface of the flefhy part: in the coats of thefe
tubes are a number of fmall orifices, through which the
offeous liquor exfudes, and concreting, forms the layers
of that hard part of the annplar circles, which fome,
judging from the confiftence rather than the texture,
have erroneoufly denominated wood. The furface of
the gorgonia is compofed of a kind of feales, fo well
adapted to each other as to ferve for defence from ex¬
ternal injuries: and the flefli, or, as fome have called
it, the bark or cortex, confiils of proper mufcles and
tendons for extending the openings of their cells; for
fending forth from thence their polype fuckers in fearch
of food ; and for drawing them in fuddenly, and con¬
tracting the fphinfter mufcles of thele ftarry cells, in
order to feeure thefe tender parts from danger; and
alfo of proper fecretory dufts, to furnifh and depofit
the ofieous matter that forms the ftem and branches as
well as the bafe of the bone. Mr Ellis affirms, that there
are ovaries in thefe animals, and thinks it very probable
that many of them are viviparous. See Corallines.
GORGONS, in antiquity and mythology. Au¬
thors are not agreed in the account they give of the
Gorgons. The poets reprefent, them as three filters, •
whofe names were Stheno, Euryale, and Medufa ; the
latter of whom was mortal, and, having been deflower¬
ed by Neptune, was killed by Perfeus ; the two for¬
mer were fubjeCt neither to age nor death. They are
deferibed with wings on their fhoulders, with ferpents
round
G O S r :
©oritia round their heads, their hands were of brafs, and their
R teeth of a prodigious -fize, fo that they were objects
Go^en' of terror to mankind. After the death of MetSufa,
* "" her fifters, according to Virgil, were appointed to keep
the gate of the palace of Pluto.
Multaque praterea variarum monjlra fcrarum—
Gorgones, Harpyitcqut 
Diodorus Siculus will have the Gorgons and Amazons
to have been two warlike nations of women, who in¬
habited that part of Libya which lay on the lake Tri-
tonidis. The extermination of thefe female nations was
not effedted till Hercules undertook and performed it.
Pautanias fays, the Gorgons were the daughters of
Phorbus; after whefe death Medufa, his daughter,
reigned over the people dwelling near the lake Tri-
tonidis. The queen was paffionately fond of hunting
and war, fo that (he laid the neighbouring countries
quite wafte. At laft, Perfeus having made war on
them, and killed the queen herfelf, when he came to
take a view of the field of battle, he found the queen’s
corpfe fo extremely beautiful, that he ordered her
head to be cut off, which he carried with him to fhow
his countrymen the Greeks, who could not behold it
without being ftruck with attonilhment.
Others reprefent them as a kind of monftrous wo¬
men, covered \**Lh hair, who lived in woods and fa-
refts. Others, again, make them animals, refembling
wild lheep, whofe eyes had a poifonous and fatal in¬
fluence.
GORITIA, or Goritz, a ftrong town of Ger¬
many, in the circle of Aultria, and duchy of Carniola,
with a calile ; feated on the river Lizonzo, 20 miles
north-ealt of Aquileia, and 70 north-eaif of Venice.
E. Long. 13. 43. N. Lat. 46. j 2.
GQRLiEUS (Abraham), an eminent antiquary,
was born at Antwerp, and gained a reputation by col-
ledting medals and other antiques. He was chiefly
fond of the rings and feals of the ancients, of which
he publifhed a prodigious number in 1601, under this
title, DaSyliotheca; five Annulorum Sigillarium, quorum
apudprifeos tam Gracos quam Romanos ufus ex ferro, are,
argento, et auro, Promptuarvum. This was the firfl. part
-of the work : the fecond was intituled, Variarum Gem-
marum, quibus antiqultas in fgnando uti folita fculptura.
This work has undergone ieveral editions, the belt of
which is that of Leyden, 1695 : for it not only con¬
tains a vaft number of cuts, but Tifo a Ihort explica¬
tion of them by Gronovius. In 1^08, he publifhed a
colledtion of medals : which, however, if we may believe
the Scaligerana, it is not fafe always to trull. Gorlseus
pitched upon Delft for the place of his refidence, and
died there in 1609. His colledlions of .antiques were
fold by his heirs to the prince of Wales.
GORLITZ, a town of Germany, in Upper Lufa-
tia, fubjeft to the eledtor of Saxony. It is a hand-
fome ftrong place, and feated on the river Neifle, in
E. Long. 15- 15- N. Lat. 51. 10
GORTERIA, in botany : A genus of the poly-
gamia fruftanea order, belonging tq the fyngenefia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 49th order, Compofita. The receptacle is naked ;
the pappus woolly ; the florets of the radius ligulated
«r plane; the calyx imbricated with fpinous feales.
GOSHAWK. See Falco..
GOSPIEN (anc. geog.), a canton of Egypt, which
>r 1 G O S
Jofeph procured for his father and his brethren when Goflar
they came to dwell in Egypt. It was the moft fruit-
ful part of the country: and its name feems to be de- ^ ">
rived from the Hebrew, Gejhem, * nich fignifies “rain;”
becaufe this province lying very near the Mediterra¬
nean, was expofed to rains, which were very rare in
other cantons, and more efpecially in Upper Egypt.
Calmet does not queilion but that Gofhen, which Jo-
fhua (x. 41.x!. 16. xv. 51.) makes part of the tribe
of Judah, is the fame as the land of Gofhen, which
was given to Jacob and his fonsby Pharaoh king of E-
gypt ; (Gen. xlvi,. 28)r It is certain that this coun¬
try lay between Paleftine and the city of Tanais, and
that'the allotment of the Hebrews reached fouthward
as far as the Nile, (Jofh. xiii. 3.)
GOSLAR, a large and ancient town of Lower
Saxony, and in the territory of Brunfwick; it is a free
imperial city, and it was here that gunpowder was firft
invented, by a monk as is generally fuppofed. It is a
large place, but the buildings are in the ancient tafte.
In 1728, 280 houfes, and St Stephen’s fine church,
were reduced to allies. It is feated on a mountain,
near the river Gofe, and near it are rich mines of iron.
The inhabitants are famous for brewing excellent beer.
E. Long. 3. 37. N. Lat. 51. 55.
GOSPEL, the hiftory of the life, adlions, death,
refurreftion, afeenfion, and doftrine of Jefus Chrift.—
The word is Saxon, and of the fame import with the
Latin term evangelium, which fignifies glad tidings, or
good news.
This hiitory is contained in the writings of St Mat¬
thew,. St Mark', St Luke, and St John ; who from
thence are called evangelifts. The Chriftian church
never acknowledged any more than thefe four gofpels as
canonical; notwithflanding which, feveral apocryphal
gofpcls are handed down to us, and others are entirely
loft.
GOSPORT, a town of Hampfhire, 79 miles from
London, in the panfh of Alveritcck. It has a ferry
over the moutli of the harbour to Portfmouth, and is
a large town and of great trade, efpeeially in time of
war. Travellers choofe to lodge here, where every
thing is cheaper and more commodious for them than
at Purtfmouth. The mouth of the harbour, which is
not f ) broad here as the Thames at Weflniiuller, is fe-
cured on this fide by four forts, and a platform of above
20 cannon level with the water. Here is a noble ho-
fpital built for the cure of the fxck and wounded Tail¬
ors in the fervice of the navy ; befides a free fchool.
GOSSAMER.is the name of a fine filmy fubllance,.
like cobwebs, which is feen to float in the air, in clear
days in autumn, and is more obfervable in Hubble*
fields, and upon furze and other low bulhes. This is
probably formed by the flying fpider, which, in tra-
verfing the air for food, (hoots out thefe threads from
its anus, which are borne down by the dew, &c.
GOSSYP1UM, or Cotton : A genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the-
37th order, Columnifera. The calyx is double, the
exterior one trifid; the capfule quadrilocular; the
feeds wrapt in cotton-wool. There are four fpecies,
all of them natives of warm climates. 1. The herba-
cenm, or common herbaceous cotton, hath an herba¬
ceous fm0,0th ftaik two feet high, branching upwards ;.
, five?-
G O S [ 22 ] GOT
five-lobed fmooth leaves; and yellow flowers from the
ends of the branches, fucceeded by roundifh capfules
full 6f feed and cotton. 2. The hirfutum, or hairy
American cotton, hath hairy ftalks branching laterally
two or three feet high : palmated, three and five lobed
hairy leaves ; and yellow ffbwers, fucceeded by large
oval pods furnilhed with feeds and cotton. 3. The bar-
badenfe, or Barbadoes (hrubby cotton, hath a fhrubby
flalk branching four or five feet high, three-lobed
fmooth leaves, glandulous underneath; and yellow«flow-
ers fucceeded by oval pods, containing feeds and cot¬
ton. 4. The arboreum, or tree cotton, hath an up¬
right woody perennial ftalk, branching fix or eight feet
high ; palmated, four or five lobed fmooth leaves; and
yellow flowers, fucceeded by large pods filled with feeds
and cotton.
The firft three fpecies are annual, but the fourth is
perennial both in root and ftalk. In warm countries
thefe plants are cultivated in great quantities' in the
fields for the fake of the cotton they produce; but the
firft fpecies is moft generally cultivated. The pods are
fometimes as large as middling-fized apples, clofely
filled with the cotton furrounding the feed. When
thefe plants are railed in this country, they mu ft be
continually kept in a warm ftove, where they will pro¬
duce feeds and cotton. They arc propagated by feeds.
See Cotton.
The American Iflands produce cotton ftirubs of va¬
rious fizes, which rife and grow up without any cul¬
ture; efpecially in low and marlhy grounds. Their
produce is of a pale red ; fome paler than others; but
fo Ihort that it cannot be fpun. None of this is brought
to Europe, though it might^be ufefully employed in
making of hats. The little that is picked up, ferves
to make matrafles and pillows.
The cotton-lhrubs that fupplies our manufactures, re¬
quires a dry and ftony foil, and thrives belt in grounds
that have already been tilled. Not but that the plant
appears more flourilhing in frefti lands than in thofe
which are exhaufted; but while it produces more
w ood, it bears lefs fruit.
A weftern expofure is fitted for it. The culture of
it begins in March and April, and continues during the
firft fpring-rains. Holes are made at feven or eight
feet diftance from each other, and a few feeds thrown
in. When they are grown to the height of five or fix
inches, all the ftems are pulled up, except two or. three
of the ftrongeft. Thefe are cropped twice before the
end of Auguft. This precaution is the more neceflary,
as the wood bears no fruit till after the fecond prun¬
ing; and, if the fttrub was fuffered to grow more than
four feet high, the crop would not be the greater, nor
the fruit fo eafily gathered. The fame method is pur-
fued for three years; for fo long the fhrub may conti¬
nue, if it cannot conveniently be renewed oftener with
the profpect of an advantage that will compenfate the
trouble.
This ufeful plant will not thrive if great attention is
hot paid to pluck up the weeds that grow about it. Fre¬
quent rains will promote its growth ; but they muft
not be inceflant. Dry weather is particularly neceffary
in the months of March and April, which is the time
of gathering the cotton, to prevent it from being dif-
coloured and fpotted.
When it is all gathered in, the feeds mull be picked
out from the wool with which they are naturally mix* GotK*
ed. This is done by means of a cotton-mill; which is II
an engine compofed of two rods of hard wood, about , oth an ’
18 feet long, 18 lines in circumference, and fluted ’
two lines deep. They are confined at both ends, fo as
to leave no more diftance between them than is necef¬
fary for the feed to flip through. At one end is a
kind of little millftonc, which, being put in motion
with the foot, turns the roads in contrary directions.
They feparate the cotton, and throw out the feed con¬
tained in it.
GOTHA, a town of Germany, in the circle of Upper
Saxony, and capital of the duchy of Saxe-Gotha, in E.
Long. 10. 36. N. Lat. 51. Some fancy this town had
its name from the Goths, and that they fortified it in
their march to Italy ; but it was only a village till fur-
rounded with w'alls by the bilhop of Mentz in 964. It
is fituated in a fine plain on the river Leina, well built
and ftrongly fortified. Here are two haudfome churches
and a very good hofpital. Its chief trade is in dyers
wood, of which they have three crops, but the third
grows wild. The neighbouring country produces a
vaft deal of corn. The caftle or ducal palace of Gotha
was rebuilt in the 16th century by duke Erneft, fur-
named the Pious, who caufed both that and the town
to be encompafled with ditches and ramparts; and gave
it the name of Friedenjlien, or the Cajlle of Peace, in op-
pofition to its ancient name of Grimmerjiein, or the Cajllc
of the Furies. It is fituated cn a neighbouring emi¬
nence, from whence there is a vaft profpeft of a fruit¬
ful plain. In one of the apartments there is a collec¬
tion of valuable rarities, and a noble library.
The dukedona of Saxe Gotha is about 30 miles
long, and 12 broad. The reigning duke is Lewis
Erneft, born in 1745, and married to the princefs
Maria Charlotte of Saxe Meningen, by whom he has
iffue. He is the head of the Erneftine line of Saxony,
defcended from the ele&or John Frederick the Magna¬
nimous, who was deprived of the eledlorate by the em¬
peror Charles V. in 1574; fmce which the youngcft
branch called the libertine has enjoyed it. He has feveral
other principalities befidcp that of Saxe Gotha; and his
revenues are computed at L. 200,000 a year, with
which he maintains about 3000 regular troops. As
he is the moft powerful of all the Saxon princes of the
Erneftine branch ; fo of all the courts of Saxony, next
to that of Drefden, he has the moft numerous and the
moft magnificent. His guards are well clothed, his li¬
veries rich, and his tables ferved with more elegance
than profufion. And yet by the prudent management
of his public finances, his fubjefts are the leaft bur¬
dened with taxes of any ftate in Germany. The reli¬
gion is Lutheran.
GOTHARD, one of the higheft mountains of
Switzerland ; and from the top, where there is an hofpi¬
tal for monks, is one of the fineft profpe&s in the
world. It is eight miks from Aldorf.
GOTHEBORG, or Gothenburg, or Gottenburg.
See Got tskburg.
GOTHIC, in general, whatever has any relation to
the Goths : thus we fay, Gothic cuftoms, Gothic ar-
chite&ure, &c. See Architecture.
GOTHLAND, the molt fouthern province of
Sweden, being a peninfula, encompaffed on three fidea
by the Baltic Sea, or the channel at the entrance of it.
It
GOT [ « ] GOT
Goths. It Js divided into feveral parts, which are, E tft Goth-
—V~~ land. Well Gothland, Smaland, Halland, Bleating,
and Schonen. It was a long time in the poffeffion of
the kings of Denmark, but was ceded to Sweden in
1654. The principal towns of Gothland are Calmar,
Landfcroon, Chriftianople, Daleburg, Gothenburg,
Helmftat, Lunden, Malmone, andVexio.
GOTHS, a warlike nation, and above all others
famous in the Roman hiftory, came originally out of
Scandinavia (the name by which the ancients diftin-
guithed the prefent countries of Sweden, Norway, Lap-
land, and Finmark). According to the moft probable
accounts, they were the firft inhabitants of thofe coun¬
tries ; and from thence fent colonies into the iflands of
the Baltic, the Cimhrian Cherfonefus, and the adja¬
cent places yet deftitute of inhabitants. The time of
their hrft fettling in Scandinavia, and the time when
they firit peopled with their colonies the abovemention-
ed iflands and Cherfonefus, are equally uncertain; tho’
the Gothic annals fuppofe the latter to have happened
in the time of Serug the great grandfather of Abra¬
ham. This firft migration of the Goths is faid to have
been conduced by their king Eric ; in which all the
ancient Gothic chronicles, as well as the Danifh and
Swedifh ones, agree. Their fecond migration is fup-
pofed to have happened many ages after; when, the
abovementioned countries being overftocked with
people, Berig, at that time king of the Goths, went
out with a fleet in quell of new fettlements. He landed
in the country of the Ulmerugians, now Pomerania,
drove out the ancient inhabitants, and divided their lands
among his followers. He fell next upon the Vandals,
whofe country bordered on that of the Ulmerugians,
and overcame them ; but intlead of forcing them to a-
bandon their country, he only made them {hare their
poffeilions with the Goths.
The Goths who had fettled in Pomerania and the
adjacent parts of Germany being greatly increafed, in-
fomuch that the country could no longer contain them,
they undertook a third migration in great numbers,
under Filimer furnamed the Great, their fifth prince
after leaving Scandinavia; and taking their route eaft-
ward, entered Scythia, advanced to the Cimmerian
Bofphorus, and, driving out the Cimmerians, fettled
in the neighbourhood of the Palus Maeotis. Thence
in procefs of time, being greatly increafed in Scy¬
thia, they refolved to feek new fettlements; and, ac¬
cordingly taking their route ealtward, they traverfed
feveral countries, and at length returned into Ger¬
many.
Their leader in this expedition was the celebrated
Woden, called alfo Voden, Othen, Oden, Godan, and
Guadan. Of this Woden many wonderful things are
related in the Sueo-gothic chronicles. Fie was king of
the Afgardians, whom the northern writers will have
to be the fame with a people called Afpurgians men¬
tioned by Strabo and Ptolemy. By Strabo they are
placed near the Cimmerian Bofphorus. Afpurgia was
the metropolis of a province which Strabo calls Afia;
and Woden and his followers are ftyled by the ancient
Gothic writers Afa, Afiante, and Afwta. The kings
of Afpurgia were mafters of all that part of Scythia
which lay to the weft ward of Imaus, and was by the
Latins called Scythia intra Imaum, or “ Scythia within
Imaus.”
6
At what time tVoden reigned in this country, is Goths.
quite uncertain ; but all hiftorians agree, that he went  v—“
out in quell of new fettlements with incredible "num¬
bers of people following him. He firft entered Roxo-
lania, comprehending the countries of Pruflia, Livo¬
nia, and great part of Mufcovy. From thence he went
by fea into the north parts of Germany; and having
reduced Saxony and Jutland, he at laft fettled in Swe¬
den, where he reigned till his death, and became fo fa¬
mous that his name reached all countries, and he was
by the northern nations worftiipped as a god. He is
fuppofed to have brought with him the Runic charac¬
ters out of Alia, and to have taught the northern na¬
tions the art of poetry ; whence he is ftyled the father
of the Scaldi or Scaldri, their poets, who defcribed in
verfe the exploits of the great men of their nation, as
the bards did among the Gauls and Britons.
The Romans diftinguiflied the Goths into two claf-
fes ; theOftrogoths and Vifigoths. Thefe names they
received before they left Scandinavia, the Vifigoths be¬
ing foftened by the Latins from Wejlerogoths, or thofe
who inhabited the weftern part of Scandinavia, as the
Oftrogoths were thofe who inhabited the eaftern part
of that country. Their hiftory affords nothing of mo¬
ment till the time of their quarrelling with the Ro¬
mans; which happened under the reign of the emperor
Caracalla, fon to Severus After that time their hiftory
becomes fo clofely interwoven with that of the Ro¬
mans, that for the moft remarkable particulars of it
we muft refer to the article Rome. After thedeftruc-
ton of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the Oftro¬
goths, under their king Theodorir, became mafters of
the greateft part of Italy, having overcome and put to- *
death Odoacer king of the Heruli in 494. They re¬
tained their dominion in this country till the year 553;
when, they were finally conquered by Narfes, the em¬
peror Juftinian’s general: See (Hiftory of) Italy.
The Viligoths fettled in Spain in the time of the em¬
peror Honorius, where they founded a kingdom which,
continued till the country was fubduedby the Saracens;
fee the article Spain.
The Goths were famous for their hofpitality and
kindnefs to ilrangers, even before they embraced the
Chriftian religion. Nay, it is faid, that from their
being eminently good, they were called Goths, by the
neighbouring nations ; that name, according to Gro-
tius and moft other writers, being derived from the
German word which fignifies “ good.” They
encouraged, fays Dio, the lludy of philofophy above
all other barbarous or foreign nations, and often chofe
kings from among their philofophers. Polygamy wai
not only allowed but countenanced among them; every
one being valued or refpedled according to the number
of his wives. By fo many wives they had an incre¬
dible number of children, of whom they kept but one
at home, fending out the reft in quell of new fettle¬
ments ; and hence thofe fwarms ot people which over¬
ran fo many countries. With them adultery was a ca¬
pital crime, and irremiffibly punifhed with death.' This
feverity, and like wife polygamy, prevailed among them
when they were known to the Romans only by the
name of Getes (their moft ancient name); as appears,
from the poet Menander, who was himfelf one of that
nation ; and from Horace, who greatly commends the'
chaftity of their women. Their laws fell little fhort of
' thofe;
GOT r 24 1 GOT
Gofhofred, thofe of tide ancient Rmoans, Their government was
‘Gotten- monarchical; their religion was much the fame with
. 'r^' that of the ancient Germans or Celtes ; and their drefs
‘ is defcribed by Apollinaris Sidonius in the following
words: “ They are (hod (fays he) with high (hoes
made of hair, and reaching up to their ankles ; their
knees, thighs, and legs, are without any covering ;
their garments of various colours fcarce reaching to the
knee; their fleeves only cover the top of their arms 5
they wear green caffocks with a red border; their belts
hang on their (boulder; their ear^ are covered with
twitted locks; 'they ufe hooked lances and miflile wea¬
pons.”
GOTHOFRED, or Godfrey, (Denis or Diony-
fius), an eminent civil lawyer, born of an illuftrious
houfe at Paris, in 1549. Finding his country invol¬
ved in the confufion of the leaguers, he accepted of a
profefibr’s chair at Geneva, until he was patronized
and employed by Henry IV.; but being afterwards
ftripped of his- employments as a huguenot, he at
length retired to Heidelburg, from whence no offers
were able to detach him. He was, however, difap-
pointed of his intention to end his days there ; for the
difturbances that broke out in the Palatinate obliged
him, in 1621, to take refuge in Strafburg, where he
died the following year. He wrote a great number of
books; but his principal work is the Corpus Juris Ci-
vilis cum noth.
Gothofred (Theodore), fon of the former, was
born at Geneva in 1580. As foon as he had finifhed
his fludies, he went to Paris; where he conformed to
the Romifh religion, and applied with indefatigable in-
duftry to the ftudy of hiftory, that of France particu¬
larly, wherein he became very eminent, as appears by
his works. In 1632, the king made him one of his
hiftoriographers, with a ftipend of 3000 livres ; and, in
1636, he was fent to Cologn, to affifl at the treaty of
peace negociating there, on the part of France, by the
cardinal of Lyons. This treaty being removed to
Muntter, Gothofred was fent thither, where he drew
up Memoirs on the fubjedf; and continued in that city,
in the king’s fervice, to his death in 1 649. His princi¬
pal work is his “ Account of the Ceremonial of the kings
of France.”
Gothofred (James), brother of the preceding,
was born at Geneva in 1587. Applying himfelf to
the ttudy of the law, he obtained the profefTor’s chair
there, was made counfellor of the city, and was feve-
ral times employed in France, Germany, Piedmont,
and Switzerland, to negociate their affairs in the name
of the republic. He died in 1562; and his chief
work is his Codex Theodojmnus, cum perpctuls commenla-
rih, &c .
Gothofred (Denis), fon of Theodore above men¬
tioned, was born at Paris in 1615. He ftudied hiftory
after his father’s example ; became as eminent in that
department of knowledge ; and obtained the reverfxon
of his father’s' place of hittoriographer royal, from
Louis XIII. when he was but 25' years of age. He
publiffied his father’s Ceremonial of France; finiflied his
Memoirs of Philip de Commines ; and was - pr eparing a
■H'fory of Charles VIII. when he died in i68j. It was
published by his eldeft: fon, Dennis, in 1684.
GOl 1 ENBURG, a rich and ftrong town of Weft
-Gothland, in Sweden, with a good harbour, at the
•N: 141.
mouth of the river Gothelba ; which is the heft fituated Gotten-
for foreign trade of any in Sweden, as it lies without
the Sound. It occupies the fite of an ancient town, ott^cn'
named Lodefe, which was built by Guftavus Vafa; and
being endowed with cohfiderable privileges, foon be¬
came the great emporium for the trade of the weftern
provinces! Charles IX. when duke of Gothland, having
in 1604 laid the foundations of a new town in the ifland
of Hifingen at no great diftance from Lodefe, called it
Gotkeborg (fince corrupted into Gottenburg), in honour
of his duchy. Upon his acceffion to the throne, he erefted
in his new town a trading company; drew thither many
foreigners, particularly the Dutch, to whom he allowed
an exemption from all duties of export and import during
20 years; a corps of Engliftr and Scotch troops, un¬
der the command of William Stewart; and granted to
the Calvinifts eftablifhed therein the free exercife of
their religion, the firft place in Sweden where this tole¬
ration was permitted. The town, being in 1611 re¬
duced to afhes by the Danes, was rebuilt in the reign
of Guftavus Adolphus in its prefent fituation, and ob¬
tained a contirmation of its ancient rights, with the
grant of feveral additional privileges.—It is built in a
very ftngular fituation. At a fmall diftance from the
fea is a marfliy plain, fcarcely more than half a mile
in breadth, watered by the rivers Gotha and Moldal,
and almoft entirely inclofed with high ridges of rocks,
fo bare and rugged, that they fcarcely produce a lingle
blade of grafs, and exhibit as barren an appearance as
the fummits of the loftieft Alps. Gottenburg Hands
partly upon the ridges, and partly in the ^lain ; and
is divided from thefe different fituations into the Up¬
per and Lower Town. The latter is entirely level, in¬
ter fetled by feveral canals in the manner of the Dutch
towns ; and its houfes are all conftrudled upon piles:
the upper part hangs on the declivities; and rows of
buildings rife one above the other like the feats of an am¬
phitheatre. The whole is regularly fortified; and its cir¬
cumference is near three miles, exclufive of the fuburbs,
called Haga, which lie towards the harbour. The
ftreets are all uniformly ftraight: a few of the hodfcs
are of brick; but the generality are conftrufted with
wood painted red. The harbour is formed by two
chains of rocks, and is about a quarter of a mile in
breadth. Its entrance is defended by the fort of NewElf-
ftnrg, which Hands upon a fmall rocky ifland, and con¬
tains 4 garrifen of 250 men. There has been lately
eftabliihed at Gottenburg a Royal Society of Sciences
and Literature, upon the plan of that of Upfala.—Mr
Coxe was informed by a merchant who had refided 2 2
years at Gottenburg, that, during that period, its po¬
pulation had increafed confiderably, and that it now
contained about 30,000 inhabitants. This flourifliing
(late is attributed to the extenfion of its commerce,
particularly its Eaft India Company, and the fuccefa
of the herring lifliery. An Englifh couful and feve¬
ral merchants of our nation refide at Gottentfurg: and
a chapel, with a regular chaplain, is appropriated to
theirufe. E Long.-11.50. N. Lat. 57. 44.
GOTTINGEN, a confiderable town of Lower
Saxony in Germany, and in the duchy of Brunfvrick ;
formerly free and imperial, but now fubjedl to the
elector of Hanover. Here his late Majefty George I f.
founded an univerfity. It is feated on the river Leine,
in E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat. 51. 32.
4 GOTTORP,
G O U l 2
GOTTORP, a town of the duchy of Hefwic, in
Denmark, and capital of the duchy of Holftein Got-
torp, where the duke has a very fine palace.
GOUANIA, in botany: A genus of the monoe-
cia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants.
The calyx of the hermaphrodite is quinquefid; there is
no corolla ; there are-five anthers covered with an ela-
ftic calyptra or hood ; the ftyle.trifid ; the fruit, infe¬
rior to the receptacle of the flower, divifible into three
feeds. The male is like the hermaphrodite, but wanting
ftigma and germen.
GOUDA, or Turgow, a confiderable town of
South Holland, in the United Provinces, remarkable
for its (lately church. It is feated on the river Iffel, in
E. Long. 4. 37. N. Lat. 52. 2.
GOUDT (Henry), ufually called Count Goudt, was
born of a noble family at Utrecht, in ryyo; and was
a knight of the Palatinate. Being paffionately fond of
the arts, particularly painting and engraving, and de-
firous of engaging in them, he applied himfelf diligent¬
ly to drawing, and made a great proficiency therein.
He went to Rome, to examine the works of the great
mailers in that city. Here he contradfed an intimacy
with that excellent artift Adam Ellheimer; lludied
his manner of penciling, defigning, and colouring;
and made his works models for his own imitation.
He pre-engaged all the pidfures that his friend and
favourite could finilh, and even paid liberally for
them before-hand ; by which means he found himfelf.
in poffefiion of a molt defirable treafure. Thofe pic¬
tures which Goudt himfelf painted were neatly and de-
licatelv touched, in colour and pencil refembling El¬
lheimer, though they were in no degree equal to the
paintings of that admirable mailer. On his return to
his native country, a young woman who was in love
with him, and defirous of fixing his alfedlions upon
her, gave him in his drink a love philtre : which, how¬
ever, terminated in a very melancholy manner, by de¬
priving him totally of his fenfes; and in the dreadful
llate of idiotifm he dragged on a miferable life to the
age of 69, his death happening in 1639. It is re¬
markable, that though loll to every other fubjedt, when
painting was fpoken of he-would difcourfe upon it in a
very rational manner.
Goudt pradtifed engraving as well as painting, and
made feven beautiful prints after the pidtures of Ellhei¬
mer, which are well known to the curious, and are to
be met with in molt choice colledtions. He worked
with the graver only, in a very neat ftyle; and produced
a moll powerful effedt, not by ftrengthening the ftrokes,
according to the ufual method, but by crofting them
with additional ftrokes, equally neat, and that five or
fix times, one over another, in the deep lhadows. Con-
fidering the precifion with which he executed his en¬
gravings, the freedom of handling the graver which
may be difcovered in them, is very aftonifning. The
weeds and other parts of the fore ground in that ad¬
mirable print of the Ceres, are very finely exprefl'ed. The
heads of the figures are corredtly drawn, and the other
extremities are managed in a judicious manner. The
feven prints done by him, from Ellheimer, mentioned
above, are, 1. Ceres drinking from a pitcher. Arnold
woman appears holding a candle at. the door of the
cottage, and a boy naked Uanding by her is laughing
and pointing at the goddefs >.r which contempt he
Vol. VIII. Part I.
5 1 G O U
was metamorphofed by her into a frog. The powerful
and ftriking effedt of this engraving cannot be properly
defcribed. This print is diftinguilhed alfo by the name
of the forcery. 2. The flight into Egypt: A night-
fcene, in which the moon and liars are introduced with
great fuccefs. 3. The angel with Tobit, who is draw¬
ing a filh by his fide. The back-ground is a landfcape;
the Weeds in the foreground, and the branches of the
trees in front, as well as the foliage and weeds hanging
from them, are beautifully exprefled. 4. The angel
with Tobit, crofting a ftream of water: The back¬
ground, a landfcape. 5. Baucis and Philemon enter¬
taining Jupiter and Mercury. 6. A landfcape, called
the Aurora, reprefenting the dawn of day. The effedl
is very beautiful. 7. The beheading of St John in
prifon, a very fmall upright oval print, which is by far
the fcarceft.
GOVERNMENT, in general, is the polity of a
Hate, or an orderly power conllituted for the public
good.
Civil government was inftituted for the prefervation
and advancement of mens civil interefts, and for the
better fecurity of their lives, liberties, and properties.
The ufe and neceflity of government is fuch,' that there
never was an age or country without fome fort of civil
authority: but as men are feldom unanimous in the
means of attaining their ends, fo their differences in o-
pinion in relation to government has produced a variety
of forms of it. To enumerate them would be to re¬
capitulate the hiftory of the whole earth. But, accord¬
ing to Montefquieu, and moft other writers, they may
in general be redmced to one of thefe three kinds.
1. The republican. 2. The monarchical. 3. The
defpotic.—The firft is that, where the people in a bo¬
dy, or only a part of the people, have the fovereign
power; the fecond, where one alone governs, but by
fixed and eftabliftied laws; but in the defpotic govern¬
ment, one perfon alone, without law and without rule,
diredls every thing by his own will and caprice. See the
article Law, n° 1. 3 —10.—On the fubjedl of go¬
vernment at large, fee Montefquieu’s L’Efprit des
Loix, 1. 2. c. 1.; Locke, ii. 129, &c. quarto edition,
1768; Sidney on Government; Sir Thomas Smith ht
Repub. Angl. and Acherly’s Britannic Conftitution.—
As to the Gothic government, its original and faults,
&c. fee Montefquieu’s L’Efprit des Loix, 1. 11. c. 8.
—With refpedl to the feudal policy, how it limited go¬
vernment ; fee Feodal Syjlem.
Government is alfo a poll or office, which gives
a perfon the power or right to rule over a place, a city,
or a province, either fupremely or by deputation.
Government is likewife ufed for the city, coun-
try, or place to which the power of governing is ex¬
tended.
GOUGE, aa inftrument ufed by divers artificers,
being a fort of round hollow chiffel; ferving to cut
holes, channels, grooves, &c. in wood, ftone, &c.
GOULART (Simon), a famous minifter of Gene
va, was born at Senlis in 1543; and was one of the
moft indefatigable writers of his time. He made con¬
fiderable additions to the Catalogue of witneffes of the
truth, compofed by Illyricus; and acquired a great
reputation by his works; the principal of which are,-
1. A tranflation of Seneca. 2. A colle&ion of me¬
morable hiftories. 3. A tranflation of St Cyprian De
D lapfs.
G O TT [ 26 ] G O W
Gourd lapjts. 4. Several devotional and moral treatifes. He
II died at Geneva in 1628.
Gower. GOURD, in botany. See Cucurbit.A.
GOURGUES (Dominique de), an illuftrious
French patriot, a private gentleman of Gafcony. The
Spaniards having inhumanly mafTacred a colony of
Frenchmen who had fettled in Florida, Gourgues took
a fevere revenge on them, an account of which is given
under the article Florida. On his return, he was
received with acclamations by his countrymen, but was
forbid to appear at court. Queen Elizabeth invited
him to command an Englifh fleet againfl the Spa¬
niards in 1593; but he died at Tours in his way to
England-
GOURNAY, a town of France, in the duchy of
' Normandy and territory of Bray, celebrated for its
butter-market. It is fituated on the river Ept, in E.
Long. 0. 33. N. Lat. 49 25.
Gournay (Mary de Jars de), a lady celebrated for
her learning, was the daughter of William de Jars, lord
of Neufvi and Gournay. After the death of her fa¬
ther, (he was prote&ed by Montaigne and Cardinal
Richelieu. To the daughter of the former Are dedi¬
cated her Nofegay of Pindus; and compofed feveral
other works, the mod confiderable of which is Les A-
ihs. She died at Paris in 1685, aged 80. The cri¬
tics are divided concerning the reputation of this lady :
by fome fhe is ftyled the Syren of France^ others fay her
works fhould have been buried with her.
GOUT. See {Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
GOWER (John), one of our moft ancient Englifli
poets, was cotemporary with Chaudtr, and his inti¬
mate friend. Of what family, or in what county he
was born, is uncertain. He ftudied the law, and was
fome time a member of the fociety of LincolnVinn,
where his acquaintance with Chaucer began. Some
have afltrted that he was a judge ; but this is by no
means certain. In the firft year of Henry IV. he be¬
came blind ; a misfortune which he laments in one of
his Latin poems. He died in the year 1402 ; and was
Buried in St Mary Overie, which church he had re¬
built chiefly at his own expence, fo that he muft have
lived in affluent circumftances. His tomb was magni-
ircent, and curioufly ornamented. It Hill remains,
but hath been repaired in later times. From the collar
of SS round the neck of his effigies, which lies upon
the tomb, it is conjeftured that he had been knighted.
As to his chara&er as a man, it is impoffible, at this
diftance of time, to fay any thing with certainty.
With regard to his poetical talents, he was undoubt¬
edly admired at the time when he wrote, though a
modern reader may find it difficult to difcover much
harmony or genius in any of his, compofitions. He
wrote, 1. Sepeculum medkatitis, in French, in ten books.
There are two copies of this in the Bodleian library.
2. Fox clamant]s, in Latin verfe, in feven books. Pre-
ferved alfo in the Bodleian library, and in that of All-
Souls. It is a chronicle of the infurre&ion of the
commons in the reign of Richard II; 3, Confejpo
cmantis; printed at Weflminft'er by Caxton in 1493.
Lond. 1532* *554- ft is a fort of poetical fyilem
morality, interfperfed with-a variety of moral tales-
4. De rege Henrico IV. Printed in Chaucer’s works.
There are likevvife feveral hiftorical trafts, in manu-
fhipt, wiitten by our author, which are to be found
in different libraries; alfo fome fliort poems printed in
Chaucer’s works.
GOWN, robe, a long upper garment, worn by
lawyers, divines, and other graduates; who are hence
called men'o/" the gown, or gownmen.
The gown is an ample fort of garment, worn over
the ordinary cloaths, hanging down to the feet.—It ia
faflvioned differently for ecclefiaftics and for laymen.
At Rome they gave the name “ virile gown,” toga
wrilis, to a plain kind of gown which their youth af-
fumed when arrived at puberty. This they particu¬
larly denominated pratexta. See Toga, Prsetexta,
“ The remarkable drefs of our Britifh anceftors ~
(Mr Whitaker obferves), which continued very nearly Mnnchcftr9
the fame to the commencement of the laft century i. 30a.,
among the natives of Ireland, and has a&ually defeended
to the prefent among the mountaineers of Scotland,
and is therefore rendered very familiar to our ideas,
carried in it an aftonifhing appearance to the Romans.
And it feems to have been equally the drefs of the men
and women among the nobles of Britain. But in a
few years after the erettion of the Roman-Britilh towns
in the north, and in the progrefs of refinement among
them, this ancient habit began to be difefteemed by
the chiefs of the cities, and looked upon as the badge
of ancient barbarifm. And the growing prejudices
were foon fo greatly improved, that within 20 years
only after the conftru&ion of the towns, the Britilh
fagum was actually refigned, and the Roman toga or
gown affumed by many of them.
“ The gown, however, never became univerfal in
Britain : and it feems to have been adopted only by
the barons of the cities and the officers of the crown ;
and has therefore been tranfmitted to us as the robe of
reverence, the enfign of literature, and the mantle of
magiftracy. The woollen and plaided garments of the
chiefs having naturally fuperfeded the leathern veftures
of their clients, the former were Hill wore by the ge¬
nerality of the Britons; and they were retained by
the gentlemen of the country, and by the commonalty
both in country and city. That this was the cafe,
appears evident from the cofrefpondent conduct of the
Gauls and Britons; who kept their Virgata Sagula-
to the laft, and communicated them to the Franks and
Saxons. The plaided drapery of the Britons ftiil ap¬
peared general in the ftreets of Manchefter; and rauit
have formed a linking comraft to the gown of the
chief, the dark mantle of Italy : and it and the or¬
namented buttons on the (boulder are preferved among;
us even to the prefenf moment, in the parti-coloured
doathing and the taffelled fhoulder-knots of our foot-,
men.”
In fome univerfities phyficians wear a fcarlet gown.
In the Sorbonne, the dodors are always in gowns and
caps. Beadles, &c, wear gowns of two or more
colours.
Among the French officers, &e. they diftinguifh thofe
of the Jhort gown or robe; which are fuch as have not
been regularly examined. They have alfo barbers of
the Jl art gown, who are fuch as are obliged to pradtife
in an inferior way to thofe of the long robe.
Gown is alfo taken in the general for civil magiftra-
ture, or the profelfion oppofite to that of arms. In this
fenfe it was that Cicero laid cedant arma toga:.
GGWRAN,
G HA r 27 1 G R A
•Coman GOWRAN, a borough, fair, atnl pofl town, in the
II county cf Kilkenny and province of Leinfter, Irelaud.
t Graaf. Lat. 52. 34. W. Long. 7 O. It is governed by a
portrieve, recorder, and town-clerk. Here are the ruins
of an old church, alfoth e handfome feat of the late
lord Clifden ; and three miles beyond Gowran the
ruins of Ballinabola caftle.
GOYEN (John Van), painter of landfcapes, cattle,
and fea-pieces, was born at Leyden in 1596 ; and was
for fome time inftructed by Ifaac Nicholai, who was
reputed a good painter 5 but afterwards lie became the
difciple of Efaias Vandervelde, the moft celebrated
landfcape painter of his time. Van Goyen very foon
rofe into general efteem ; and his works are more uni-
verfally fpread through all Europe than the works of
any other mafter, for he pofl'tffed an uncommon readi-
nefs of hand and freedom of pencil. It was his con-
ftant pleafure and pra&ice to Iketch the views of vil¬
lages and towns fituated on the banks of rivers or
canals ; of the fea-ports in the Low Countries ; and
fometimes of inland villages, where the feenes around
them appeared to him pleafing or pi£turefque. Thofe
he afterwards ufed as fubjefts for his future landfcapes;
-enriching them with cattle, boats, and figures in cha-
rafler, juft as the livelinefs of his imagination dire&ed.
^He underftood perfpe&ive extremely well, and alfo
the principles of the chiaro-fcuro ; which branches of
knowledge enabled him to give his pi&ures a ftrong
and agreeable efieft. He died in 1656, aged 60.-—
His ufual fubjefts were feq^pieces, or landfcapes with
views of rivers, enlivened with figures of peafants either
ferrying over cattle, drawing their nets in ftill water, or
going to or returning from market. Sometimes he re-
prefented huts of boors on the banks of rivers, with
overhanging trees, and a beautiful reflexion of their
branches from the tranfparent furface of the waters.
Thefe were the fubje&s of his beft time, which he
generally marked with his name and the year ; and the
high finilhed pictures of Van Goyen will be for ever
eftimable. But as he painted abundance of pic¬
tures, fome are flight, fome too yellow, and fome ne¬
gligently finifhed ; though all of them have merit, be¬
ing marked with a free, expeditious, and eafy pencil,
and a light touch. His pictures frequently have a
greyifh call; which did not arife from any mifmanage-
ment of the tints, or any want of flcill in laying on
the colours ; but was occafioned by his ufing a colour
called Haerlem blue, much approved of at that time,
though now entirely difufed, becaufe the artifts found
it apt to fade into that greyifn tint; and it hath alfo
rendered the pi&ures of this mafter exceedingly diffi¬
cult to be cleaned without injuring the finer touches of
the finiftiing. His beft works are valued fo highly in
moft parts of Europe, and efpecially in the Low
Countries, that they defervedly afford large prices, be¬
ing ranked in Holland with the pidlures of Teniers ;
and at this time are not eafily procured, particularly
if they are undamaged, though his {lighter perform¬
ances are fufficiently common.
GRAAF (Regnier de), a celebrated phyfician,
born at Schoonhaven, in Holland, in 1641. He ftu-
died phyfic at Pruffia. He was educated in Leyden,
where he acquired great honour by publifhing a trea-
tife De Succo Pancreatico. He alfo publiftied three
pieces upon the organs of generation, both male and
female; upon which fubjedl he had a controverfy with
Swammerdam. He died young, in 1673 ; and his
works, with his life prefixed, were publifhed at Leyden II I
in 1677, in 8vo. Gracei1
GRABE (John Erneft), a very learned writer in ” * -
the beginning of the 18th century, a native of Koningf-
berg in Pruffia. He was educated in the Lutheran
religion ; but the reading of the fathers led him into
doubts. He prefented to the eleftoral confiftory at Sam-
bia in Pruffia a memorial containing his doubts. The
elector gave orders to three eminent divines to anfwer
them. Their anfwers fhook him a little in his refolution
of embracing the Roman Catholic religion; and one of
them, Spener, advifed him to go to England. He went;
and king William gave him a penfion, which was conti¬
nued by queen Anne. He was ordained a prieft of the
church of England, and honoured with the degree of
do&or of divinity by the univerlity of Oxford ; upon
which occafion Dr George Smalridge pronounced two
Latin orations, which were afterwards printed. He
wrote, 1. Spicelegium S. S. Patrum, ut et Hereticorum faculi
pojl Chrijlum uatum, 8vo. 2. An edition of the Septua-
gint, from the Alexandrian manufeript in St James’s
library. 3. Notes on Juftin, &c. ; and other works,
which are efteemed by the learned.
GRACCHUS (Tiberius), eledted tribune of the
Roman people, demanded in the fenate, in their name,
the execution of the Agrarian law ; by which all per-
fons poffeffing above 200 acres of land were to be de¬
prived of the furplus, for the benefit of the poor citi¬
zens, amongft whom an equal diftribution of them
was to be made. Having carried his plan into execution
by violent meafures, he fell a vidtim to his zeal, being
affaffinated by his own party, 133 B. C. Caius his bro¬
ther, purfuing the fame fteps, was killed by the conful
Opimius, 12 t B. C. See (hiltory of) Rome.
GRACE, among divines, is taken, 1. For the free
love and favour of God, which is the fpring and
fource of all the benefits we receive from him. 2. For
the work of the Spirit renewing the foul after the
image of God; and continually guiding and ftrengthen-
ing the believer to obey his will, to refift and mortify
fin, and overcome it.
Grace is alfo ufed, in a peculiar fenfe, for a ffiort
prayer laid before and after meat.
The proofs of the moral obligation of this ceremony,
drawn from different paffages of the New Teftament,
are fo well known, that it is needlefs to infift on them
here. Some others, drawn from the pradfice of differ¬
ent nations, and of very remote antiquity, may not be
difagreeable to our readers.
1. Athenseus tells us, in his Deipmfoph. lib. ii. that
in the famous regulation made by Amphidtyon king
of Athens with relpedt to the ufe of wine, both in fa-
,crifices and at home, he required that the name of
Jupiter .the Sujlainer ftiould be decently and reverently
pronounced. The fame writer, in lib. iv. p. 149.
quotes Hermeias, an author extant in his time, who
informs us of a people in Egypt, inhabitants of the
city of Naucratis, whofe cuftom it was on certain oc-
cafions, after they had placed themfelves in the ufual
pofture of eating at the table, to rife again and kneel;
when the prieft or precentor of the folemnity began
to chant a grace, according to a ftated form amongft
them; end when that was over, they joined imthe
meal in a folemn lacrificial manner. Heliodorus has a
paffage in his JEthiopic; to the fame purpofe, that it
D 2 wai
G R A [28
was the cuftom of the Egyptian philofophers to pour
out libations and put up ejaculations before they fat
down to meals. Porphyry, in his -treatife De abjlin.
lib. iv. p. 408. gives a great charafter of the Samnean
gymnofophifts. in Egypt for the ftridinefs of their life:
as one article in their favour, he obferves, that at the
founding of a bell before their meals, which confided
only of rice, bread, fruits, and herbs, they went to
prayers; which being ended, and not before, the bell
founded again, and they fat down to eating. In ge¬
neral this was a religious ufage or rite amongft. the an¬
cient Greeks; and derived from yet older ages, if
Clement of Alexandria rightly informs us. He men¬
tions, that thefe people, when they met together to
refrelh themfelves with the juice of the grape, fung a
piece of mufic, in imitation of the Hebrew pfalms,
which they called a fcholion. Livy, lib. xxxix. fpeaks
of it as a fettled cuftom among the old Romans, that
they offered facrifice and prayer to the gods at their
meals and compotations. But one of the fulleft tefti-
monies to our purpofe is given by Quintilian, Declam.
,301. Adijli menfam, fays he, ad quam cum venire ctepimus,
Deos invocamus; “ We approached the table (at fupper
together), and then invoked the gods.”
The Jefuit Trigautius, in his very elegant and in-
ftrudlive narrative of the Chriftian expedition of their
miffionaries into China, book i. p. 69. gives this ac¬
count of the people there in the particular now under
confideration. “ Before they place themfelves for
partaking of an entertainment, the perfon who makes
it fets a veffel, either of gold, or filver, or marble, or
fome fuch valuable material, in a charger full of wine,
which he holds with both his hands, and then makes a
low bow to the perfon of chief quality or charadter at
the table. Then, from the hall or dining-room, he
goes into the porch or entry, where he again makes
a very low bow, and turning his face to the fouth,
pours out this wine upon the ground as a thankful
oblation to the Lord of heaven. After this, repeat¬
ing his reverential obeifance, he returns into the
hall,” &c.
The Turks pray for a bleffing on their meat; and
many more in fiances might be produced of infidels who
have conftantly obferved the like cuftom in fome way
or other.
2. The fa£I, therefore, with refpeft to the heathen
world, being thus evident, we proceed to the fenti-
ments and behaviour of the jews in this particular.
Their celebrated hiftorian Jofephus, giving a detail of
the rites and cuftoms of the Effenes, who were con-
feffedly the ft ri die ft and moft pious profeflbrs of the
Jewifti religion, has this remarkable palfage to the pre-
fent purpofe: “ The prieft,” fays he, “ begs a bleffing
before they prefume to take any nourifhment; and it is
looked upon as a great fin to take or tafte before.”
Then follows the thankfgiving before meat : and
“ when the meal,” proceeds he, “ is over, the prieft;
prays again ; and the company with him blefs and
praife God as their preferver, and the donor of their
lift and nourifhment.”
Philo, in his book De vita contemplatively gives an
account of a body of men and women ftricter than
even the Effenes themfelves. He diftinguifhes them by
ao particular name though his relation is very accu-
iate and circumfl.ani.ial; namely, that on certain fpe-
] G R A
cial occafions, before “ they took their meals, they
placed themfelves in a proper decent order; when, lift¬
ing up their hands and eyes to heaven, they prayed to
God that he would be pleafed to be propitious to them
in the ufe of thofe his good creatures.”
From the Hebrew ritual it appears, that the Jews
had their hymns and pfalms of thankfgiving, not only
after eating their paflbver, but on a variety of other
occafions, at and after meals, and even between their fe-
veral courfes and dilhes; as when the beft of their wine
was brought upon the table, or their aromatic confec¬
tions, or the fruit of the garden, &c. On the day of
the paflbver was fung Pfalm cxiv. “ When Ifratl came
out of Egypt,” &c.
Ariflams has a paflage full on the prefent fubjedf.
“ Mofes,” fays he, “ commands, that when the Jews
are going to eat or drink, the company ftiould immedi¬
ately join in facrifice or prayer.” Where Rabbi Elea-
zar (upon that author) met with this fentence, has
been controverted. But fuppofing it not to be found
in feriptis, it is fufficient for us to know that the Jews
did conftantly pra&ife this cuftom, upon the foundation
of an ancient and general tradition and ufage. That
the prophet Daniel gave thanks before meat, is evident
from the Apocryphal book concerning Bel and the
Dragon, where, ver. 38, 39. we find, that “ Daniel faid,
Thou haft remembered me, Q God! neither haft thou
forfaken them who feek thee and love thee. So Daniel
arofe, and did eat.” Of this text Prudentius takes
notice in Cathemirin, hymn iv.
His fumptis Danielis cxcitavit
In cesium fac'tem. ciboqut fortis.
Amen icddidit, allelujah dixit.
The much-beloved took the repaft,
And up to heav’n his eyes he call;
By which refrefh’d, he fung aloud.
Amen, and allelujah to his God.
Where, by the way, it may be obferved, that the poet
is a little miftaken in making the prophet give thanks
after meat; whereas, according to the text, he did it
before.
Grace, or Gracefulnefs, in the human charadler; an
agreeable attribute, infeparable from motion as oppofed
to reft, and as comprehending fpeech, looks, gefture,
and loco-motion.
As fome motions are homely, the oppofite to grace¬
ful ; it is to be inquired, With what motions is this
attribute conne&ed ? No man appears graceful in a
mafk; and therefore, laying aiide the expreffions of the
countenance, the other motions may be genteel, may
be elegant, but of themfelves never are graceful. A
motion adjufted, in the moft perfect manner to anfwe'r
its end, is elegant; but ftill fomewhat more is required
to complete our idea of grace or gracefulnefs.
What this unknown more may be, is the nice point.
One thing is clear from what is faid, that this more muft
arife from the expreffions of the countenance : and
from what expreffions fo naturally as from thofe which
indicateoacntal qualities, fuch as fweetnefs, benevolence,
elevation, dignity ? This promifes to be a fair analyfis;
becaufe of all obje&s mental qualities affe& us the moft;
and the impreffion made by graceful appearance upon
every fpe&ator of tafte, is too deep for any caufe purely
corporeal.
The next ftep is, to examine what are the mental
qualitieSj
G R A [ 29 ] G R A
qualities, that, in conjun&ion with elegance of motion,
produce a graceful appearance. Sweetnefs, cheerful-
nefs, affability, are not feparately fufficient, nor even
in conjunftion. Dignity alone, with elegant motion,
produce a graceful appearance ; but ftill more graceful
with the aid of other qualities, thofe efpecially that are
the moft exalted. See Dignity.
But this is not all. The moft exalted virtues may
be the lot of a perfon whofe countenance has little ex-
preffion : fuch a perfon cannot be graceful. Therefore
to produce this appearance, we muff add another cir-
cumftance, viz. an expreffive countenance, difplaying
to every fpe&ator of tafte, with life and energy, every
thing that paffes in the mind.
Collefting thefe circumftaqces together, grace may
be defined, “ that agreeable appearance which arifes
from elegance of motion and from a countenance ex-,
prefiive of dignity.” Expreffions of other mental
qualities are not effential to that appearance, but they
heighter ‘ greatly.
Of all external obje&s, a graceful perfon is the moft
agreeable.
Dancing affords great opportunity for difplaying
grace, and haranguing ftill more. See Dancing,
Declamation, and Oratory.
But in vain will a perfon attempt to be graceful who
is deficient in amiable qualities. A man, it is true,
may form an idea of qualities he is deftitute of; and,
by means of that idea, may endeavour to exprefs thefe
qualities by looks and geftures: but fuch ftudied ex-
preflion will be too faint and obfcure to be graceful.
S/3 of Grace, the appellation given to the adl of
parliament 1696, c. 32. which allows prifoners for
civil debts to be fet at liberty, upon making oath that
they have not wherewithal to fupport themfelves in
prifon, unlefs they are alimented by the creditors on
whofe diligences they were imprifoned, within ten days
after intimation made for that purpofe.
Days of Grace, three days immediately follow'ing
the term of payment of a bill, within which the cre¬
ditor muft proteft it if payment is not obtained, in or¬
der to intitle him to recourfe again ft the drawer.
Grace is alfo a title of dignity given to dukes,
archbilhops, and in Germany to barons and other in¬
ferior princes.
GRACES, Gratia;, Charites, in the heathen theo¬
logy, were fabulous deities, three in number, who at¬
tended on Venus. Their names are, Aglia, Thalia, and
Euphrofyne; i. e. (hining, flouriihing, and gay; or, ac¬
cording to fome authors, Pafithea, Euphrofyne, and ^E-
giale. They were fuppofed by fome to be the daughters
of Jupiter and Eurynome the daughter of Oceanus; and
by others, to be the daughters of Bacchus and Venus.
Some will have the Graces to have been four ; and
make them the fame with the Hora “ hours”, or rather
with the four feafons of the year. A marble in the
king of Pruflia’s cabinet reprefents the three Graces
in the ufual manner, with a fourth feated and covered
with a large veil, with the words underneath, Ad So-
r.ores IIII. But this groupe we may underftand to be
the three Graces, and Venus, who was their fitter, as
being daughter of Jupiter and Dione.
The Graces are always fuppofed to have hold of
each other’s hands, and never parted. They were
painted naked, to ftiow that the Graces borrow nothing Gracilis,
from art, and that they have no other beauties than Gracula, ^
what are natural. v
Yet in the firft ages they were not reprefented na¬
ked, as appears from Paufanias, lib. vi. and lib. ix. who
defcribes their temple and ftatues. They were of
wood, all but their head, feet, and hands, which were
white marble. Their robe or gown was gilt; one of
them held in her hand a rofe, another a dye, and the
third a fprig of myrtle-
GRACILIS, a mufcle of the leg, thus called from
its flender ftiape. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
GRACULA, the Grakle, in ornithology, a genus pIate
belonging to the order of picas. The bill is convex, CCXX1T*
cultrated, and bare at the point; the tongue is not clo¬
ven, but is flelhy and lharpifti; it has three toes before
and one behind. 1. The religiofa, leffei grakle, or
Indian ftare, is about the fize of a blackbird, the bill an
inch and a half long, and of an orange colour. The
general colour of the plumage is black, gloffed with
violet, purple, and green, in different reflexions of
light: on the quills is a bar of white: the feathers and
kgs are orange yellow, and the claws of a pale brown.
This fpecies, which is found in feveral parts of the E’aft
Indies, in the Ifle of Hainan, and almoft every ifle be¬
yond the Ganges, is remarkable for whittling, linging,
and talking well, much better than any of the parrot
genus, and in particular very diftinX. Its food is of
the vegetable kind. Thofe kept in this climate are
obferved to be very fond of cherries and grapes : if
cherries are offered to one, and it does not im¬
mediately get them, it cries and whines like a
young child, till it has obtained its delire. It is a
very tame and familiar bird. 2. The barita, or
boat-tailed grakle, is about the fize of a cuckow.
The bill is lharp, black, and an inch and a half in
length; the general colour of the plumage is black,
with a glofs of purple, efpecially on the upper parts ;
the legs and claws are black, the latter hooked. There
is a Angularity in the folding up of the tail-feathers,
which, inftead of’ forming a plain furface at top, fink
into a hollow like a deep gutter. It always carries its
tail expanded when on the ground, folding it up in the
above Angular manner only when perched or flying.
It inhabits Jamaica ; and it feeds on maize, beetles,
and other infeXs, as well as on the fruit of the banana.
It is likewife common in North America, keeping
company with the flocks of the maize-thieves, and red¬
winged oriole. Thefe breed in the fwamps, and mi¬
grate in September, after which none are feen. 3. The
quifcula, purple-jackdaw, or Barbadoes blackbird, isa-
bout the fize of a blackbird : the whole bird is black,
but moft beautifully and richly gloffed with purple,
efpecially on the head and neck. The female is wholly
of a brown colour, deepeft on the wings and tail. This
fpecies inhabits Carolina, Mexico, and other parts of
North America, alfo Jamaica. Thefe birds for the
moft part feed on maize, whence the name of maize-
thieves has been given them ; but this is not their only
food, for they are known alfo to feed on many other
things. In fpring, foon after the maize feed is put into
the ground, they fcratch it up again ; and as foon as*
the leaf comes out, they take it up with their bills, root
and all j but when it is ripe they do ftill more damagf,.
foils
G R A [ 3° ] GAR
'GraMus for at that time they come in troops of thoufands, and after by divers princes, and to fee feveral of them come
'■ ;!li are fo bold, that if difturbed in one part of a field they from Germany to ftudy under him. He died in 1703,
Gticwus. 0Rly go to another. In New Jerfey and Penfylvania aged 71. His Thsfaurus mtiqiutMum et hyioriarum
w—y t]iree penCe per dozen was once given for the dead Italia, See. and other works, are well known.
birds, and by means of this premium they were nearly GRAFTING, or Engrafting, in gardening, is
extirpated in 1750 ; when the perfecution of them was the taking a (hoot from one tree, and inferting it into
abated on account of the great increafe of worms which another, in fuch a manner that^both may unite clofely
had taken place in the meadows, and which in the pre- and become one tree. By the ancient writers on
ceding year had left fo little hay in New England as hulbandry and gardening, this operation is called in¬
to occafion an importation from other parts. The cifion, to dillinguifh it from inoculation or budding,
grakles were therefore again tolerated, as it was obfer- which they call inferere oculos-
ved that they fed on thefe worms till the maizewas ripe. Grafting hath been praftifed from the mod: remote
Thefe birds build in trees. They are faid to pafs the antiquity ; but its origin and invention is differently
winter in fvvamps, which are quite overgrown with related by naturalifts. Theophrallus tells us, that a bird
•wood, from thence only appearing in mild weather; having fwallowed a fruit whole, salt it forth into a cleft
and after the maize is got in, are content to feed on or cavity of a rotten tree; where mixing with fome of
other things, as the aquatic tare-grafs, and if preffed the putrified parts of the wood, and being walhed
by hunger, buck-wheat and oats, &c. they are faid with the rains, it budded, and produced within this
alfo to deftroy that pernicious infect the bruchus tree another tree of a diiferent kind. This led the
pifi. Their note is pretty and agreeable ; but their hufbandman to certain refleftions, from which foon
flelh is riot good to eat. 4. The criilatella, or Chinefe afterwards arofe the art of engrafting,
ftarling, is a little bigger than a blackbird. The bill is Pliny fets the fame thing in a different light: a
yellow or orange; and the general colourof the plumage countryman having a mind to make a pallifade in his
blackifh, with a tinge of blue: the legs are of a dull yel- grounds, that it might endure the longer, he bethought
low. Thefe birds, which are faid to talk and whiltle very himfelf to fill up and ftrengthen the bottom of the
well, are common in China, where they are very much pallifade, by running or wattling it with the trunks of
efteemed, and the figures of them are feen frequently ivy. The effedf of this was, that the flakes of the
in Chinefe paintings. Their food is rice, infedls, pallifades taking root, became engrafted into the
worms, and fuch like. They are feldom brought to trunks, and produced large trees ; which fuggefted to
England alive, requiring the greateft care in the paf- the hufbandman the art of engrafting,
rfage.—There are eight other fpecies of Gracula. The ufe of grafting is to propagate any curious
GRACULUS, in ornithology. See Corvus. forts of fruits fo as to be certain of the kinds; which
GRADATION, in general, the afeending Hep by cannot be done by any other method : for as all the
'ftep, or in a regular and uniform manner. good fruits have been accidentally obtained from feeds,
Gradation, in logic, a form of reafoning, other- fo the feeds of thefe, when fown, will many of them
•wife called Sorites. degenerate, and produce fuch fruit as is not worth the
Gradation, in painting, a gradual and infenfible cultivating : but when fhoots are taken from fuch
change of colour, by the diminution of the teints and trees as produce good fruit, thefe will never alter from
;'Ihades. their kind, whatever be their dock or tree on which
Gradation, in rhetoric, the fame with Climax. they are grafted.
GRADISKA, a llrong town of Hungary in Scla- The reafon or philofophy of engrafting is fome-
"vonia, on the frontiers of Croatia, taken by the Turks what obfeure ; and had not accident given the firft
in 1691. It is feated on the river Save, in E. Long, hint, all our knowledge of nature would never have
17. 55. N. Lat. 45. 38. led us to it. The tffeA is ordinarily attributed to
Gradiska, a ftrong town of Italy, in a fmall ifland the diverfity of the pores or dufts of the graft from
■of the fame name on the frontiers of Friuli, in E. thofe of the (lock, whi.ch change the figure of the
Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 46. 6. It is fubjeft to the particles of the juices in paffing through them to
houfe of Aultria. the reft of the tree.
GRADO, a ftrong town of Italy, in a fmall Hand Mr Bradley, on occafion of fome obfervations of A-
of the fame name, on the coaft of Friuli, and in the gricola, fuggefts fometbing new on this head. The ftock
territory of Venice. E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. grafted on, he thinks, is only to be confidered as a
45- 52* fund of vegetable matter, which is to be filtered
. GRADUATE, a perfon who has taken a degree through the cyon, and digefted, and brought to ma¬
in the uqiverfity. See Degree. turity, as the time of growth in the veflels of the cyon
GRiEVIUS (John George), one of the moft direfts. A cyon, therefore, of one kind, grafted on
learned writers in the 17th century. In the 24th a tree of another, may be rather faid to take root in
year of his age, the ele&or of Brandenburg made him the tree it is grafted in, than to unite itfelf with it: for
profeffor at Doilbourg. In 1658, he was invited to it is vifible that the cyon preferves its natural purity and
Deventer to fucceed his former mafter Gronovius. In intent, though it be fed and nourifhed with a mere crab;
1661, he was appointed profeffor of eloquence at which is, without doubt, occafioned by the difference
Utrecht ; and iz years after he had the profefforfhip of the veffels in the cyon from thofe of the ftock : fo
of politics and hiftory conferred on him. He fixed that grafting may be juftly compared to planting,
his thoughts here, and refufed feveral advantageous In profecution of this view of that ingenious author,
offers. He had, however, tht fatisfa&ion to be fought we add, that the natural juices of the earth, by their
feciretion
■2
G R A [ 31 ] G R A
^Grafting fecretion and comminution in pafiing through the
r—'v  roots, &c. before they arrive at the cyon, muft doubt-
lefs arrive there half elaborated and concodted ; and
fo difpofed for a more eafy, plentiful, and perfeft af-
fimilation and nutrition ; whence the cyon mull necef-
faiily grow and thrive better and failer than if it were
put immediately in the ground, there to live on coarfe
diet and harder of digeftion: and the fruit produced
by this further preparation in the cyon, mult be finer
and further exalted than if fed immediately from the
more imperfectly prepared and altered juices of the
ftock.
Many have talked of changing of fpecies, or pro¬
ducing mixed fruits, by engrafting one tree on ano-
Ither of the fame clafs; but as the graft carries the
juices from the ftock to the pulp of the fruit, there
is little hope of fucceeding in fuch an expectation by
ever fo many repeated grafts : but if, after changing
« the graft and ftock feveral fuceeffive times, you fet the
feed of the fruit produced on the graft in a good
mould, it is poffible that a change may happen, and
a new mixed plant may be produced. Thus the al¬
mond and peach may, by many changes in the graft¬
ings, and by interrations of the ftones of the peaches,
and of the fhells of the almonds, and' by teribrations
nf the ftem of the root here and there, alter their na¬
ture fo much, that the coat or pulp of the almond may
approach to the nature of the peach, and the peach
may have its kernel enlarged into a kind of almond ;
and on the fame principle, the curious- gardener may
produce many fuch mixed kinds of things.
Mr Du Hamel has obferved, that, in grafting of
trees, there is always found at the infertion. of the
graft, a change in the direftions of fibres,, and a fort
of twilling or.turning about of the veffels, which great¬
ly imitates that in the formation of certain glands in
animal bodies: and from thence he infers, that a new
fort of vifcus- being formed by this means,, the fruit
may very naturally be fo far influenced by it, as to be
meliorated on the new branch ; but that no fuch hid¬
den and effentiai changes can be effe£ted by thofe
means, as too many of the writers on agriculture pre¬
tend. He obfervts, however, that this anatomical
obfervation would not have been fufficient to convince
him of the falfity of too many of thefe relations, had
not experiment joined to confirm him in this opinion.
He tried many grafts on different trees; and, for fear
of error, repeated every experiment:of confeqnence fe-
vera! times : but all ferved only to convince him of the
truth of what he at fir ft fufpefted. He grafted in the
common way the peach upon the almond, the plum
upon the apricot, the pear upon the apple, the quince,
and the white thorn ; one fpecies of plum on other
very different fpecies, and upon the peach the apricot
and tber almond. All thefe.fucceeded alike .: the fpe-
eies of the fruit was never altered ; and in thofe which
would not come to fruit, the leaves, the wood, and the
flowers,, were all theTame with thofe of the tree from
whence the graft was taken.
Authors on agriculture have alfo mentioned a very
different fort of gtafting ; namely, the fetting grafts
of one tree upon ftocks of a different genus; fuch as
the grafting the pear upon the oak, the elm, the
maple, or the plum, &e. Mr Du Hamel tried a great
iHimber of thofe experiments' carefully, and found
every one of them unfucccfsful; and the natural con- Graft!
clufion from this was, that there muft be fome natural "* v~
alliance between the ftocks and their grafts, otherwife
the latter will either never grow at all or very foon
perifh.
Notwithftanding the facility with which grafts ge¬
nerally take on good ftocks, there are many accidents
and uncertainties attending them in thefr different
periods. Some perifli immediately ; fome, after ap¬
pearing healthy for many months, and fome even for
years. Of thefe laft fome die without the ftock fu£-
fering any thing; others perirh together with the
ftocks. It is very certain, that the greater part of
grafted trees do not live fo long as they would have
done in their natural ftate; yet this is no unexception¬
able rule : for there are fome which evidently live the
longer fo* this pra&ice ; nay, there are inftances of
grafts which, being placed on ftocks naturally of fhort
duration, live longer than when placed on thofe which
are more robuft and lafting. Thefe irregularities have
been but little confrdered hitherto, though they might
be made productive of confiderable advantages.—One
great requifite for the fucceeding of any graft is, that
it be in its own nature capable of fo clofe and intimate
an union with the fubftance of the ftock, that it be¬
comes as it were a natural branch of it. If all trees
refembled one another in their ftruCture and juices, the
fize and elafticity of their veflels, &c. probably the
grafts of all trees would fucceed upon one another;
but this is by no means the cafe.
Trees are well known to be compofed of numerous
arrangements of hollow fibres, and thefe are different
and unequal in every fpecies-of tree. In order to the
fucceeding of a graft, it is plain that there muft be a
conformity in its veffels and juices wdth thofe of the
ftock; and tire more nearly they agree in this, pro¬
bably the better they fucceed ;.and the farther they
differ, the worfe.—If there be, howeverj fonve differ¬
ence in the folid parts of trees, there are evidently
many more in the juices. The fap in fome trees is
white as milk, in others it is reddilh, and in fome as
clear and limpid as water. In fome, it is thin and very
fluid; in. others, thick, and vifcous. In the tafte and
fmell of thefe juices there are alfo not lefs differences :
fome are fweet, fome infipid, fome bitter, fome acrid,,
and fome fetid : the quality of the fap thus makes a
very great difference in the nature off trees ; but its
quantity, and derivation to the parts, is fcarce lefs'ob-
fervable. Of this we have familiar inftances in the
willow and the box; one of w-hich will produce longer
ffioots in one year than the other in twenty.
Another difference yet more ftriking, and indeed
more effential in regard to the growth of grafts than
all thefe, is the different feafon of the year at which
trees ftioot out their leaves, or ripen their flowers.
The almond-tree is in flower befoie other trees in
general have opened their earlieft buds ; and when
other trees are in flower, this is full of leaves, and has
its fruit fet before the mulberry begins to puffi out its
earlieft buttons. When we confider all thefe- differ¬
ences in trees, we cannot but wonder how it is pof-
fibk for a .branch of .one to live upon another ; and it
becomes a much more perplexing queftion how any
graft can fucceed, than how fuch numbers come to •
mifcarry. A graft of one pear upon another (hall be .
G R A [ 32 ] G R A
Tt'rg. feen to fucceed prefently as if upon its own tree ; and their large branches perifh, and fometimes their whole Grafting
"v—'— In a fortnight will gain fix inches in length, and fo of trunk. On this occafron the plum, being a flow fhoot-
fome others.—This muft be owing to the great fimi- ing tree, communicates its virtue to the graft ; and the
larity between the flock and the graft in all refpefts ; peadh confequently fends out fhoots which are more
and a great contrariety or difference in ftrufture of robuft and ftrong, and are no more in number than the
parts will make as remarkable a difference on the root is able to fupply with nourifhment, and confe-
other hand. An inflance qf this may be obferved in quently the tree is the more lading,
the plum and the elm ; which no art can ever make to The grafts, or cyons, with which the grafting is ef-
fucceed ^ upon one another, whether the plum be ^effed, are j'oung flioots of laft fummer’s growth, for
grafted on the elm, or the elm upon the plum flock, they muft mot be more than one year, and fuch as
Thefe are examples of the extremes of eafy growth,
and of abfolute decay ; but there are- many conjunc¬
tions of trees which feem of a middle nature between
the two, and neither immediately perifh, nor totally
fucceed. Of thefe, fuch as were grafted in autumn
ufually remain green the whole winter without pufh-
ing ; and thofe which are grafted in fpring remain
green a month or longer, but ftill without fhooting.
Some particular ones have alfo been known to make a
few fhoots the firft, or even the fecond fap feafon
after the operation ; but all perifh at the end of thefe
times. Of.this kind are the grafts of the pear-tree
upon the elm, the maple, and the hornbeam, and the
mulberry upon the elm and fig, with many others.
grow on the outfide branches, and robuft but moderate
fhooters; fuch alfo as are firm and well ripened, fhould
always be chofen from healthful trees: obferving, that
the middle part of each fhoot is always the heft graft,
cut at the time of grafting to five or fix inches in
length, or fo as to have four or five good eyes or buds;
but fliould be preferved at full length till grafting
time, and then prepared as hereafter dire&ed.
They fliould be collc&ed or cut from the trees in
February, in mild weathe’r, before their buds begin to
fwell, or advance much for fhooting: in collefting them,
choofe fuch as have not made lateral or fide fhoots; cut
them off at full length; and if they are not to be ufed
as foon as they are colledted, lay their, lower ends in
When we come to inquire into the caufe of this, fome dry earth in a warm border till grafting time,
we find that thefe grafts, though unnatural, have yet and, if fevere weather fhould happen, cover them with
had a communication with the flock by means of diy litter,
few fmall veffels, which has been fuf&cient to keep The proper tools and other materials ufcd in graft-
tiiem green, or even to make them Thoot a little,
during the great afcent of the fap: But the far greater
mimher of the fibres have had all the while no com¬
munication, and are found putrified, dried up, or
covered with a putrid juice. This has evidently hap¬
pened by means of the difproportion in fize between
ing, are, 1. A flrong knife for cutting off the heads of
the flocks, previous to the infertiori of the graft; alfo
a fmall hand-faw for occafional ufe in cutting off the
heads of large flocks. 2. A common grafting-knife,
ftrong fharp pen-knife, for cutting and fhapuig the
grafts ready for infertion ; alfo to flope and form the
the veffels of the flock and of the graft, and the great flocks for the reception of the grafts. 3- A flat graft-
difference between their natural juices, which are ing-chifel and fmall mallet for clefting large flocks, iu
obftacles abundantly fufficient to prevent either an cleft-grafting, for the reception of the graft. 4. A
union of the fibres or the introduftion of new fap. quantity of new bafs-ftrings for bandages, for tying
The grafts of the almond on the plum, and of the the grafted parts clofe, to fecure the grafts, and pro¬
plum on the almond, always grow very vigoroufly for mote their fpeedy union with the flock. And, 5. A
the firft year, and give all the appearances imaginable quantity of grafting clay, for claying , clofely round
of fucceeding entirely ; yet they always perifh in the the grafts after their infertion and binding, to defend
fecond or third year. The almond graft upon the the parts from being driedby the fun and winds, or
plum-flock always pufhes out very vigoroufly at firft ; too much liquified by wet, or pinched by cold ; for
but the part of the flock immediately under the graft thefe parts ought to be clofely furrounded with a
grows fmaller and perifhes, the graft abforbing too coat of clay in fuch a manner as effeftually to guard
much of the juices, and the graft neceffarily perifhes them from all weathers, which would prove injuri-
with it. The decay of the whole generally happens ous to young grafts, and deflroy their cementing pro-
early in the fpring; and that plainly from the different perty, fo as to prevent the junction: therefore, a
feafon of the natural fhooting of the two trees, the al- kind of ftiff loamy mortar muft be prepared of ftrong
mond puftung very vigoroufly, and confequently drain- fat loam, or, in default thereof, any fort of tough bind¬
ing the flock of its juices, at a time when, according ing clay, either of which fhould be laid in an heap,
to its nature, the juices are but in fmall quantity in it, adding thereto about a fourth of frefh horfe-dung free
and the fap does not begin to afcend. The grafts of from litter, and a portion of cut hay, mixing the whole
the plum on the almond are, from the fame caufe, fur- well together, and adding a little water: then let the
p.i (hed with an abundance of fap which they have at
that time no occaflon for ; and confequently they as
certainly perifh of repletion, as the other of inani¬
tion.
The peach grafted on the plum fucceeds excellently,
and lives longer than it would have done in a natural
ftate ; the reafon feems to be, that the peach is a ten¬
der tree, fhoots with great Vivacity, and produces more
branches than the root is able to maintain. Thus the
peach trees are ufually full of dead wood; and often
N° 141.
whole be well beaten with a flick upon a floor, or other
hard fubflance; and as it becomes too dry, apply more
water, at every beating turning it over, always conti¬
nuing to beat it well at top till it becomes flat; which
mutt be repeated more or lefs according to the nature
of the clay, but fhould be feveral times done the firft
day : next morning repeat the beating, ftill moift-
ening it with water ; and by thus repeating the beat¬
ing fix or eight times every day for two or three days,
or every other day at leaft, for a week, it will be in pro¬
per
G R A
[ 33 3
G R A
Grafting, per order for ufe ; obferving, it (hould be prepared a the refpe&ive articles, whether defigned for dwarfs or
r— week at lead before it is ufed, but if a month the bet- ftandards, &c.
The feafon for performing the operation of grafting
is February and March : though, when the work is
performed in February, it for the general part proves
the moft fuccefsful, more efpecially for cherries,
plums, and pears ; and March grafting is well adapt¬
ed for apples. ,
There are different methods of grafting in practice,
termed Whip-grafting—Cleft-grafting—Crown-graft¬
ing— Cheek-grafting— Side-grafting Root-grafting
— and Grafting by approach or Inarching : but Whip¬
grafting and Cleft-grafting are moft commonly ufed ;
and Whip-grafting moft of all, as being the moft ex¬
peditious and fuccefsful of any.
Whip-grafting.—This being the moft fuccefsful me¬
thod of grafting is the moft commonly pra&ifed in all
the nurferies; it is always performed upon fmall flocks,
Mane's
I),a. of
Gardenini
Cleft-grafting.—This is fo called, becaufe the flock
being too large for whip-grafting is cleft or flit down
the middle for the reception of the graft; and is perform¬
ed upon flocks from about one to two inches diameter.
Firft, with a ftrong knife cut off the head of the flock;
or if the flock is very large, it may be headed with a
faw ; and cut one fide Hoping upwards about an inch
and half to the top ; then proceed with a ftrong knife
orchifel, to cleave the flock at top, crofs-way the Hope,
fixing the knife or chifel towards the back of the Hope,
and with your mallet ftrike it, fo as to cleave the flock
about two inches, or long enough to'admit the graft,
keeping it open with the chifel; this done, prepare
the cyon, cutting it to fuch length as to leave four or
five eyes, the lower part of which being Hoped on each
fide, wedge-fafliion, an inch and half or two inches
long, making one fide to a thin edge, the other much
from about the fize of a goofe-quill to half an inch or thicker, leaving the rind thereon, which fide muft be
a little more or lefs in diameter, but the nearer the
flock and graft approach in fize the better; and is call¬
ed whip-grafting, becaufe the grafts and flocks being
nearly of a lize, are Hoped on one fide, fo as to fit each
other, and tied together in the manner of whips, or
joints of angling-rods, &c. and the method is as fol-
placed outward in the flock; the cyon being thus form¬
ed, and the cleft in the flock being made and kept
open with the chifel, place the graft therein at the
back of the flock the thickeft fide outward, placing
the whole cut part down into the cleft of the flock,
making the rind of the flock and graft join exaiSlly ;
lows. Having the cyons or grafts, knife; bandages, and then removing the grafting chifel, each fide of the
clay ready, then begin the work by cutting off the head cleft will clofely fqueeze the graft, fo as to hold it fafl ;
of the flock at fome clear fmooth part thereof; this it is then to be bound with a ligature of bafs, and
clayed over, as obferved in whip-grafting, leaving three
or four eyes of the cyons uncovered. If intended to
graft any pretty large flocks or branches by this me-
done, cut one fide Hoping upward, about an inch and
half or near two inches in length, and make a notch
or fmall flit near the upper part of the Hope downward
about half an inch long, to receive the tongue of the thod, two or more grafts may be inferted in each ; in
cyon ; then prepare the cyon, cutting it to five or fix
inches in length, forming the lower end alfo in a Hoping
manner, fo as exadlly to fit the Hoped part of the flock,
this cafe the head muft be cut off horizontally, making
no Hope on the fide, but fmooth the top, then cleave
it quite a-crofs, and place a graft on each fide, as the
as if cut from the fame place, that the rinds of both flock may be cleft in two places, and infert two grafts
may join evenly in every part; and make a flit fo as to
form a fort of tongue to fit the flit made in the Hope
of the flock; then place the graft, inferting the tongue
in each cleft; they are thus to be tied and clayed as in
the other methods. This method of grafting may be
performed upon the branches of bearing trees, when
of it into the flit of the flock, applying the parts as intended either to renew the wood or change the fort
evenly and clofe as poflible ; and immediately tie the of fruit. Towards the latter end of May, or the begin-
parts clofe together with a firing of bafs, bringing
it in a,neat manner feveral times round the flock and
graft; then clay the whole over near an inch thick on
every fide, from about half an inch or more below the
bottom of the graft, to an inch over the top of the
flock, finifhing the whole coat of clay in a kind of oval
globular form, rather longwife, up and down, doling
it effectually about the cyon, and every part, fo as no
fun, wind, nor wet may penetrate, to prevent which
is the whole intention of claying; obferving to exa¬
mine it now and then, to fee if it any where cracks i
ning of June, the jundion of the graft and flock in ei¬
ther method will be effectually formed, and the graft
begin to fhoot, when the clay may be taken off, and
in a fortnight or three weeks after take off alfo the
bandages.
Crown grafting.—This kind of grafting is common¬
ly praClifed upon fuch flocks as are too large to cleave,
and is often performed upon the large branches of
apple and pear trees, &c. that already bear fruit,
when it is intended to change the forts, or renew the
tree with frefh-bearing wood. It is termed crown-
falls off, and if it does it muft be inflantly tepaired grafting, becaufe the flock or branch being headed
with fiefh clay. This fort of grafting may alfo be down, feveral grafts are inferted at top all around be-
performed, if neceffary, upon the young fhoots of any twixt the wood and bark, fo as to give it a crown-like
bearing tree, if intended to alter the forts of fruits, or appearance; obferving, that this kind of grafting fhould
have more than one fort on the fame tree. By the not be performed until March or early in April; for
middle or latter end of May, the grafts will be well then the fap being in motion, renders the bark and
united with the flock, as will be .evident by the fhoot-
ing of the graft; then the clay fhould be wholly taken
wood of the flock much eafier to be feparated for the
admiflion of the graft.—The manner of performing
away ; but fuffer the bafs bandage to remain fome time this fort of grafting is as follows: Firft, cut off the
longer until the united parts feem to fwell and be too head of the flock or branch with a faw horizontally, and
much confined by the ligature, then take the tying pare the top fmooth ; then having the grafts, cut one
wholly off. Their farther culture is direCled under fide of each flat, and fomewhat Hoping, an inch and
VoL.VIII. Patti. E a
Grafting.
G R A [ 34 1 G U A
a half, forming a fort of (houlder at top of the dope to
reft upon the crown of the ftock; and then raiding the
rind of the ftock with a wedge, fo as to admit the cyon
between that and the wood two inches down, place the
grafts with the flat fide next the wood, thrufting it down
far enough for the fhoulder to reft upon the top of the
ftock; and in this manner may be put three, four, five,
or more grafts in one large ftock or branch. When
the grafts are all thus inferted, let the whole be tied
tight and well clayed : obfervirtg to leave two or three
eyes of each graft uncovered, but railing the clay an
inch above the top of the ftock, fo as to throw the wet
quickly off, without lodging about the grafted parts,
which would ruin the whole work. Crown-grafting
may alfo be performed, by making feveral clefts in the
crown of the ftock, and inferting the grafts round the
top of the clefts. The grafts will be pretty well uni¬
ted with the ftock, and exhibit a ftate of .growth, by
the end of May or beginning of June, and the clay may
then be taken away. The trees grafted by this method
will fucceed extremely well; but, for the firft two or
three years, have this inconvenience attending them,
of being liable to be blqjvn out of the ftock by violent
winds; which mull be remedied by tying long fticks
to the body of the ftock or branch, and each graft tied
up to one of the fticks.
Cheek-grafting.—Cut the head of the ftock off, hori¬
zontally, and pare the top fmooth ; then cut one fide
floping an inch and half or two inches deep, and cut
the lower part of the graft floping the fame length,
making a fort of Ihoulder at top of the Hoped part: it
is then to be placed upon the floped part of the ftock,
telling the Ihoulder upon the crown of it: bind it with
bafs, and finilh with a covering of clay as in the other
methods.
Side-grafting.—This is done by inferting grafts in¬
to the fides of the branches without heading them
down ; and may be praftifed upon trees to fill up any
vacancy, or for the purpofe of variety, to have feveral
forts of apples, pears, plums, &c. upon the fame
tree. It is performed thus. Fix upon fuch parts of
the branches where wood is wanted to furnilh the
head or any part of the tree ; there flope off the bark
and a little of the wood, and cut the lower end of
the grafts to fit the part as near as polfible; then
join them to the branch, and tie them with bafs, and
clay them over.
Root-grafting.—This is done by Whip-grafting cyons
upon pieces of the root of any tree of the fame genus,
and planting the root where it is to remain; it will
take root, draw nourilhment, and feed the graft.
Grafting ly Approach^ or Inarching.—This fort of
grafting is, when the Hocks defigned to be grafted,
and the tree from which you intend to take the graft,
either grow fo near, or can be placed fo near together,
that the branch or graft may be made to approach the
ftock, without feparating it from the tree, till after
its union or jundlion with the ftock; fo that the
branch or graft being bent to the ftock, they together
form a fort of arch ; whence it is called Grafting by
Approach, or Inarching. Being a fure method, it is
commonly pra£tifed upon fuch trees as are with diffi¬
culty made to fucceed by any of the former ways of
grafting. When.intended to propagate any kind of
tree or Ihtub by this method of gr’aftin’g, if the tree, &.c.
is of the hardy kind, and growing in the full ground,
a proper quantity of young plants for flocks mull be
fet round it; and when grown of a proper height,
the work of inarching mull be performed ; or, if the
branches of the tree you defign to graft from is too
high for the flocks, in that cafe flocks mull be planted
in pots, and a flight flage mull be ere&ed around the
tree, of due height to reach the branches, and the
pots containing the Hocks mull be placed upon the
ftage. As to the method of performing the work :
Obfervt, that in this method of grafting, it is fometirnes
performed with the head of the ftock cut off, and
fometimes with the head left on till the graft is united
with the Hock; though, by previoufly heading the
ftock, the work is much ealier performed ; and having
no top, its whole effort will be diredled to the nourilh¬
ment of the graft ; having, however, the Hocks pro¬
perly placed, either planted in the ground, or in pots
around the tree to be propagated; then make the
moll convenient branches approach the ftock, and
mark on the body of the branches the parts where
they will moll eafily join to the ftock, and in thofe
parts of each branch pare away the bark and part of
the wood two or three inches in length, and in the
fame manner pare the ftock in the proper place for the
jundlion of the graft; then make a flit upwards in the
branch, fo as to form a fort of tongue, and make a
flit downwards in the Hock to admit it; let the parts
be then joined, flipping the tongue of the graft into
the flit of the ftock, making the whole join in an
exa£l manner, and tie them clofely together with bafs,
and afterwards cover the whole with a due quantity
of clay, as before direfted in the other merhods. Af¬
ter this, let a ftoiu Hake be fixed, if polfible, for the
fupport of each graft; to which let that part of the
ftock and graft be faftened, which is neceffary to pre¬
vent their being disjoined by the wind. The opera¬
tion being performed in fpring, let them remain in
that pofition abofit four months, when they will be
united, and the graft may then be ieparated from the
mother-tree. In doing this, be careful to perform it
with a Heady hand, fo as not to loofen or break out
the graft, floping it off downwards clofe to the ftock;
and if the head of the ftock was not cut down at the
time of grafting, it mull now be -done clofe to the
graft, and all the old clay and bandage mult alfo be
cleared away, and replaced with new, to remain a few
weeks longer. Obferve, however, that if you ftiall
think the grafts are not firmly united wkh the ftock
in the period of time above mentioned, let them re¬
main another year till autumn, before you feparate the
grafts from the parent-tree. By this kind of grafting,,
you may raife almoft any kind of tree or Ihrub, which
is often done by way of curiofity, to ingraft a fruit bear-
ingbranchofa fruit-tree upon any common ftock of the
fame fraternity or genus, whereby a new tree bearing
fruit is raifed in a few months. This is fometimes prac-
tifed upon orange and lemon trees, &c. by grafting
bearing-branches upon ftocks raifed from the kernels of
any of the fame kind of fuiit, or into branches of each,
other, fo as to have oranges, lemons, and citrons, all
on the fame tree.
An anonymous author has given us m a trtatife,
publifhed at Hamburgh, under the title Amanitates
Hortenfes Novitf a new method of grafting trees, fo
as
G R A r ,
Grafting, as to Lave very beautiful pyramids of fruit upon them,
Graham which will exceed in beauty, flavour, and quantity,
v all that can be otherwife ptoduced. This, he fays,
he had long experienced, and gives the following me¬
thod of doing it. The trees are to be trani'planted in
autumn, and all their branches cut off. Early in the
following fummer the young fhoots are to be pulled
off, and the buds are then to be ingrafted into them
in an inverted diredHon. This, he fays, adds not on¬
ly to the beauty of the pyramids, but alfo makes the
branches more fruitful. Thefe are to be clofely con-
ne&ed to the trunk, and to be fafteneS in with the
common ligature: they are to be placed circularly
round the tree, three buds in each circle, and thefe
circles at fix inches diftance from one another. The
old trees may be grafted in this manner, the fuccefs
having been found very good in thofe of twenty years
I Handing ; but the molt eligible trees are thofe which
are young, vigorous, and full of juice, and are not
above a finger or two thick. When thefe young trees
are tranfplanted, they mull be fenced round with pales
to defend them from the violence of the wind ; and
there mull be no dung put to them till they are
thoroughly rooted, for fear of rotting them before the
jj fibres {trike. The buds ingrafted mult be fmall, that
the wounds made in the bark to receive them, not be¬
ing very large, may heal the fooner ; and if the buds
do not fucceed, which will be perceived in a fortnight,
there mult be others put in their place. The wound
made to receive thefe buds mult be a ftraight cut, paral¬
lel to the horizon ; and the piece of bark taken out
mull be downward, that the rain may not get in at
the wound. In the autumn of the fame year, this will
be a green and flourilhing pyramid ; and the next fum¬
mer it will flower, and ripen its fruit in autumn.
GRAHAM (James), Marquis of Montrofe, was
comparable to the greateft heroes of antiquity. He
undertook, againft almofl every obftacle that could ter¬
rify a lefs enterprifing genius, to reduce the kingdom
I of Scotland to the obedience of the king; and his
fuccefs was anfwerable to the greatnefs of the under
taking. By valour, he in a few months almoll effec¬
tuated his defign ; but, for want of fupplies, was for¬
ced to abandon his conquells. After the death of
Charles I. he, with a few men, made a fecond attempt,
but was immediately defeated by a nemerous army.
As he was leaving the kingdom in difguife, he was
betrayed into the hands of his enemy, by the Lord
Afton, his intimate friend. He was carried to his ex¬
ecution with every circumftance of indignity that wan¬
ton cruelty could invent; and hanged upon a gibbet
30 feet high, with the book of his exploits appended
to his neck. He bore this reverfe of fortune with his
ufual greatnefs of mind, and expreffed a juft fcorn at
the rage and the infult of his enemies. We meet with
many inftances of valour in this a&ive reign; but
Montrofe is the only inftance of heroifm. He was
executed May 21ft, 1650. See Britan, n° 137,
138, 143, 165.
Graham (Sir Richard), lord vifcount Prellon,
eldefl fon of Sir George Graham of Netherby, in
Cumberland, Bart, was born in 1648. He v>, as fent am-
baffador by Charles II. to Louis XIV. and was mafter
j ef the wardrobe and fecretary of Hate under James II.
But when the Revolution took place, he was tried
5 ] G R A
and condemned, on an accufation of attentpting the Graham
reftoration of that prince ; though he obtained a par- ^
don by the queen’s intercelfion. He fpent the remain-
der of his days in retirement, and publilhed an ele¬
gant tranllation of “ Boethius on the confolation of
phiplofophy.” He died in 1695.
Graham (George), clock and watch maker, the
molt ingenious and accurate artill in his time, was
born in 1675. After his apprenticefhip, Mr Tom-
pion received him into his family, purely on account
of his merit; and treated him with a kind of paren¬
tal affection as long as he lived. Befide his univerfal-
ly acknowledged Ikill in his profeftion, he was a com¬
plete mechanic and aftronomer; the great mural arch
in the obfervatory at Greenwich was made for Dr
Halley, under his immediate infpe&ion, and divided
by his own hand: and from this incomparable origi¬
nal, the bell foreign inllruments of the kind are co¬
pies made by Englifh artills. The fedtor by which
Dr Bradley firlt difcovered two new motions in the fix¬
ed ftars, was of his invention and fabric: and when
the French academicians were fent to the north to
afcertain the figure of the earth, Mr Graham was
thought the fitteft perfon in Europe to fupply them
with inftruments ; thofe who went to the foutb were
not fo well furnifhed. He was for many years a mem¬
ber of the Royal Society, to which he communicated
feveral ingenious and important difeoveries; and re¬
garded the advancement of fcience more than the ac¬
cumulation of wealth. He died in 1751.
Graham’s Dyke. See Antoninus’s Wall.
GRAIN, corn of all forts, as barley, oats, rye, &c.
See Corn, Wheat, See.
Grain is alfo the name of a fmall weight, the
twentieth part of a fcruple in apothecaries weight, and
the twenty-fourth of a penny-weight troy.
A grain-weight of gold-bullion is worth two-pence,
and that of filver but half a farthing.
Grain alfo denotes the component particles of Hones
and metals, the veins of wood, &c. Hence crofs-
grained, or againll the grain, means contrary to the
fibres, of wood, &c.
Grain (Baptift le), mafter of the requefts in ordi¬
nal y to Mary de Medicis queen of France’s houfehold,
wrote The Hijlory of Henry the Great, and of Louis XIII.
from the beginning of his reign to the death of the
marflial d’Ancre in 1617. This hiitory is reckoned
to be wrote with impartiality, and the fpirit of a true
patriot; and contains many things not to be found any
where elfe. He vigoroufly aflerts the edidt that had
been granted to the reformed.
GRALL^E, in ornithology, is an order of birds
analogous to the bruta in the clars of mammalia, in the
Linnasan fyltem. See Zoology and Ornithology.
GRAMINA, grasses ; one of the feven tribes or
natural families, into which all vegetables are diftri-
buted by Linnaeus in his Philofophia Botanica. They
are defined to be plants which have very Ample leaves,
a jointed Hem, a bulky calyx termed glurna, and a
fingle feed. This defciiption includes, the feveral fort*
of corn as well as graffes. In Tournefort they con-
ftitute a part of the fifteenth clafs, termed apetali; and
in Linnaeus’s fexual method, they are moftly contained
in the fecond order of the third clafs, called triandria
digynia.
E
This
G R A [36
This numerous and natural family of the graffes has
engaged the attention and refearches of feveral emi¬
nent botanifts. The principal of thefe are, Ray,
Monti, Micheli, and Linnasns.
M. Monti, in his Calalogus Jlirpmm agn Bononienfit
gramina ac hujus modi affinia completlens, printed at Bo-
nonia in 1719, divides the graffes from the difpofition
of their flowers, as, Theophraftus and Ray has divided
them before him into three fe&ions or orders—Thefe
are, 1. Graffes having flowers collefted in a fpike.
2. Graffes having their flowers colle&ed in a panicle or
loofe fpike. 3. Plants that in their habit and exter¬
nal appearance are allied to the graffes.
This clafs would have been natural if the author had
not improperly introduced fweet-rufli, juncus, and ar¬
row-headed grafs, into the third fedlion. Monti enu¬
merates about 306 fpecies of the graffes, which he re¬
duces under Tournefort’s genera j to thefe he. has
added three new genera.
Scheuchzer, in his Arijlographia, publilhed likewife
in 1719, divides the graffes, as Monti, from the dif¬
pofition of their flowers, into the five following lec¬
tions: 1. Graffes with flowers in a fpike, as phalaris,
anthoxanthum, and frumentum. 2. Irregular graffes,
as fchcenanthus and cornucopise. 3. Graffts with
flowers growing in a fimple panicle or loofe fpike, as
reed and millet. 4. Graffes with flowers growing in
1
G R A
compound panicle, or diffufed fpike, as oats and Gramina*
poa. 5. Plants by their habit nearly allied to the ’’““v
graffes, as cyprefs-grafs, fcirpus, linagroftis, rufli, and
fceuchzeria.
Scheuchzer has enumerated about four hundred fpe¬
cies, which he defcribes with amazing exa&nefs.
Micheli has divided the graffes into fix fe&ions,
which contain in all 44 genera, and are arranged from
the fituation and number of the flowers.
Gramjna, the name of the fourth order in Linnaeus's
Fragments of a Natural Method, confifting of the nu-
'merous and natural family of the graffes, tdz. agroftis)
aira, alopecurus or fox-tail grafs, anthoxanthum or ver¬
nal grafs, ariftida arundo or reed, avrna or oats, bo-
bartia, briza, bromus, cinna, cornucopise or horn of
plenty grafs, cynofurus, daftylis, elymus, feftuca or
fefcue-grafs, hordeum or barley, lagurus or hare's-tail
grafs, lolium or darnel, lygeum or hooded matweed,
melica, mileum or millet, naidus, oryza or rice, panicum
or panic-grafs, pafpalum, phalaris or canary-grafs,
phleum, poa, faccharum or fugar-cane, fecale or rye,,
ilipa or winged fpike-grafs, triticum or wheat, uniol*
or fea-fide oats of Carolina, coix or Job's tears, olyra,
pharus, tripfacuna, zea, Indian Turkey wheat or Indian
corn, zizania, segilops or wild fefcue-grafs, andropo-
gon, apluda, cenchrus, holcus or Indian millet, ifchse-
mum. See Botany, p. 458, col. 2. and Grasses.
R
M M
R.
Dakiution.
Grammar
particular,
I. RAMMAR is the art of /peaking or of writing
any language with propriety ; and the purpofe of
language is to communicate our thoughts.
2. Grammar, confidered as an art, neceffarily fup-
pofes the previous exiftence of language ; and as its
defign is to teach any language to thofe who are igno¬
rant of it, it muff be adapted to the genius of that par¬
ticular language of which it treats. A juft method of
grammar, therefore, without attempting any altera¬
tions in a language already introduced, furnifhes cer¬
tain obfervations called rules, to which the methods of
fpeaking ufed in that language may be reduced ; and
this collection of rules is called the grammar of that
particular language. For the greater diftinftnefs with
regard to thefe rules, grammarians have ufually divided
this fubjeCt into four dillinft heads, viz. Orthogra¬
phy, or the art of combining letters into fyllables, and fyl-
lables into words; Etymology, or the art of deducing
one word from another, and the various modifications by
which the fenfe of any one word can be diverjified conjifi-
ently with its original meaning or its relation to the theme
whence it is derived; Syntax, or what relates to the
conf ruction or due difpofition of the words of a language
into fentences or phrafes; and Prosody, or that which
treats of the quantities and accents of fyllables, and the art
of making verfes.
3. But grammar, confidered as a fcience, views lan- Or
guage only as it is fignificant of thought. Neglecting fal*
particular and arbitrary modifications introduced for
the fake of beauty or elegance, it examines the analogy
and relation between words and ideas; diftinguilhes
between thofe particulars which are ejfential to language
and thofe which ate only accidental; and thus furnifhes
a certain ftandard, by which different languages may
be compared, and their feveral excellencies or defedts
pointed out. This is what is called Philosophic or
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR.
The de¬
fign of
fpeech.
4. nnHE origin of language is a fubjeft which has
J- employed much learned inveftigation, and about
which there is {till a diverfity of opinion. The defign of
fpeech is to communicate to others the thoughts and
perceptions of the mind of the fpeaker: but it is ob¬
vious, that between an internal idea and any external
found there is no natural relation; that the word fire,
for inftance, might have denominated the fubftance
which we call ice, and that the word ice might have
fignified fre. Some of the moft acute feelings of man,
5
as well as of every other animal, are indeed expreffed
by fimple inarticulate founds, which as they tend to
the. prefervation of the individual or the continuance
of the fpecies, and invariably indicate either pain or
pleafure, are univerfally underftood : but thefe inarti¬
culate and fignificant founds are very few in number j
and if they,can with any propriety be faid to confti-
tute a natural and univetfal language, it is a language
of which man as a mere fenfitive being partakes ia
common with the other animals.
5. M an
37
Chap. I. G R
5. Man is endowed not only with fenfati
with the faculty of reafoning ; and fimple inarticulate
founds are infufficient for expreffing all the various
modifications of thought, for communicating to others
a chain of argumentation, or even for diftinguifhing be¬
tween the different fen.fations either of pain or of plea,
fure: a man fcorched with fire or unexpectedly plunged
i Language
i confifts of
i words fig.
il nificant of
) ideas.
A M M A R.
but alfo origin, as well as to teach the art of reafoning : but it
is neceffary at prefent to obferve, that our earlieft ideas
are all ideas of fenfation, excited by the impreffions
that are made upon ouf .organs of fenfe by the various
objects with which we are furrounded. Let us there¬
fore fuppofe a reafonable being, devoid of every poffible
prepoffeffion, placed upon this globe ; and it is ob-
among ice, might utter the cry naturally indicative of vious, that his attention would in the firll place be
fudden and violent pain ; the cry would be the fame,
or nearly the fame, but the fenfations of cold and heat
' are widely different. Articulation,' by which thofe fim¬
ple founds are modified, and a particular meaning fixed
to each modification, is therefore abfolutely neceffary
to fuch a being as man, and forms the language which
diftinguifhes him from all other animals, and enables
him to communicate with facility all that diverfity of
ideas with which his mind is ftored, to make known
his particular wants, and to diftinguiih with accuracy
all his various fenfations. Thofe founds thus modified
are called words; and as words have confeffedly no
natural relation to the ideas and perceptions of which
they are fignificant, the ufe of them muff either have
direfted to the various objeCts which he faw exifting
around him. Thefe he would naturally endeavour to
diftinguifh from one another; and if he were either
learning or inventing a language, his.firft effort would
be to give them names, by means of which the ideas of
them might be recalled when the objeCts themfelves 7
fhould be abfent. This is one copious fource of words; noun9f
and forms a natural clafs which mull be common to
every language, and which is diftinguilhed by the name
of nouns: and as thefe nouns are the names of the fe-
veral fubilances which exilt, they have likewile been
called SUBSTANTIVES.
8. It would likewife be early difcovered, that every
one of thefe fubftances was endowed with certain qua-
been the refult of human fagacity, or have been fug- lities or attributes; to exprefs which another clafs of Of a
gelled to the firll man by the Author of nature.
6. Whether language be of divine or human origin,
is a quellion upon which, though it might perhaps be
foon refolved, it is not neceffary here to enter. Upon
either fuppofition, the firll language, compared with
thofe which fucceeded it, or even- with itfelf as after¬
wards enlarged, mull have been extremely rude and
narrow. If it was of human contrivance, this will be
readily granted ; for what art was ever invented and
brought to a Hate of perfedion by illiterate favages ?
If it was taught by God, which is at leall the more
probable fuppofition, we cannot imagine that it would
be more comprehenfive than the ideas of thofe for
whole immediate ufe it was intended; that the firft
men Ihould have been taught to exprefs pains or plea-
fures which they never felt, or to utter founds that
fhould be afterwards fignificant of ideas which at the
time of utterance had not occurred to the mind of the
fpeaker: man, taught the elements of language, would
be able himfelf to improve and enlarge it as his future
occafions Ihould require.
7. As all language is compofed of fignificant words
varioufly combined, a knowledge of them is neceffary
previous to our acquiring an adequate idea of language
as conllrudted into fentences and phrafes.. But as it
is by words that we exprefs the various ideas which
occur to the mind, it, is neceffary to examine how ideas
themfelves are fuggelled, before we can afcertain the
various claffes into which words may be diltributed.
It is the province of logic to trace our ideas from their
Vi’ords would be requifite, fince it is only by their qua- hutives.
lities that fubllances themfelves can attract our atten¬
tion. Thus, to be weighty, is a quality of matter; to
think, is an attribute of man. Therefore in every
language words have been invented to exprefs the
known qualities or attributes of the feveral objefts
which exift. Thefe may all be comprehended under
the general denomination of attributives.
9. Nouns and attributives mull comprehend all
that is ejjential to language ( a ) : for every thing which
exifts, or of which we can form an idea, mull be either
afubjlance or the attribute of feme fubftance; and there¬
fore thofe two claffes which denominate fubftances
and attributes, muft comprehend all the words that
are necejfary to communicate to the hearer the ideas
which are prefent to the mind of the fpeaker. If any
other words, occur, they can only have been invented
for the fake of difpatch, or introduced for the pur-
pofes of eafe and ornament, to avoid tedious circum¬
locutions or difagreeable tautologies. There are in¬
deed grammarians of great name, who have confidered
as effential to language an order of words, of which
the ufe is to connedt the nouns and attributives, and'
which are faid to have no fignification of themfelves, but
to become Jignijicant by relation. Hence all words which
can poffibly be invented are by thefe men divided into
two general claffes : thofe which are significant of
themselves and thofe which are not. Words fig¬
nificant of themfelves are either expreffive of the names
of fubftances, and therefore called substantives; or
of
(a) This is the doftrine of many writers on the theory of language, for whofe judgment we have the highell
refpeit: yet it is not eafy to conceive mankind fo far advanced in the art of abftraclion as to view attributes
by themfelves independent of particular fubjlances, and to give one general name to each attribute wherefoever it
may be found, without having at the fame time words expreffive of affirmation. We never talk of any attribute
a colour for inftance, without affirming fomething concerning it; as, either that it is bright or faint, or that it is
the colour of fome fubjlance. It will be feen afterwards, that to. denote affirmation is the proper office of what
is called the fubftantive-wr^; as, “ Milk m white.” That verb therefore appears to be as neceffary to the
communication of thought as any fpecies of words whatever ; and if we muft. range words under a few general
claffes, we fhould be inclined to fay, that nouns, attributives, and affirmatives, comprehend all that is effential t@.
language.
33
GRAM
of attributes, and therefore called attributives.
Words which are not fignificant of themfelves, muft
Of d/fini- acquire a meaning either as defining or conneiling
tives and others; and are therefore arranged under the two
connec- claffes of definitives and connectives.
io. That in any language there can be words which
of themfelves have no fignification, is a fuppoiition
■which a man free from prejudice will not readily ad¬
mit ; for to what purpofe flrould they have been in¬
vented ? as they are fignificant of no ideas, they can¬
not facilitate the communication of thought, and muft
therefore be only an incumbrance to the language in
which they are found. But in anfwer to this it has
been faid, that thefe words, though devoid of fignifica¬
tion themfelves, acquire a fort of meaning when joined
with others, and that they are as neceffary to the ftruc-
ture of a fentence as cement is to the ftmfture of an
edifice for as Jlones cannot be arranged into a regular
building without a cement to bind and connect them, fo
the original words fignificant of fuljlances and attri¬
butes, cannot be made to exprefs all the variety of our
ideas without being defined and conneEtcd by thofe words
which of themfelves fignify nothing.—It is wonderful,
that he who firft fuggefted this fimile did not perceive
that it tends to overthrow the do&rine which it is
meant to illuftrate : for furely the cement is as much
the matter of the building as the Jlones themfelves ; it
is equally folid and equally extended. By being united
with the ftones, it neither acquires norlofesany one of
the qualities ejfentialto matter; it neither communicates
its own foftnefs, nor acquires their hardnefs. By this
mode of reafoning therefore it would appear, that the
words called definitives and conneRives, fo far from ha¬
ving of themfelves no fignification, are equally effen-
tial to language and equally iignificant with thofe
which are denominated fubfiantives and attributives; and
upon inveftigation it will be found that this is the
truth. For whatever is meant by the definition or con¬
nexion of the words which all men confels to be figni-
ficant, that meaning muft be the fenfe of the words of
which the purpofe is to define and connedl; and as
there can be no meaning where there are no ideas, every
one of thefe definitives and connectives muft be fignifi¬
cant of fame idea, although it may not be always eafy
or even poffible to exprefs that idea by another word.
ii. Thefe different modes of dividing the parts of
fpeech we have juft mentioned, becaufe they have been
largely treated of by grammarians of high fame. But
it does not appear to us, that any man can feel him-
felf much the wifer for having learned that all words
are either substantives or attributives, defini¬
tives or connectives. The divifion of words into
thofe which are significant of themselves, and
thofe which are significant by relation, is abfo-
lute nonfenfe, and has been produ&ive of much error
and much myftery in fome of the moft celebrated trea-
tifes on grammar. It is indeed probable, that any at¬
tempt to eftablifii a different claffification of the parts
of fpeech from that which is commonly received, will
be found of little utility either in praSice or in /pecula¬
tion. As far as the former is concerned, the vulgar
divifion feems fufficiently commodious; for every man
who knows any thing, knows when he ufes a noun
and when a verb. With refpedt to the latter, not to
tu cot ion that all the -grammarians from Aristotle to
M A R. Chapij,
Horne Tooke, have differed on the fubjeft, it fhould
feem to be of more importance, after having afcertain-
ed with precifion the nature of each fpecies of words,
to determine in what circumftances they dffir than in
what they agree. _ 10 ' :
12. In moft languages, probably in all cultivated The c m-i i \
languages, grammarians diftinguilh the following parts™011 div^v fa
of fpeech : Noun, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, pre- ^^ts° of ^ 1!
ptfition, conjunRion. The Latin and Englifih gramma- fpeech thii
rians admit the interjeRion among the parts of fpeech, moft pro-< ;c
although it is confeffedly not neceffary to the conftruc- per. !
tion of the fentence, being only thrown in to exprefs
the affe&ion of the fpeaker ; and in the Greek and
Englijh tongues there is the article prefixed to nouns,
when they fignify the common names of things, to
point them out, and to Ihow how far their fignification
extends. In the method of arrangement commonly
followed in grammars, adjeRives are claffed with fub-
Jlantives, and both are denominated nouns ; but it is cer¬
tain that, when examined philofophically, an effential
difference is difeovered between the fuhfiantive and the
adjeftive; and therefore fome writers of eminence, when
treating of this fubjeft, have lately given the following
claffification of words, which we ffiall adopt: The
ARTICLE, NOUN, PRONOUN, VERB, PARTICIPLE, ADJECTIVE,
ADVERB, PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, INTERJECTION. All
thefe words are to be found in the Englifio language ;
and therefore we {hall examine each clafs, endeavour
to afeertain its precife import, and (how in what re-
fpefts it differs from every other clafs. It is impoffible
to inveftigate the principles of grammar without con¬
fining the inveftigation in a great meafure to fome
particular language from which the illuftrations muft
be produced ; and that we ftiould prefer the Engl'fih
language for this purpofe can excite no wonder, as it
is a preference which to every tongue is due from thofe
by whom it is fpoken. We truft, however, that the
principles which we (hall eftabliffi will be found to ap¬
ply univerfially; and that our inquiry, though principally
illuftrated from the Englijh language, will be an en¬
quiry into philofophical or univerfal grammar.
CHAPTER I.
Ofi the Noun or Substantive.
13. Nouns are all thofe words by fvhich objects or
fubfiances are denominated, and which dijlingujh them from 11 \
one another, without marking either quantity, quality, ac- Jhe noun
tion, or relation. The fubfiantive or noun is the «awdc“ne<1’
of the thing fpoken of, and in Greek and Latin is
called name; for it is in the one, and nomen in
in the other ; and if in Engliffi we had called it the
name rather than the noun, the appellation would per¬
haps have been more proper, as this laft word, being
ufed only in grammar, is more liable to be mifunder-
ftood than the other, which is in confiant and familiar
ufe. That nouns or the names of things muft make a
part of every language, and that they muft have been
the words firft fuggefted to the human mind, will not
be difputed. Men could not fpeak of themfelves or
of any thing elfe, without having names for themfelves
and the various obje&s with which they are furrounded.
Now, as all the obje&s which exift muft be either in
the fame ftate in which they were produced by nature,
or changed from their original liace by art, or abjlraci-
39
^hap.
iDifferent
jtin ls of
nouns.
1(^0Lins ge¬
neral
j f the fin-
jiular and
jiural nun'
I. GRAMMA R.
ed frem fubftanccs by the powers of imagination, and unity and plurauty ; and this variation is called number.
conceived by the mind as having at leaft the capacity Thus in the Englilh language, when we fpeak of a
of being characterized by qualities; this naturally fug- fingle place of habitation, we call it a houfe\ but if of
geils a divifion of nouns into natural, as man, vege- more, we call them houfes. In the firft of thefe cafes
table, tree, &c. artificial, as houfc, Jh'ip, watch, &c. the noun is faid to be in the fmgular, in the laft cafe it
and abstract, as whitenefs, motion, temperance, &c. is in the plural, number. Greek nouns have allb a
14. But the diverfity of objedts is fo great, that had dual number to exprefsfwo individuals, as have like wife
each individual a difiina and proper name, it would be fome Hebrew nouns: but this variation is evidently
impoffible for the moft tenacious memory, during the not effential to language ; and it is perhaps doubtful
courfe of the longeft life, to retain even the nouns of whether it ought fo be eonfidtred as an elegance or a
the narroweft language. It has therefore been found deformity.
expedient, when a number of things refemble each 16. But although number be a natural accident of
other in fome important particulars, to arrange them of nouBs, it can only be coufidered as ejential to thofe
all under one fpecies-, to which is given a name that which denote genera or fpecies. Thus we may have
belongs equally to the whole fpecies, and to each in- occafion fo ipeak of one animal or of many animals, of
dividual comprehended under it. Thus the word man one man or of many men ; and therefore the nouns ani-
denotes a fpecies of animals, and is equally applicable to mal and man mud be capable of expieffing as
every human being: The word horfe denotes another well as unity. But this is not the cafe with refpett to
fpecies of animals, and is equally applicable to every in- the proper names of individuals: for we can only fay
dividual of that fpecies of quadrupeds; but it cannot Xenophon, Arijlotle, Plato, See. in thefinguhr ; as, were
be applied to the fpecies of men, or to any individual any one of thefe names to affume a plural form, it
comprehended under that fpecies. We find, however, would ceafc to be the proper name of an individual, and
that there are fome qualities in which feveral fpe become the common name of a fpecies. Of this, indeed,
des refemble each other ; and therefore we refer we have fome examples in every language. When a-
them to a higher order called e. genus, to which we give proper name is confidered as a general appellative un-
a name that is equally applicable to every fpecies and der which many others are arranged, it is then no
every individual comprehended under it. Thus, men longer the name of an individual but of a fpecies, and as
and horfes and all living things on earth refemble each fuch admits of a plural; as the Cafars, the Howards,
other in this refpeft, that they have life. We refer the Pelhams, the Montagues, &c. : but Socrates can ne-
them therefore to the genus called animal; and this ver become plural, fo long as we know of no more than
word belongs to every fpecies of animals, and to each one man of that name. The reafon of all this will be
individual animal. The fame claffification is made both obvious, if we confider, that every genus may be found
of artificial and abjlralil fubllarices ; of each of which whole and entire in each of its fpecies; for man, horfe,
there me genera, fpecies, and individuals. Thus in na- and dog, are each of them an entire and complete ani-
tural fubllanc -s, animal, vegetable, and fojfile, denote mal: and every fpecies may be found whole and entire
genera; man, horfe, tree, metal, are species; and Alex- in eachof its individuals : for Socrates, Plato, -Audi Xe-
under, Bucephalus, oalt, gold, are individuals. In arti- nophon, are each of them completely and entirely a
ficial fubllances, edifice is a genus ; heufe, church, tower, man. Hence it is, that every genus, though one, is
are species; and the Vatican, St Paul’s, and the Tower multiplied into many ; and every fpecies, though onS,
of London, are individuals. In abjlradt fubliances, mo- is alfo multiplied into many, by reference to,thofe beings
Uon and virtue ate genera; fight and temperance are which are their fubordinates : But as no individual has
species; the fight of Mahomet and temperance in wine are any fuch fubordinates, it can never in llrittnefs be cou-
individuals. By arranging fubftamces in this man- fidered as many; and fo, as well in nature as in name, rj
ner, and giving a name to each genus and fpecies, the is truly an individual which cannot admit of number. gender.
nouns neceffaiy to any language are comparatively few 17. Beiides number, another charadltritHe, viiible in
and eafily acquired : and when we meet with an object fubitances, is that of sex. Every fubftance is either
unknown to us, we have only to examine it with atten- male or female ; or both male and female ; or neither one
tion; and comparing it with other objefts, to refer it nor the other. So that with refpedt to fixes and their
to the genus or fpecies which it moft nearly refembles. negation, all fvbjlances conceivable are comprehended un-
By this contrivance we fupply the want of a proper der this fourfold conlideration, which language would
name for the individual; and fo far as the refemblance be very imperfect if it could not exprefs. Now the
is complete between it and the^feier to which it is re- exiftence of hermaphrodites being rare, if not doubtful,
ferred, and of which we have given it the name, we and language being framed to anfwer the ordinary oc-
may converfe and reafon about it without danger of cafions of life, no provifion is made, in any of the
error : Whereas had each individual in nature a dfilindt tongues with which we are acquainted, for exprefling, o-
and proper name, words would be innumerable and in- therwife than by a name made on purpofe, or by a peri-
compreheniible ; and to employ our labours in lan- phrafis, duplicity oifix. With regard to this great natural
guage, would be as idle as that ftudy of numberlefs chara&eriftic, grammarians have made only a threefold
written fymbols which has been attributed to the Chinefe. diftin&ion of nouns: thofe which denote males are.
n 15. Although nouns are thus adapted to exprefs not faid to be of the mntfeuline gender; thofe which denote
the individuals but the genera or fpecies into which fub- females, of the feminine; and thofe which denote fub-
1 fiances are clalf d; yet, in fpeaking of thefe fubftances, fiances that admit not of fix, are faid to be neuter or of
whether natural, artificial, or abfiraQ, all men mult have neither gender. All animals have fex; and therefore the
occafion to mention fometimes one of a kind, and fome- names of all animals fiiould have gender. But the fex
times more thanone. In every language, therefore, nouns of all is not equally obvious, nor equally worthy of at •
niuft admit of fome variation in their form, to denote tention. In thofe fpecies that arc moft common, or
4°
G R A A:
of which the male and the female me, by their ft%e, form,
colour, or other outward circumftances, eminently dijlin-
gul/hed, the male is fometimes called by one name, which
is mafculine; and the female by & different name, which is
feminine. Thus in Englilh we fay, hvfband, w'fe; king,
queen ; father, mother ; fon, daughter, &c. In others
of fimilar diltinftion, the name of the male is applied to
the female only by prefixing a fyllable or by altering
the termination ; as man, 'woman ; lion, lionefs; emperor,
emprefs, anciently emperefs; majler, mifrefs, anciently
majierefs, &c. When the fex of any animal is not ob¬
vious, or not material to be known, the fame name,
in fome languages, is applied, without variation, to all
the fpecies, and that name is faid to be of the common
gender. Thus in Latin bos albas is a white ox, and bos
alba a white cow. Diminutive infefts, though they
are doubtlefs male and female, feem to be cohfidered
in the Englifh language as if they were really creeping
things. No man, fpeaking of a worm. Would fay he
creeps, but it creeps, upon the ground. But although
the origin of genders is thus clear and obvious; yet the
Engliih is the only language, with w’hich we are ac¬
quainted, that deviates not, except in this Angle in-
ftance of infe&s, from the order of nature. Greek and
Latin, and many of the modern tongues, have nouns,
fome mafculine, fome feminine, which denote fub-
ftances where fex never had exiftence. Nay, fome
languages are fo particularly defe&ive in this refpeft,
as to clafs every object, inanimate as well as animate,
under either the mafculine or the feminine gender, as they
have no neuter gender for thofe which are of neither fex.
This is the cafe with the Hebrew, French, Italian, and
Spanifh. But the Englffo, ftriftly following the order
of nature, puts every noun which denotes a male ani¬
mal, and no other, in the mafculine gender; every
name of a female animal, in the feminine ; and every
animal whofe fex is not obvious or known, as well as
every inanimate object whatever, in the neuter gender.
And this gives our language an advantage above mod
others in the poetical and rhetorical ftyle : for when
nouns naturally neuter are converted into mafculine
and feminine, the perfonification is more diftinctly and
more forcibly marked. (See Personification.) Some
very learned and ingenious men have endeavoured, by
what they call a more fubtle kind of reafoning, to dif-
cern even in things without fex a diftant analogy to that
natural distinction, and to account for the names
of inanimate fubftances being, in Greek and Latin,
mafculine and feminine. But fuch fpeculations are wholly
fanciful; and the principles upon which they proceed
are overturned by an appeal to fafts. Many of the
fubftances that, in one language, have mafculine names,
have in others names that are feminine ; which could
not be the cafe were this matter regulated by reafon or
nature. Indeed for this, as well as many other ano¬
malies in language, no other reafon can be afiigned
than that cujlom 
Quem penes arbitriurft eft, et jus, et norma, loquendi.
Origin of I^' ^ ^as ^een a^ready obfervcd that moft nouns
cafes. are the names, not of individuals, but of whole clafles of
objefts termed genera and fpecies (b). In claffing a num-
N° 141.
: M A R. Chap
ber of individuals under one fpecies, wre contemplate only
thofe qualities which appear to be important, and in
which the feveral individuals are found to agree, ab-
ftfa&ing the mind from the confideration of all thofe
which appear to be lefs effential, and which in one in¬
dividual may be fuch as have nothing exadfly fimilar
in any other individual upon earth. Thus, in claffing
the individuals w hich are comprehended under the fpe¬
cies denominated iioryV we Pay no regard to their co-
lour or their Ji-ze; becaufe experience teaches us, that no
particular colour or fize is efiential to that individual
living creature, and that there are not perhaps upon
earth two horfes whofe colour and fize are exactly alike.
But the qualities which in this procefs we take into
view, are the general fhape, the fymmetry, and proportion
of the parts", and in fhort every thing which appears
evidently effential to the life of the individual and the
propagation of the race. All thefe qualities are ftrikingly
fimilar in all the individuals which we call horfes, and as
ftrikingly diffimilar from the correfponding qualities'of e-
very other individual animal. The colour of a horfe is of¬
ten the fame with that of an ox; but the ffiape of the one
animal, the fymmetry and proportion of his parts, are to¬
tally different from thofe of the other; nor could any man
be led to clafs the two individuals under the famefpecies. It
is by a fimilar procefs that we afcend from one fpecies to
another, and through a// the fpecies to the higheft
In each fpecies or genus in the afcending foxiesfewerpar¬
ticular qualities are attended to than were confidered
as effential to the genus or fpecies immediately below it 5
and our conceptions become more and more general as
the particular qualities, which are the obje&s of them,
become fewer in number. The ufe of a general term,
therefore, can recal to the mind only the common qua¬
lities of the clafs, the genus or fpecies which it repre-
fents. But we have frequent occafion to fpeak of in¬
dividual objetts. In doing this, we annex to the gene¬
ral term certain words fignificant of particular qualities,
which difcriminate the objeft of which we fpeak, from
every other individual of the clafs to which it belongs,
and of which the general term is the common name. For
inftance, in advertifing a thief, we are obliged to men¬
tion his height, complexion, gait, and whatever may ferve
to diftinguilh him from all other men.
The procefs of the mind in rendering her concep¬
tions particular, is indeed exactly the reverfe of that
by which fhe generalizes them. For as in the pro¬
cefs of generalization, fire alfrucls from her ideas of any
number of fpecies certain qualities in which they dffer
from each other, and of the remaining qualities in
which they agree, conftitutes the firft genus in the a-
fcending feries ; fo when fhe wifhes to make her con¬
ceptions more particular, (lie annexes to her idea of any
genus thofe qualities or circumftances which were be¬
fore abftraCted from it 5 and the genus, with this annexa¬
tion, conftitutes the firft fpecies in the defending feries.
In like manner, when fhe wifhes to defcend from any
fpecies to an individual, fhe has only to annex to the
idea of the fpecies thofe particular qualities which dif¬
criminate the individual intended from the other indivi¬
duals ©f the fame kind.
This
(b) It is almoft needlefs to obferve, that the words genus and fpecies, and the phrafes higher genus and lower
fpecies, are taken here in the logical fenfe; and not as the words genus, fpecies, order, clafs, are often employed
by naturalifts. For a farther account of the mental procefs of'generalization, fee Logic and Metaphysics.
Chap. I
I Cafes, the
■ marks of
> annexation
18
a The im-
t, port of the
li genitive
GRAMMAR.
41
This particularising operation of the mind points out
the manner of applying the general terms of language
for the purpofe of expreffing particular ideas. For as
the mind, to limit a general idea, connects that idea with
the idea of fome particular circumjlance ; fo language, as
we have already obferved, in order to limit a general
term, connefts that term with the word denoting the
particular circumftance. Thus, in order to particula¬
rize the idea of horfe, the mind connefts \\vdX general idea
with the circumjlance, fuppofe, of avbitenefs; and in
order to particularize the word horfe, language conne&s
that word with the term white ; and fo in other inftan-
ces.—Annexation, therefore, or the connefting of ge¬
neral words or terms in language, fits it for expreffing
particular conceptions; and this muft hold alike good
in all languages. But the methods of denoting this an¬
nexation are various in various tongues. In Englifh and
moft modern languages we commonly ufe for this pur¬
pofe little words, which we have chofen to Ryle par¬
ticles ; and in the Greek and Latin languages, the cafes
of nouns anfwer the fame end.
19. Cafes, therefore, though they are accidents of
nouns not absolutely neceffary, have been often confidered
as fuch ; and they are certainly worthy of our exami¬
nation, fince there is perhaps no language in which
fome cafes are not to be found, as indeed without them
or their various powers no language could readily an¬
fwer the purpofes of life.
All the oblique cafes of nouns (if we except the vo¬
cative) are merely marks of annexation; but as the
, connexions or relations fubfifiing among objeds are very
various, fome cafes denote one kind of relation, and
fame another. We lhall endeavour to inveRigate the
conne&ion which each cafe denotes, beginning with
the genitive.—This is the mofl general of all the cafes,
and gives notice that fome conneftion indeed fubfiRs be¬
tween two objects, but does not point out the particular
hind of connection. That we muR infer, not from the
nature or termination of the genitive itfelf, but from our
previous knowledge of the objeSt connected. That the
genitive denotes merely relation in general, might be pro¬
ved by adducing innumerable examples, in which the
relations exprefied by this cafe are different; but we
Riall content ourfelves with one obfcrvation, from which
the truth of our opinion will appear beyond difpute.
If an exprefiion be ufed in which are, conpefted by
the genitive cafe, two words fignificant of objeCts be¬
tween which a twofold relation may fubfiR, it will be
found impofiible, from the expreffion, to determine which
of thefe two relations is the true one, which muR be
gathered wholly from the context. Thus, for example,
from the phrafe injuria regis, no man can know whe¬
ther the injury mentioned be an injury ftiffered or an in¬
jury inflicted by the king : but if the genitive cafe no¬
tified any particular relation, no fuch ambiguity could
exifi. This cafe therefore gives notice, that two ob¬
jects ntt,fomehow or other [c), conne&ed, but it marks
not the particular fort of connexion. Hence it may
be tranflated by our particle of, which will be feen
afterwards to be of a iignification equally general.
Vol.'VIII. Eartl.
The dative and accufative cafes appear to have nearly *9
the fame meaning; each of them denoting appofttion, o'"^ Tc
the jundion of one objeCi with another. Thus when any cufatl„0
one fays, Comparo Virgilium Homero, Homer and Virgil cafes,
are conceived to be placed befide one another, in order
to their being compared ; and this fort of connection
is denoted by the dative cafe. In like manner, when it
is faid latus hnmeros, breadth is conceived as joined td
or connected in appofition with flioulders; and the ex¬
prefiion may be tranflated “ broad at the flioulders.”
This appofition of two objeCts tttay happen either
without previous motion, or in confequence of it. In the
foregoing inRances no motion is prefuppofed; but if
one fay, Mifit aliquos fubjidio eorum, the appofition is
there in confequence of motion. In like manner, when
it is faid, PrqfeCtus ejl Romam, his appofition with Rome
is conceived as the effeCl of his motion thither.
From this idea of the etccufative, the reafon is obvious
why the objeCt after dcit aCtive verb is often put in that
cafe; it is becaufe the addon is fuppofed to proceed
from the agent to the patient. But the fame thing
happens with refpeCI to the dative cafe, and for the
fame reafon. Thus, Antonias Icefit Ciceronem, and Anto¬
nias nocuit Ciceroni, are expreflions of the fame import,
and in each the aCtion of hurting is conceived as pro¬
ceeding from Antony to Cicero ; which is finely illu-
Rrated by the paffive form of fuch exprefiions, where
the procedure above mentioned is ex'prefsly marked by
the prepofition ab : Cicero nocetur, Cicero htditur ar An¬
tonio. It is therefore not true, that “ the aicufitive is
that cafe, at leafl the only cafe, which to an efficient
nominative and a verb of aftion fubjoins either the ef-
feCl or the paffive fubjed ; nor is the dative the only
cafe which is formed to exprefs relations tending to
itfelf.” The only thing ejfential to thefe two cafes is-
to denote the appofition or junction of one objeCt with ano¬
ther; and this they do nearly, if not altogether, in the
fame manner, although from the cuflom of language they
may not be indifferently fubjoined to the fame verb. ^
The Greek language has no ablative cafe ; but in Of the aV
the Latin, where it is ufed, it denotes conconiitancy, or lat*ve caL-
that one thing accompanies another. From this concomi-
tancy we fometimes draw an inference, and fometimes
not. For example, when it is faid, Templum clamore
petebant, clamour is reprefented as concomitant with their
going to the temple; and here no inference is drawn: but
from the phrafe palleo metu, although nothing more is
expreffed than that palenefs is a concomitant of the fear,
yet we inflantly infer that it is alfo the effeCl of it. In
moR inRances where the ablative is ufed, an inference
is drawn, of which the foundation is fome natural con¬
nexion obferved to fubfiR between the objects thus con-
ne&ed in language. When this inference is not meant
to be drawn, the prepoftion is commonly added : as,
interfedus efl cum gladio, “he was (lain with a fword
about him interfeClus Jl gladio, “ he was flain with a
fword as the inflrument of his death.”
The remaining cafes, which have not been noticed, Of the no-
are the nominative and the vocative. Thefe are in mofl "inat!ve
inRances alike in termination, which makes it probable e
F that
(c) The Greek grammarians feem to have been aware of the nature of this cafe when they called it *la<nc
j-sv/xn, or the general cafe: of which name the Latin grammarians evidently miRook the meaning when they tranf¬
lated it cafus genitivus, or the generative cafe ; a name totally foreign frpm its nature.
42
that they were originally
foundation of this conje&ure will appear from confi-
dering the ufe to which each of thefe cafes is applied.
The nominative is employed to call up the idea of any
cbje£t in the mind of the hearer. But when a man
hears his own name mentioned, his attention is inftant-
ly roufed, and he is naturally led to lifien to what is to
he /aid. Hence, when a man meant particularly to
folicit one’s attention, he would naturally pronounce
GRAMMAR. Chap. II
and the fame cafe. The is ihdeed true, but it is nothing to the purpofe< for
though I may fay, Loquor dr Alexandra, Scribo df.
Csfare, Cogito de Pompeio 1 cannot fay, Loquor A-
lexandri, Scribo Cafaris, or Cogito Pompeii: and there¬
fore all that can be inferred from this argument is,
that as the Latin genitive is not always of the fame im¬
port with the prepofition de, fo the Englifh pojfejjive is
not always of the fame import with the prepolition of.
Upon the whole, then, we may conclude, that Engliih
"that perfon’s name; and thus the nominative czdet would nouns admit of one inflexion ; and that though cafe.
pafs into a vocativefnoi which the ufe is always to folicit are not fo effential to nouns as gender and number, no
attention (d).
I2 20. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and the
The import German among the modern languages, exprefs different
oftheGreek conneft[ons or relations of one thing with another by
cafes^com- cafes' In EnS^: tllJs ‘S ^one for -tlle moft Part
monl’y ex- prepofitions ; but the Englifh, being derived from the
preffed in fame origin as the German, that is, from the Teutonic,
Engiifh by }las at ]eaft onc. vaiiation of the fubftantive to anfwer
prepofi-
language can be wholly without them or their various
powers.
CHAPTER II.
{^Articles or Definitives.
21. The intention of language is to communicate
thought, or to exprefs thofe ideas which are fuggefted
to us by our fenfes external and internal. The ideas
the fame purpofe. For inftance, the relation of pof frjl fuggefted to us are thofe of pain and pleafurej and
fefwn, or belonging, is often expreffed by a different end- of the objedts with which we are furrounded ; and
ing of the fubftantive, which may be well called a cafe
This cafe anfwers nearly to the genitive cafe in Latin ;
but as that is not a denomination fignificant of the na-
One cafe ture of the cafe in any language, it may perhaps in
in Englifh Englifh be more properly called the pojfejfive cafe. Thus,
- re God’s grace, anciently Gods grace, is the grace belong-
* * ing to or in the pojjifwn of God : and may be likewife
expreffed by means of the prepofition; thus,—the grace
of God.
Although the word Godis is as evidently an inflexion
therefore the words frfl learned muft be nounsi or the
names of objedfs natural, artificial, and abftradt. Every
objedt*about which the human mind can be conveifant
is ftridUy and properly fpeaking particular; for all
things in nature differ from one another in numberlefs
refpedls, which, not to mention the idea of feparate
exiftence, fo circumftance and individuate them, that
no one thing can be faid to be another. Now the ufe
of language being to exprefs our ideas or conceptions
of thefe objects, it might naturally be expedted that
of the noun God as the word Dei is an inflexion of every object fhould be diftinguifhed by a proper name.
Deus, there are grammaviansnvho have denied that in
Engli/h there is any true inflexion of the original noun,
This would indeed be agreeable to the truth of things,
but we have already feen that it is altogether imprac-
and who have faid that the noun with the addition of ticable. Objedfs have therefore been claffed into genera
that fyllable, which we confider as the fgn of a cafe,
ceafes to be a noun, and becomes a definitive; a word
whjch with them is devoid of fignification. Thus, in
the expreffion Alexander’s houfe, the word Alexander’s
Hands not as a noun, but as an article or definitive, fer-
ving to afeertain and point out the individuality of the
andfpecies; and names given, not to each individual, blit
to each and fpecies. Bythis contrivance of language,
we arS enabled to afeertain in fome meafure any indivi¬
dual that may occur, and of which we know not the
proper name, only by referring it to the genus or fpecies
to which it belongs, and calling it by the general or
houfe. But this is a palpable miftake : the word fpecific name ; but as there is frequent occaiion to di-
Alexander’s ferves not to point out the individuality of
the houfe, but to fhow to whom the houfe belongs; and
is therefore, beyond difpute, not an article, but a noun
in the pojfejfive cafe. Again, when we fay St Peter’s at
Rome and St Paul’s at London, the words St Peter’s
and St Paul's are neither articles, nor, as has been ab-
furdly imagined, the proper names of edifices, like the
Rotunda or the Circus; but they are, in the pojfejfive
cafe, the names of the two apoftles to whom the churches
were dedicated, and to whom they are fuppofed to belong.
But that this, which we have called \\\z pojfejfive cafe,
is really not fo, muft be evident, it is faid, becaufe there
are certain circumftances in which it cannot be fubfti-
tuted for the noun with the prepofition prefixed. Thus,
though a man may fay, I fpeak of Alexander, I write
of Ceefar, 1 think of Pompey; he cannot fay, I fpeak
Alexander’s, I write Ctefar’s, or I think Pompey’s. This
ftinguiih individuals of the fame fpecies from one ano¬
ther, it became necelfary to fall upon fome expedient
to mark this diftinCtion. In many languages general
and fpecific terms are modified and reftridted by three
orders of words ; the article, the adjective, and
the oblique cases of nouns. The cafes ol nouns we xhe nt;ctf-
have already confidered : the adjediv? will employ our fity and ule
attention afterwards : at prefent our obfervations are ar
confined to the article ; a word fo very neceflary,
that without it or fome equivalent invention men could
not employ nouns to any of the purpofes of life, or in¬
deed communicate their thoughts at all. As the bu-
finefs of articles is to enable us, upon occafion, to em¬
ploy to denote particular ohjeds, they muft
be confidered, in combination with the general terms, as
merely fubjiitutes for proper names. They have, how¬
ever, been commonly called definitives; becaufe they
ferve
(d) The chief objeftion to this conjtfture, that tjie nominative and vocative were originally the fame cafe, is
taken from the Latin tongue, in which the nouns of the fecond declenlion ending in us terminate their voca¬
tive in e. But this is eafily accounted for. The s in fuch woids was often dropt, as appears from the fcan-
ning of old Latin poetry ; and when this was done, the u being ihort, would naturally in pronunciation pafs.
into e, a like fhort voweland thus, in the vocative cafe, c would in time be written inftead of u,
43
GRAMMAR
Chap. II.
ferve to define and afeertain any particular olje8, fo as to
difiingui/h it from the other objeSs of the general clafs to
•which it belongs, and, of courfe, to denote its individuality.
Of words framed for this purpofe, whether they hare
by grammarians been termed articles or not, we know
of no language that is wholly deftitute. The nature
of them may be explained as follows.
2 2. An objeft occurs with which, as an individual,
we are totally unacquainted ; it has a head and limbs,
and appears to poffefs the powers of felf-motion and
fenfation: we therefore refer it to its proper fpecies, and
call it a dog, a horfe, a lion, or the like. If it belongs
to none of the fpecies with which we are acquainted,
it cannot be called by any of their names; we then re¬
fer it to the genus, and call it an animal.
\ But this is not enough. The objedt at which we
Twifar- are lO0k'ng> and which we want to diftinguilh, is not
tides. z fpecies or z genus, but an individual. Of what kind ?
Known or unknown? Seen now for the firfi time, or feen
lefore and now remembered ? This is one of the in-
ftances in which we lhall difeover the ufe of the two
articles A and the : for, in the cafe fuppofed, the ar¬
ticle a refpedts our primary perception, and denotes an
individual as unknown; whereas the refpedts our fecon-
dary perception, and denotes individuals as known. To
explain this by an example : I fee an objeft pafs by
which I never faw till now: What do I fay ? There
goes A beggar with a long beard. The man departs, and
returns a week after : What do I then fay ? There goes
the beggar with the long beard. Here the article only
is changed, the reft remains unaltered. Yet mark the
force of this apparently minute change. The indivi¬
dual once vague is now recognifed as fomelhing known ;
and that merely by the efficacy of this latter aiticle,
which tacitly infinuates a kind of previous acquaintance,
by referring a prefent perception to a like perception
already paft.
This is the explanation of the articles a and the as
given by the learned Mr Harris, and thus far what he
fays on the fubjeft is certainly juft ; but it is not true
that the article the always infinuates a previous ac¬
quaintance, or refers a prefent perception to a like
perception already paft.—I am in a room crowded with
company, of which the greater part is to me totally
unknown. I feel it difficult to breathe from the groff-
nefs of the inclofed atmofphere ; and looking towards
the window, I fee in it a perfon whom I never faw be¬
fore. I inftantly fend my compliments to the gentle¬
man in the window, and requeft, that, if it be not incon¬
venient, he will have the goodnefs to let into the room
a little freffi air. Of this gentleman I have no previous
acquaintance ; my prefent perception of him is my pri¬
mary perception, and yet it would have been, extremely
improper to fend my compliments, &c. to a gentleman
in the window.—Again, there would be no impropriety
in faying—“ a man whom I faw yefterday exhibiting
a ftiow to the rabble, was this morning committed to
jail charged with the crime of houfebreaking.” Not-
vviihftanding the authority, therefore, of Mr Harris
and his mafter Hpoilonius, we may venture to affirm,
that it is not to the article A to refpeft a/ri-
maryperception, or to the article the to indicate apre-
cjlallijhed acquaintance. Such may indeed be the manner
in which thefe words are moft frequently ufed; but we
fee that there are inftances in which they may be ufed
differently. What then, it may be alked, is the im¬
port of each article, and in what refpe&s do they
differ ?
23. We anfwer, that the articles a and the are
both of them definitives, as by being prefixed to the
names of genera and fpecies they fo circumfcribe the la¬
titude of thofe names as to make them for the moft
part denote individuals. A noun or fubfiantive, without
any article to limit it, is taken in its wideft fenfe. Thus,
the word man means all mankind ; -
“ The proper ftudy of mankind is man
vfhert mankind and man may change places without
making any alteration in the fenfe. But let either of
the articles of which we are treating be prefixed to the
word man, and that word is immediately reduced from
the name of a whole genus to denote only a Jingle indi¬
vidual; and inftead of the noble truth which this line
afferts, the poet will be made to fay, that the proper
ftudy of mankind is not the common nature which is
diffufed through the whole human race, but the man¬
ners and caprice of one individual. Thus far therefore
the two articles agree : but they differ in this, that
though they both limit the fpecific name to fome indi¬
vidual, the article a leaves the indivbluaiitfelf unafeer-
tained; whereas the article the afeertains tin individual
alfo, and can be prefixed to the fpecific name only ^
when an individual is intended, of which fomething may The inde-
be predicated that diftinguiffies it from the other indi- finite and
viduals of the fpecies. Thus, if I fay—a man is fit forttie definite.
treafons, my affertion may appear ftrange and vague ;
but the fentence is complete, and wants nothing to
make it intelligible : but if I fay—the man is fit for
treafons,! fpeak non fenfe; for as the article the ffiows'
that I mean fome particular man, it will be impoffible
to difeover my meaning till I complete the fentence,
and predicate fomething of the individual intended to
diftinguifh him from other individuals.
“ The man that hath not muf.c in bimfelf, &c.
“ 1- fit for treatjns.”  
H man, therefore, means fome one or other of the hu¬
man race indefinitely; the man means, definitely, that
particular man who is fpoken of: the former is called
the indefinite, the latter the definite, article.
The two articles differ likewife in this refpect, thatThe dif-
as the article a ferves only to feparate one individual ob-ference be*
je£t from the general clafs to which it belongs, it cannottweentliefe
•be applied to plurals. It has indeed the fame fignifi-
cation nearly with, the numer ical word one; and in
French and Italian, the fame word that denotes unity
is alfo the article of which we now treat. But the ef-
fence of the article the being to define obje&s, by
pointing them out as thofe of which fomething is af¬
firmed or denied which is not affirmed or denied of the
other objects of the fame clafs, it is equally applicable
to both numbers ; for things may be predicated of one
set of men, as well as of z Jingle man, which cannot be
predicated of other men. The ufe and import of each
article will appear from the following example: “ Man
was made for fociety, and ought to extend his good¬
will to all mew, but a man will naturally entertain a
more particular regard for the men with whom he has
the moft frequent intercourfe, and enter into a ftill
clofer union with the man whofe temper and difpofition
fuit beft with his own.”
We have faid, that the article A- cannot be applied
F 2 to
44
GRAMMAR. Chap
to plurals, becaufe it denotes unity: but to this rule different modes of ufing them. That words fliould
there is apparently a remarkable exception in the ufe change their nature in this manner, fo as to belong
of the adjctlives few and many (the latter chiefly with fometimes to one part of fpeech, and fometimes to ano-
the word before k), which, though joined with ther, mull to every unprejudiced perfon appear very
pluralfubjlantlves, yet admit of the ftngular article A ; extraordinary ; and if it were a fad, language would
"" ' - , ■ ■ ^ ^ thing fo equivocal, that all inquiries into its na¬
ture upon principles of fcience and reafon would be
vain. But we cannot perceive any fuch flu&uation in
any word whatever; though we know it to he a gene*
ral charge brought againff words of almofl every de*
nomination, of which we have already feen one inflance
as, a few men, a great many men. The reafon of this is
manifeft from the effedf which the article has in thefe
phrafes: it means a fmall or a great number collec¬
tively taken, to which it gives the idea of a whole,
that is, of unity. Thus likewife a hundred, a thoufand,
e whole number, an aggregate of many collectively
taken, and therefore kill retains the article a though in the iyjjfcjfive cafe of nouns, and (hail now fee another
joined as an adjeCVive to a plural fubftantive; as, a in thofe words which are commonly called pronominal
hundred years. The exception therefore is only appa- articles.
rent; and we may affirm, that the article a univerfally If it be true, as we acknowledge h to be, that the
denotes unity. genuine pronoun always /lands by itfelf, affuming the
24. The indefinite article is much lefs ufeful than the power of a noun, and fupplying its place, then is it cer-
pther ; and therefore the Greek and Hebrew languages tain that the words this, that, any, fame, &c. can never
liave it not, though they both have a definite article, be pronouns. We are indeed told, that when we fay
In languages of which the nouns, adjectives, and verbs, this is virtue, give me that, the words this and that
have inflexion, no miftake can arife from the want of the are pronouns; but that when we fay, this habit is vir-
indefinite article . bccaufe it can always be known by tue, that man defrauded me, then are they articles or
the terminations of the noun and the verb, and by the definitives. This, however, is evidently a rniitake oc-
circumftances predicated of the noun, whether a whole cafioned by overlooking thofe abbreviations in con-
fpecies or one individual be intended. But this is not flruCtion which are frequent in every language, and
the cafe in Englhb. In that language, the adjectives which, on account of that very frequency, have per-
having no variation with refpeCt to gender or number, haps efcaped the attention of grammarians whofe fa-
and the tenfes of the verbs being for the mod part the gacity has been fuccefsfully employed on matters
fame in both numbers, it might be often doubtful, had lefs obvious.—When we fay this is virtue, it is evi-
we not the indefinite article, whether the fpecific name dent that we communicate no intelligence till we add
was intended to exprefs the whole fpecies or only one in- a fubfiantive to the word this, and declare what is vir-
dividual. Thus, if we fay in Englifh, “ Man was born tue. The word this can therefore in no inftance af-
fent from God," we muff be underftood to mean that fume, the power of a noun, fince the noun to which it
the birth of every man is from God, becaufe to the relates, though for the fake of difpatch it may be omit-
fpecific term the indefinite article is not prefixed. Yet ted in writing or converfation, muff always be fupplied
the words «v6f«rof aVsrax^fvof ©fou convey by the mind of the reader or hearer, to make the fen-
no -fuch meaning to any perfon acquainted with the tence intelligible, or this itfelf of any importance—
Greek language ; as the word dvBporoc, without any “ When we have viewed fpeech analyfed, we may then
article, is reftri&ed to an individual by its concord conlider it as compounded. And here, in the firfl place,
with the verb and the participle ; and the fenfe of the we may contemplate that fynthefis, which by combin-
paffage is, a man was born (or exifled) fient from God. ing fimple terms produces a truth ; then by combining
But though the Greeks have no article correfpondent two truths produces a third ; and thus others and
to the article a, yet nothing can be more nearly rela- others in continued demonftration, till we are led, as
ted than their °’to our the. 'o' lixtrikivg,— thk king ; by a road, into the regions of fcience. Now this is
To Sofa,—the gift. In one refpeft, indeed, the Greek that fuperior and mod excillent fynthefis which alone
and Engliffi articles differ. The former is varied accord- applies itfelf to our intellect or reafon, and which to
ing to the gender and number of the noun with which it conduft according to rule conftitutes the flr/o/VoipV,
isaflbeiated, being 0— mafeuline, *—feminine, —neuter ; After this we may turn to thofe inferior compofitions
and 0i'> a‘> T“> in the plural number: whereas the Eng- which are produ&ive of the pathetic,” &c.—Here, if
liffi article fuffers no change, being invariably the be- any where, the word this may be thought to fand by
fore nouns of every gender and in both numbers. There itfelf, and to affume the power of a noun ; but let any
are, however, fome modern languages which, in imi- man complete the conftrudion of each fentence, and
tation of the Greek, admit of a variation of their article he will perceive that this is no more than a definite
which relates to gender; but this cannot be confidered article. Thus,— “ we may contemplate that fynthefis
as ejfential to this fpecies of words, and it may be que- which by combining fimple terms produces a truth ;
flioned whether it be any improvement to the language, then by combining two truths produces a third truth;
In tongues of which the nouns have no inflexion, it and thus other truths and other truths in continued
can only ferve to perplex and confufe, as it always pre- demonftration, till we are led, as by a road, into the
fents a particular idea offex where in many cafes it is regions of fcience. Now this combination of truths is
dumber" not neceffary.
fcrticles in 25. The articles already mentioned are allowed to
the Englifh be ftriftly and properly fuch by every grammarian ;
thanbP* ^ut t^ere are ^ome words, fuch as this, that, any, fome,
commonly other, &c. which are generally faid to be fome-
luppofcd. times articles and fometimes pronouns, according to the
6
that fuperior and moft excellent fynthefis which alone
applies, itfelf to our intelle£t or reafon, and which to
conduft according to rule conftitutes the art of logic.
After we have contemplated this art, we may turn,” &c.
The word that is generally confidered as dill more
equivocal than this; for it is faid to be fometimes an
article^
Chap IT. G R A
article, fometlmes ipronoun, and fometimes a conpnBion.
In the following extrad it appears in all thele capa¬
cities ; and yet, upon refolving the paflage into parts
and completing the conftruftion, it will be found to
be invariably a dejinite article.—“ It is neceffary to that
perfeftion, of which our prefent ftate is capable, that
the mind and body ihould both be kept in a£tion ;
that neither the faculties of the one nor of the other
be fuffered to grow lax or torpid for want of ufe : but
neither fhould health be purchafed by voluntary fub-
nuilion to ignorance, nor Ihould knowledge be culti¬
vated at the expence of health ; for that muil enable it
either to give pleafure to its poflefibr, or afliftance to
others.” If this long fentence be refolved into its
conftituent parts,, and the words be fupplied which
complete the conftru&ion, we fliall fee the import of
the word that to be precifely the fame in each claufe.
“ The mind and body ihould both be kept in aftion ;
that aftion is neceflary to that peifeftion of which
our prefent ftate is capable : neither the faculties of
the one nor of the other ihonld be fuffered to grow
lax or torpid for want of ufe ; the degree of aBitm proper
to prevent that laxnefs is neceffary: but neither ihould
health be purchafed by voluntary fubmiffion to igno¬
rance, nor ihould knowledge be cultivated at the ex-
pence of health; for that health muft enable it either
to give pleafure to its poffeffor, or affiftance to others.”
Again :
“ He that’s unikilful will not tofs a hall
“ A man unikilful (he is that) will not tofs a ball*’’
Here the word that, though fubftituted for what 's
called the relative pronoun (e), ftill preferves unchan¬
ged its definitive import; and in every inftance except
where it may be ufed very improperly, it will be found
to be neither more nor lefs than a dejinite article.
26. It appears then, that if the ejfenec of an article be
to defne and afeertain, the words this and that, as well
as any, fame, all, &c. which are commonly called pro¬
nominal articles, are much more properly articles than
any thing elfe, and as fuch fhould be confidered in uni-
verfal grammar. Thus when we fay, r his piBure I
approve, but that IdiJUle ; what .do we perform by
the help of the words this and that, but bring down
the common appellative to denote two individuals; the
one as the more near, the other as the more dijlant ? So
when we fay, some men are virtuous, lut all men are
mortal', what is the natural effedt of this all and some,
but to define that univerfality and particularity which
would remain indefinite were we to take them away ?
The fame is evident in fuch fentences as, some fub-
fiances havefenfation, others want it; Choofe any way
of exiling, and some men will fnd fault, &c. : for here
some, other, and any, ferve all of them to defne dif¬
ferent parts of a given whole; some, to denote any
indeterminate part} any, to denote an indefinite mode of
ading, no matter what; and other, to denote the re¬
maining part, when a patt has been affumed already.
27. We have faid that the article is a part of fpeech
fo very neceffary, that without it, or fome equivalent
M M A R.
invention (f), mankind could not communicate their
thoughts; and that of words falling under this deferip-
tion, we know of no language which is wholly deftitute. 28
We are aware that thefe pofitions may be controvert- Articles
ed; and that the Latin may be inftanced as a language Latjlf
which, without articles, is not only capable of commu- * 0
nicating the ordinary thoughts of the fpeaker to the
mind of the hearer; but which, in the hands of Cicerot
Virgil, and Lucretius, was made to ferve all the pur-
pofes of the moft profound philofopher, the moft im-
paffioned orator, and the fublimeft poet. That the
Latin has been made to ferve all thefe purpofes cannot
be denied, although Lucretius and Cicero both com¬
plain, that on the fubjeft of philofophy, where the ufe
of articles is moft confpicuous, it is a deficient lan¬
guage. But fhould we grant what cannot be demand¬
ed, that thofe two great men were unacquainted with
the powers of their native tongue, our poiitions would
ftill remain unfhaken ; for we deny that the Latin is
wholly without articles. It has indeed no word of pre¬
cifely the fame import with our the or the Greek ° }
but the place of the indefinite article a might be al¬
ways fupplied, if neceffary, with the numerical word
unus. It iriay be fo even in Englifh ; for we believe
there is not a fingle inftance where the words one man,
one horfe, one virtue, might not be fubftituted for the
words a man, a horfe, a virtue, &c. without in the
flighted degree altering the fenfe of the paffage where
fuch words occur. This fubftitution, however, can be
but very feldom if ever neceffary in the Latin tongue,
of which the precifion is much greater than that of
the Englifh would be without articles ; becaufe the o-
blique cafes of the Latin nouns, and the inflexion of
its verbs, will almoft always enable the reader to de¬
termine whether an appellative reprefents a whole fpe-
cies or a fingle individual.—The want of the definite
article the feems to be a greater defe3; yet there are
few inftances in which its place might not be fupplied
by this or by that without obfeuring the fenfe; and
the Latin tongue is by nd means deficient of articles
correfponding to thefe two. Let us fubftitute the
words one and that for a and the in fome of the
foregoing examples, and we ftiall find, though the
found may be uncouth, the fenfe will remain. Thus,
“ That man who hath not mulic in hinifelf, &c.
“ Is fit for treafons,”——
conveys to the mind of the reader the very fame fenti-
ment which the poet expreffes by the words “ The
man that hath not mufic,” &c. Again, “ JHan was
made for fociety,and ought to extend his good-will toti//
men ; but one man will naturally entertain a more par¬
ticular regard for thofe men with whom he ftas the moft
frequent intercourfe, and enter into a ftill clofer union
with that man whofe temper and difpofition fuit heft
with his own.” Now the words hic and ille being
exa&ly of the fame import with the words this and
th at ; it follows, that wherever the place of the article
THE'may in Englifh be fupplied by this or by that,
it may in Latin be fupplied by hic or by ille! This
' is.
(e) See more of this afterwards.
(f) As in the Perfian and other eaftern languages, in which the place of our indefinite article is fupplied
by a termination to thofe nouns which are meant to be particularized,
46
GRAMMA R.
Chap. IlJ
the cafe with refpeft to Nathan’s reproof of Da¬
vid, where the definite article is indeed moft empha-
tical. The original words might have been tranflated
into Englifh, “ thou art that man,” as well as “ thou
art the man and in Latin they may with the utmoft
propriety be rendered, “ Tu es tile homo.” Indeed the
words hic and idle, and we might inftance many
more, though they are commonly called pronouns, are
in truth nothing but definite articles: hic is evidently
; and idle is moft probably derived from the He¬
brew word al, in the plural ale ; which may be tranf¬
lated indifferently, either the or that. But what
proves beyond difpute that thefe two words are not
pronouns but articles, is, that in no fingle inftance will
they be found to Hand by themfelves and affume the
power of nouns. For the fake of difpatch, or to avoid
difagreeable repetitions, the noun may indeed be often
omitted ; but it is always /applied by the reader or
hearer, when hic and ille appear in their proper
place, and are feen to be invariably definite articles.
We fhall give an example of the ufe of each word, and
difmifs the fubjeS.
In the firft oration againft Catiline, Cicero begins
with addreffing himfelf in a very impaflioned ftyle to
the traitor, who was prefent in the fenate-houle. He
then exclaims pathetically againft the manners of the
age, and proceeds in thefe words : Senatus hsec intelligit,
conful videt: hic tamen vivit. Vivit ? immo ver'e etiam in
fenatum venit: fit publici confiiiii particeps. In this paffage
hic cannot be a pronoun ; for from the beginning of
28 the oration there occurs not a fingle noun of which it
Hk and can poflibly fupply the place. When the orator ut-
IIU articles, tered it, he was p rob abi y pointing with his finger at Ca¬
tiline, and every one of his audience would fupply the
noun in his own mind, as we do when we tranflate it,
Yet this traitor lives.'’ When Virgil fays,
'Ille ego, q'ui quondam gracili modulutus avena
Carmen,
it is obvious that he means, lam that man, or that
poet, who fang, &c.; and though we may tranflate
the words “ I am he who tuned his fong,” &c. yet when
we conftrue the paffage, we are under the neceflity of
fupplying either vates or vir, which ihows that ille is
nothing more than a definite article fignifying that
or the. It appears then, that the Latin tongue is
not wholly deftitute of articles, as few cafes can occur
where the Greek « and our the may not be fupplied
by the words hic and ille; which have in our opinion
been very improperly termed pronouns. If there be
any fiich cafes, we can only confefs that the Latin lan¬
guage is defedtive ; whereas, had it no articles, it is not
eafy to conceive how it could anfwer, to a cultivated
people, the ordinary purpofes of fpeech.
28. The articles this and that, unlike a and the,
are varied according as the noun, with which they are
affociated, is in the Angular or in the plural number.
Thus we fay—this and that man in the Angular, and
the/ and thofe men in the plural. The Latin articles hic
and ille, for fuch we will call them, are varied like the
Greek S, not only with the number, but alfo with the
gende r of their nouns. In languages, where the ftruc-
ture of a fentcnce may be fo changed from the order of
nature, as it commonly is in Greek and Latin, and
v he, the reader is guided, not by tht pofition, but by
i emanations of the words, to thofe which are in con-
4
cord and thofe which are not, thefe variations of the
article have their ufe ; but in Englifti they are of no
importance. Were it not that the cuftom of the lan¬
guage—the forma loquendi, as Horace calls it—has de¬
termined otherwife, there would be no more impro¬
priety in faying this or that men, than in faying fame men,
or the men.
29. As articles are by their nature definitives, it^thwhat1
follows of courfe, that they cannot be united with fuch words ar-
. words as are in their own nature as definite as they may tides can-
be ; nor with fuch words as, being undefinable, cannot pro-1^ be unH
perly be made otherwife; but only with thofe words
which, though indefinite, are yet capable through the article
of becoming dfinite. Hence the reafon why it is abfurd
to'fay, the I, or the Thou; becaufe nothing, as will
be leen afterwards, can make thefe pronouns more de¬
finite than they are of themfelves; and the fame maybe
faid of proper names. Neither caii we fay, the Both,
becaufe the word both is in its own nature perfectly
defined. Thus, if it be faid—“ I have read both
poets,”—this plainly indicates a definite pair, of whom
fome mention has been made already. On the con¬
trary, if it be faid, “ I have read two poets,” this may
mean any pair out of all that ever exifted. And hence
this numeral being in this fenfe indefinite (as indeed
are all others as well as itfelf), is forced to ajfume the
article whenever it would become definite. Hence alfo
it is, that as two, when taken alone, has reference to
{onxzprimary and indefinite perception, while the article
the has reference to fome perception fecondary and
definite, it is bad language to fay, two the men, as this
would be blending of incompatibles, that is, it would be
reprefenting two men as defined and undefined at the
fame time. On the contrary, to fay both the men, is
good language ; becaufe the fubftantive cannot pofiibly
be lefs apt by being defined, to coalefce with a nume¬
ral adjedtive which is defined as well as itfelf. So like-
wife it is correft to fay, the two men, these two
men, or those two men ; befcaufe here the article, be¬
ing placed at the begmmng, extends its power, as well
through the numeral adjedtive as the fubftantive, and
tends equally to define them both.
30. As fome of the above words admit of no ar¬
ticle, becaufe they are by nature as definite as may be ; fo
there are others which admit it not, becaufe they are not
to be definedat all. Of this fort are all interrogatives.
If we queftion about fubfiances, we cannot fay,the who)
is this, but who is this ? And the fame as to
qualities and both quantities : for we fay, without an
article, what sort of, how many; how great?
The reafon is, the article the refpecls beings of which
we can predicate fomething: but interrogatives refpedt
beings about which we are ignorant, and of which we
can therefore predicate nothing ; for as to what we know,
interrogation is fuperfluous. In a word, the naturalafi with^vhat
fociators with articles zxz k\.\j those common Appel-words they
LATIVES WHICH DENOTE THE SEVERAL GENERA AND.naturally
species of beings: and it may be qqeftioned whe-a^^ociate•
ther, in ftri&nefs of fpeech, they are ever affociated
with any other words.
31. We have faid that proper names admit not of
the article, being, in their own wa/i/re,.definite. This
is true, whilft each name is confined to one individual;
but as different perfons often go by the fame name, it
is neceffary to diftinguifli thefe from one another, te
prevent
47
GRAMMAR.
Chap. II.
prevent the ambiguity which this identity of name
would otherwife occafion. For this purpofe we are
obliged to have recoiirfe to acljeSives or epithets. For
example, there were two Grecian chiefs who bore the
name of Ajax ; and it was not without reafon that
Mnejlheus ufed epithets when his intention was to di-
ftinguifh the one from the other: “ l{ both. Ajaxes
cannot be fpared (faid he), at lead let mighty Telamo-
nlan Ajax come.” But as epithets are diffufed through
various fubjects, in as much as the-fame adje&ive may
be referred to many fubftantives, it has been faid to be
necelfary, in order to render both parts of fpeech e-
qually definite, that the adje&ive itfelf alfume an ar¬
ticle before it, which may indicate a reference to fame
Jingle perfon only. It is thus we fay—Trypho the
Grammarian ; Apollodorus the Cyrenian, See. This is
the do£trine -of Mr Harris ; from which, though we
have the higheft refpedd for the learning of the author,
we feel ourfclves obliged to diffent. In the examples
given, the article the is certainly not affociated with
the words Grammarian and Cyrenian, in the fame man¬
ner in which it is aflbeiated with the word man in the
fentence—“ The man that hath not mufic in liimfelf,”
&c. When we fay Apollodorus the Cyrenian, we may,
without folly or impertinence, be afked—the Cyrenian,
what (g) ? And the moment this queftion is anfvver-
ed, it will be feen that the article defines, not an adjec-
K ■ tive, but a fubfantive. If the anfwer be, the Cyrtnlan
philofopher, the article the is affociated with the word
philofopher, and the phrafe Apollodorus the Cyrenian, is
an abbreviation of Apollodorus the philofopher of Gyrene.
In like manner, Trypho the grammarian, is Trypho the
grammarian writer, or Tryphq the writer of grammar.
Such abbreviations are very common. We familiarly
||. fay the speaker, and are underftcod to mean a high
officer in the Britiffi parliament: yet asfpeaker is a
name common to many men, we may, without impro¬
priety, be alked, what fpeaker we mean ? and if.fo, we
miift reply, the fpeaker of the houfe of commons. But that
which is eminent is fuppofed to be generally known ;
and therefore, in common language, the speaker is
deemed a fufficient defignatioti of him whoprefides over
the lower houfeof parliament. Hence,by an eafy tranfi-
tion, the definite article, from denoting reference, comes
to denote eminence alfo ; that is to fay, from implying
an ordinary pre-acquaintance, to prefume a kind olge¬
neral and uni'oerfal notoriety. Thus a king is any king
but the king is that perfon whom we acknowledge
for our Sovereign, the king of Great Britain. In Greek
too, as in Engliih, the article is often a mark of emi¬
nence ; for the poet meant i/cTner, and the stagy-
rite meant Arlflotle ; not but that there were many
poets befides Homer, and many fagyrites befides Arif ode,
but none equally illuftrious.
The31 32’ •^c^ore we difmifs the article, we ihall pro-
utiUfy'of1 c*uce olie example t0 fll0w the utility of this fpecies of
this fpecies words ; which, although they may feem to be of fmaH
of word:, importance, yet, when properly applied, ferve to make
a few general terms fufficient for expreffing, with ac¬
curacy, ail the various objedts about which mankind can
have occafion to converfe. Let man be the general
term, which I have occafion to emplpy for the purpefe
of denoting fome particular. Let it be required to
exprefs this particular as unknown; I fay a man
Known ; I fay the man :—Definite ; a certain man :—
Indefinite ; ant man :—Prefent, and near ; this man : —
Prefent, and at fome difiance ; that man :—Like to fome
other; such a man :—Different from fome other; ano¬
ther man —dn indefinite multitude ; many men :—A de¬
finite multitude ; a thousand men ; — The ones of a multi¬
tude, taken throughout; beery man : — The fame ones taken
with difiinBion; each man :—Taken in order ; first man,
second man, &c : The whole multitude of particulars ta¬
ken colledively ; all men:—The negation of that multi¬
tude ; no man :—A number of particulars prefent and near;
these men :—At fome difiance, or oppofed to others ; those
men : — A number of individuals feparated from another
number ; other men:—A fmall indefinite slumber', few
men :—A proportionally greater number ; more men :—A
fmaller number ; fewer men :—And fo on we might go
almoft to infinitude. But not to dwell longer upon
this fubjedl, we {hall only remark, “ that minute chan¬
ges in principles lead to mighty changes in effedts ;
fo that principles are well intitled to regard, however
trivial they may appear.”
CHAPTER III.
(^/'Pronouns, or Substantives of the fecond
order.
33. To men who are neither intoxicated with their
own abilities, nor ambitious of the honour of building
new fyftemf, little pleafure can accrue from differing
upon points of fcience from writers of great and de-
ftrved reputation. In fuch circumftances a man of
modefty, although he will not upon the authority of a
celebrated name adopt an opinion of which he per¬
ceives not the truth, muff always advance his own no¬
tions with fome degree of diffidence, as being confci-
ous that the truth, which he cannot perceive, may be
vifible to a keener and mpre perfpicacious e^e. In
thefe circumftances we feel ourfelves with regard to
fome of the moft celebrated writers on grammar, from
whom, concerning one or two points, comparatively in¬
deed of but little importance, we have already been
compelled reludiandy to differ. In treating of pro¬
nouns we are likely to deviate ftill farther from the
beaten track; but that we may not be accufed of adling
the part of dogmatiffs in literature, and of claiming
from others that implicit confidence which we refufe
to give, we ffiali ftate with fairnefs the commonly re¬
ceived opinions, point out in what refpedts we think
them erroneous, affign our reafons for calling them in
queftion, and leave our readers to judge for themfelves.
The. moft celebrated writer in Englifti who has treated
of pronouns, and whom, fince the publication.of hisZfer-
mes, moft other writers have implicitly followed, is Mr
Harris, who, after a ftiort introduftion, proceeds thus:
34. “ All converfation paffes between individuals The'com--
who will often happen to be till that inftant unacquaintedmoa\y lup—
with each other. What then is to be done ? How {hallPofe(1 im-
the fpeaker addrefs the other, when he kndws not hisp™^ajthe:
name? or how explain himfelf by his own name, of pronouns, .
which the other is wholly ignorant ? Nouns, as they
have
(g) Man or child, philofopher, orator, poet,’ or foldier, &c. ?.
4S
GRAMMAR.
Chap. II.
have been defcribed, cannot anfwer this purpofe. The
firft expedient upon this occafion feems to have been
pointing, or indication by thcjingerorhand ; fome traces of
which are full to be obferved, as a part of that aftion
which naturally attends our fpeaking. But the au¬
thors of language were not content with this : they
invented a race of words to fupply this pointing', which
words, as they alwaysJloodfor fuljlantives or nouns, were
characterized by the name of pronouns. Thefe alfo
they diftinguifhed into three feveral forts, calling them
pronouns of the jirjl, the fecond, and the thirdperfon, with
a view to certain dillindlions, which may be explained
as follows.
<f Suppofe the parties eonverfing to be wholly un¬
acquainted, neither name nor countenance on either
fide known, and the fubjedl of the converfation to be
thefpeaker hiwfelf. Here to fupply the place of point¬
ing, by a word of equal power, the inventors of lan¬
guage furnifhed the fpeaker with the pronoun I ; I
write, I fay, I defire, &c.: and as the fpeaker is always
principal with refpeft to his own difeourfe, this they
called, for that reafon, the pronoun of thefirjl perfon.
“ Again, fuppofe the fubjedt of the converfation to
be the party addrejfcd. Here, for fimilar reafons, they in¬
vented the pronoun thou; thou writef, thou walkejl,
Sic.: and as the party addreffed is next in dignity
to the fpeaker, cr at leaft comes next with reference to
the difeourfe, this pronoun they therefore called the
pronoun of thefecond perfon.
“ Laftly, fuppofe the fubjeft of converfation neither
the fpeaker nor the party addrefled, but fome third ob¬
ject different from both. Here- they provided another
pronoun, he, she, or it; which, in diftinftion to the
two former, was called the proftoun of the third perfon :
And thus it was that pronouns came to be diftinguifhed
by their refpeftive persons.”
36. The defeription of the different persons here
given is taken, we are told, from Priscian, who took
it from Apollonius. But whatever be the deference
due to thefe ancient mafers, their learned pupil, though
guided by them, feems not to have hit upon the true
and diftinguijhing charaCieriflic of the pcrfonalpronouns.
He fuppofes, that when the names of two perfons
convening together are known to each other, they
may, by the ufe of thefe names, exprefs all that the
perional pronouns exprefs : but this is - certainly not
true. To us, at leaft, there appears to be a very ma¬
terial difference between faying, George did this,”
and “ I did this ;” nor do we think that the power of
the pronoun would be completely fupplied by the name,
even with the additional aid of indication by the hand.
So when one man fays to another, with whom he is
conyeriing, “ James did fo. and fo ;” it is furely not
equivalent to his faying, “ you did fo and fo.” If
fuch were the cafe, one might pertinently afk, when
both perfons are known to each other, Why do they
ufe the perfonal pronouns ? Mr Harris tells us, that
“ when the fubjeft of converfation is the fpeaker him-
felf, he ufes I; and when it is the party addreffed, he
ufes thou.” But in faff the nature df the perfonal pro¬
nouns has no fort of connection with the fubjecl of con¬
verfation, whether that converfation relate to the fpealer,
the party addreffed, or a Greek look. In this fentence,
“ that the three angles of every triangle are equal
to two right angles,” Wxtfpeaker is furely not thefub-
N° 142.
je8 of the difeourfe : nor is the party addrejfcd, but the
truth of his ajfcrtion, the fubjeci of difeourfe in the follow¬
ing fentence ;—“ You fay, that Horne Tooke's Diverfons
of Parley is the moft malterly treatife on grammar, fo
far as it goes, that you have ever feen.” Mr Harris
ufes the phrafe, becoming the fubjeQ of converfation, in no
other fenfe than that when the fpeaker has occafion to
mention himself, he ufes /; when tie party addrejfed,
thou ; and when fome other perfon or thing, he, she, or
it : but we know that he may ufe other words, by m
means equivalent to the two firjl of thefe pronouns, which
will fufficiently mark himfelf, and the party addrejfed;
and that he may ufe indifferently, and without the
fmalldl injury to the fenfe, either the third pronoun, or
the word for which it is merely a fubfiitute. A man
who bears various characters, may defign himself by
any one of them. Thus Mr Pitt may fpeak of him¬
felf is firjl lord of the treafury, chancellor of the exche¬
quer, or member for the univerfity of Cambridge; and in
each cafe he would be what Mr Harris calls the^^fe<? of
converfation: yet every one feels that none of thefe de¬
fign at ions is equivalent to I. What then is the force
of the perfonal pronouns ?
37. It appears to be fimply this : Thefir/l denotesphe'reat
the fpeaker, as characterized by the present aft OF;mportof
speaking, in contradifiinEtion to every other ch.fTaffer which them,
he may bear. The fecond denotes the party addreffed, as
characterized by the present circumstance of being
addressed, in contradiJlin8ion to every other char abler, See.:
And what is called the/>er/oH ofthel^hv/pronoun ismere-
ly a negation of the other two, as the neuter gender is a
negation of the mafeuline andfeminine. If this account of
the perfonal pronouns be true, and we flatter ourfelves
that its truth will be obvious to every body, there is
but one way of expreffing by other words the force of
the pronouns of the firjl and fecond perfon. Thus,
“ The perfon who now fpeaks to you did fo and fo,”
is equivalent to “ / did fo and fo ;” and “ The perfon
to whom I now addrels myfelf did fo and fo,” is equi¬
valent to “ You did fo and fo.”
Hence we fee why it is improper to fay the I or the
thou ; for each of thefe pronouns has of itfelf the force
of a noun with the definite article prefixed, and denotes a
perfon of whom fomething is predicated, which di/ling uifhes
him from all other perfons. I is the perfon who now
fpeaks, thou is the perfon who is now addrejfed by the
fpeaker. Hence too we fee the reafon why the pronoun
/ is faid to bC of the firjl, and the pronoun thou of the
fecond perfon. Thefe pronouns can have place only
in converfation, or when a man, in the character of a
public fpeaker, addreffes himfelf to an audience ; but it
is obvious, that there mufi be a fpeaker before there can
be a hearer ; and therefore, that the pronouns may fol¬
low the order of nature, /, which denotes the perfon
of the fpeaker, xt\rx§. take place of thou, which denotes
the perfon of the hearer. Now the fpeaker and the
hearer being the only perfons engaged in converfation
or declamation, I is with great propriety called the
pronoun of the firjl, and thqu the pronoun of the fe¬
cond perfon. We hat^ faid, that, with refpeft to pro¬
nouns, the third perfon, as it is called, is merely a nega¬
tion of the other twt. This is evident from the flighted
attention to the import of thofe words which are call¬
ed pronouns of the third perfon. He, she, or if, denotes
not the perfon either of the fpeaker or of the hearer;
49
Chap. HI.
GRAMMAR.
and, as we have juft obferved, no other perfon can have
a (hare in converfation or declamation. An abfent per-
fon or an abfent thing may be the fubjeB of converfation,
but cannot be the fpeaker or the perfon addrefied. He,
she, and it, however, as they Jland by themfefaes, and
a {fume \hz power of nouns, are very properly denominated
pronouns; but they are notperfomlpronouns in any other
fenfe than as the negation of fex is the neuter gender,
38. We have already feen that nouns admit of num¬
ber ; pronouns, which ate their fubftitutes, likewife ad¬
mit of number. There may be many fpeakers at once
of the fame fentiment, as well as one, who, including
himfelf, fpeaks the fentiment of many : fpeech may
likewife be addreffed to many at a time, as well as to
one ; and the fubjeft of the difcourfe may likewife be
many. The pronoun, therefore, of every one of the
perfons muft admit of number to exprefs this fingula-
rity of plurality. Hence the pronoun of the fir ft per¬
fon I, has the plural we ; that of the fecond perfon
thou has the plural ye or you ; and that of the third
perfon he, she, or it, has the plural they, which is
equally applied to all the three genders.
The Greeks and Romans, when addreffing one per-
t fon, ufed the pronoun in the lingular number Thou ;
whereas, in the polite and even in the familiar ftyle,
we, and many other modern nations, ufe the plural
34 you. Although in this cafe we apply you to a ftngle
The fecond perfon, yet the verb muft agree with it in the plural
0I1un number; it muft neceffarily be, you have, not you haft.
ufed in the You was—the fecond perfon plural of the pronoun placed
luralnum-in agreement with ihe frfl or third perfon fingular of
er when j;jie is an enormous, though common, folecifm,
^fon^s which ought to be carefully avoided. In very folemn
addiefied. ftyle> as when we addrefs the fupreme Being, we ufe
thou—perhaps to indicate that he is God alone, and that
there is none like unto him; and we fometimes ufe the
fame form of the pronoun in contemptuous or very
familiar language, to intimate that the perfon to whom
we fpeak is the meanejl of human beings, or the dear-
eft and mojl familiar of our friends. A king, exerting
his authority on a folemn occafion, adopts the plural
of the firft perfon, “ we ftridlly command and
charge j” meaning, that he a&s by the advice of coun-
fellors, or rather as the reprefentative of a whole people.
But in all cafes in which the ufe of the pronoun deviates
from the nature of things, the verb in concord deviates
with it; for, as will be feen afterwards, thefe two
words univerfally agree in number and perfon.
-5 39. But though all thefe pronouns have number.
The pro- neither in Greek, Latin, or any modern language, do
nou"s thofe of the frfl and fecond perfon carry the diftinftions
fecund per^ ^ex‘ reH^on is obvious ( h), namely, thatfex and
fons have VoL. VIII. Parti.
all other properties and attributes whatever, except
thofe mentioned above as defcriptive of the nature of
thefe pronouns, are foreign from the intention of the
fpeaker, who, when he ufesthe pronoun I, means the
person who now speaks,—no matter whether man
or woman : and when the pronoun thou—the per¬
son—no matter whether man or woman—to whom g
he now addresses himself—and nothing more. in this .v-
But the pronoun of the third perfon denoting neither fpett the
the fpeaker nor the hearer, but the fubjetd of the dif- PronoVn of
courfe, and being merely the fubftitueof a noun which
may be either mafculine, feminine, or neuter, muft of ne- differs from
ceffity agree with the noun which it reprefents, and the firft and
admit of a triple diftin&ion fignificant of gender. Inlecond.
Englifti, which allows its adjeclives no genders, this
pronoun is he in the mafculine, she in the feminine, and
it in the neuter; the utility of which diftin&ion may
be better found in fuppofing it away. Suppofe, for
example, that we fhould in hiftory read thefe words:
He caufedhim to defray him—and were informed that
the pronoun, which is here thrice repeated, flood each
time for fomething different; that is to fay, for a
man, for a woman, and for a city, whofe names were
Alexander, Thais, and Perfepolis. Taking the pro¬
noun in this manner—diveiled of its gender—how
would it appear which was deftroyed, which the de-
itroyer, and which the caufethat moved to the deftruc-
tion ? But there is no ambiguity when we hear the
genders diftinguiftied: when we are told, with the
proper diftin&ions, that she caufed him to defray it,
we know with certainty, that the promoter was the wo¬
man ; that her infrument was the hero; and that the
fulfil of their Cruelty was the unfortunate city.—From
this example we would be «irprifed how the Italians,
French, and Spaniards, could exprefs themfelves with
precifion or elegance with no more than two variations
of this pronoun.
40. Although, in every language with which we are T,
acquainted, there is but one pronoun for each of the^f Ci
firft and fecond perfons; and although it is obvious noues.
from the nature and import of thofe words, that no
more can be neceffary; yet the mere Englifb reader
may perhaps be puzzled with finding three diftinft
words applied to each ; I, mine, and me, for the. firf
perfon ; thou, thine, and thee, for the fecond. The
learned reader will fee at once that the words mine
and me, thine and thee, are equivalent to the genitive
and accufative cafes of the Latin pronouns of the firft
and fecond perfons. That mine is a pronoun in
the poffeffive cafe, is obvious; for if I were aikcd
“ whofe book is that before me ?” I fhould reply 
“ It is mine (1) meaning that it belongs to me.
G That
tions to de- “ " —  :    — —
andVhy. (H) The reafon affigned by Mr Harris and his followers, is, that “ the fpeaker and hearer being generally
prefent to each other, it would have been fuperfluous to have marked a diftin&ion by art, which from na¬
ture and even drefs was commonly apparent on both fides.” This is perhaps the beft reafon which their de-
fcription of the perfonal pronouns admits, but it is not fatisfadtory ; for tiie fpeaker and hearer may meet in the
dark, when different dreffes cannot be diftingrjifhed.
(1) If we miftake not, Dr Johnfon has fomewhere affedted to ridicule Biftiop Lowth for confidering the
word mine as thepojfejftve cafe, of the pronoun of the firft perfon. According to the Dodlor, mine is the fame
word with the pronominal adjedtive my ; and was anciently ufed before a vowel, as my was before a confonant.
This is not faid with the great Lexicographer’s ufual precifion. That mine was anciently ufed before a vowel is
certain ; but it does not therefore follow, that it is the fame word with my. If it were, we might on every
occafion
JO GRAM
That the word me is the fame- pronoun in the cafe
which the Latin grammarians call the accufative,
is evident from the import of that word in the fen-
tence he admires me, where the admiration is fup*
pofed to proceed from ( K) the perfon fpoken of to the
perfon ’whofpeaks. It appears therefore, that though
Englilh nouns have only two cafes, the nominative and
pojfejjive, the pronouns of that language have three, as
J, MINE. ME ; THOU, THINE, THEE ; HE, HIS, HIM, &C.
That thefe are cafes, can be queftioned by no man who
admits that met, mihi, me, are cafes of the Latin pronoun
ego. Both pronouns, the Latin and the EngUjh, are irre¬
gularly inflefted : and perhaps thofe words which, are
called the oblique cafes of each may have originally
been derived from nominatives different from ego and
I; but thefe nominatives are now loft, and mei and
mine have, beyond all difpute, the effect of the geni¬
tives of the Latin and Engli/b pronouns of the firft per¬
fon. Thefe variations, however, cannot be looked
upon as an effential part of language, but only as a par¬
ticular reiinement invented to prevent the difagreeable
repetition of the pronoun, which muft frequently
have happened without fuch a contrivance. This feems
to have been the only reafon why pronouns have been
endowed with a greater variety of cafes than nouns.
Nouns are in themfelves greatly diverfified. Every
genus and every fpecies of objects has a diftinCt name,
and therefore the famenefs of found does not fo often
occur among them as it would among -the pronouns,
without cafes, where the fame I, thou, he, she, or
it, anfwers for every objeft which occurs in nature :
butby this diverfity in the form of the words, the cacopho-
nia, which would be otherwife difgufting, is in a great
meafure avoided. It is, * ibably, for the fame reafon,
that the plural of each of thefe pronouns is fo very dif¬
ferent from the Jingular. Thus from I, mine, me,
in the Angular, is formed, in the plural, we, ours, us ;
from thou, thine, and thee, ye or you, yours, you ;
and from he, she, it, his, hers, its, him, her, it, in
the lingular, they, theirs, them, in the plural. In all
of which there is not the leaft refemblance between
the Angular and plural of any one word : and except
in he, his, him ; it, its ; they, theirs, them; there is
not any Amilarity between the different cafes of the
38 fame word in the fame number,
and ffecoud 41 • From the account here given of the perfonal
perfonal pronouns, it appears that the Aril or fecond will, either
pronouns of them, coalefce with the third, but not with each
coelefce other. For example, it is good fenfe, as well as good
with the . r • 1 6 t 6
third. grammar, to lay in any language, I am he—thou art
he—we were they—you. were they ; but we cannot
fay—I am thou—nor thou art I—nor we are you,
&c. The reafon is, there is no abfurdity for the
f ealer to be the fulfil aifo of the difcourfe, as when
it is faid— / am he; or for the perfon addrejfed, as when
we fay, thou art he. But for the fame perfon, in the
fame circumftances, to be at once the fpeaker and the
party addreffed, is impoffible ; for which reafon the
MAR. Chap. IIIC
coalefcence of the pronouns of the Arft and fecond
perfons is likewife impoffible.
42. I, thou, he, she, and it, are all that are ufually 39 .
called perfonal pronouns. There is another clafs of^j°”|j^
words, which are called fometimes pronominal adfai-ves, t;ves>
fometimes- adjctlive pronouns, fometimes pojfejjive pro¬
nouns ; and by one writer of grammar they have been
moft abfurdly termed pronominal articles. It is not
worth while to difpute about a name ; but the words
in queftion are my, thy, her, our, your, their. Thefe
words are evidently in the form of adjectives : for, like
other Engliih adjectives, they have no variation to in¬
dicate either gender, number, or cafe; and yet they are
put in concord with nouns of every gender and both num¬
bers, as my wife, my^son, my book.—her husband, her
sons, her daughters, &c. But, though in the form of
adjeSlives, they have the power of the perfonal pronouns
in the pojfejfive cafe: my book is the book of me, or the
look of him who now speaks ; our house is the houfe of
us, or the houfe occupied by the persons who now speak ;
her husband, is the hujband of a woman who can be
known only from fomething preceding in the difcourfe ; and
their property is the property of them—of any perfons,
whether men or women, or both, who have been previ-
oufly mentioned Words which have the form of ad¬
jectives, with the power of pronouns, may, without im¬
propriety, be called pronominal adjectives; and fuch is
the name by which we fhall henceforth diftinguilh
them. To thefe pronominal adje&ives, as well as to
the perfonal pronouns, are fubjoined the words own
nndi felf—in the plural felves ; in which cafe they are
emphatical, and imply a Alent contrariety or oppoft-
tion. Thus, I live in my own houfe; that is, not in a
hired houfe. This I did with my own hand; that is, not
by proxy. This was done by myfelf; that is, not by an¬
other. The word felf fubjoined to a perfonal pronoun 40
forms alfo the reciprocal pronoun ; as, we hurtourfelves^-^ rec'''
by vain rage ; he blamed himfelf for his misfortune, Him- P™*
felf, itfelf, themfelves, are fuppofed by Wallis to be put,
by corruption, for his felf, its felf, their felves ; fo that
felf is always a fubjlantive or noun, and not a pronoun.
This feems to be a juft obfervatibn : for we fay, the
man came himfelf; they went themfelves; where the
words himfelf and themfelves cannot be accufadves but
nominatives, and were anciently written his felf, their
felves.
There are other words which are ufually ranked
under the clafs of pronouns; as who, which, what.
Thefe, when employed in alking queftions, are called
interrogative pronouns; though a name more character! ftic
might furely be found for them. Their import,
however, will be more eaftly afeertained after we have
confidered another fpecies of pronouns, which have
been denominated relatives, and with which they are
intimately connected.
43. The pronouns already mentioned may be called reiat
prepofitive, as may indeed all fubftantives, becaufe tive pro-
they are capable of introducing or leading a fentence : n°un. „
but
occafion fubftitute either of thefe for the other, without offending againft grammar, however we might injure the
found ; but we apprehend that this is not the cafe. “That book is mine,3’ is goodEnglifh; but “ that
book is my,” would be a grofs folecifm : the reafon is, that mine is * genuine pronoun, and ftands by itfelf with
the/ower of a noun; but my, being an adje&ive, cannot ftand by itfelf.
(kJ Sec Chap. 1.18,19. on the Cafes of Nouns.
51
Chap. III.
A M M A R.
but there is another pronoun which has a chara&er fer, his 'wifdom } but if there were fuch a word as />au-
peculiar to itfelf; and which, as it is never employed
but to conneS fentences, and muft therefore have al¬
ways a reference to fomething preceding, is called the
fubjuti8ive or relative pronoun. This pronoun is in
Greek, or, «> in Latin, qux, quod ; and in Eng~
llfh, WHO, WHICH, THAT.
44. In order to determine with precifion the nature
and import of the relative pronoun, it will be neceflary
to afeertain the powers which it contains, or the parts Jiantive, together with an expreflion of connexion ;
42, of fpeech into which it is capable of being refolved. and may be refolved into the genitive cafe of that fub-
Reprefents Now, it is obvious, that there is not a fingle noun, or ftantive, or into the nom/wa/iw with the paiticle o/'pre- Of the
any noun, prepoftive pronoun, which the relative is not capable of fixed, which, in Englifli, correfponds to the termina-^'me im*
nr rrmn. reprefejiting : for we fay, I, who faw him yeferday, tion of the genitive in the ancient languages. That W1];^
caniiot be mtjlaken ; you, Who did not fee him, may have the»member of a fentence, in which there is a relative, prepofiuon
been mi/informed; they, who neither faw nor heard, can may, in every inftance, be analyfed in the fame man- of.
know nothing of the matter; the things, which he exhi- ner, will be apparent from the following examples.
ciloquens, that quality might very properly be
preffed by it, and the phrafe vir fapit pauciloquens
would exprefs the fame affertion with vir fapit qui pauca
loquitur.
Now if a relative claufe exprefles that which might
be expieffed by an adjective, the prefumption is, that
it may be refolved into the fame conftituent parts. But
every adjective contains the powers of an abfraB fub-
r prepo-
fitive pro¬
noun ;
bited, were wonderful. From thefe examples it is ap¬
parent, in the firft place, that the relative contains in
itfelf the force of any other prc/ioun ; but it contains
fomething more.
45. If from any fentence in which there is a re¬
lative, that relative be taken away, and the prepofitive
pronoun, which it reprefents, be fubftituted in its
Vir qui fapit, vir fapiens, and vir fapientia ; “ a man
who is wife, a wife man, and a man of wifdomare
certainly phrafes of the fame import. Again, homo?
cui ingratus ef animus, malus ft amicus, may be tranflated
into Greek, ax-xpio-ha; xaio; y,nla.i <pthoc-t and into
Englifli, “ the man of ingratitude is a bad friend.”
47. Thus then it appears, that the relative pronoun
43
And con¬
tains be¬
tides the
force of a
connective.
ftead, the fentence will lofe its bond of union, and ftand contains in itfelf the force of iht prepofitive pronoun,
quite loofe and unconnected. Thus, if inftead of fay- together whh that connedion implied in Englifli by the
ing the man is wife who fpeaks little, we fliould fay prepofition of, and in the ancient languages by the
the man is wife he fpeaks little, the fentence would be genitive cafe. When one fays, vir fapit qui pauca loquitur,
refolved into two ; and what is affirmed of the man’s the relative claufe qui pauca loquitur exprefles that attri-
wifdom. would have no connection with the circum- bute of the man from which his wifdom is inferred : it
fiance of his fpeaking little. Hence it is evident, in the is conceived by the mind, as ftript of its propofitional
fecond place, that the relative contains the force of a form, and (landing in the place of a fubftantive noun
governed in the genitive cafe by vir. The whole fen¬
tence might be thus .tranflated, “ the man of little
fpeaking is wife}” or, did the ufe of the Englifli lan¬
guage admit of it, “ the man of he fpeaks little is wife.”
In like manner, when it is faid, “ Man who is born of
a woman is of few days and full of trouble ;”—the re¬
lative claufe is equivalent to an abfratl noun in the ge¬
nitive cafe, and the whole might be exprefled in the
following manner, “ man of he is. born of a woman is of
few days and full of trouble.”
We are fenfible, that thefe expreffions into which,
in the inftances adduced, we have refolved the relative
claufes, will appear extremely uncouth and offenfive;
but we mean not to recommend them as common modes
of phrafeology. Againft their being employed as fuch.
conneSive as well as of the prepofitive pronoun. What
kind of connexion it denotes, is next to be afcer-
tained.
46. It may be laid down as a general principle,
“ that, by means of the relative pronoun, a claufe of a
fentence, in which there is a verb, is converted into the
nature of an adjeaive, and made to denote fome attribute
of a fubfance, or fome property or circumfance belonging
to the antecedent noun.” Thus, when it is faid, homo
qui prudentia prteditus ef, the relative claufe—qui pru-
dentia praditus ef, exprefles nothing more than the qua¬
lity of prudence in concrete with the fubjeQ homo, which
might have been equally well expreffed by the adjeCtive
prudens. In like manner, when we fay, vir fapit qui
pauca loquitu?, the relative claufe exprefles the property t a 0 ...
otfpeaking little as belonging to the man, and as being prefent ufe loudly remonftrates (l). They are intro-
that quality which conftitutes, or from which we in- duced only with a view to (how the true import of the
• G 2 relative
(l) It is worthy of obfervation, however, that, repugnant as fuch expreffions are to the prefent idiom of the
Englifli language, there is nothing in the nature of the thing that could render the ufe of them improper. All
prepoftions. as will be feen afterwards, are expreflive of relations fubfifting between thofe objects of which they
comieft the figns in difeourfe. Thofe objefts may be denoted, either by fngle words, and then the prepofition
will govern a noun ; or by ajfertions, and then it will govern a nominative and a verb. Thus, when it is faid
“ I came after his departure the prepofition after exprefles the relation between two events —wyi comiwr and
his departure, and governs a fubftantive noun : but if it be faid, “ I came after he departed,” the prepofition
in this cafe (for, as (hall be (hown afterwards, it is abfurd to call it, in the one inftance, a prepofition, and
in the other a conjunction) exprefles the fame relation as before, but governs'a nominative and a verb.
This lad expreffion is exaftly fimilar to thofe employed above. When one fays, for example, “ the man of
he fpeaks little is wife —however uncouth the expreffion may appear from its not being fupported by the au¬
thority of cuftom, the prepofition of is ufed precifely in the fame manner, and ferves the very fame purpofe,
as when it is faid, “ the man of little fpeaking is wife.” In both cafes it denotes the relation between the two
objects
52
GRAM
relative pronoun; and for that purpofe they are well
adapted That pronoun feems to be of ufe only when
there is a deficiency of adjeftives or fubjlaniives to denote
fome complex attribute by which we want to limit a gene¬
ral term or exprefion. Where fuch adjeftives or fubltan-
tives exiil in language, we may indeed ufe the relative
or not at pleafure. Thus we may fay, homo qui gran-
dia loquitur, or homo grandiloquus\ becaufe the adjeSive
r.-nd the relative claufe are precifely of the fame meaning.
But if the Latins were called upon to tranfiate avSpayof
KuMuTax-l'ie, we believe they muft have made ufe of the
relative pronoun, as we know not any correfpondent ad-
jeftive in their language.
48. The learned and ingenious Mr Harris has, in
his Treatife on Univerfal Grammar, given an analyfi*.of
the relative pronoun very different from that which has
MrHsr- been given by us. The refult of his inquiry is, that
ris’smif- the relative is equivalent to another pronoun, together
fa!v t*1‘s with an expreflion of connexion of that kind which is
u Jei' ’ denoted by the particle and. This analyfis he exem¬
plifies, and endeavours to confirm by the following fen-
tence : “ Light is a body which moves with great ce¬
lerity.” Now, fays he, inftead of which fubftitute
the words and it, and in their united powers you fee
the force and charafter of the pronoun here treated.
But let any one attentively confider thefe two expref-
fions,—“ Light is a body which moves with great ce¬
lerity,”—and “ Light is a body and it moves with
great celerity and he will find that they are not pre¬
cifely equivalent. For to fpeak in the language of lo¬
gic, there is in the jirjl but one propofuion, of which
the fubjea is light, and the predicate a complex term ex-
preffedby the words—body which moves with great cele¬
rity. In the fecond there are two propofitions, or two
predications concerning light;—>firft, that it is a body; and
fecondly, that it moves with great celerity. The relative
claufe, in the firft cafe, expreifes a property of the ante¬
cedent body, which with that property is predicated of
the fubjedl light; in the fecond cafe, this property is
removed from the predicate of which it was an eflenrial
part, and is improperly converted into a new predication
M A R. Chap. III.
of the fubjcil. The fentence may be rcfolved upon our
principles,and its precife import preferved; as—Light
is a body of it moves with great celerity;” the claufe—“ it
moves with great celerity,” is conceived by the mind
as having the force of an abjlrad fubjlantive, and is con-
ne&ed with the antecedent body by the prepofition of,
anfwering to the termination of the genitive cafe. This
abftraft fubftantive thus conne&ed expreffes a quality of
the body light. But by this example Mr Harris’s
doftrine is not exhibited in all its abfurdity : let us try
it by another.
Suppofe the following affertion to be true ;
“ Charles XII. was the only monarch who conquer¬
ed kingdoms to bellow them On his friends.” Here it
is evident there is but one propofition, of which the
predicate is exprefied by the words—“ only monarch
who conquered kingdoms to bellow them on his
friends ;” lb that the relative claufe is a necejfary part of
the predicate, and has, like an abjlraft qoun in the ge¬
nitive cafe, the effebt of modifying the general term
monarch. Refolve this fentence on Mr Harris’s prin¬
ciples, and you have two propofitions, of which the
firil is a notorious falfehood :—“ Charles XII. was.
the only monarch; and he conquered kingdoms to be¬
llow them on his friends.” But inftead of and fubfti¬
tute of—faying, “ Charles XII. w'as the only mo¬
narch of he conquered kingdoms to bejlow them on his
friends,” and you preferve the true import of the ex-
preffion (m).
49. Are there no cafes, then, in which the relative
may be refolved into the connective and with a prepo-
fitive pronoun? Undoubtedly there are, and we lhall
now endeavour to afcertain them. .
Adjeftives in language have two different effedls up- In fome
on the fubftantives to which they belong, according cafes Mr
to the nature of the attribute which they exprefs. if Harris’s
the attribute expreffed by the adjeftive be competent tG^e rela-°
all the fpecies of which the fubftantive is the fpecific tive may be
name, it is plain that the adjeblive does not or admitted.
limit the fubilantive, for this obvious reafon, that no¬
thing can modify which is not difcriminative. Thus,
when
objefts — man and little fpeaking; only in the one it is prefixed to a noun, in the other to an affertory claufe of a
fentence, the import of which is to be taken as a noun. Cuftom hath indeed determined that prepofitions (hall
more frequently govern a noun than a nominative and a verb j but they are, in their own nature, equally well
adapted to anfwer both purpofes.
But, as the pronoun of the third perfon is merely the fubftitute of fome noun, an objector may a lit, What noun
is here reprefented by he? “ The man of he fpeaks little is wife !” Who is meant by the pronoun he? We an¬
fwer, the man who is declared to be wife. The obje&ion proceeds from inattention to the radical fignification
of the word of, which a late ingenious writer has fhown to be the fragment of a Gothic or Anglo-Saxon word,
lignifying confequence or offspring. If this be admitted, and, after the proofs which he has given, we think it
cannot be denied, the uncouth phrafe, “ The man of he fpeaks little is wife,” may be thus refolved, “ The
man, a confequence (of his mind is) he fpeaks little, is wife;” or, in other words, “ The man, in confequence of
his fpeaking little, is wife.” The fame acute writer, Mr Horne Tooke, has Ihown, that of and for, though of
different radical meanings, may often be fubftituted the one for the other without injury to the fenfe. Let this
fnbftitution be made in the prefent inftance, and the propriety of the phrafe will be apparent: “ The man is
wife, for he fpeaks little.” It muft be remembered, however, that fuch a fubilitution cannot be made in every
iuftanre, becaufeyir fignifies caufe, and o/Tignifies confequence*
(m) Mr Harris was-probably led into his opinion, from confidering the Latin qui or quis as compounded c£
qae and is (fee Hermes, pag. 81, 82: edit. 3d.) But the notion of Perinonius is perhaps better founded, who
in his notes ad Sanit. Minerv. confiders it as immediately taken from the Greek ti?, which in the Doric made
and in the Latin quis. For it feems highly probable, as fome ingenious writers have endeavoured to (how, that
the Latin is a dialed of the Greek. Of this at leall we are certain, that many words in the former are imma?
ftralely adopted from the latter.
53
Chap. 1IC
GRAM M A R.
when Horace fay*, il Prata canis albicant pruinis,”
the adjeftive canis denotes a quality common to all
hoarfrqjl; and therefore cannot modify the fubjianttve,
feecaufe it adds nothing to the conception of which that
fubftantive is the name. But when the attribute ex-
prefTed by the adje&ive is competent to fome individuals
only of the fpecies of which the fubftantive is the
name, the adjective has then the effect of modifying or
limiting the fubftantive. Thus, when one fays vir bo¬
nus, he makes ufe of an adjedtive which modifies the
fubftantive vir, becaufe it expreffes a quality or attri¬
bute which does not belong to all men. .
The claufe of a fentence, in which there is a rela¬
tive, as it is in every other refpedt, fo is it in this,
equivalent to an adjective ; it either modfies, or does not
modify, the antecedent, according as the attribute which
it exprefl'es is or is not charadteriftic of the fpecies to
which the antecedent belongs. Thus, when it is faid,
“ Man, who is born of a woman, is of few days and
full of trouble,” the relative claufe—who is born of a
•woman, expreffes an attribute common to all men, and
therefore cannot modify. In like manner, when we fay
—“ Socrates, who taught moral philofophy, was
virtuous,”—the claufe, who taught moral philofophy, does
not modify. In both thefe inftances the relative claufe
might be omitted ; and it might be faid with equal
truth, “ Man is of few days and full of trouble,”—
and “ Socrates was virtuous.”
But if it be faid, vir fapit quipauca loquitur, the re¬
lative claufe—qui pauca loquitur, modifies the antecedent
vir ; for it is not affirmed of every man, that he is wife,
but only offuch men as fpeak little. So—“ Charles XII.
was the only monarch who conquered kingdoms to be¬
llow them on his friends;” and, “ the man that endu-
reth to the end lhall be faved with many more ex¬
amples that will occur to every reader.
Whatffiefe ^ w'^ '3e f°und> it is only when the rela-
cafes are. tive daufe expreffes fuch a property or circumftance of
the antecedent as does not limit its fignification, that
the relative pronoun can be refolved into a prepofitive pro¬
noun with the conjua&ion and, and that in thefe cafes
the relative claufe itfelf is of very little importance.
Thus in the-affection,—“ Charles XII. was the only
monarch who conquered kingdoms to beftow them on
his friends,”—where the relative claufe is rijlri&ive, the
who cannot be refolved into and he confiftently with
truth or common fenfe. But in the expreffion, “ Man,
who is born of a woman, is of few days and full of
trouble,” the relative who may be fo refolved, at leaft
without violating truth ;—“ Man is of few days and
full of trouble, and he is born of a woman.” The only
difference between the fentence with the relative who,
and the fame fentence thus refolved,—is —that, in the
former cafe, it contains but one predication; in the lat¬
ter/wo, and thefe but loofely conne&ed.
50. Thus then it appears that the general analyfis
of the relative pronoun is into the particle of, and a pre¬
pofitive pronoun ; but that there are alfo occafions on
which it may be refolved into a prepofitive pronoun
and the particle and, without materially altering the
fenfe. Now what is the reafon of this diftin6lion ?
if the relative claufe be equivalent to nn adjective, or
to an abflraS fubftantive in the genitive cafe, it is eafy
to fee that the relative itfelf may, in every iuftance, be
refolved into another pronoun and the particle of; but
it will not perhaps be quite fo evident how it (houid in
any infiance be refolved by and. This lad analyfis has
its foundation in the nature of the particles of and<a«^;
or, to fpeak more properly, in the nature of the attri¬
bute which the relative claufe expreffes. Both the par¬
ticles of and and are ufed to link or join conceptions
together ; but with this difference, that of has the ef-
fedl of making the conceptions it connefts figure in
the mind as one oljeS’, whereas the conceptions connec¬
ted by and are ftill conceived feparatcly as before. To
explain ourfelves by an example : fuppofe we take two
words, man and virtue, which denote two diftinft ideas
or conceptions, and join them together by the particle
of, faying man of virtue ; the mind no longer views
them feparately as fignificant of two conceptions, but
of one. Take the fame words, and join them toge¬
ther by the particle and, faying man and virtue: the con¬
ceptions denoted by man and virtue are ftill viewt'd fe¬
parately as two; notice is only given that they are col¬
laterally connected.
This being the cafe, it follows, that when the rela¬
tive modifies the antecedent, or, in other words, when
the relative claufe and the antecedent denote but one
conception, the relative mull then be refolved by of,
in order to preferve this unity of conception. But when
the relative does not modify the antecedent ; that is,
when its claufe does not exprefs any neceffary part of a
complex conception ; then the conceptions or ideas de¬
noted by the relative claufe and the antecedent may be'
viewed feparately as two ; and therefore the relative may
be refolved into the correfponding prepofitive pronouft
and the particle and.
To ftate this reafoning in a light fomewhat different.
As every relative claufe, which expreffes an attribute
that is not applicable to a whole genus or fpecies, muff
neceffarily modify fome general term, that is, rcfiriS its
fignification ; and as that general term muft belong ei¬
ther to the fubjetd or to the predicate of a propofition ; it
is evident, that every fuch relative claufe is a necejfary
part of that fubjeS or predicate in which its antecedent
ftands. If therefore a relative claufe, which modifies,
be taken away either from the fubjed or the predicate of
a propofition; or if that connedion, in confequence of which
it modifies, be diftblved (which is always done when
the relative is refolved by and) ; the propofition itfelf
will not hold true. The reaion is, that the fubjed or
the predicate becomes then too general; for, in the one-
cafe, fomething is predicated of a whole genus or fpecies,
which can be predicated only of fome individuals of that
genus or fpecies ; and in the other, a general predication-
is made where only a particular one can be applied.
Thus, if it be faid, “ All men who tranfgrefs the
laws are deferring of puniffimentthe fubjed of the
propofition is expreffed by the words, “ all men who
tranfgrefs the laws.” Take the claufe of the relative
“ who tranfgrefs the laws”—away, and fay, “ all
men are deferring of punifnmentand you have a pro¬
pofition which is not true, becaufe that is affirmed of
the whole fpecies which can be affirmed only of fome
individuals. Retaining now the claufe of the relative,
but refolving it by atid, you have the fame propofition
as before; and together with it, in this inftance, ano¬
ther which is equally falfe “ All men, and they tranf¬
grefs:
54
GRAMMAR. Chap.Ill|
grefs the laws, are deferving of pumftimentthat is, guage is to reprefent the antecedent in a different cafe.
“ all men are deferving of punifhment, and all men Whenever we have occafion to ufe z fubfantive or noun
tranfgrefs the laws.” in a claufe of a fentence, and afterwards to exprefs by-
But when the attribute expreffed by the claufe of another claufe., in which there is a verb, an attribute of
the relative is charafteriftic of the genus orfpecies of the the object denoted by that fubfantivc, we then employ
antecedent, and confequently applicable to every incliui- the relative pronoun. Now it feldom happens that the
dual which that genus or fpecies comprehends, the rela- two claufes admit of the fame regimen ; and hence the
tive claufe may be entirely omitted without affe&ing cafe of the relative is often necejfarily different from that
the truth of the propofition, which is already as gene- of the antecedent, as the dafe of each muft. be accom-
ral as it can be. As in this cafe the import of the re- modated to the claufe in which it is found. Thus we
lative claufe is not refridive- of the fignification of the cannot fay, “ Deus qui colimus bonus eft;” but, “ Deus
antecedent, it is of little confequence whether the at- quem colimus bonus eft;” becaufe the re§vW« of the verb
tribute be reprefented by the conneftive part of there- colo is always the accufative. _ _ ^
lative, as of the antecedent, or be affirmed to belong to This (hows the neceffity of introducing a relative in- Why The
the antecedent in a feparate affertion. Thus it matters to thofe languages which give inflexions to their nouns, relative h
not much, whether we fay, “ Man, who is fubjedt to Were all the nouns of a language indeclinable, there “°tr^eufeful
death, ought not to be too much elated ;” that is, ac- would be little occafion for a relative ; and accordingly j"arn®d ,an ^
cording to our analyfis,—“ Man of he is fubjed to death, in Englifti it is often omitted. Examples are frequent in gllages than
our beft authors. Suffice it to quote the following.
“ For I have bufmefs would employ an age.”
, died in my (hip of calentures.”
Swift.
‘ They who a fie 61 to guefs a
»ught not to be too much elated;” or, forming the
relative claufe into a feparate aflertion, and connedting
the two by the particle and, we fay, “ Man, and he
is fubjeft to death, ought not to be too much elated.”
In the one fentence, indeed, the reafon is implied why
man fhould not be too much elated, viz. his being fubjed
to death : in the other, no reafon is affigned for this ; we
only affirm that man is fubjedt to death, and Ukewife We are not ignorant that our moft eminent gramma-
that he fhould not be too much elated : but as both af- rians confider fuch expreffions as chargeable with im-
firmations are equally true and evident, it is of little con- propriety; and we are far from recommending them
fequence, in fuch a cafe as this, whether the reafon upon in any dignified or folemn compofition. Butin the.
48 which either is founded be implied or not. inftances adduced there is not the fmalleft degree of
©onclufion r 1. From the whole of this tedious inveftis
he En- 1
gUfh.
the oljtil they cannot fee.”
Jiolingbrote.
tedious inveftigation, we obfeurity ; at leaft there is none occafioned by the omif
the relatfve ®atter ourfelves that the following conclufions are dedu- fon of the relative. The reafon feems to be, that the
pronoun^0cec* anc^ fufficiently eftablifhed : ift, That the relative mind can eafily, by an effort of its own, make the an-
pronoun contains in itfelf the united powers of a connec- tecedent unite, firft with the one claufe, and then with the
tive and another pronoun. 2dly, That of is the connec- other. Thus when it is faid—“ I have bufinefs would
tive of which, together with another pronoun, it contains employ an age ;” the mind can, without any difficulty,
the powers, as in every poffible inftance it may be re- as the word bufinefs has no inflexions, conlider it firft
folved into thefe conftituent parts, and the import of the as the objediive cafe after have, and then as the nomi-
fentence in which it has place remain unaltered. 3dly, native to Would employ : but this cannot be fo eafily
That the relative claufe of a fentence has the import of done in the ancient languages, where the termination
an abfrad fubfantive, in the ancient languages, in the of the noun is changed by the variation of its cafes.
genitive cafe ; in Englifh, with the particle of prefixed. 53. Both in the learned and in the living languages
4thly, That the relative pronoun is of necefary ufe only the relative has different forms, correfponding to the
where there is a deficiency of adjedives or fubjlantives to different genders of nouns', and by thefe it gives notice
denote fome complex attribute, by which we want to limit a whether it is applied to perfons, or to things without life,
general term or expreffion ; but that where fuch adjectives Thus in the Englifh language we fay, file man or the
or fubftantives exift in language, we may ufe the rela- woman who went to Rome', The ’tree which funds on
tive or not at pleafure. And, 5thly, That though, in yonder plain. It admits likewife, when applied to males
cafes where the relative claufe does not limit a general or females, a variation of cafes fimilar to that of the
term, the relative pronoun may, without violating truth, perfonalpronouns. Thus we fay, The man whose book is
be analyfed by and; yet fuch analyfis is never pro- now before me-. The man or woman whom Ifaw yefer-
per, as it gives two predicates to the fame fubjed, day: but the neuter admits of no fuch diftinCtien ( n );
which, in the original propofition, had but one predi- as we {ay the tree which I faw, as well as the tree which
tate. ' . funds on yonder plain. In modern languages the rela-
52. If the claufe of the relative be equivalent to an tive admits not ,of any diftinCtion to denote number:
adjeCtive, as in every inftance it feems to be, it will for we fay, The man or the men who cameyeferday; The
naturally occur, that, in the ancient languages, the man or the men of whom I fpeak.
relative fhould agree with its antecedent in gender, num- 54. In Englifti, the word that, which by fome has ,
ber, and cafe. They do agree for the moft part in been called a demonf native pronoun, by others a pronomi-tjff
gender and number; in cafe they cannot often, becaufe nql article, and by us a defnitc article, is often ufed in-f,ipplies
the very intention of introducing a relative into lan- ftead of the relative, as in the following examples: the place of
“ Hefhis Pro*
00 “ Whofe is by fome authors made the poffelfive cafe of which, and applied to things as well as perfons j
I think, improperly.” Lowth.
55
Chap. Ilf. G R A I
“ He is the fame man that I faw yefterday:—He was
the ableft prince that ever filled a throne.” With
regard to the principle upon which this acceptation of
the word that depends, we offer the following con-
je&ure.
51 In Englifh, from the cool and phlegmatic arrange-
And why ment of the language, occafioned by the want of in-
fit does fo. flex;ons and conjugations, the place of every part of a
fentence is almoft uniformly determined, and very little
variety is allowed in the collocation of the words. The
adjcSive is almofl: always placed in appofition with its
fubjiantive, and the nominative with its verb. In confe
quence of this uniformity in the collocation of the
words, the mind acquires a habit of connedling in idea
any kind of word with the place in which it is ufed to
Jland; and is naturally led to confider every word that
Hands in fuch a place as belonging to fuch a clafs. Hence
it is, we imagine, that the definitive that pafles into
the nature of the relative pronoun ; as in thofe inftances
in which it occupies the place of the relative, it was
natural to confider it as having the fame import. Yet
the word that has undoubtedly in itfelf no more the
force of the relative pronoun than the or this, or any
other definitive whatever. In fuch expreflions as the
foregoing, it is not improbable that originally the
claufe of the definitive that, which we now call the
relative claufe, was thrown in as a kind of modifying
eircumfta>ce in the following manner: “The book
(I read that) is elegant;” where the fpeaker, finding
the word look too general for his purpofe, throws in a
claufe to qualify and reftridt it, or to confine his affir¬
mation to that particular book which lie is then read¬
ing. We can eafily fuppofe, that through time the
definitive that in fuch an expreffion might be tranfpo-
fed or removed from its own place to that of the rela¬
tive : fo that the expreffion would run thus, “ The
book that I read is elegantwhich would be confi-
dered as precifely equivalent to “ The book which I
r»ead is elegant/’ This opinion is not a little confirm¬
ed by a fimilar ufe of the article in Greek, which,
though undoubtedly a definitive like the Englifli the,
is often ufed inftead of the relative pronoun. Num-
berlefs examples may be found in Homer and Herodotus,
efpecially in the latter, who feldqm ufes what is pro¬
perly called the relative. We ftiall produce one in-
iiance from each.
F.ia-iai ArptiSw Ayrr/tt/tvova TON ripi Travlav
2iv( t,CLpi*'p<f. Iliad x. 88.
OpKiotai yap puyaAonri xalu^ovlo (ABnvaiotJcil.') Siv.a
tlicc Kpf)<re<rQcti vo/u.oi(ri TOT2 ay ’SoXov Qv'izi.
Herod, Clio.
fa r* 55. We have faid that the interrogative pronouns, as
live pro- they are called, who, which, what, are intimately con-
bouhs netted with relatives; we now affirm, that the two jirjl
of thefe words are nothing but relatives, and that the
lajl contains in itfelf the united powers of a relative and
definitive. With refpetl to cafes, number, and gender,
the words who and which, when employed as interroga-
tives, differ not from the fame words when employed
as relatives', and we hold it as a maxim,, without which
fcience could not be applied to the fubjett of language,
that the fame word has always the fame radical import
in whatever different fituations it may be placed. To
underltand this, it is neceffary to obferve, that all men
have a natural propenfity tocommunicate their thoughts
5
4 M A R.
in the feweft words poffible: hence it follows, that words
are often omitted which are neceffary to complete the
conftru&ion of the fentence ; and this no where hap¬
pens more frequently than in the ufe of who and which.
In fentences where thefe words are confeffedly re/ariwr,
we often find them without an antecedent; as,
u Who fteals my purfe, fteals trafh.” Shakefpeare.
“ Which who would learn, as loon may tell the fands.”
Drydcn.
“ Qui Bavium non odit, amet tua carmina, Msvi. Virg
That is, “ He who fteals my purfe, &c.;” “ Which
he who would learn as foon, &c.;” and “ Ille qui Bavium
non odit," &c. Such abbreviations occafion noobfeurity,
becaufe from previous circumilances the hearer knows
the mind of the fpeaker and the perfons to whom he
refers. But it is not with refpeft to the relative and
antecedent only that fuch abbreviations have place : in
fentences of a different form, whole claufes are fome-
times omitted, while the meaning of the fpeaker is
made fufficiently plain. Thus when king Richard HI.
having loft his horfe in battle, exclaims,
“ A horfe ! a horfe ! my kingdom for a horfe!”
there is no complete thought exprejfed-, but the cir-
cumftances in which the king then was, enabled thofe
about him to underftand that he wanted a horfe. Ac¬
cordingly Catefby anfwers him,
“ Withdraw, my lord, I’ll help you to a horfe.”
In like manner when a perfon afles a queftion, his
expreffion is frequently incomplete ; but the tone of
his voice, or fome other circumftance, enables us to
afeertain his meaning, and to fupply, if we pleafe, the
words that are omitted. Thus when it is faid, Anfe-
cifli? nothing more is exprejfed than. If you did it (the
Latin an being nothing elfe but the Greek a-'l>fi) ; but
fome circumftance enables the pei fon who hears it to
know that the meaning is, “ Say if you did it.” Let
us apply thefe obfervations to the words who and
which. If thefe words be relatives, and if our analyfis
of the relative be juft, it is obvious, that no complete
meaning can be contained in the claufe, “ Who is
your principal friend?” for that claufe contains nothing
more than the circumftance of being your principal friend
predicated of fome unknown perfon ; “ of he is your,
principal friend.” That this is indeed the cafe, every S3'
man may be convinced, by afking himfelf what he Are merely
means by the interrogative in fuch a-fentence ; ^tive 1
for he will find it impoffible to affix to it any meaning
without fupplying an antecedent claufe, by which that
which is called an interrogative will be immediately
converted into the relative pronoun. The cuftom, how¬
ever, of language, and the tone of voice with which
the relative claufe is uttered, intimates, without the
help of the antecedent, the wilh of the fpeaker to be in¬
formed by the perfon addreffed of the name and de-
fignation of his principal friend ; and we know that
the fentence when completed is,. “ Tell me the name and
defi-nation of the perfon who is your principal friend.”
Again, when the prophet fays, “ Who is this that
cometh from Edom, with dyed garments from Boz-
rah ?” he utters but part of a fentence, which when
completed will run thus: “ Defcribe the perfon who
cometh from Edom (this is that perfon), with dyed
garments from Bozrah.” He fees a perfon coming
from Edom, of whole name and defignation he is ig¬
norant ; he calls upon fome one for information con¬
cerning
56
GRAMMAR.
Chap. IVi
corning thefe particulars; aud that there may be no
miftake, he defcribcs the unknown perfon as having
dyed garmentsfrom Bo%rah; but left even that defcription
ftiould not be fufficiently accurate, he throws in the
definitive claufe, this is that perfon, pointing at him, we
may fuppofe, with his finger.— Which, ufed as an in¬
terrogative, indicates a wilh of knowing a particular
perfon or thing out of more than one mentioned; as,
“ Which of the two did it?” that is, “ Tell me the
one of the two which did it ?” for in old Englifti
•which as a relative is often ufed, where in modern
Englifh we fhould fay <who ; and that mode of fpeech
is ftill-retained when the antecedent is omitted, and
the relative claufe employed to indicate fuch a wi(h as
that before us. What includes in itfelf the fignifica-
tion of a defnitive and a relative pronoun; as, “ from
what has gone before, what follows may eafily be
guefledwhere the word what is equivalent to that
which. When therefore we fay, “ What rude fellow
is that r” our meaning is, “ Defcribe that perfon who is
,1(. that rude fellow.” Upon the whole, then, it is evi-
Inferroga- dent, that the words called interrogatives are merely rela-
tive 1'en- tivepronouns ; and that interrogativefentences are relative
JativeVlau- c^attfes uttered in fueh circumftances as to enable the
.fes. hearer to fupply the antecedents neceffary to complete
the meaning.
56. To conclude: We have feen that substantives
are either primary or fecondary ; or, in other words,
nouns or pronouns. Nouns denote fubjlances, and thofe
either natural, artificial, or abjlraB. They moreover
denote things either general, or rpecial, or particular',
and a general or fpeivfic name is made to denote an indi¬
vidual by means of words called articles or definitives.
Pronouns are the fubftitutes of nouns, and are either
prepofitive or fubjunSive. The prepositive is diftin-
guifhed into three orders, called the firfi, the fecond, and
the third perfon. The subjunctive, otherwife called
the relative, includes the powers of all thofe three,
hwing fuperadded as of its own the peculiar force of a
connective.
CHAPTER IV.
Of Verbs.
57. The words which we have hitherto confidered
are commonly called fubfiantives primary or fecondary,
and definitives; becaufe nouns are fignificant of fubfian-
ces ; pronouns are the fubftitutes of nouns ; and the arti¬
cle ferves to afcertain the extent of the noun, and to de¬
termine whether on any occafion it be fignificant of a
whole clafs of fubftances, or only of one individual. But
55 fubftances are of importance to mankind only on ac-
h^ort* count of their various qualities or attributes ; for their
anceonly" interna^ texture is a thing of which we are profoundly
for theLr ignorant, and with which we have no manner of con-
qualities or cern. Thus, experience teaches us, that certain vege-
attnbutes. tabies are pkafant to the tafte, and wholefome food ;
whilft others are unpleafant and poifonous. The for¬
mer kinds are valuable only for their qualities or attri¬
butes -, and they are the qualities or attributes of the lat¬
ter that make them worthlefs or hurtful. A horfe is
ftrong, aud fwift, and docile ; and may be trained to
carry a man on a journey, or to drag a plough. It is
for his Jlrength, fwiftnefs, and docility, that he is the
mo ft valuable of all quadrupeds. One man is brave,
Nc 142. 1
another learned, and another eloquent; and by pofteffing
thefe different qualities or attributes, each is fitted for a
different ftation in fociety. It is plain therefore, that , \
in contemplating fubftances, our attention muft be Thert is aj
principally beftowed upon their qualities, and that the chifs of ]
words which ferve to denote thefe qualities muft be an wo-lls
effential part of language. Such words are in general butive*t
called attributives; and are of three forts, Verbs, Partici- Thefe are i
pies, and AdjeQives. verbs, par- \
58. Of all the conftituent parts of fpeech none “d'
has given the grammarians greater trouble than the adj‘aiv‘u j
verb. The vaft variety of circumftances which it
blends together in one word, throws very confiderable
difficulties in the way of him who attempts to analyfe 57 j
it and afcertain its nature ; at the fame time, that by \
its eminent ufe in language, it is intitled to all the at- certainin^
tention which can be beftowed upon it. To the dif- the nature (
cuffion of the verb, Mr Harris, whofe notions of this of the ver^
as of the other parts of fpeech have been generally
adopted by the fubfequent writers on grammar, has
dedicated a large proportion of his book, in which he
has thrown out many excellent obfervations, mixed, as
it appears to us, with feveral errors. We have already
obferved, that no man is ignorant when he ufes what
is called a verb and when a uoun. Every fchoolboy
knows, that the words is, loveth, walketh, standeth,
\n Engli/h-, and est, amat, amatur, ambulat, stat,
in Latin, are verbs : he knows likewife thu. they are
of different kinds; that fome of them are faid to be
active, fome pajfive, and fome neuter. But it fhould
feem, that the firft objedt of our inveftigation ought to
be the characlerifiic of the verb, or that which all thefe
words have in common, and which conftitutes them
verbs, diftinguifhing them from every other fpecies of
words. Now it is obvious to the llighteft attention, The cha-
that every verb, whether active, pqjfive, or neuter, may raderiftic
be refolved into the fubftantive-vcrb is, and another thc ver^'
attributive : for loveth is of the fame import with is
loving; walketh, with is walking; and amat, with
amans est. But loving, walking, and amans, are not
verbs : whence it follows, that the charaCterifiic of the
verb, that which confiitutes it what it is, and cannot be
expreffed by other words, muft be that which is fig-
nified by the word is ; and to us that appears to be
neither more nor lefs thap afifertion.
Assertion therefore, or predication, is certainly the
very essence of the verb, as being that part of its office,
and that part only, which cannot be difcharged by other
kinds of words. Every other circumftance which the
verb includes, fuch as attribute, mode, time, &c. it may
be poffible to exprefs by adjectives, participles, and ad¬
verbs ; but without a verb it is impoffible to predicate,
to affirm or deny, any one thing of any other thing.
The office of the verb, then, when ftript of all acciden¬
tal circumftances, feems to be merely this, “ To join
together the fubjedl and predicate of a propofition
its powers are analogous to thofe of the fign in
Algebra, which does not affedt the feparate value of
the quantities between which it is placed, but only in¬
dicates their union or coakfcence. To explain by an ex¬
ample : When we fay, Cicero eloquens, Cicero wife; thefe
are imperfedl fentences, though they denote a fubftance
and an attribute. The reafon is, that they want an
affertion, to fhow that fuch an attribute appertains to
inch a fubftance. But when we infert the word was,
we
Chap. IV. GRAMM A R. J7
we join the fnbflance and attribute together ; we give
notice that the uoifclom and eloquence are applied to
Cicero, and we do nothing more ; we neither increafe
the wifdom nor diminiih it, we neither make it
real nor imaginary; for it was fuppofed in all
its extent when the words Cicero and wife itoed inde¬
pendent of each other. We may indeed life the verb
in a form which implies not an ajfertion only, but like-
wife an attribute ; as when we fay, George writeth, or
George walketh: But as whitencfs or any other particu¬
lar colour is not of the ejfence of a horfe, an animal
which is found of all colours; fo in the phrafes quoted,
the attribute, though implied, is not of the ejfence of the
verb ; for it may be equally w^ell expreffed by other
words: George is writing, and George is walking, are
phrafes of the very fame import with George writeth
and George walketh.
59. In refolving es'ery verb, whether a&ive, pafiive,
or neuter, into the fubftantive-verb is and another at¬
tributive, we have the honour to agree with all the
grammarians; but to the word is itfelf the learned au¬
thor of Hermes has given a meaning which, as a verb,
it does not admit. He obferves, that before any thing
can be the fubjedf of a propofition, it muft exjl: that
all exiftence is either abfolute or qualified, mutable or im¬
mutable : that the verb is can by itfelf exprefs abfioluie
ex fence, but never the qualified, without fubjoining the
particular form ; and that it fignifies both mutable and
immutable exiftence, having in thefe cafes different
meanings; altho’the fentences which he givesasexamples
are evidently conftrufted in the fame manner and con-
fift of the fame parts of fpeech. His examples are :
of abfolute exiftence, B is; of qualified, B is an animal;
of mutable, This orange is riper, of immutable. The dia¬
meter of the fquare is incommenfuralle with its fide. But
if predication be the eff^nce of verb, all this is nothing
to the purpofe, and part of it is not true. It is not
true that the verb is ever varies its fignification ; for
it hath as verb no conne&ion with exiftence of any
kind. All fuch circumltances are fuperadded to its
verbal nature ; or, to fpeak more accurately, we infer
fuch circumftances from our previous knowledge of
the objefts concerning which the predication is made.
When we fay, “ this orange is ripe,” we do in¬
deed mean, as Mr Harris obferves, that it is fo now at
this prefint in oppofition to pafl and future time : but it
is not the verb is, but the definitive this, which fixes
the time of maturity, as well as the plact of the orange ;
for had we faid, oranges are ripe, we might have been
properly alked. When and where are they ripe ? although
the fame verb is ufed in both fentences. Even in the
fentence “ B is,” exiftence (the moft fimple of
all) is inferred, and not expreffed, by the verb; and the
inference is made from this obvious principle, “ That
when one utters a mark of predication, we naturally
conclude that he means to predicate fomething of the
fuhjeft.” If he adds no fpecifc predication, as Bis
Vol.VIII. Parti.
round, we apply to B the moll general that we can 5
and what other fpecies is fo general as exfence?
That the idea of exiftence, conlidered as mutable or
immutable, is not contained in the verb is itfelf, but is
derived from our knowledge of the obje&s concerning
which the predication is made, appears manifeftly from
this : That if a perfon be fuppofed ignorant of the
meaning of the words God and man, whilft he knows
that of is; the uttering of the two propofitions, God is
happy, and this man is happy, will give him no notice of
exigence confidered as mutable or immutable, temporary
or eternal (o). His conclufion with refpedt to thele
modes of exiftence, if any fuch conclufion be drawn at
all, muft be derived entirely from his previous know¬
ledge of the nature of God and the nature of man.
Some of our readers may poffibly think this notion
of verb too abftradt and metaphyfical; yet what other
circumftance than mere predication is elfential to that
fpecies of words ? We fay efential; for we are here in¬
quiring, not what is expreifed by each individual verb,
but what it is which is equally expreffed by all verbs,
and which diftinguilhes them from the other parts of
fpeech. And if it be true, that every thing which the
verb implies, predication alone excepted, may be exprefled
by other parts of fpeech, anil that no other part offpeech
can predicate; then we think ourfelves warranted to
affirm, that fimple predication is the effential character fie
of verb, that every word which predicates is a verb,
and that nothing is fo which does not predicate. S9
It muft not, however, be concealed, that a dodlrine 4n ot,iec"
very different from this has been lately maintained by theory.°Ur
a writer of diftinguifhed abilities. “ We have energy
expreffed,” fays Dr Gregory (p), “and of courfe a
verb conftituted, without effirmation, when we wifh or
command; without command, when we affirm or wilh;
without wfih, when we command or affirm : yet in all
thefe cafes we have equally and indifputably a verb.”
That in all thefe cafes we have a verb, is indeed in-
difputable ; but we hold it to be equally indifputable,
that in all thefe cafes we have affrmation. The inge¬
nious author has given no diredt example of a wifh or
command uttered without affirmation; and a feeling or
fentiment which is not uttered has nothing to do with
language : but he has given a fentence in which there
are three verbs, that in his opinion denote no affirma¬
tion, but a very plain fuppoftion. If a fuppoftion can
be expreffed without affirmation, we lhall very rCadilv
allow that a wifh or command may be fo expreffed like-
wife. The Dodlor’s fuppofition is thus exprtffed:
“ Had any puniihment ever overtaken you for your
broken vows ; were but one of your teeth growing
black, or even were but one of your nails growing lefs
beautiful, I fhould believe you.” It is almoft fuper-
fluous to obferve, that to every verb not in the infini¬
tive mode there muft be a nominative, and to every
aSive verb an olfia, whatever be the arrangement of
the fentence in which fuch verbs are found. Thefe
H are
(o) The truth of this obfervation may be proved by experiment, by uttering to a man of good common
fenfe thefe two propofitions, taking care to exprefs the words God and man in a language which he does not
underftand. Thus, Deus is happy, and hie homo is happy, uttered to a man totally unacquainted with the Latin
tongue, will convey no notice of exiftence confidered as mutable or immutable, &c.
(p) Theory of the Moods of Verbs, publiffied in Vol. II. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. j
58
GRAM
are truths known to every fchoolboy ; the reafons of
them flrall be given afterwards. It is likewife unde¬
niable, that iu the fentence before us, the nominative
to had is any pumjhment; - to the firft 'were, one of your
teeth; and to the fecond, one of your nails. But the
fentence arranged in grammatical order, with the fe-
veral nominatives before their refpeftive verbs, is evi¬
dently elliptical; and the conjunction if muft be fup-
60 plied, as well to complete the conllrudtion as to make
dnfweccd. Jenfe of the padage. If any punifhment had ever
overtaken you; if but one of your teeth were grow¬
ing black, or even i/'but one of your nails were grow¬
ing lefs beautiful, I ihould believe you.’' Now it has
lately been proved, by fuch evidence as leaves no room
for doubt, that if, though called a conjunSion, is in fait
a verb in the imperative mode, of the fame import with
give; fo that we may fubftitute the one for the other
without in the fmalleft. degree altering the fenfe. The
fentence will then run thus: “ Give any punifhment
had ever overtaken you ; give but one of your teeth
were growing black, See. I fhould believe you.,, It
is therefore fo far from being true, that had and ivere,
when the fentence is completed, exprefs no affirma¬
tion ; that it is only upon granting the trni}j of the
affirmation which they denote, that the fpeaker fays “ I
fhould believe you.” “ Any punifliment had ever over¬
taken you,” is plainly an affirmation ; if, give that
affirmation, admit its truth, “ I ffiould believe you.”
But it cannot be fuppofed that had and were change
their lignifications by a mere change of place, or that
by being removed from the middle to the beginning ©f a
ejaufe, they lofe their original import, and come to de¬
note fomething entirely different. Were this the cafe,
every attempt to afeertain and fix the general princi¬
ples of grammar would be as ridiculous as an attempt
to arreft the courfe of time. For what purpofe then,
it may be afkedj if the verb always denotes affirmation,
is it removed from the middle to the beginning of the
claufe, when fuppojition is implied as in the prefent in-
fiance? We anfwer, that fuppofition is neither more
nor lefs than conditional affirmation; that when fuch af¬
firmation is completely expreffed, the verb is not removed
to the beginning of the claufe ; and that fuch remo¬
val takes place only when the claufe is elliptical, being
merely an artificial contrivance in language, to fhow
the reader or hearer that fame fuch word as if, de¬
manding the truth of the affirmation, is omitted for the
fake of difpatch. This is evident; for when the
word requiring the affirmation to be granted hfupplied,
the verb muft be reftored to its place in the middle of
the claufe. Such abbreviations, and fuch contrivances
to mark them, are frequent in all languages, as will be
fecn more clearly when we come to treat of modes.
M A R. Chap. IV;
Upon the whole, notwithftanding the deference which
we willingly pay to this very mafterly writer, we ant
compelled reluctantly to differ from him, and ftill to
think thatfimple predication is the very effence of the rsRB.
Sould we be required to exemplify our theory by The theory
language, and to produce intlances of this fimplifiedltfelf exem-.
verb in praCtice, we might anfwer, that the not being
able to produce fuch inftances would be no good argu¬
ment againft the truth of our principles. It is the
nature of language to exprefs many ciicqmftanecs by
the fame word, all of which however are not effential to
diftinguifh \.\\e fpecies to which that word belongs from
the other fpecies of words ; and it is tire nature of mart
to infer from difeourfe many things which are not
actually expreffed. Perhaps, however, fomething near¬
ly approaching to an exemplification of our idea of a
Jitnple verb will be found in the following propofition ;
“ The three angles of every plane triangle equal to
two right angles.” What other office tire verb n/r here
perfoims than limply to join the fubjeti and predicate,
it is difficult to perceive. It does not give notice of
time; or fuch notice, if given, is an imperfettion ; for .
the truth of the propofition is independent on time.
Neither ought it to itafty exifience; for the propofition
would be true, were there neither a triangle nor a
right angle in nature.
This idea of verb, when it is well confidered, vve
hope will be found juft ; but fhould any of our readers
fuiptft it of novelty, and on that account be difpofed
to condemn It, we have only to requeft that he will re-
ftrain his cenfure till he has examined the writings of
others, and nicely obferved the feveral pollures of his
own mind in difcourfe ; for meditation may perhaps .
(how him that our theory is not falfe, and inquiry
will fatisfy him that it is not novel (q^). gj,
6o. But although it is certain that affertion, mi. afi The greats
fertiem only,\% effential to the verb, yet the greater parter Part of
of that fpecies of words which grammarians call wr^verhsde'
are ufed to denote an attribute as well as an affertion ; trit>ute
or, in the language of logic, they exprefs both the co- c< mbined
pula and the predicate of a propofition : thus, he liveth, A-with an aie -
•writeth, lee vualketh, are phrales equivalent in all refpedts^trU0I1‘
Vo—he is living, he is writing, he is walking. Now, of
attributes,yonre have their effence in motion, a»‘ walking;
fame in the privation, of motion, as tefling; and others
have nothing to do with either motion or its privation, as
white and black. But all motion and all privation of mo~
tion imply time as their concomitant; and a fubjlance may
have an attribute to-Ajy which it had not ytjlerday, and •
will not have to morrow. This is felf-evident; for a
man may be at reft Xo-day who yefierday was walkingt
and to morrow will be on horfbudt; and a fheet of pa¬
per may have been white yeilefday, winch to-day ia
black.
(cl) “ Btfides words, which are names of ideas in the mind, there are a great many others that are made -
ufe of, to fignify the conneSion that the mind gives to ideas or propofitions one with another. The mind in
communicating its thoughts to others, does not only need fgns of the ideas it has then before it, but others
alfo, to fhow or intimate fome particular action of its own at that -time relating to tho£e ideas. This it does .
feveral ways; as is and is not are the general marks of the mind affirming or denying.” Locke on Human Un~
derjlanding.
“ Verbum eft pars orationis variabilis, aliquid de re aliqua dici fen affifmari fignificans. Vulgaris verbi deft-.
nitio eft, quod fit pars orationis, quas agere, pati, aat effe fignificet. Sed noftra accuratior, magifque ex ipfa
veibi cujufvis natura petita videtur. Casterum to affirmaifi laxiore hie fenfu accipimus, pro eo quod praedicari *
Diale&ici appellant, quo non modo affirmationes ftrictius'fic dicla*, fed uegationes etiam interrogationefque.in-.
duduntur,” Ruddimanni Granmatiat Infiitutiones; fee alfo Br Beattie's Theory of Language,
'Chap. IV. GRAMMAR. S9
black, and at feme future time will be of a different'to- this kind, than to raife, a$ might eafily b( dote, nevt
lour. As, therefore, all motions and thtwprivation imply and hypothetical theories on the fubjeft.
tinft; and as a prnpifutnn may be true at one time, which It has been already dbferved, that all the tenfes mull
is not trne at another} all verbs, as well thofe which neceffarily mark relative time. In one fenfe, this is ex¬
denote both an attribute and an ajfertlon, as thofe which tremdy obvious. The prefent tenfe is ufed in contra¬
ct denote an ajfertlon only, come to denote time alfo : riiitincStion to both the paji and future, and marks art
AH verbs Hence the origin and ufe of tenfes, which are fo many attribute or action as exitting in neither. The/«^ and
denote different forms afiigned to each verb, to (how, without the future are in like manner ufed in contradiftindlion to
'the oHMn" Bering its principal fignifi cation, the various times in the prefent; and mark an attribute or a diton which ex-
el tenfes. which the ajferiion expreffed by it may be true. Whe- ifts not notv, but which in the one cafe has extfied for-
ther thefe various forms of the verb be ejfentlal to lan- merly, in the other will exijl at fome time coming. But
gunge, it is vain to difpute. They have place in every beiides this relation of contradijlinaion fubfifting among
language with which we are acquainted; and as the the tenfes, there is another of co-exifence, as we may call
ufe of the verb is to affirm one thing of another, it is it, to which it is of great confequence to attend—efpe-
abfolutely neceffapy that the time, when fuch or fuch cially in examining the nature of the prefent.. C6
an affirmation is true, be marked by tenfes, or fome ctleer 63. The present tense refers not only to fomething Of the p-e«
contrivance. -Concerning tenfes, therefore, we fhall which is pajl or future, but alfo to fomething 'with ^ent tenfci
throw together fome obfervations equally applicable to which the attribute Or aftion of the verb is emtempo-
every language, after premifing a general remark or two rary. This reference is neceffarily implied in its very
which feem neceffary in order to proceed with pfecifion. name ; for we cannot fay of any thing that it \s prefert,
61. Time, although its offence confifts in fucceffion without implying at the fame time that there is fome-
continued and unbroken, may yet be confidered by the thing elfe with which it is prefent. Hence it appears
mind as divided into an infinite number of parts, with how little reafon Mr and others have given
There is, however, one grand divifion which neceffa- us an uori/7 of tbz prefent, as marking prefent time inde-
g4 rily occurs, and to which the different tot/w of verbs finitely in coiitradilNndlion to other />re/e«Af, which
AH time are in all languages adapted.—Computing from fome have been called inceptive, extended, and completive pre-
Anft, pre- portion conceived to be prefent, all time is either pffi or fents. For from what has been faid it follows, that the
-ture’ 'hetKet0 come' Hence the tenfes of verbs are threefold; fome de- prefent tenfe is necejfarily and from its very nature per-
tbe tenfts noting time prefent, fome time pajl, and others time future. fe&ly indefnite, and Can of itfelf give notice of no pre-
of verbs Again, from the very nature of time, it mult be ob- cife or determinate portion or point of time whatever. A
tare three- vious, that all its parts are relative ; i. e. that no por- > Sting may have been prefent fifty years ago, may be pre-
tion of it can be afeertained by any thing inherent in lent now, or at any future period. This tenfe implies
itfelf, but only by referring it to fome other portion, the relation of co exigence between two or more things ;
with refpeft to which it xs. pajl, prefent, or to come. In but, without fome auxiliary circumftance, it cannot in
this refpeft time is perfe&ly analogous to fpace : for as any language mark the particular portion of time in which
the *fpace in which any objett exilb, cannot be de- thofe things exijl. The indefnite nature of this tenfe is
feribed but by ftating its relation to fome other fpace', indeed molt clearly feen in that ufe of it in which Mr
fo . neither can the lime of any attribute or aftion be Harris has ftyled it the aorift of the prefent; that is, in
determined, but by'ftating its relation to fome other cafes where it is employed to denote the repetition of an
time. When, therefore, we would mark the time of action which the agent is accuflomed frequently to perjarm,
any aftion or event, we muff previoufly fix upon fome or to exprefs propofitions of which the truth is evinced by
point to which we may refer it. If this point be general experience; as in the following examples :
known, the time referred to it will be known alfo ; but « Hypocrify the only evil that walks
if the former be not known, neither will the latter. “ Invifible, except to God alone.”
Lallly, in contemplating an aHion, we may have oc- “ Adpanitendum propeiat ijui cito judie.it f &c.
cafion to confider it as going on, or as fmifhed. This In thefe inllances it is plain there is no particular time
diftinftion is likewife denoted by the different tenfes of pointed out: the propofitions are true, or apprehended
verbs. In treating therefore of the tenfes, there are as true, at all times. Although the a&lons, therefore,
two things to which attention ought principally to be of walking and baflening are expreffed as prefent, it is
turned ;—the relation which the ftveral tenfes have to impoffible from the exprejfions to determine any precife
one another in refpeft of time; and the notice which they point of time when they are prefent.
give of an addon’s being completed or not completed. But if the prefent tenfe be thus indefinite, how, it
62. Having premifed thofe remarks, we proceed may be alked, are we to afeertain the particular time
j. now to the ttnfcs themfelves ; of which Mr Harris has which is intended? We anfwer, it is to be afeertained.
Different enumerated no fewer than twelve. Of this enumera- either by Jldting the aBion of the verb as exifling in fome
gramma- tion we can by no means approve ; for, without enter- time already known, or by inference. If, for example, we
rian; have jng jnt0 a nainute examination of it, nothing can be fay,—“ Millions of fpiritual creatures walk the earth
more obvious, than that his inceptive present—lam unfeen,”—the propofition is general, and the//W of
numbers oig°^ng t0 write—is a future tense ; and his Comple- walking undetermined. But if we add—“ both when
tenfes. tive present—I have written—z past tenfe. But, as we wake and when we fleep,”—the time is by this addi-
was before obferved of the clajfcation of words, we tion afeertained and fpecified ; for if the time when men
cannot help being of opinion, that, to take the tenfes wake and Jleep be known, the time when thefe fpirits
as they are commonly received, and endeavour to af- walk the earth is known alfo.—When no fpecifying
certain their nature and their differences,'is a much more claufe is given by which to determine the time of the
ufeful exercife, as well as more proper for-a work of prefent tenfe, it is very commonly determined by in-
H a ference.
GRAMMAR. Chap. IV.
fertnee. Thus, if one ufe fuch an exprefilon as—“ He 64. After having fatd fo much of the prefent tenfe,
Jleeps while I am fptaking to him”—the time of hisJleep- we lhall have but little to fay of the pr^ster-imper-
wg ia ascertained by the fubfequent claufe of the fen- fect. It ftates an adtion in refpedl of time, as pajl; 67
tence.; but if it be faid Amply—“ he fleeps”—with- and in refpeft of progrefs, as unfinifbed. Legebam—I The pra>
out afTigning any data from which it may be concluded was reading at fome-pafl time, but my reading was then
when his fleeping is prefent, we very naturally infer incomplete ; I had not hnifhed the book or the letter. Wetc ’
that it is at the infant we receive the information of his mult here obferve, however, as we did with refpedt to
lleephig. Such inferences as this are common in lan- the prefent tenfe, that although the prater-imperfect re-
guage. The mind ip defirous to obtain complete in- prefents the aftion as/a/?, it does not inform us in what
formation on every fubjedt; and therefore frequently precife portion of paf time the unfiniflred adlton was go-
fupplies to itfelf what is not expreffed in the fpeech of ing on: this circumftance muft either be given in fepa-
others. rate words, or be inferred by the hearer. If one lay
Both thefe ways of afcertaining the precife time of Amply—Legebam, the perfon to whom he addreA'es his
the prefent tenfe, are excellently illuftrated by the ufe of -fpeech will conclude, that the time of his reading ispaf
the word prefent as applied tofpace. Take a familiar ex- with refpedt to the prefent time of his fpeaking. But if
ample :—“ Hrs brothft and he were prefent when I he fay,—Legebam antequam venifi, he exprefsly ftates
read the letter.” It is at Arft fight evident that this the adtion of reading as paf with refpedt to the time in
expreftion is perfedtly indefnite. But if it be faid— which his hearer came to tine, place where they both are at
“ His brother and he were prefent at your houfe when I the time of fpeaking. The time of the prccter-imperfeit is
read the letter,”—the place of adtion is then determined, always paf with refpedt to the prefent infant when the
by being referred to a portion of fpace which is known. imperfeEt is ufed, and of this the tenfe itfelf gives notice ;
If no fuch reference be made, the perfon who hears but it may alio be paft with refpedt to fome other time,
the fpeech uttered muft either remain ignorant of the and of this it conveys no information.
place intended, or he muft afcertain it to himfelf by in- If we join two prater-imperfeP.s together, the expref-
ference; and he will probably infer it to be that in which Aon will ftate the co-exiftence of two progrefiive ac-
the fpeaker is at the time of his uttering the indeAnite tions, both of which were going on at a time pcf in
fentence. This leads us to obferve, that fuch infer- refpedt of fome determinate time given or fuppofed. “ Cum
tnces are not often made without fufiicient foundation, tu fcribebasego legebam “ when you were writing I
Various circumftances may afftft the reader or hearer was reading.” Hence the praster-imperfedt has by
in making them, and prevent all danger of miftake. fome grammarians been called the relative prefent; a
He may have the evidence of fenfe, or of fomething name which, however, is by no means exclufvely appli-
preceding in the difcourfe, and a number of other par- cable to this tenfe. When the prater-imperfeEt is by the
ticulars, to juftify and warrant his concluAon. Thus, conjundtion a/n/joined in the fame fentence with a
if when fitting by a large Are, one pronounce the words plufquam perfeEl, the two tenfes exprefs two adtions,
—“ I am too warm thofe to whom he' addreffes his both prior to the time of fpeaking ; but the one as having
fpeech are authorized to conclude, that he is too warm continued after the other was fnifhed. Thus, Eneas fpeak-
at the time of fpeaking, unlefs he exprefsly prevent the ing of the deftrudtion of Troy, fays, that after having
drawing of that concluAon by adding fome fuch claufe efcaped with his father and followers, he returned to
as—“ when I wear a great coat.” the city in queft of his wife, and went diredlly to his
It is ftridfly demonftrable, and hath by Mr Harris own houfe; but there, continues he, irruerantDsnsi,
been in fadt demonftrated, that there is no fuch thing et tedium omne/e«e^a«/.‘”—iiifitGrct'&shadrtfhedin,^
as prefenl time. Yet do we not only conceive time as that adtiou was over and completed before his arrival;
prefent and exf ing, but frequently as extended to a very but the adl of “ poftefling the whole houfe,” tenebant,
great degree. We fpeak not only of the prefent infant, was not over, but fill continuing.
or the prefent day, but alfo of the. prefent year, and even 65. But it is neceflary that the verb denote adlfons pjj,. aor;ft
of the prefent century., This manner of conceiving time which were complete or perfeEt in paf time, as well as.and piae-
15 indeed loofe and unphilofophical; but it is fufficient thofe which were incomplete or imperfeEt. For this pur- ttr-peifeft.
for the ordinary purpofes of language. To exprefs pofe, Greek and Englfh verbs have an aorif, & prater-
time as it really is, we ought to fay, thepaffing day, the perfett, and a plufquam-perfeEl. Of thefe the Latin has
paf ing year, and the paf ing century ; but in common dif- only the two iaft. The prater perfeEt in that language
courfe we denominate any portion of time prefent, in fuftains a twotold chara&er: it performs the office, of,
which the prefent now or infant is included, although the Greek and Englijh aorif, as well as of the prater-per-
it is obvious that part of that portion is pcf, and the feEt properly fo called ; that is, it denotes a Anifhed ac-
remaindtr of it future. From the very nature of time tion at fome indefnite paf time, as well as at fome time
thus conceived to be prefent, the tenfe now under con- which is both paf and definite.
Ader ation muft reprefent the action of the verb as com- In attempting to analyfe the AgniAcation of complex.
menced, and not fnifhed: for as time is in continued terms, by which we here mean words that include in
fucceflion, and accompanies every adtion ; when any their AgniAcation a variety of particulars, it is of great
^dtion is.not commenced, it exifts not in any time, though ad vantage, to have thefe particulars feparately expreffed
it may exift hereafter in time which is now future; and by dferent words in another language. Now the En-
when it \s fnifhed, it exifts.no longer in time prefent,hut glifti has refolved the tenfes, which in the Greek and
:n time paf. Hence the abfurdity of introducing into a Latin languages are denominated the aorfi and the.
theory of the ienfes an inceptive prefent and a completive prater-perfeEt, by means of what are commonly called
prefent; for thefe terms imply each a direct contra- auxiliary verbs, expreffing the former by the verb did,
and the latter by the verb have. In examining there-
Chap. IV. G R A
■ fore the aorift and prater-perfetl, it will be of ufe to
inquire into the import of thefe verbs.
Did is evidently the aori/l of the verb to do; a verb of
the moft-general fignification, as it denotes a&'o/z of
every kind. It expreifes theJinifhedperformance offame
aEtion, the completion of which mud of courfe have ta¬
ken place in fome portion ofpajl time. “ / did write
or I wrote (thefe exprefiions being equivalent) yefter-
day, a month, a year ago,” &c. But the import of
did being fo very general, it can convey no determinate
meaning without being limited by the addition of fome
particular aSion ; and this addition, however expreffed,
is to be confidered in the fame light as an accufative
cafe, governed by the aftive verb did-; for it produces
exaftly the fame effeft. ’Eypd^a, fcripf, I did write;
that rsj “ at fome paf time I performed the aSion of
writing, andfinifhedit.”
The verb have, which is included in the pmter per-
fed, is plainly a verb of the prefent tenfe denoting poff-
fion. But a man may pofiefs one thing as well as
another ; and therefore have requires limitation, for the
very fame reafon that did requites it, namely, becaufe
its fignification is perfeBly general. Now this limita¬
tion, whatever it is, mult be conceived as the thing
pojfejfed; and in inftances where have is limited by a
noun, this is obvious, and univerfaily acknowledged :
“ I have a gold watch,” is, “ I poffefs a gold watch.”
But to annex the fame meaning to the word have,
when ufed as an auxiliary verb, is an idea we believe
not common, and which may perhaps be thought
vvhimfical; yet what other meaning can be affixed to
it ? To fuppofe that words have not each a radical and
determinate fignification, is to fuppofe language a fub-
jeft incapable of philofophical invefligation ; and to
fuppofe, with Mr Harris, that there are words entirely
devoid of fignification, is at once to render all inquiries
after the principles of grammar nugatory and ridicu¬
lous. We conceive, then, that each of the phrafes,
yiypci<t>x-txi<r*\»v) fcripf epiflolam, I have written a letter,
is equivalent to the phrafe, “ I poffefs at prefent the f-
tiifhed adion of writing a letter.” Such an expreffion
may foonAhafh to the ear, becaufe it is not in ufe: but
we often employ expreffions, to the precife and proper
meaning of which we do not attend ; and if the above
be attentively confidered, however aukward it may at
firft appear, nothing will be found in it either impro¬
per or abfurd.
The aorifl, then, we conceive to Hate an aftion as
performed and fnifhed in fome pajl portion of time ; whilft
the preeter-pcrfed reprefents the paf performance and
completion of that aftion as now polfetfed. And here
we may hazard a conjecture why have, when ufed as
an auxiliary verb, is always joined with a paf parti¬
ciple ; whereas did is joined to a word exprelfing the
ftmple attion of the verb, or, as it is called, the prefent
infnitive. Of the expreffion, “ I have ivritten a let¬
ter,” as one part, viz. the verb have, denotes prefent
time; the other part, viz. written, muft denote pajl
time, to give notice that the aftion is performed and
fnifhed. Did, on the other hand, implying paf time,
has no occafion for thepcf part of another verb to give
notice of this circumftance ; for “ I did write a let¬
ter,” is equivalent to, “ at fome paft time \ performed
and finilhed the fmple adion of writing a letter.”
M M A R. 61
The principal diftinftion in praftice between the 69
aorf and prater-perfed (for the difference feems littleThePr.’n"
in their real import) confilts in the time by which theftinftion
performance of the aftion admits of being particularly bet-uttn
fpecified. The pr£ter-perfed is always joined with a thefe ten-
pot tion of time which includes the prefent now or in-fes>
font; for otherwife it could not fignify, as it always
does, the prefent pojfejfton of the fni/hing of an aftion.
Buttheaory?, which fignifies nofuch pffefon, iv; as con-
ftantly joined with a portion of paf time which ex¬
cludes the prefent now or infant. Thus we fay, “ I
have written a letter this day, this week,” &c. but,
“ I wrote a \ettcr yeferday, laft week,” &c.; and to in¬
terchange thefe expreffions of time in Greek and Englfk,
where the aorif and pneter-perfed have different forms,
would be improper. In Latin, indeed, where they have
but one form, the impropriety does not appear.
66. Befides the tenfes already examined, which are The phif-
expreffive of paf time, in moft languages the verb hasTum'Fe-'-
another tenfe called the plufqitam perfed, hi which,
however, no difficulty occurs to detain our attention.
What theprceter-imperfed is to the prefent tenfe, that the
plufquam-perfed is to the prater perfed. The verb had,
by which it is refolved in Englilh, being evidently the
paft time of have, fufficiently explains its meaning and
relation to the other tenfes: “ I had written a letter,”
is equivalent to the phrafe, “ \ pojfejfed at fome paf time
the finilhed aftion of writing a letter.”
It is jullly obferved by Dr Beattie, that the imper-
feft and plufquam-perfeft are very ufeful, and may be
the fources of much elegant expreffion ; and that if one
were not taught to diftinguifh, in refpeft of meaning
as well as of form, thefe tenfes from each other, and
the praeterite from both, one could not pretend to un-
derftand. far lefs to tranllate, any good claffic author.
67. Having confidered the tenfes which imply pre- Future ten*
fent and paf time, it now remains that we examinefcs*
the import of thofe which are expreffive of time future.
In Latin and Englifh there are two tenfes for this pur-
pofe; of which the frf reprefents an aftion in point of
time as not yet exifting, but as about to exift at fome pe¬
riod to come ; but it does not bring the completion of the
aftion into view. The other afferts the futurity of an ac¬
tion together with its completion. Scrilam, “ I ffiall be
writing,” denotes/i/tar? time and incomplete adion; for it
does not fay whether I am to write for a long or for a
Ihort time, or whether I lhall fnifh what I promife to
begin. This part of the verb, therefore, to which the
Greek yfa-la comfponds, is an imperfedfuture, and like-
wife an aor'f. The futurity of any aftion, it ffiould
feem, may always be computed from the time of fpeak-
ing ; for every aftion muft be future with refpeft to the
time at which its futurity is declared; but the time of
its futurity may be more precifely fpecified by fixing
on fome other future time to which to refer it: ‘‘I
ffiall be writing after he ffiall have departed.” Shall
or will refers to future time indefnitely ; and write or
writing refers to an aftion which is indeed to begin and
fo far to proceed, but of which nothing is faid concern¬
ing the completion.
On the other hand, fcripfero, “ I ffiall have written,”
is a perfed/u/amdenoting complete aftion: for jhall de-
nottsfuture time; written, fnijhedadion; and have,prefent
pojfejfton. So that the meaning of the whole affertion
%■;
62
GRAM
ss, that !l at fomc future period of time I {hail poflefs
• thefiniflied action of writing. The completionoi the action,
together with the pnjfeffton of it, is always future with
refpect to the time of Jjfertion; but, with refpect to
- fome other time expreffed or underftood, the completion of
the aft ion is to he pajl: PromttU te fcnpturmifi rogavero-
' “ you promife to write if I (hall have alked you.” In
this fentence the aftion of q/iing is future with relation
to the time of promifing, but it is pafl with relation
to that of writing. This tenfe the Latin grammarians
call the future of the fubjnnSh-e mode ; but very impro¬
perly. The notice which it communicates, refpefts ndt
the power or liberty of afting, which, as will be feen by
and bye, is the charafteriftic of that mode; but the atiion
itfelf. It ought therefore to be ranked among the
tenfes of the indicative mode ; fox feripfero is, in every
^ fenfe, as really indicative as ftribam or feripturus ero.
Of the 68. Thefe are all the tenfes, effentially different from
tenfes of each other, which have place in the indicative mode of
Thciub‘ any language with which we are acquainted (r); but
vJBftde. as there are tenfes in the mode called Subjunctive, which
bear the fame names with thofe already examined, and
which have yet a different import. It will be neceffary to
• confider them before we difmifs the fubjeft of tenfes.
Of modes in general fomething muft be faid hereaf¬
ter ; at prefent we (hall only obferve, that the mode
with which we are now concerned, is not very properly
diftinguifhed by the name affigned to it by the Lathi
grammarians. They call it the fubjunBivc, becaufe it
is often fubjoined to another Verb, and forms the fe-
condary claufe of a fentence : but the mode called in¬
dicative frequently appears in the fame circumflances.
The difference between thefe two modes appears to us
to con lift in this, that the indicative aflerts fomething
dircHly concerning the aBion; the fubjurtBive, fomething
concerning the power or liberty of the agent to perform
it : for that the latter ajferts as well as the former, ad-
mits not of difpute. ,
rThe pre- 69. The prefent tenfe of the fubjunBive mode, in the
tfsut. learned languages, anfwers to the Englifh auxiliaries
may and can. Let us confider thefe a little.—May is
evidently a verb of the prefent tenfe denoting liberty.
When I aflert that I may write, I give notice that “ I
am under no compnlfwn to abfain from writing that
there is no impediment from without by which I am
refrained from writing. Can is alfo a verb of the prefent
MAR. Chap. IV
tenfe, exureffive bf internal power or Jhill. “ I can write”
is equivalent to—” There is nothing in myfdf which
incapacitates me for, performing the operation of wri¬
ting.” This verb Items originally to have denoted
knowledge ox fill, and to have been afterwards extended
to fignify power dr ability of any hind. There is little
doubt of its being the fame with the old Englifh verb
to con, which fignilies to know.—The difference between
the import of thefe two verbs may zni can will be beft
perceived in a familiar example. Suppofe we fay to
one of our tranferibers, “ You may write a treatife on
grammar,” to which he returns for anfwer “ I cannot:"
our alfertion evidently fuppofes him at liberty to write
the treatife; his anfwer implies, that he is unable or un¬
filled to do it. We may conclude, then, that the/.*•<?-
fent tenfe of this mode contains a declaration of prefent
liberty, ability, ox fill-, and its other tenfes will be found
to have reference to the fame capacities.
The obfervation is here to be repeated which was
enlarged upon under the prefent- of the indicative. The
liberty or ability fignified by this tenfe is always repre-
fented as prefer,t; but the time of this prefence is inde*
fnite. If n o particular time be fpecifed, we generally re¬
fer it to the time offpealing ; but another point may be
given from which we are to compute. “ When he
fliall have finiftied, you may then proceed as you pro*
pofe.” Here the liberty of proceeding is ftated as pre¬
fent, not at the time offpeaheing, but at the time of his
fnfing, which is future to the time of fpeaking. But
though the liberty, ability, or fill, denoted by this tenfe,
be reprefented as prefent, the action itfelf is ftated as
contingent; for it is not neceffary that a man fhould per¬
form an adtion becaufe he has the capacity to perform it.
From this idea of the prefent of the fubjunBive fome
of its moft peculiar ufes feem capable of being explain¬
ed.—And, in the firft place, it appears to have a near
affinity with the future of the indicative ; infomuch that
in many inftances they may be ufed promifeuoufly.
Without materially altering the effedf of the expreffion,
we may fay, “ Dico me fadlurum efle quae imperet,” or
“ quae imperabit." The reafon of this, perhaps, may
be, that with refpedt to ns, futurity and contingency arc
in moft cafes nearly the fame, both being involved in
equal obfeurity; and therefore it is often of little con-
fequence which mode of expreffion we employ.
Secondly, Tht prefent of the fubjunBive \s ufed to de¬
note
(r) On this point we fubferibe to the Opinion of the elegant and ingenious Dr Beattie.—“ It will perhaps
occur (fays he), that there are two Greek tenfes, of which I have given no account; namely, the fecond aorijl, and
ihtfecondfuture.. The truth is, that I confider them as unneceffary. Their place, for any thing I know to
the contrary, might at all times be fupplied by thefrf aorif and thefrf future. Some grammarians are of
opinion, that tht frf aorifl fignities time paf in general, and the fecond, indefnite time pafi; and that the firf future
denotes a nearer, and the fecond a more remote futurity. But this, I apprehend, is mere conjecture, unfupported by
proof: and therefore I incline rather to the feniiments of thofe who teach, that the fecond future and the fecond
aorif have no meaning different from the frf future and the firf aorift ; and that they are the prefent and imper-
yb? of fome obfolete theme o{ tht \txh, and, when the other theme came into ufe, happened to be retained for
the fake of variety perhaps, or by accident, with a preterite and future fignification. Be this as it will, as
thefe tenfes are peculiar to the Greek, and have nothing correfponding to them in other tongues, we need not
Temple to overlook them as fuperfluous.”—The Theory of Language, Part II. Chap- ii.
To thefe judicious obfervations we have nothing to add, but that they acquire no fmall degree of confirma¬
tion from this circumftance, that there are many Greek verbs which have no lecond future, and which are yet
employed to denote every poSlbLe modification of future time. Of the pauh-poffuturum of the Greeks we have
^ * takoc
63
Shap.IV. GRAMMAR.
note the right of which a perfon is poifefftd. “ I may,
or I can, fell this book.” This application, which
Dr Prlejlley conllders as the primary fignihcation of the
tenfe, is ealily deduced, or rather follows immediately,
from the foregoing account of its import. For if one
be under no rejlruint, either external or internal, to pre¬
vent him from performing an adfion, he has furely a
right to.perform it.
Thirdly, i'he prefent of the fuljmtfrvc is often u.fed
to fignify command or requcjl; as when one fays, “ You
may give my compliments to fuch a perfon.” This ufe
of the tenfe under coniideration feems to have arifen
from a defire to fofi** the harjhnefs of a command, by
avoiding the appearance of claiming fuperiority. When
a man utters the above fentence, he certainly utters no
(ommand, but only averts that the perfon to whom he
fpeaks has liberty of power to do him a favour. This
afl’ertion, however, may contain no new information;
and therefore, the perfon, addeejjid, reflecting upon the
intention of the fpeaier in making it, infers that it indi¬
cates a- wijh or defire that “ his compliments fhould
be made to fuch a perfon.”
The^prse- 70" ^ ^'e fafijitnaive as well as of the indicative, the
ter-iniper- prater-imperfect is evidently \\\tt pujl time of the prefent.
feet. As the latter aflerts liberty, or ability, to perform home
adtiou, as exilting at prefent, the former afl’ertsthe fame
liberty or ability to have exijled in time pajl; but the
precifc portion of time pait, in which thele capacities
exilled, mult be fpecified by other words, or it vviil
remain unknown. Thus in the following fentence,
“ Dixi me fad urn m effe quae imperaret,” the time of
imperaret is referred to that of dixi: the perfon having
the right to command, is fuppofed to have had it at
the time when the other /aid that he would obey. This
tenfe, as well as the prefent, ftates the aftion agoing
tn and iricotnplete ; and alfo a future with refped to the
liberty or ability to perform it. It is rendered into
JungHJh by the verbs could or might; of which the firfl
is the pait time of can, the fecond of may.
From the near affinity which the prefent of the fuh-
funSive has to the future of the indicative, the tenfe
now under confideration appears^ in many inftances, as
the pall time of the latter as well as the former. Thus
Dixi me faiiurum qua imperaret, may be rendered “ I faid
that 1 would do whatever he might, or whatever he
fhould, command.”
TheVrx- 71. Of the prater-perfect, it is fufficient to obferve,
ter-periedl ^at as the prefnt Hates the agent as at liberty to be
performing an tmfnfhed adion; fo this tenfe Hates him
as at liberty to perform an .adion confidered as fni/hed.
“ f may le writing a letter when you come, i. e. I am
at liberty to be writing a. letter when you come.” I may
have ^written a letter when you come,” i. e. I am at li¬
berty to le in poffifjion of the fnifhed aftioA of writing a
letter when you come. ’
It is. a common mode of expreffion to fay, “ I may
have done fuch of fuch a thing in my time,” when he
who fpeaka can have little doubt whether he has done
the thing or not. In that cafe, the words may have
dene, cannot be confidered as the prater-perfeB of the
fuijunctive of the verb do ; for it is nonfertfe to talk of
liberty, with refped to the performance of an adion,
which, at the time of fpeakiag, is fuppofed to bt pa/l
and completed. What then is the import of the phraie?
We are perfuaded that it is elliptical, and that tlyj
word fay or affirm is underitood: “ I may (fay that I)
have none fuch or fuch a thing in my time ;” for li¬
berty or contingency can relate to adions only as they
are conceived to bt prefnt or future. ^5 -
72. Of all the tenies, the moll complex is thepluf The plufr
quum-perfeot of this mode. It combines 'Apajl and a fu■ cluanl'
ture time with itfntfijed aftion. It may be confideredfe<a*
as fbcpcyl time both of the perfect future and of the pra¬
ter perfect of the fubjunBive: for it reprefents an adion,
future and contingent at fome paft time, as fni/hed befiore
another periodfpecfed; which period therefore, though
pajl at the time of Jpeaking, was itfdffuture with refped
to the time when the futurity or contingency of the
action exijled. “ Promififti te feripturum fuiffe fi rogaf-
fem“ You promifed that you would write, if £
fhould have aflred you.” Here the futurity of the ac¬
tion of lifting, which is reprefented as complete And fn'fh-
ed, is Hated as co-exfing with the pajl provtife ; but the
aBion itfelf mull be pqfterlor to that promife: it is how¬
ever fuppofed to be paf with rei'ped to the adion of
writing, which is atfo pofetior to the promife.
73. Before we difmils the fubjed of tenfes, it may
not be improper jull to mention number And perfon; for and perfoiw
thefe have place in every tenfe of the verb in the learn¬
ed languages, and in many tenfes even of the- Englijh
verb. They cannot, however, be deemed ejfential to the
verb; for affirmation the fame, whether it be made
by you, by me, or by a third perfon, or whether it be
made by one man or by a thmfand. The moll that
can be faid is, that verbs in the more elegant languages
are provided with a variety of terminations which re-
fped the number and perfon of every fubfantive, that
we may know with more precifion, in a complex fen¬
tence, each.particular fubitance with it^attendant verbal
attributes. The fame may be faid of fex with refped
to adJeBives. They have terminations which vary as
they refped beings ma/e or female, thongh it is pall
difpute that fubfances-alone are fufceptible offex. We
therefore pafs over thefe matters, and all of like kind, as
being rather among the elegancies of particular languages,
and therefore to be learned from the particular gram¬
mar of each tongue, than among the cffentials of lan¬
guage ; which effentials alone are the fubjed of inquiry
in a treatife on umverfal grammar.
74. Beftdes tenfes, number, and perfon, in every tongue
with which we are acquainted, wrAr are fubjed to ano- mo e ^
ther variation, which grammarians have agreed to call
Modes. Of modes, as of tenfes, it has been warmly dif-
puted whether or not they be effential to language.
The truth feems- to be, that, the only part of the verb
abfolutely neiejfiary for the purpofe of communicating
thought is the indicative mode; for all the others, as
has been well obferved by Dr Gregory, are fefolvable,
by means of additional verbs and a word denoting the
adion of the primary verb, into circuitous expreiflons
which
taken no notice, becaufe it is found only in xks&pa/five voice; to which if it were neceflary, it is obvious that h
would be neceflary in aitywicas, »# a than may be about to aft as well as to fufer immediately.
<4
M M
R.
■which fully convey their meaning (s). But fuch ex- truth is, that the ajfertion implied in this mode, tho’
Chap.!'
.vi
79
Different
opinions a-
b mt the
number of
modes.
prefiions continually repeated wpidd make language
very prolix and wholly inanimated ; for which reafon,
the import of each of the commonly received modes is
a fubje& worthy of the philologift’s inveftigation. A-
bout the number of modes, whether neceffary or only
expedient, as well as about the import of each, the wri¬
ters on grammar have differed in opinion. Mr Harris,
one of the moft celebrated of thofe writers, has enu¬
merated four modes of the verb, befides the infinitive;
The indicative or declarative, to ajfert what
it is not concerning the fame thing, is equally poftive and
abfolute with that conveyed by the indicative. An ex¬
ample quoted by himfeif fhould have fet him right as
to this matter :
Sed tacit us p a rci Ji poJTt t corvus, n .1B E R E T
Plus da pis y &c.
Who does not feel that the affertion contained in Z<2*
beret, is as abfolute and poftive as any affertion what¬
ever ?
Perhaps we may be afked to define what we
75-
we think certain; the potential or subjunctive,ybr mean by a mode. We know not that we can define
the purpofes of whatever we think contingent; the inter- it to univerfal fatisfa&ion. Thus much, however,
rogative, when we are doubtful, to procure us informa- feems to be obvious, that thofe variations which are
tion; and the requisitive, to afflus in the gratification called modes do not imply different modifications
of our volitions. The requifitive too, according to him, of the action of the verb. Amo, Amf.M, AmA, do
appears under two diflinct fpecies; either as it is impe- not fignify modes of loving ; for modes of loving are,
rative to inferiors, or precative to fuperiors. loving much, loving little, loving long, &c.— Shall
For eftablilhing fuch a variety of modes as this, no we then get over the difficulty by faying, with Mr
fort of foundation whatever appears. The fame rea- Harris, that “ modes exhibit fome way or other the
foning which induced the author to give us an interro- foul and its ajfeilions?” This is certainly true : but it
gative and requifitive mode, might have made him give is nothing to the purpofe ; for it does not diftinguifh
us a hortative, a dififuafive, a volitive, and innumerable the meaning of mode from the objedt of language in ge-
other modes, with which no language is acquainted, neral, all languages being intended to exhibit the foul
But befides perplexing his reader with ufelefs diftinc- and its afifeUions. go
tions, we cannot help thinking that Mr Harris has Grammatical modes of verbs have been defined by Mode de-J
fallen into fome miftakes with regard to thz import of Dr Gregory to be “ concife modes of expreffing fome of fined,
thofe modes which are univerfally acknowledged. Ac- thofe combinations of thoughts which occur moft fre*
cording to him, ajfertion is the chara&eriftic of the indi- quently, and are moft important and ftriking.” This
cative, and that which diftinguifhes it from the fubjunc- is a juft obfervation ; but perhaps he would have given
live or potential: but this is certainly not true, for with- a more complete definition had he faid, that grammati-
out an pjfertion, the verb cannot be ufed m any mode, cal modes of verbs are concife modes of expreffing fome of
Of this the learned author, indeed, feems to have been thofe combinations of thoughts which occur mofi frequently,
aware, when he obferved of the fubjunUive mode, that it and of which assertion is an effential part (t). This
is employed “ when we do notfiriUly affert,” and that indeed feems to be the real account of the matter,
“ it implies but ts dubious and conjetlural affertion.” The efpecially if our notion of the nature of verb be well
N° 142. fouAded,
(s) The imperative, for inftance, may be refolved into a verb of commanding in the firft perfon of the prefent
of the indicative, and a word denoting the ablicn of the primary verb, commonly called the infinitive mode of
that verb. Thus, I nunc et verfus tecum meditare canoros, and “ fubeo te nunc ire et tecum meditari,” &c.
are fentences of the very fame import. The fubjunUive may be refolved in the fame manner by means of a-verb
denoting power or capacity ; for credam, and p'Jfum credere, may be often ufed indifferently. The indicative mode,
however, is not thus convertible with another verb of affirming in the firfiperfon of the prefent of the indicative
and a word denoting the adtion of the primary verb ; for Titius fcribit, “ Titius writes,” is not of the fame import
with dico Titium fcribere, quod Titius fcribat, “ I fay that Titius writes.” The firft of thefe fentences, as has been
already ftiown, contains but one affertion; the fecond obvioufly contains two. Titius writes, is equivalent to
Titius is writing ; I fay that Titius writes, is equivalent to 1 AM faying that Titim is writing. The reafon why
the imperative and fubjundive are refolvable into expreffions into which the indicative cannot be refolved, will be
feen when the import of each of thofe modes is afcertained.
(t) Every verb, except the Ample verb am, art, is, &c. expreffes without modes a combination of thoughts,
viz. affirmation and au attribute. The affirmation, however, alone is effential to the verb, for the attribute
may be expreffed by other words. It is indeed extremely probable, that, in the earlieft ages of the world, the
affirmation and attribute were always expreffed by different words; and that afterwards, for the fake of con-
cifenefs, one word, compounded perhaps of thefe two, was made to exprefs both the affirmation and vhe at¬
tribute : hence arofe the various claffes of verbs, aSive, pafive, and neuter. Of a procefs of this kind there
are evident figns in the Greek and fome other tongues. But the improvers of language ftopped not here. The
fame love of concifenefs induced them to modify the compound verb itfelf, that it might exprefs various com¬
binations of thought ftill more complex: but in all thefe combinations ajfertion was of neceffity included; for if
the word had ceafed to affert, it would have ceafed to be a verb of any kind.
Soon after this ffiort note was written, and the whole article finifhed for the prefs, w’e accidentally met with
Pickbourn’s Dijfertation on the Englifh Verb. Of that work it belongs not to us to give a character. Such of
our readers as ffiall perufe it, wifi fee that on many points we differ wudely in opinion from the author ; but we
have no painful apprehenfion of any comparifon which may be made. It gives us pleafure, however, to find,
3 that
Chap. IV. GRAM
founded,—that its ejfence confifts in affirmation. And in
this opinion we are the more confirmed, from a con-
viclion that no man ever employs language on any occa-
fion but for the purpofe of affirming fomething. The
fpeaker may affirm fomething direftly of the atlion it-
felf; fomething of the agent’s power or capacity to per¬
form it; or fomething of his own defire that it ffiould
be performed, &c.—but Hill he muft affirm.
AH 8l des ^ this be fo, then are all the modes equally indica-
equally in* tlve' Some may be indicative of perceptions, and others
dicative. °f volitions; but ftill they all contain indications. On
this idea the three foregoing modes of amo will be thus
diftinguiffied. When a man indicates h\s prefent feeling
of the paffion of love, he ufes the firft ; when he in¬
dicates his prefent capacity of feeling it, he ufes the
fecond\ and when he indicates his prefent defire that the
perfon to whom he is fpeaking would entertain that
paffion, he ufes the third.
76. As to what Mr Harris calls the interrogative
mode, he himfelf obferves that it has a near affinity to
the indicative. It has in faft not only a near affinity
to it, but, as far as language is concerned, there is not
between the one and the other the flighteft difference.
For, in written language, take away the mark of in¬
terrogation, and, in fpoken language, the peculiar tone of
voice, and the interrogative and indicative modes appear
precifely the fame. That fuch ffiould be the cafe is ex¬
tremely natural.
To illuftrate this, let us for once fpeak in the fin-
Vol.VIII. Part I.
M A R, 6^
gular number, and conceive one of our readers to be
prefent. I affiert a thing, taking the truth of it for
granted; but if you know me to be wrong, 1 prefume
that you will fet me right: in this cafe, affertion pro¬
duces the fame efleft as interrogation. Inftances perpe¬
tually occur in common converfation. An acquaint¬
ance fays to me—You took a ride this morning
I anfweryer or no according to the cafe ; and the fame
effeft is produced as if he had faid—“ Did you take
a ride this morning ?” In this way, at firft, would
Ample affiertions be employed to procure information
wanted. Fecifi—you jh/fuch a thing; fecifti ne—you
did hnot;—either would produce the proper reply,
and the information wanted would be gained (u).
This being obferved as language improved, men would
accompany fuch a fentence with a peculiar/one of voice,
or other marks, to fignify more unequivocally that
they wanted information, or that fuch information was
the only objeS of their fpeech. Farther progrefs in re¬
finement would lead them to alter the poftion of the
words of a fentence when they meant to ajk a quef ion,
as we do in Englifb, faying (when we qffirt), “ Tou
have read Euripides;” (when we interrogate), “ Have
you read Euripides ?”
In Greek and Latin, queftions are alked commonly
enough by the particles and an. Thefe particles we
know to be exadtly equivalent to the Engliffi particle
if, at leaft to the fenfe in which that particle is com¬
monly taken. An fecifi is “ If you did itand the fen-
I tence
that his notions refpe&ing the origin of fuch verbs as exprefs at once affertion and an attribute, are the fame with
thofe which had occurred to ourfelves.
“ The copula is appears (fays Mr Pickbourn) to have been coeval with language itfelf. But we have not
the fame evidence to convince us, that that muft neceffarily have been the cafe of any other finite verb ; for
the copula is, containing only an affirmation, is much more fimple than a verb which unites in one word both
an attribute and an affirmation. Since therefore people, in their firft attempts to exprefs their ideas by words,
would fcarcely think of any thing more than what was abfolutely neceffipy, it is probable they would be fome
time before they invented any other word containing in itfelf an affection or affirmation; for they would not very
early think of contriving words fo complex in their nature as to include in them both the name of an abtion and an
affertion.
“ I conjecture, that the firft mode of expreffing aBions or pafjions would be by participles or verbal nouns, i. e.
words fignifying the names of the aBions or pqfjions they wanted to defcribe ; and thefe words, connected with
their fubjeCt by the copula is, might in thofe rude beginnings of language tolerably well fupply the place of
Verbs: e g. from obferving the operations of nature, fuch words as rain or raining, thunder or thundering, would foon
be invented; and by adding the copula is, they Would fay, thundering or thunder is or is not, raining or rain is ; which,
by the rapidity of pronunciation, might in time form the verbs rains, thunders, &c. The obfervation of their own
aBions, or the aBions of the animals around them, would foon increafe their flock of ideas, and put them upon
contriving fuitable expreffions for them. Hence might arife fuch words as thefe; Jleep or feeping, fand ox
funding, run or running, bite or biting, hurt or hurting: and by joining thefe to fubftantives by means of the co¬
pula is, they might form fuch fentences as thefe,—Lion is feeping, or perhaps lion feep is, fund is, &c. which
would foon be contracted into lion feeps, funds, runs, bites, hurts, 8cc. Thus our little infulated family might
become poffeffed of verbs including an attribute and an affirmation in one word.”
This account of the origin of aBive, paffive, and neuter verbs, is certainly ingenious; and, in our opinion,
it is not more ingenious than juft when applied to the Greek and other ancient languages, though it is not ap¬
plicable to the Engliffi : but it feems to be quite irreconcileable with the definition of verb, which the author
has adopted from Bfop Lowth ; and indeed with every other definition except that which makes the effence
of verb to confift in fimple affirmation.
(u) Of a queftion put in the form of an affertion we have a remarkable inftance in the Gofpel of St Mat¬
thew. When Chrift flood before Pilate, the governor alked him, faying, w 0 /Wixeu? loMSxim, That
his fentence was pronounced with a view to obtain fome anfwer, is evident from the context; yet it is as plain¬
ly an affirmation, though uttered probably in a fcoffing tone, as the ferious confeffion of Nathaniel, u o
iiaa,\iv( tou Had not the queftion been put in this form, which affierts Chrift to be the king of the
Jews, the reply could not have been rsyns • for without an affection the governor would have faid nothing.
See Dr Campbell! s Trarfation of the G of pels, where the form ufed ia the original is with great propriety retained
in the verfion.
66
8i
pf the op¬
tative
mode.
G R A
tence may either be an abbreviation for die an feeijii,
*< tell me if you did it or an may perhaps be, as
if certainly is, the imperative mode of feme obfolete
verb equivalent to give; and in that cafe, an feeijii will
be a complete interrogative fentence, fignifying, “ you
■did it, give that.”-—But of the interrogative mode of Mr
Harris we have faid enough ; perhaps, our readers will
think, too much, iince it is a ufelefs diftinftion not found
in any language. It will, however, be proper to fayfome-
thing of his precative mode, as far as it is the falne with
the optative mode of the Greek grammarians. And,
77. Nothing, we think, can be clearer, than that
the Greek optative conftitutes no dijlinti mode of the
verb, whatever meaning be annexed to the word mode.
The different tenfes of the optative are evidently no¬
thing but the paft times of the correfponding tenfes of the
fubjmBive. Praef. fub. I may ftrike. Prsef. opt.
-rvx'ioipi, I might ftrike, See. This is proved to be in¬
dubitably the cafe by the uniform pradlice of the
Gr^ek writers- Examples might be found without
number were one to read in fearch of them. The fol¬
lowing fenterce will iliuftrate our meaning : ’Ep^ovUt
’Atnraioi Ua. Hox'iori rot; Apyuoie, “ the Athenians come
that they may ajfjl the Argives.’9 Here the leading
Verb e’pxovJcu being of the prefent tenfe, the dependent
verb faitac-t is the prefent fubjunclive. But change the
former to the pafl time, and the latter mull; alfo be
changed. ’HpMo 'hbrmtoi U* far,bo;** to>; ’APyno,(t « the
Athenians came that they might qflifl the Argives.”
Here it is plain that favboit>t the prefent of the optative,
is ihespafl time of Ponbuo-t, the prefent of the fabjunilive;
and the fame in other inftances.
It is almoft unneceffary to add, that when tlm mode
is employed to denote a voifh, the wifh is not expreffed
by 'Ctxzverb, but is underflood. Such abbreviated expref-
ftons to denote a wilh are common in all languages.
Thus, in Greek,
'Tu.11 pur Biot touijOWfiiria fopiar’ c^eiTff
’ExTipo-at Ilptstfioio roMv, &c.
fignifies, “ The gods might give you (or, as we fay in
Englifh, changing the pofition of the verb, might the
gods give you) to deftroy,” &c. S'o in Latin, Ut te omnes
Aii dettqueperdant, “ That all the gods and goddefles may
curfe you!” Again, in Englilh, “ O that my head
were waters!” &c. In all thefe, and fuch like fenten-
ces, the words equivalent to I <wi/h, I pray, are under-
flood. In Greek a voifh is fometimes introduced by
the particle h or bis, if ^ as in Homer,
’EiS’ oftKie Totymoi Alftitai, ayoy.o; t’xiroKiabou.
“ If 'xX. had been your fate not to be born, or to die
unmarried!” The fupplement is, “ It would have been
happy for your country,” or fome fuch thing. In
like manner, a poor perfon not uncommonly intreats
a favour by faying, “ Sir, if you would be fo good !”
Here he flops ; but the completion of his fentence is,
“ It would make me happy.” In all thefe cafes a wifh
M M A R. Chap, IV.
is not formally expreffed by the fpeaker, but inferred By
the hearer. They are therefore inftances of that ten¬
dency which mankind univerfally difeover to abbrevi¬
ate their language, efpecially in cafes where thepallions
or feelings are interfiled.
78, The interrogative and optative, modes being fet
afide as fuperfluous, it would appear from our inveftl-
gation, that the real diftir.B modes oi the verb, which Qnj ^[lre4
are found in the molt copious and varied language, are motjes ne-
only three', the indicative, the fubjunBive, and ehe im- a ffary,the-
perative: and that thefe are all that can be coni)deredinci.!Cat‘Te>*
as neceffary ; the firjl to indicate the fpeaker’s feeling ^bibjunCtive,
■afting, the fecond to indicate has.capacity of feeling or ac- |
ting, and the third to indicate his niyirr that the perfon
to whom he Hpzdks Jhouldfeel or aot.
Here again we have the misfortune to find oirrfelres
differ in opinion with Dr Gregory ; who fetms to
think, that a greater number of modes, if not abfo-
lutely neceffary, would, however, be highly ufeful.
His words are : “ All languages, I believe, are defec¬
tive in refpedl of that variety and accuracy of combi¬
nation and of diftindlion, which we know with infal¬
lible certainty take place in thought. Nor do 1 know
of any particular in which language is more deficient
than in the exprefifing of thofe energies or modifications
of thought 5 fome of which always are, and all of which
might be, exprefiedby the grammatical moods of verbs.
Of this there cannot be a clearer proof than the well-
known fact, that we are obliged to exprefs by the
fame mood very different modifications or energies of
thought. As, for inftance, in the cafe of the gram¬
matical mood called the imperative, by which we ex¬
prefs occafionally prayer to God, command to a Have,
requeft to a fuperior, advice >0 an equal or to any one,
order as from an officer to his fubaltern, fupplication
to one whom we cannot refift.”—If thefe be, as the
author calls them, fpecific differences of thought, he
will not furely objedf to their being all ranked under
one genus, which may be called clefire (x). That the
internal feelings, which prompt us to pray to God, to
command a} flave, to requeft a fuperior, to advife an
equal, to give an order to an inferior, and to fuppli-
cate one whom we cannot refift, are all different in Ac*
gree, cannot be denied. Each of them, however, is
defire ; and the predication, by which the defire is made % ;
known to the perfon whom we addrefs, is the fame in ^
all, when we utter a prayer as when we utter a com¬
mand, when we requeft as when we fupplicate. But
predication alone is that which conftitutes the verb: for
defire by itfelf, however modified, can be expreffed only
by an abjlrad noun; and the mere energy of defire, when
not applied to a particular energifer, can be expreffed
only by a participle, or by what is commonly, though
impcoperly, called the infinitive mode. Now it is cer¬
tainly conceivable, that a few Jhades of meaning, or a
few (y) degrees of one general energy, might be marked
ty
(x) “ Desire ;—wiffi ; with eagernefs to obtain or enjoy.” jfohnfon.
“ Fhe uneafinels a man finds in himfelf -upon the abfence of any thing, whofe prefent enjoyment carries the
idea of delight with it, is that we call desire. Good and evil, prefent and abfent, work upon the mind ; but
that which immediately determines the will, from time to time, to every voluntary a8ion, is the uneafiaefs of
besire, fixed upon fome abfent good.” Locke.
This, whether it be found philofophy or not, is furely fufficient authority for ufing the word defire to denote
the genus ; of which prayer, command, advice, fupplication, See. may be confidered as fo many diftincl fpecies.
i(y) Dr Gregory feems to think, that not barely afew, but a vajl number, of thefe energies might be fo marked.
“ Affirming
Chap. IV. GRAMMAR. 67
by correfponding variations of fuch verbs as combine
energy with predication; and there could be no great
impropriety in calling thofe variations modes, or rather
modes of modes: but that fuch a multiplication of modes
would be an improvement in language, is by no means
evident. The verb, with the modes and tenfes which
it has in all languages, is already a very complex part
of fpeech; which few are able, and ftill fewer inclined,
to analyze: and it would furely be of no advantage to
make it more complex by the introdu&ioft of «ew
modes, efpecially when thofe degrees of energy which
could be marked by them are with equal and perhaps
greater precifion marked, in the living fpeech, by the
different tones of voice adapted to them by nature ;
and, in written language, by the reader’s general know-
fedge of the fubjeft, and of the perfons who may be
occafionally introduced. If there be any particular
delicacy of fentiment, or energy, which cannot thus
be made known, it is better to exprefs it by a name
appropriated to itfelf, together with thefmple and ori¬
ginal verb of affirmation, than to clog the compound
verb with fuch a multiplicity of variations as would
render the acquifition oh every language as difficult as
is faid to be that of the Chinefe written charafters.
The indicative, fubjunUive, and imperative, are there¬
fore all the modes of the verb which to os appear to
be in any degree neceffary or expedient; and they are in
faft all the modes that are really found in any language
with which we are acquainted.
For the infinitive, as has been already obferved, *4
feems on every account to be improperly ftyled a live no*™1'
mode. To that name it has no title which we can mode of
perceive, except that its termination fometimes (for even the verb,
this is not true univerfally) differs in the learned lan-j^1 j!n ^
guages from the terminations of the other parts of the1 a nou!s,
verb. Nay, if affirmation be, as it has been proved to
Be, the very effence of verb, it will follovV, that the in-
fnitive is no part of the verb at all; for it expreffes »»■
affirmation. It forms no complete fentence by itfelf,
nor even' when joined to a noun, unlefs it be ^ided by
feme real part of a verb either expreffed or underltood.
Scribo, feribebam, feripf, feripferam, feribam, feripfero ;
“ I am writing, I was writing, I have written, I had
written, I (hall write, I fhall have written,” do each
of them contain an affirmation, and conftitute a com¬
plete fentence: hutJcribere “ to write,” fcripfffie “ to
have written,” affirm nothing, and are not more appli¬
cable to any one perfon thaivto another. In a word, the
infinitive is nothing more than an abfra3 noun-(z), de¬
noting the fmple energy of the verb, in conjunction
I 2 with
Affirming (fays he), denying, teffying, foretelling, afking, anfwering, wijhing, hoping, expetting, believing,
knowing, doubting, fuppofing, ftipulating, being-able, commanding, praying, requefting, fupplicating, loving,
hating, feaiing, defpairing, being accuftomed, wondering, admiring, wavering, fwearing, advifng, refufng,
exhorting, diffiuading, encouraging, promifing, threatening, &c. all admit very readily of being combined with
the general import of a verb.” He adds, that “ if every one of them had been expreffed in all languages
by variations as fluking as thofe of wio, Tvihipi, and tvxIi, they mif have been acknowledged as diR.'in&. moods
of the verb.”
If all thefe words denote different energies of thought, which, however, may be doubted, and if all thofe
different energies, with many others for which, as the author juflly obferves, it is not eafy to find names,
could, like capacity and defire, be combined with the general action ox energy of one verb ; and if thofe combinations
could be marked by correfponding variations of that verb ; we fhould indeed acknowledge fuch variations to be
diftinCl modes, or modes of modes, of the verb. But we doubt much if all this be poffible. We are certain that
it would be no improvement: for it feems to be evident, either that, in fome of the modes, the radical letters
of the original verb muft be changed, and then it would ceafe to be the fame verb; or that many of the modes
mufl be expreffed by words of very unmanageable length ; not to mention that the additional complication in¬
troduced by fo many minute diftin&ions into a part of fpeech already exceedingly complex, would render the
import of the verb abfolutely unintelligible to nine-tenths even of thofe who are juflly ftyled the learned.
(z) In our idea of the infinitive, we have the honour to agree with the learned and excellent Ruddiman ;
whofe words are, “ Non inepte hie modus a veteribus quibufdam verbi nomen eft appellatum. Eft enim (ft
non vere ac femper, quod nonnulli volunt, nomen fubftantivum) fignificatione certe ei maxime affinis; ejufque
Vices fuftinet per omnes cafus. Et quidem manifefie fubftantivum videtur, cum adjefiivum ei additur neutri
generis : ut, Cic. Att. xiii. 28. Cum vivercipfum turpefit nobis. — Perf. v. 53. Velle fuum cuiqueefi.— Cic. Fin. i. j.
jTotum hoc difplicetphilofophari.—Petron. c. 52. Mcum inleUigere nulla pccunia vendo. Item, abfque adjeSivo : ut,
Ovid Met. ii. 483. Poffi loqui eripitur, i. e. potefias loquendi.—Plaut. Bacch. i. 2. 50. Hie vereri perdidil, i. e.
verecundiam.—Cic. Tufc. v. 38. Loquor de dodo homine et erudito, cui vivere ejl cogitare, i. e. cujus vita efi cogitatio,
[Grammaticjb La tinm Institutiokes: Pars fecunda, lib. i. cap. 2. where the reader will find examples of the
infinitive ufed by the beft Roman writers as a fubftantive noun in every cafe ]
This opinion of Ruddiman and his ancient grammarians has been lately controverted with much ingenuity
by Dr Gregory ; who feems to thi^k, that in the infinitive alone we fhould look for the effience of the verb di¬
verted of every accidental circumftance, time only excepted. If this be indeed the cafe, almoft every thing
which we have faid of the verb, \t% tenfes, and its modes, is erroneous; and he who takes his principles of gram¬
mar from the Encyclopeedia, will fill his head with a farrago of abfurdities. The writer of the article, however,
has been at much pains to acquire corred notions of the fubjed: he has ftudied the writings of others; he
ha*
63
G R A
with time ; and is not a mode, as far as we can con¬
ceive, of any thing. Thus, Scire tuum nihil ejl, is the
fame with Scientia tua nihil ejl; and, “ Death is cer-
85 tain,” with “ To die is certain.”
Of espref- 79. Before we difmifs the fubjeft of modes, it may
ling c°rn- not ^e improper to take notice of the connection which
tJwfuture Harris, after Apollonius, has found between com-
tenfe. manding and futurity. “ Intreating and commanding
(he fays) have a neceffary refpeft to the future only.
For what have they to do with the prefent and the pajl,
the natures of which are immutable and neceffary.”
This is furely confounding command/ with the execution
of commands. But the learned writer proceeds to in¬
form us, that “ it is from the connedion of futurity with
commands, that the future of the indicative is fometimes
ufed for the imperative mode.” The connexion, of which
he fpeaks, appears to us entirely imaginary ; for futu¬
rity has nothing to do with commands, though it may
M M A R. Chap. IV.
with the execution of them. The prefent time is the time
of commanding, the future of obeying. But fuppofing
the connexion real, it would not account for th€ fu¬
ture tenfes being ufed imperatively. For although it
were true, as it is evidently falfe, that commands are
future, it would not follow that the relation is con¬
vertible, or that employing the future fhould imply a
command. The principle upon which fuch expreffions
as, Thou shalt not kill, come to have the force
of a command, feems to be this. - When a perfon, efpe-
cially one poffeffed of authority, afferts that an aB'um,
depending on the will of a free agent, and therefore ia
its own nature contingent, Jhall or lhall not actually take
place; what are we to conclude from fuch an affertion ?
Why furely it is natural to conclude, that it is his will,
his command, that his affertion be verified. The Eng-
Idhword.Jhall, if we be well informed, denoted origi¬
nally obligation ; a fenfe in which its pad tenfe fhculd is
has confulted feveral perfons of undoubted learning, who have devoted a great part of their time to gramma¬
tical inveftigations ; and he is extremely unwilling to fuppofe, that all his inquiries refpediing the molt im^
portant part of fpeech have ended in error. He trulls, therefore, that he lhall not be deemed a petulant ca¬
viller, though he examine with fome feverity the principal obfervations and arguments upon which the Doflor
has built his theory. Upon that examination he enters with diffidence : for the learned Profeffor’s knowledge
of the various powers of the mind appears, even in this effay, to be fuch as eminently qualifies him for
afcertaining the precife import of every fpecies of words employed for the purpofe of communicating
thought; and with fuch a man the prefent writer would be much happier to agree than to differ in
opinion.
The Do&or acknowledges (Tranfaft. of the Royal Society, Edinburgh, Voh II. lit. clafs, p. 195), that
the infinitive is moll improperly called a mode : and on that account he thinks we ought to turn our thoughts
exclufively to it, “ when we endeavour to inveftigate the general import of the verb, with a view to afcertain
the accident which it denotes ; and be led, Hep by Hep, to form a diitinCt notion of what is common in the acci¬
dents of all verbs, and what is peculiar in the accidents of the feveral claffes of them, and thereby be enabled to
give good definitions, fpecifying the ejfence of the verb,” &c. It may be true, that to the infinitive exclufively
we fhould turn our attention, when we wilh to afcertain the accident denoted by a particular verb or clafs of
verbs ; i. e. the kind of aSion, pajfion, or fiate of being, of which, fuperadded to affirmation, that verb or clafs of
verbs is expreffive : but in accidents of this kind it may be doubted if there be any thing that with propriety
can be {aid to be common to all verbs. There feems indeed to be nothing common to all verbs but that which
is ejfential to. them, and by which they are diflinguifhed from every other part of fpeech ; but every kind of
action, pajfion, and fiate. of being, may be completely expreffed by participles and ahfirad nouns; and therefore in fuqh
accidents we cannot find the Jfience of the verb, becaufe fuch accidents diftinguifh it nqj from other parts of
fpeech. Were a man called upon to fpecify the ejfience of verfe or metre, he would not fay, that it cotifills in the
meaning of the words, or in the ufing of thefe words according to the rules of fyntax. In every kind of verfe
where words are ufed they have indeed a meaning, and in all good verfes they are grammatically conftrudted; but
this is likewile the cafe in profe, and therefore it cannot be the ejfence of verfe. The ejfience of verje mull con-
fift in fomething which is not to be found in profe, viz. a certain harmonic fucceflion of founds and num¬
ber of fyllables : and the ejfience of the verb muff likewife confift in fomething which is not to be found in any
other part of fpeech; and that, we are perfuaded, is nothing but affirmation. But if affirmation be the very ejfence of
the verb, it would furely be improper, when we endeavour to afcertain the general import of that part of
fpeech, to turn our thoughts exclufively to a wmrd which implies no affirmation; for what does not affirm,
cannot in ftridlnefs of truth be either a verb or the mode of a verb.
In the fame page it is faid, that “ thz infinitive denotes that kind of thought or combination of thoughts
which is common to all the other modes.” In what fenfe this is true, we are unable to conceive : it denotes
indeed the fame accident, but certainly not the fame thought or combination of thoughts. In the examples
quoted, Non ejl viveke fed valree vita, &c. the infinitives have evidently the effeft of abfiratt nouns, and not
of verbs ; for though vivere and vale re exprefs the fame fiates of being with vivo and valeo, they by no means
exprefs the fame combination of thoughts. Vivo and valeo ajfirm that I am living, and that I am well; and he
who utters thefe words muff think not of life and health in the alfiraB, but of hj'e and health as belonging to himfelf.
Vivere and valere, on the other hand, affirm nothing; and he who utters 'them thinks only of the fiates of
living and of being in health, without applying them to any particular perfon.
The exquifitely learned author of The Origin and Progrefs of Language, having faid that the infinitive is ufed
either as a noun, or that it ferves to conned: the verb with another verb or a noun, and fo is ufeful in fyntax,
the Dodlor combats this opinion, and infers the infinitive to be truly, a verb; becaufe “ the thought expreffed
V
^9
tiap. IV. G R A
ftill commonly employed. In Englifh, therefore, the
foregoing procefs of inferring a command from an ajftr-
iion of futurity, feems to have been reverfed; and the
word Jhall, from denoting a command or obligation, has
come to denote futurity (imply.
80. Having confidered the verb in its ejfence, its ten-
gg fes, and its mod&s, we might feem to have exhaufted the
verbs, as; but there is ftiil fomething more to be done,
are ac- Grammarians have diflinguifhed verbs into feveral fpe-
paf- c\es - and it remains with us to inquire upon what prin-
”r ciple in nature this diftindfion is made, and how far it
proceeds. Now it muft be obvious, that if predication
be the efience of verb, all verbs, as fuch, muft be of
the fame fpecies ; fox predication is the fame in every pro-
prfition, under every pojfble circui*flance, ?Ln<{ by •whomfo-
ever it is made. But the greater part of verbs con¬
tain the predicate as well as the predicatio.n of a pro-
4
M M A R.
pofition; or, to fpeak in common language, they denote
an attribute as well as an affirmation. Thus, lego is
“ I am readingambulo, “ I am walking fo, “ I am
fundingverbero, •“ 1 am friking;” verier or, “ I am
f lichen.” But the attributes exprelfed by thefe verbs
are evidently of different kinds ; fome confifting in ac¬
tion, fome in fifering, and fome in a ftate of being
which is neither active nor paffive. Hence the diftinc-
tion of verbs, according to the attributes which they de¬
note, into aBive, paffive, and neuter. Lego, which is
an affertion that I am employed in the aB of reading, is
an aBive verb; verberor, which is an affertion that I
am fufering under the rod, is a paffive verb, becaufe it
denotes a pqffion ; and fo, which is an affertion that I
am funding fill, is faid to be a neuter verb, becaufe it
denotes neither aBion nor paffion. But it is felf-evident
that there cannot be aBion without an agetit, norpaffon
without
by means of rV, may be expreffed in fynonymous and convertible phrafes, in different languages, by means of.
other parts or moods of the verb.” Of thefe fynonymous and convertible phrafes he gives feveral examples,
of which the firft is taken from Hamlet’s foliloquy. “ To be or not to be, that is the queftion,” he thinks
equivalent in meaning to, “ The queftion is, whether we Jhall be or fall not be?” But we are perfuaded he is ■
miftaken. “ Whether we (hall be or (hall not be,” is a queftion afking, whether we (hall exift at fome future
and indefinite time ? but the fufcjett of Hamlet’s debate with himfelf was not, Whether, if his confcious exiftence
Ihould be interrupted, it would be afterwards at fome future and indefinite time refored? but whether it was to
continue uninterrupted by his exit from this wmrld ? This, we think, muft be felf-evidcnt to every reader of the
Soliloquy. It is likewife very obvious, that the word qufiion in this fentence does not hgmiy interrogatory, but
fubjeB of debate or affair to be examined; and that the word that ferves for no other purpofe than to-complete
the verfe, and give additional emphafs, perlraps, to an inquiry fo important. “ To be or not to be, that is the
queftion,” is therefore equivalent-in all rtfpedis to “ The continuance or non-continuance of my exiftence, is.
the matter to be examined;” and the infinitive is here indifputably ufed as an abftradf noun in the nominative-
cafe. Should it be faid, that the Doctor may have taken the fentence by itfelf, unconnected with the fubjeB
of Hamlet's foliloquy ; we beg leave to reply that the fuppofition is impofiible ; for, independent of the cir-
cumftances with which they are connected, the words “ To be or not to be” have no perfedt meaning. Were-,
it not for the fubjedt of the foliloquy, from which every reader fupplies what is wanting to complete the
fenfe, it might be alked, “To be or not to be:— WhatPA. coward, a murderer, a king, ora dead man ! Queftions
all equally reafonable, and which in that cafe could not be anfwered.
With the fame view, to prove the infinitive to be truly a verb, the DoCtor proceeds to remark upon the.
following phrafes, Dico, credo, puto, Titium ex fere, valere, jacere, cecidiffe, procubuife, projecife Mavium, pro-
jeBum fufe a Mavio; which, he fays, have the very fame meaning with dico, &c. quod Titius ex fat, quodjaceat,.
quodcetiderit, &c. He adds, that “ the infinitives, as thus ufed, acquire not any further meaning, in addition
to the radical import of the verb with tenfcj like the proper moods ; but the fubjimBives after quod lofe their
peculiar meaning as moods, and fignify no more than bare irfmtives” In the fenfe fn which this obfervation
is mad- by the author, the very reverfe of it feems to be the truth. The infinitives, as thus ufed, acquire, at
leaft in the mind of the reader, fomething like the power of ajjinnation, which they certainly have not when
(landing by themfclves ; whereas, the fubjunBives neither lofe nor acquire any meaning by being placed after
quod. Dico, credo, puto, Titium ex fere, valere, jacere, See. when tranflated literally, fignify, /fay, believe, think,
Titius to exift, to be outll, to lie along; a mode of fpeaking which, though now not elegant, was common with
the beft writers in the days of Shakefpeare, and is frequently to be found in the writings of Warburton at the .
prefent day. Dico, credo, puto, quod Titius exifiat, quod jaceat, &c. fignifies literally, /fay, t>Hieve think, that.
Titius may exifi, may lie along, &c. Remove the verbs in the indicative mode from the former fet of phrafes,
and it will be found that the infinitives a meaning, when conjoined with .them, which they have not
when left by themfelves ; for Titium exf ere, jacere; “ Titius to exift, to lie along,” have no complete meaning, .
bec&uit they affirm nothing. On. the other hand, when the indicative verbs are removed, together with the
wonder-working quod, from the latter fet of phrafe^, the meaning of the fubjunBives remains in all refpe&s as
it was before the removal; for Titius exf at, jaceat, &c. fignify, Titius may exif, may lie along, as well when
they ftand by themfelves as when they make the final claufes of a compound fentence. Every one knows,,
that quod, though often called a conjunction, is always in fa£t the relative pronoun. Dico, credo, puto, quod.
Titius exf at, muft therefore be conftrued thus: Titius exf at (ef id) quod dico, credo, &c. “ Titius may exift is •
that thing, that propolition, which I fay, believe, think.” In the former fet of phrafes, the infinitives are ufed_as
abftraCt nouns in the accufative cafe, denoting, in conjunction with Titium, one complex conception, the ex*,
fence, &c. of Titius: Dico, credo, puto; “ I fay, believe, thick;” and the cbjeB of my fptech, belief, thought, is,
Titium exf ere, “ the exiftence of Titius*”
Ian
70
GRAM
■without a pajftve Icing ; neither can we make apredica-
0/ iion of any kind, though it denote neither aSion nor paf-
AU verbs Jion, without predicating offomdhing. All virls, there-
have a ne fore> whether aBivc, pajjive, or neuter, have a necef-
fcrtTc'toaW refe/en,Ce. to fome noun expreflive of the fub-
nounTn thtfiance, of which the attribute, denoted by the verb,
nominative is predicated. *This noun, which in all languages mud
cafe. be in the nominative cafe, is faid to be the nominative
to the verb; and in thofe languages in which the verb
hasperfon and number, it mud in thsfe refpecls agree with
its nominative.
Of aSion, and confequently of verbs denoting aftion,
there are obvioufly two kinds. There is an adion which
88 paffes from the agent to fome fulfil}, upon which he is
vbfbs tran emP^°ye^ ! an<^ there is an afdion which refpedts no ob-
fitive or m-fiH beyond the agent himfelf. Thus lego and ambulo are
uanfitive. verbs which equally denote anion; but the aftion of
lego refers to fome external object as well as to the agent ;
for when a man is reading, he muft be reading fome-
thing, a book, a newfpaper, or a letter, &c. whereas,
the a&ion of arnlulo is confined wholly to the agent; for
when a man is walking, he is employed upon nothing
beyond himfelf, —his action produces no effect upon any
thing external. Thefe two fpecies of verbs have been
denominated tranfitive and intranfitive; a defignation ex¬
tremely proper, as the diftin&ion which gave rife to it
is philofophically jud. Verbs of both fpecies are active ;
M A R. Chap. \
but the a&ion of thofe only which are called tran/hive, 89
refpefts an external object; and therefore, in thofe lan-The fo^’
guages of which the nouns have cafes, it is only after ?overn ' f'
verbs which are tranftive as well as aElive, that the nouns in ri
noun denoting the fubjeS of the aftion is put in the ac- the accufaij
cufative or objective cafe. Verbs which are intranfitive,tive ca^c* Jj
though they be really aBive, are in the drufture of
fentences confidered as neuter, and govern no cafe.
And fo much for that mod important of all words
the verb. We proceed now to the confideration of
participles, adjellives, and adverbs ; which, as they have
a near relation to one another, we {hall treat of in the
fame chapter.
CHAPTER V.
Of Participles, Adjectives, and Ad¬
verbs.
Sect. I. Of Participles.
81. The nature of verbs being underdood, that ofp t?* , J
participles is not of difficult comprehenfion. Every denote aajt
verb, except that which is called the fubfiantive verb, is attribute I
expreffive of an attribute, of time, and of an ajfertion. Now combined 1
if we takeaway the ajfertion, and thusdedroy the verb,Wlt
there will remain the attribute and the time; and thefe
combined make the elfence of that fpecies of words call¬
ed
In jconfirmation of the fame idea, that the infinitive is truly a verb, the author quotes from Horace a
pafiage, which, had we thought quotations necefiary, we ffiould have urged in fupport of our own opinion :
• Nec quicquam tibi prodefi
A'erias ‘TEntasce domos, animoque rotunclum
Pfrcuzrissf- polum, morituro.
To our apprehenfion, nothing can be clearer than that tentasse and perCurrisse are here ufed as nouns ; for if
they be not, where (hall we find a nominative to the verb prodefi? It was certainly what is fignified by tentasse
‘a'erias domos, animoque rotundum percurrissf. polum, that is faid to have been of no advantage to Archytas at his
death. This indeed, if there could be any doubt about it, would be made evident by the two profe verftons,
which the profeffor fubjoins to thefe beautiful lines. The firtl of which is as follows : Nec quicquam tibi prodefi
quod.aerias domos tentaceris, et animo percurreris polum; which mud be thus condrued : Pent a peris acrias
.domes, et perccrreris animo polum (efiid) quod nec quicquam tibi prodefi. This verfion, however, is not perfeBly
accurate; for it contains two propofitions, while Horace’s lines contain but one. The fecond, which though it
may be a crabbed inelegant fentence, expreffes the poet’s fenfe with more precifron, is in thefe words: Nec
quicquam tibi prodefi morituro tua tentatio domuum a'eriarum, et cursvs turn circa polum. Having obferved, with
truth, that this fentence has the very fame meaning with the lines of Horace, Dr Gregory afles, “ Why are
not tentatio and curfus reckoned verbs as well as tentaffe and percurriffe ?” Let thofe anfwer this quedion who
believe that any of thefe words are truly verbs; for they are furely, as he adds, all very near akin; indeed fo
near, that the mind, when contemplating the import of each, cannot perceive the difference. Mean while,
we beg leave in our turn to afle, Why are not tentaffe and per cur riffe reckoned abfiract nouns as well as tentatio
and curfus ? To this queftion it is not eafy to conceive w-hat anfwer can be returned upon the Do&or’s
principles. In his theory there is nothing fatisfaftory ; and what has not been done by himfelf, we expedl
not from his followers. On the other hand, our principles furnilh a very obvious reafon for excluding
tentatio and curfus from the clafs of verbs; it is, becaufe thefe words exprefs no predication. Pentajfe and
percurrijfe indeed denote predication no more than tentatio and curfus ; and therefore upon the fame principle we
exclude them likewife from a clafs to which, if words are to be arranged according to their import, they
certainly do not belong.
Should the reader be inclined to think that we have dwelt too long on this point, we beg him to refleft,
that if our ideas of the effence of the verb and of the nature of the infinitive be erroneous, every thing which
we have faid of modes and tenfes is erroneous likewife. We were therefore willing to try the folidity of
thofe principles which hold the effence of the verb to confift in energy : and we fele&ed Dr Gregpry’s theory
for the fubjeft of examination, not from any difrefpe£t to the author, whom the writer of this article never
faw; but becaufe we believe his abilities to be fuch, that
 Si Pergama dextrd
Defendi pojfent, etiam hac defenfa fuiJfer.U
71
ihap. V. GRAMMAR.
edi’A'ETiCJpLEs. Thu?, take away the aj/irticn from the
verb y?*?" writeth, and there remains the participle
yoxtav /writing; which, without the ajfertion, denotes
the fame attribute and the fame time. After the fame
manner, by withdrawing the affertion, we difcpver
written in iyp«'l,c wrote ; about to write in yf«ln
Jhall be writing, This is Mr Harris's doctrine refpeft-
ing participles; which, in oar opinion, is equally ele¬
gant, perfpicuous, and juft. It has, however, been
controverted by an author, whofe rank in the republic
of letters is fuch, that we fhould be wanting in refpeft
to him, and in duty to our readers, were we to pafs his
obje&ions wholly unnoticed.
82. It is acknowledged by Dr Beattie, that this,
which we have taken, is the moft convenient light in
which the participle can be confidered in univerfal gram¬
mar : and yet he affirms that prefent participles do not
always exprefs prefent time, nor preterite participles pajl
time ; nay, that participles have often no connexion with
time at all. He thus exemplifies his affertion, in Greek,
in Latin, and in Engllf}.
“ When Ceb?S fays, npirccrovvl!? fv T»
tou xpovcu up*, ‘ I{re were walking in the temple of Sa¬
turn,' the particle of the prefent walking, is, by means
of the/mb were, applied to time pajl; and therefore
of itfelf cannot be underftood to fignify any fort of
time.” Again, after obferving, that in Englifh we
have but two fimple participles, fuch as writing and
written, of which the former is generally confidered as
the prefent and the latter as the paf, the Doctor adds.
But “ the participle writing, joined to a verb of dif¬
ferent tenfes, may denote either paf or future action ;
for we may fay not only, / am writing, but alfo, I
was writing yefterday, and / shall be writing to¬
morrow;” whence he infers that no time whatever is de¬
noted by the prefent participle. But furely this is a
hafty inference, drawn from the dodtrine of abfolutetime
and a definite prefent, which we have already fhown to be
groundlefs and contradictory. When we fpeak fimply
of an adtion as prefent, we mufi mean that it is prefent
with refpedt to fomething befides itfelf, or we fpeak a jar¬
gon which is unintelligible, but we do not afeertain
the time oi its prefence. From the very nature of time,
an adtion may be prefent now, it may have been prefent
formerly, or it may be prefent at fome future period ; but
the precife time of its prefence cannot be afeertained
even by the prefent of the indicative of the verb itfelf;
yet who ever fuppofed that the prefent of the indicative
denotes no time ? The participle of the prefent reprefents
the adion of the verb as going on ; but an adlion can¬
not be going on without being prefent in time with
fomething. When, therefore, Cebes fays, “ We were
walking in the temple of Saturn,” he reprefents the
adlion of the verb walk as prefent with fomething ; but
by ufing the verb expreffive of his affertion fn a paf tenfe,
he gives us to underftand that the action was not prefent
with any thing at the period of his fpeaking, but at fome
portion of time prior to that period : what that portion of
time was, muft be colle&ed from the fubfequent parts of
his difcourfe. The fame is to be faid of the phrafes / was
writingyeferday, and / Jhall be writing to morrow. They
indicate, that the adion of the verb mx/TE was prefent
'Kidtime. yeferday, and will again le prefent with me to-mor¬
row. The adion, and the time of adlion, are denoted by
the participle ; that adlion is affirmed to belong to me by
means of the verb ; and the time at which it belonged to
me is pointed out by the tenfes of that verb, am, was,
and Jhallbe. All this is fo plain, that it could not
have efcaped Dr Beattie’s penetration, had he not
hafiily adopted the abfurd and contradictory notion of
a definite prefent.
Of the truth of his affertion refpedtlng participles,
he gives a Greek and a Latin example. The former
is taken from St Mark : » ^‘nva-ac aubwiUt; and the
latter is that whk li is commonly called the perfedfuture
of the paffive-verb amor, amatus fuero. In the firft in-
ftance, he fays that \Lie participle, though belonging to
the aorift of the paf time, mull be rendered either by
the indcfnhc prefent, “ he who believethor by the
future, “ he who will believeand the reafon which
lie gives for this rendering of the word is, that “ the
believing here fpoken of is confidered as poferior in
time to the enunciation of thepromife." This is indeed
true, but it is not to the purpofe ; for with the enun¬
ciation of the promife, the time of the participle has no
manner of concern. The time of depends en¬
tirely upon the time of. ='"s,’;7STSr', with refpedl to which,
at muft undeniably be paf. Our Lord is not here afferting,
that he whoJhall believe at the day offnal retribution, (hall
be faved; but that he who fhall on that day be found
to have believed in Lime paf, fhall be faved : and if the
participle had not been expreffive of a fnifhed adion and
a paf time, the whole fentence would have conveyed
a meaning not friendly to the interefts of the gofpel.
In like manner, the time of amatus is referred, not to the
time oi fpeaking, but to the time of fuero, with refpedl
to which, who fees not that it is paf ? The two words,
taken together, contain a declaration, that he who
utters them Jhall, at fome time poferior to that of
fpeaking, have been loved;Jhall have been loved denotes
two times, both future with refpedl to the time oi fpeak¬
ing; but when the time, denoted by foall have, comes
to be prefent, that of the participle loved muft be paf,
for it is declared that the adion of it ftiall then be com¬
plete and finifhed.
We conclude,'then, that it is ejfential to a participle
to exprefs both an attribute and time; and that fuch
words as denote no time, though they may be. in the
form of participles, as dodus “ learned,” eloquens “ elo¬
quent,” See. belong to another part of fpeech, which we
now proceed to confider.
Sect. II. lyAdjectives.
8?. The nature of verbs and participles being un- A.ljeflirr*,
derflood, that of adjectives becomes eafy. A denote at-
implies (as we have faid) an attribute, time, and an offer- tobute/ aa
tion ; a participle implies only an attribute and time ; and to fulflhf.
an adjective implies only an attribute as belonging toCes.
fome fubfance. In other words, an adjective has
no afferticn, and it denotes only fuch an attribute as has
not its effence either in motion or its privation. Thus,
in general, the attributes of quantity, quality, and relation,
fuch as many, few, great, little, black, white, good, bad,
double, treble, &c. are all denoted by adjectives. (jS.
84. To underftand the import and the ufe of this They haves
fpecies of words, it muft be obferved that every adjedive t^e ,rnP0,g-'
is refolvable into a fubfantive and an exprefion of connec-
tion equivalent to of. Thus, a good man is a man of ther w’hh,
goodnefs ; where we fee the attribute denoted by the ad- the jowes
jedive fully exprtffed by an abfrad noun. But it isof a
evident'1^''5*-
72
GRAM
evident that the noun goodnefs does not exprefs the whole
•meaning of the adjeSiivegood; for every adjettive expref-
fes not only an attribute, but alfo the connexion between
the attribute and its fubjlance; whereas in the abJlraB noun,
the attribute is confidered as a fubjlance unconnected with
any other fubftanc-e.
In the next place, it is to be obferved, that the con-
neSion expreffed by adjectives, like that expreffed by of,
is of a nature {ogeneral and indefinite, that the particu¬
lar kind of connection muft, in fome languages, be infer¬
red from our previous knowledge of the objeCls be¬
tween which it fubfills, or it will for ever temain un¬
known. This might be proved by a variety of ex¬
amples, but will perhaps be fuffioiently evident from
the following. Color falubris fignifies colour that in¬
dicates health ; exercitatio fialubris, exercife ihatpreferves
health ; viSus falubris, food that improves health ; medi-
cina fialubris, medicine that reflores health. In all thefe
examples the connection expreffed by the adjeCHve form
of fialubris is different ; and though it may be known
from previous experience, there is nothing in any of the
expreffions themfelves by which it can be afcertain-
ed. Thus, adjeCtives are each fignificant of an attri¬
bute and connection ; but the particular kind of connec¬
tion is afcertained by experience.—The ufual effeCt of
adjectives in language, is to modifyot particularife a ge¬
neral term, by adding fome quality or circumfiance which
93 may diftinguilh the obje& meant by that term, from
The ufual tta other objects of the fame fpecies. I have occafion,
Laivwis for exarnple> t0 fpeak of a particular man, of whofe
to modify name I am ignorant. The word man is too general
a general for my purpofe, it being applicable to every individual
term. of the human fpecies. In what way then do 1 pro¬
ceed, in order to particularize it, fo as to make it de-
note that very man whom I mean to fpecify ? I annex or
conjoin to it fuch words as are fignificant of objects and
qualities with which he is connected, and which are not
equally applicable to others from whom I mean to
dijlinguifih him. Thus I can fay, a man of prudence or a
prudent man, a wife man, a good man, a brave man. See.
By thefe additions the general term man is limited, or
modified, and can be applied only to certaiq men to
whom belong the attributes exprefied by the adjectives
prudent, wife, good, and brave. If it be Hill too gene¬
ral for my purpofe, I can add to it other qualities and
'circumftances, till I make it fo particular as to be ap¬
plicable to but one individual man in the univerfe.
85. This is the way in which adjectives are com¬
mit monly ufed, but it is not the only way. Inftead of be-
The re- ing employed to modify a fiubjlantive, they fometimes
^s0f appear as the principal words in the fentence, when the
fometimes f°le ufe of the fubfiantive feems to be to modify the ab-
the cafe. JlraCt noun, contained under the adjeClive to which that
fubftantive is joined. In order to underftand this, it
will be neceflary to attend to the following obferva-
tions.
It may be laid down as a general propofition, that
when any term or phrafe is employed to denote a. com¬
plex conception, the mind has a power of confidering, in
what order it pleafes, the fimple ideas of which the com¬
plex conception is compofed. To illuft'rate this obferva-
tion by an example: The word eques in Latin, denotes a
complex conception, of which the confiituentfimple ideas are
thofe of a man and a horfe; with this connection fubfift-
ing between them, that the man is conceived as on
N0 142.
M A R. Chap. V
the back of the horfe. In the ufe of this word, it is |
well known that the idea firfi in order, as being the
principal fukjeCi of the propofition, is commonly the man
on the back of the horfe ; but it is not fo always, for the
mind may confider the horse as the principal objedt.
Thus when Virgil fays,
Frana 'Pelethronu Lapitha gyrofque dcderc,
Jmpoflti dorfo ; atque E (^U ITEM docuercfub armis
INSULTARE SOLO, ORESSUA GLOMERARE fuperbos
the energies attributed to the objedl-fignified by equi-
teM, make it evident that the horfe and not the man
is meant; for it is not the property of a man, inWtare
folo, et grejfus glomerare fuperbos.
The fame obfervatioti holds true where the complex
object is denoted by two or more words; an adjective, for
inftance, and a fubfiantive. Thus in the phrafe fiummus
mans fe inter nubila condit, the words fummus mans repre-
fent a complex conception, of which the conftituent ideas
are thofe of height and mountain, connected together by
the adjective form of fiummus. Either of thefe ideas
may be the fubjedt of the propofition ; and the expref-
fion will accordingly admit of two different fignifica-
tions. If mans be made the fubjedt of the propofition,
the meaning will be, “ the higheft mountain hides it-*
felf among the clouds.” If the fubfiantive included in
the radical part of fummus be made the fubjedk of the
propofition, the exprefhon will fignify, “ the fummit,
or higheft part of the mountain, hides itfelf among
the clouds.” The latter is the true import of the fen¬
tence.
86. From thefe obfervations and examples, we fhall j.w^j-e3
be enabled to underftand the two ufes of the aakBive. 0f the ad¬
it is either employed, as has been already obferved, jedtive.
to refirict or modify a general term ; or the ab-
JlraCt fubfiantive contained in the adjeClive is modified
by the noun, with which, in the concrete or adjedfive
form, that abfiraCt fubfiantive is joined. The firft may
be called the direct, the fe'cond the inverfe, acceptation
of adjedlives.
The inverfe acceptation of adjectives and participles
(for both are ufed in the fame manner) has not, ex¬
cept in a very few inftances, been noticed by any
grammarian; yet the principle is of great extent in lan¬
guage. In order to explain it, we fhall produce a few
examples ; which on any other principle it is impofiible
to underftand.
Livy, fpeaking of the abolition of the regal autho¬
rity at Rome, fays, Regnatum efi Roma ab urbe condit a
ad liberatam annos ducentos quadraginta quatuor, “ Mo¬
narchy fubfifted at Rome, not from the city built ( which
would convey no meaning), but from the building of the
city, to its deliverance,'” See. Both the participles condha
and liberatam are here ufed inverfely; that is, the abfiraCt
Jubfiantives contained in condila and liberatam are modi¬
fied or reftridted by the fubftantives urbe and urbem,
with which they unite. Again, Ovid, fpeaking of the
Conteft between Ajax and Ulyffes for the arms of Achil¬
les, has thefe lines :
Ipjti, licet eloqtlio jidum quoque Fief ora ‘oincat.
Full am ejjfe i
Here alfo the adjeClive or participle desertum is taken
inverfely, and the general notion of defertion contained
in it is modified or rendered particular by being joined
with the fubftantive Ne.stora, The meaning of the
‘ paffage
73
fbhan. V. GRAMMAR.
pafTagc is, I wiil never be induced to believe that the
defertion of Nejlor was not a crime.” Were defertum to
be taken directly as an adjective modifying its fulflantive,
the fentence muft be tranflated, “ I cannot believe
that Nejlor deferted was not a crime.” But it is evi¬
dent that this is nonfenfe ; as Nestor, whether deferted
or not deferted, could not be a crime.
It were eafy to produce many more examples of ad-
jeftives taken inverfely ; but thefe may fuffice to illu-
llrate the general principle, and to (how, that without
attending to it, it is impoffible to underftand the an¬
cient authors. We ihall adduce one inftance of it from
Shakefpeare, to evince that it is not confned to the an¬
cient languages, though in thefe it is certainly more
frequent than in the modern :
“ Freeze, freeze, thou bitter fky ;
‘ Thou canfl: not bite fo nigh
“ As benefits forgot :
“ Though thou the waters warp,
“ Thy (ting is not fo (harp
“ As friends remember'd not."
Here it is evident, that the adjective forgot is taken
inverfely ; for it is not a benefit, but the forgetting of a
benefit, which bites more than the bitter fley : and
therefore, in this paifage, the adjeci'rve ferves not to mo¬
dify the noun ; but the noun benefits is employed to mo¬
dify the abfiratl fubflantive contained in the adje&ive
forgot, which is the fubjedt of the propofition, and the
principal word in the fentence.
Had Mr Harris attended to this principle, and re-
fietted upon what he could not but know, that all ad-
jeclives denote fubflances ; not indeed fubfijling by them-
fielves, as thofe exprefied by nouns, but concretely, as the
attributes of other fubftanoes ; he would not have claffcd
adjectives with verbs, or have paffed fo fevere a cenfure
upon the grammarians for claffing them with nouns. It
matters very little how adjectives are claffed, provided
their nature and cjfeB-he underllood ; but they have at
leaft as good a title to be ranked with nouns as with
verbs, and in our opinion a better. To adopt Mr
Harris's language, they are homogeneous with refpedl to
nouns, as both denote fubfiances ; they are heterogeneous
96 with refpedt to verbs, as they never do denote aiTertion.
AdjedHves 87. Befides original adjectives there is another clafs,
fronTfub whieh is formed from fubftantives. Thus, when we
ftantives i"ay> *^e party of Pompey, the fiyle of Cicero, the philofophy
of Socrates ; in thefe cafes, the party, the fiyle, and the
philofophy fpoken of, receive a damp and character from
tiie perlons whom they refpect : Thofe perfons, there¬
fore, perform the part of attributes. Hence they actu¬
ally pafs into attributives, and affume as fuch the form of
adjectives. It is thus we fay, the Pompeian party, the Ci¬
ceronian fiyle, and the Socrotic philofophy. In like man¬
ner, for a trumpet of brafs, we fay a bra%en trumpet,
and for a crown of gold, a golden crown, &c. Even
And from pronominal fubitantives admit the like mutation. Thus,
pronouns, in dead of faying, the book of me, and of thee, we fay
my book, and thy book ; and indead of faying, the
country of us, and of you, we lay our country, and year
country. Thefe words my, thy, our, your, 8cc. have
therefore been properly called pronominal adjectives.
Voc.VIII. Parti.
88. It has been already obferved, and muft be obvi¬
ous to all, that fulfilances alone are fufceptible of fex ;
and that therefore fubfiantive nouns alone fhouli have o
didinCtions refpecting gender. The fame is true with Adjedtives
refped: to number and perfon. An attribute admits from their
of no change in its nature, whether it belong to vouJ!atu,rf.
or to me, to a man or a woman, to one man or t°n0°varia?VC
many; and therefore the words expreffive of attributes, fan tode-
ought on all occafions, and in every fituation, to be note fex,
fixed and invariable. For as the qualities good and bad, number, or
black and white, arc the fame, whether they be applied1,er 00‘
to a man or a woman, to many or to few ; fo the word
which exprefles any one of thefe attributes ought in
ftriftnefs to admit of no alteration with whatever fub-
Jlantive it may be joined. Such is the order of nature ;
and that order, on this as on other occafions, the Eng-
lifh language mod driCUy obferves: for we fay equal¬
ly* a man or a good woman ; good men or good
women ; a good houfe or good houfes. In fome languages,
indeed, fuch as Greek and Latin, of which the nouns
admit of cafes, and the fentences of an invertedJlruCture,
it has been found neceffary to endow adjectives with
the threefold didinCtion of gender, number, and per¬
fon y but as this is only an accidental variation, occa-
cafioned by particular circumdances, and not in the
lead effential to language, it belongs not to our fub-
jeCt, but to the particular grammars of thefe tongues. 99
There is, however, one variation of the adjective, ^0^VgJVe'
which has place in all languages, is founded in the na- one varia.
ture of things, and properly belongs to univerfalgram- tion found-
war. It is occaixoned by comparing the attribute ofe i >n the
one fubdance with a fimilar attribute of another, and naturc
falls naturally to be explained under the next feCtion. in^*'
Sect. III. Of Adverbs, and the Compdrifon of Ad¬
jectives.
89. As adjeCdves denote the attributes of fubfiances, fo
there is an inferior clafs of words which denote the wa-
difications of thefe attributes. Thus, when we fay “ Ci- Th/iriiport
cero and Pliny were both of them eloquent; Statius and 0f adverbs.
Virgil both of them wrotethe atn ibutes exprefied
Ly the words eloquent and wrote are immediately refer¬
red to Cicero, Virgil, &c. ; and as denoting the attri¬
butes offubfiances, thefe words, the one an adjective and
the other a verb, have been both called attributives
of THE FIRST order. But when we fay, “ Pliny was
moderately eloquent, but Cicero exceedingly eloquent;
Statius wrote indifferently, but Virgil wrote admirably;
the woc&s moderately, exceedingly, indifferently, and admi¬
rably, are not referable to fubfiantives, but to other
attributes; that is, to the words eloquent and wrote,
the iignification of which they modify. Such words,
therefore, having the fame effeft upon adjectives that
adjectives have upon fubfiantives, have been called ■
ATTRIBUTIVES OF THE SECOND ORDER. By gram-01 f
marians they have been called adverbs; and, 'f-oftheir ^
we take the word verb in its moft comprehenfive fig- name.
nification (a), as including not only verbs properly fib
called, but alfo every fpesies of words, which, whe¬
ther ejfentially or accidentally, are iignificant of the
attributes of fubftancts, we (hall find the name adv erb
K to
( a) Arfiotle and his followers called every word a verb, which denotes the predicate of a propofition. This
claffification was certainly abfurd; for it confounds not only adjectives and participles, but even fubfiantives,
with verbs : but the authority of Ariftotle was great; and hence the name of adverb, though that word attaches
itfelf only to an adjective ox participle, or a verb lignificant of an attribute ; it does not attach itfelf to pure verb.
74
Adverbs
denoting
jntenfion
and rexnif-
io-?
Attributes
of the farr.t
kind com
pared by
means of
fucli ad-
104
The com-
parifon of
adjedlives
either by-
adverbs.
G II A M
to be a very juft appellation, as denoting a part of
SPEECH, THE NATURAL APPENDAGE OF SUCH VERBS. So
great is this dependence in grammatical fyntax, that an
adverb can no more fubfift without its verb, i. e. with¬
out fame word fignificant of an attribute, than a verb or
adjective can fubfift without its fubjlantive. It is the
fame here as in certain natural fubjefts. Every colour,
for its exiftence, as much requires a fuperjicies, as the
fuperjicies for its exiftence requires a folid body.
90. Among the attributes of fubftances are reckon¬
ed quantity and quality : thus we fay a white garment, a
high mountain. See. Now fome of thefe quantities and.
qualities are capable of intenfion or rermjjion ; or, in other
words, one fubjlance may have them in a greater or lefs
degree than another. Thus we fay, a garment exceeding-
ir white, a mountain tolerably or moderately high.
Hence, then, one copious fource offecondary attributives
or adverbs to denote thefe two, that is, intenfion and
remijjion; fuch as greatly, tolerably, vajlly, extremely, in-
dijferently, he.
But where there are different intenfions of the fame
attribute, they may be compared together : Thus, if
the garment A be exceedingly white, and the garment
B \se moderately white, we may fay, the garment A is
more white than the garment B. This paper is white,
and /now is white ; but fnow is more white than this pa¬
per. In thefe inftances, the adverb more not only de¬
notes intenfion, but relative intenfion: nay, we flop not here,
as we not only denote intenfion merely relative, but relative
intenfonthan which there is nonegreater. 'Yh.us.'xe.id.y,Sopho¬
cles was wife, Socrates was more wife than he, but Solomon
was theurosv wife of men. Even wrAr, properly fo called,
which denote an attribute as well as an ajjertion, muft ad¬
mit both offmple and alfo of comparative intenfions; but
the fmple verb to be admits of neither the one nor the
other. Thus, in the following example, Fame he lo-
veth more than riches ; but virtue of all things he loveth
most ; the words more and most denote the different
comparative intenfions of the attribute included under the
verb loveth ; but the ajfertion itfelf, which is the ejfential
part of the verb, admits neither of intenfion nor remiffion,
but is the fame in all poffible propofitions.
91. From this circumllance o£ quantities and quali¬
ties being capable of intenfion and remifion f arife the
comp arison of adjeBivesdifferentDEGREES,which
cannot well be more than the two fpecies above men¬
tioned ; one to denote fmple excefs, aud one to denote
fuperlati e. Were we indeed to introduce more degree's
than thefe, we ought perhaps to introduce infnite,
which is abfurd. For why flop at a limited number,
when, in all fubjefts fufceptible of intenfion, the inter¬
mediate exceffes are in a manner infinite ? Between
the fir ft ftmple white and the fuperlative whitef, there
are infinite degrees of more white ; and the fame may
be fatd of more great, more ftrong, more minute, &c.
The doctrine of grammarians about three fuch degrees
of comparifon, which they call the pofithe, the compa-
rati e, and the fuperlative, mull be abfurd; both becaufe
in their pfitive there is no comparifon at all, and becaufe
their fuperlative is a comparative as much as their compa¬
rative itfelf. Examples to evince this may be met with
every where : Socrates was the most wise of all the Athe¬
nians ; Homer was the most sublime of all poets, &c. In
MAR. Chap.
this fentence Socrates is evidently compared with the
Athenians, and Homer with all other poets. Again, if
it be faid that Socrates was more wise than any othfr
Athenian, but that Solomon was the most wise of men ; is
not a comparifon of Solomon with mankind in general, as
plainly implied in the daft claufe of the fentence, as a
comparifon of Socrates with t h e other Athenians in the firft ?
But if both imply comparifon, it may be afked, In
what confifts the difference between the comparative and
fuperlative? Does the fuperlative always exprefs a greater
excefs than the comparative? No: for though Socrates
was the mof wife of the Athenians, yet is Solomon affirm¬
ed to have been more wife than he; fo that here a higher
fuperiority is denoted by the comparative more than by
the fuperlative mof. Is this then the difference'between
thefe two degrees, that the fuperlative implies a com¬
parifon of one with many, while the comparative implies
only a comparifon of one with one? No this is not al¬
ways the cafe neither. The Pfalmift fays, that “ he
is wifer (or more wife) than all his teachers;” where,
though the comparative is ufed, there is a compa¬
rifon of one with many. The real difference be¬
tween thefe two degrees of comparifon may be explain¬
ed thus:
When we ufe the fuperlative, it is in confequence of
having compared individuals with the fpecies to which
they belong, or one or more fpecies with the genus un¬
der which -they are comprehended. Thus, Socrates was
the most wise of the Athenians, and the Athenians were
the MOST enlightened of ancient nations. In the firft
claufe of this fentence, Socrates, although compared
with the Athenians, is at the fame time confidered as
one of them ; and in the laft, the Athenians, although
compared with ancient nations, are yet confidered zsone
of thofe nations. Hence it is that in Englijh the fuper¬
lative is followed by the prepofition of, and in Greek
and Latin by the genitive cafe of the plural number ; to
fhow, that the objeft which has the pre eminence is
confidered as belonging to that clafs of things with which
it is compared.
But when we ufe the comparative degree, the objects
compared are fet in dire ft oppoftion; and the one is con¬
fidered not as a part of the other, or as comprehended
under it, but as fomething altogether difinh and be¬
longing to a different clafs. Thus, were one to fay,
“ Cicero was more eloquent than the Romans,” he would
fpeak abfurdly ; becaufe every body knows, that of
the clafs of men expreffed by the word Romans Cicero
was one, and fuch a fentence would affirm that orator
to have been more eloquent than himfelf.. But when
it is faid that “ Cicero was more eloquent than all the
other Romans, or than any other Roman,” the language
is proper, and the affirmation true: for though the
perfons fpoken of were all of the fame -clafs or city,
yet Cicero is here fet in contradiftinftion to the reft
of his countrymen, and is not confidered as one of the
perfons with whom he is compared. It is for this
reafon that in Englifh the comparative degree is follow¬
ed by a noun governed by the word of contradiftinc-
tion than, and in Latin by a noun in the ablative cafe
governed by the prepofition pr<e (b) either expreffed
or underftood. We have already obftrved, that the
ablative cafe denotes concomitancy: and therefore when,
 aa
(b) See Ruddimanni Grammatica Jnfitutiones, Pars fecunda, lib. i. cap. 2.
Although it is certainly true, that when we ufe the fuperlative, we ought in propriety to confider the things
:* 105
t|)r by ii
e3£ion-
(Sap. V. G R A
an adjeAIve in tbe comparative degree is prefixed to
a noun, that noun is put in the ablative cafe, to denote
that two things are compared together in company ; but
by means of the prepofition, expreffed or underftood,
‘1 that which is denoted by the comparative adjedive is
feen to be preferred before that which is denoted by the
noun.
92. We have hitherto confidered comparatives as ex-
prefled by the words more and mojl; but the authors,
or improvers of language, have contrived a method to
retrench the ufe of thefe adverbs, by expreffing their
force by an infleBion of the adjeStive. Thus, inltead of
more fair, they fay fairer ; inftead of mofl fair, fair¬
est : and the fame method of comparifon takes place
both in the Greek and Latin languages ; with this dif¬
ference, however, between the genius of thefe langua¬
ges and ours, that we are at liberty to form the com¬
parifon either in the one method or in the other ;
whereas in thofe languages the comparifon is feldom if
ever formed by the affiftance of the adverb, but always
by the inflexion of the adje&ive. Hence this inflec¬
tion is by the Greek and Latin grammarians confidered
as a neceffary accident of the adjeBive ; but it has reached
no farther than to adjeBivcs, and participles Jharing the
nature of adjectives. The attributes expreffed by verbs
are as fufceptible of comparifon as thofe exprefled by
adjeBives; but they are always compared by means of
adverbs, the verb being too much diverfified already to
| * IQg admit of more variations without perplexity.
Icoinpara- 93. It muit be confefled that comparatives, as well
Itives fome- the fmple as the fuperlative, feem fometimes to part
ItheirVda w’t^1 their relative nature, and to retain only their
feiveVature. *ntmSl’ve- Thus in the degree denoting fimple excefs :
Tristior, et tacrymis oculos fuffufa nitcntes. V'irg.
Trifior means nothing more than that Venus was very
fad. In the degree called the fuperlative this is more
ufual. Phrafes extremely common are, Fir doBijfmus,
vir fortiffimus, “ a moft learned man, a moll brave
mani. e. not the bravejl and mojl learned man that
ever exifted, but a man pofTeffing thofe qualities in an
eminent degree. In Englifh, when we intimate that a
certain quality is pofTefled in an eminent degree, with¬
out making any direB comparifon between it and a fimi-
lar quality, we do it by the interjive word very, more
commonly than by mojl: as, Cicero was very eloquent; the
mind ofjohnfon was very vigorous. This mode of ex-
preflion has been called the fdperlative of eminence, to di-
itinguilh it from the other fuperlative, which is fuperla¬
tive upon comparifon. Yet it may be faid, that even in
M M A R. 7,
the fuperlative of eminence fomething of comparifon mud
be remotely or indireBly intimated, as we cannot reafon-
ably call a man very eloquent without comparing his e*
loquence with the eloquence of other men. This is
indeed true ; but we cannot therefore affirm that com.
parifon is more clearly intimated in this fuperlative than
in the fimple adjeBive eloquent: for when we fay that a
man is eloquent, we mark between his eloquence and
that of other men a diftin&ion of the fame kind, though
not in the fame degree, as when we fay that he is very
eloquent.
In Engliffi we diftinguiffi* the t^o fuperlatives, by
prefixing to the one the definite article the, to (how that
fomething is predicated of the obje& expreffed by it,
which cannot be predicated olany other oh]£&L‘, and by
fubjoining the prepofition of, to (how that the obje&s
with which it is compared are of the fame clafs with
itfelf: as, “ Solomon was the wifeft of men ; Hedtor
was the moft valiant of the Trojans.” To the other
(c) fuperlative we only prefix the indefinite article a:
as, “ he was a very good man : he was a mof valiant
foMier.” ... . 107
94. As there are fome qualities which admit of com- Adje&ives
parifon, fo there are others which admit of none : fuch, which ad-
for example, are thofe which denote that quality of bodies
arifing from their fgure; as when we fay, a circular
table, a quadrangidar court, a conical piece of metal, fonf
&c. The reafon is, that a million of things partici¬
pating the fame figure, participate it equally, if they
do it at all. To fay, therefore, that while A and B
are both quadrangular, A is more or lefs quadrangular
than B, is abfurd. The fame holds true in all attri¬
butives denoting defnite quantities of whatever nature :
for as there can be no comparifon without intenfon or
rem'Jfion, and as there can be no intenfion or remiffion in
things always defnite, therefore thefe attributives can
admit of no comparifon. By the fame method of
reafoning, we difcover the caufe why no fubfantive is
fufceptible of thefe degrees of comparifon. A mountain
cannot be faid more to be or to Ax/sTthan a mole-hill;
but the more or lefs muff be fought for in their quan¬
tities. In like manner, when we refer many indivi¬
duals to one fpecies,-the lion A cannot be called more a
lion than the lion B (d) ; but if more any thing, he is
more fierce, more fwift, or exceeding in fome fuch attri¬
bute. So again, in referring many fpecies to one ge¬
nus, a crocodile is not more an animal than a lizard;
nor a tiger more than a cat : but, if any thing, the
crocodile and tyger are more bulky, moreJlrong, &c. than
K 2 the
compared as of the fame clafs ; and when we ufe the comparative, as of different claffes; yet is not this djlinc-
tion always attended to by the beft writers in any language. In Latin and Greek the comparative is fome¬
times ufed, where in En^lilh we (hould ufe the fuperlative ; as dextera efi fortior manuum ; and in the Gofpel it is
faid, that “ a grain of rnuftatd-feed is the fmaller (u>*f>ohpo(') 0f all feeds, but when grown up it is the greater
of herbs.” Even in Engliflr, the cuitom of the language permits us not to fay “ he is the tallefi of the
two,” it muft be the taller oi the two ; but we cannot fay “ he is the taller of the three,” it muft be the tallefi.
For thefe and other deviations from the general rule no reafon is to be found in the nature of things; they are
errors made proper by ufe.
(c) In Englifh, the termination efi is peculiar to the fuperlative of comparifon, to which the definite article is
prefixed. Thus we may fay, “ Homer was the fublimefi of poets;” but we cannot fay, “ Homer was a fub-
limeft poet.” Again, we may fay, “ Homer was a very fublime poet;” but not, “ Homer was the very
firblime poet.”
(d) When Pope fays of a certain perfon, that he is “ a trad.efman, meek, and much a liar f the laft phrafe
is the fame with much given to lying, the word liar having the effort of an attributive.
76
Adverbs
•divided in
to claffes.
GRAM
the animals with which they are compared; the excefs,
as before, being derived from their attributes.
9j. Of the adverbs or fecondary attributives already
mentioned* thofe denoting intenfwn and remijfton may
be called adverbs of quantity continuous, as greatly,
vaflly, tolerably, &c. ; once, twice, thrice, &c. (e) are
adverbs of quantity DISCRETE; more and mojl, lefs and
Iffl, to which may be added equally, proportional¬
ly, &c. are adverbs of relation. There are others of
quality: as when we fay, honfstiy indujlriovs, pru¬
dently brave; they fought brapely, he painted finely. '
And here it may be worth while to obferve, how
the fame thing, participating the fame efience, a (fumes
different grammatical forms from its different rela¬
tions. For example, fuppofe it fhould be aiked, How
differ honefi, honejlly, and honejly? The anfwer is. They
are in ejfence the fame : but they differ in as much as
honeft is the attributive of a noun; hottefily, of verb or ad-
jectiie; and honejly being divefted of thefe its attribu¬
tive relations, affumes the power of a noun or fuijlanthe,
fo as to ftaiid by itfelf.
96. The adverbs hitherto mentioned are common to
verbs of every fpecies ; hut there are fome which are con-
ffned to verbs properly fo called, that is, to fuch verbs as
denote motions or energies with their privations. All
motion and rejl imply time and place as a kind of necef-
fary coincidence. Hence, vvhen we would exprefs the
place or time of either, we have recourfe to adverbs form¬
ed for this purpofe ; of place, as when we fay, lx flood
fusiis, he went hence, he came hither ; of time, as
when we fay, he flood then, he went afteru'ARds, he
travelled formerly. To thefe may be added the adverbs
which denote the interficns and remiffions peculiar to mo¬
tion, fuch as fpeeddy, haJlily,fwiftly,Jlowly, &c.; as alfo
adverbs of place made out oi prepqfitions, luch as upward
and downward from up and down. It may, however,
fee doubted whether fome of thefe words, as well as
many others, which do not fo properly modify attri¬
butes, as mark fome remote circimflance attending an at¬
tribute or our way of conceiving it, are truly adverbs,
though fo called by the grammarians. The (imple
affirmative and negative yes and no are called adverbs,
though they furely do not fignify that which we hold
to be the very effence of the adverb, a modification of
attributes. “ Is he learned ? No.” “ Is he brave ? Yes.”
Here the two adverbs, as they are called, fignify not
any modification of the attributes brave and learned, but
a total negation of the attribute in the one cafe, and
in the other a declaration that the attribute belongs
to the perfon fpoken of.
-AAerA are indeed applied to many purpofes ; and
their general nature maybe better underftood by reading
a lift 0f them, and attending to their etymology, than
by et^mp- ky any general defcription or definition. Many of
logy. them feem to have been introduced into language in
order to exprefs by one word the meaning of two or
no three ; and are mere abbreviations of nouns, verbs, and
th^n ^irere a<^je<^^ves* Thus, the import of the phrafe, in what
abbrevia-re P^acei i® expreffed by the (ingle word where ; to what
tions. place, by whither; from this place, by hence; in a
direction afcending, by upwards ; at the prefent time, by
The mean
ing of ad-
MAR. Chap. V
now ; at what time, by w hen ; at that time, by then ;
many times, by often ; not many times, by seldom, &c.
97. Mr Horne Tooke has, with great induftry and
accuracy, traced many of the Englifh adverbs from
their oiigin in the ancient Saxon and other northern
tongues, and (hown them to be either corruptions of
other words or abbreviations of phrafes and fentences.
He obferves, that “ all adverbs ending in ly, the mod:
prolific branch of the family, are fufficiently under-
ilood : the termination being only the word//’ie cor¬
rupted ; and the corruption fo much the more eafily
and certainly difeovered, as the termination remains
more pure and diftinguilhabie in the other lifter lan¬
guages, in which it is written Ucl, lyk, Ug, ligen.” He
might have added, that in Scotland the word like is,
at this day, frequently ufed inittfad of the Enghfh ter¬
mination ly ; as for a goodly figure, the common people
fay a good-like figure. Upqn this principle the greater
part of adverbs are refolved into thofe parts of fpeee-h
which we have already confidered, as honejlly into
honefl like, vqjlly into vafl-like, &c. fo that when we
fay of a man he is honejlly induflriaus, we affirm that he
is honfl-like induflrious, or that his induflry has the ap¬
pearance of being honefl. Adverbs of a different ter¬
mination the fame acute writer refolves thus : Aghast
into the paft participle agazed ;
“ The French exclaiired,—the devil was in arms.
“ All the whole army flood aganed on him ” Shaitpiart.
Ago, into the paft participle agone or gone. Asun¬
der he derives from asundred, fparated; the pad
participle of the Anglo Saxon vtxb'ajundrian : a word
which, in all its varieties, is to be found, he fays, in all
the northern tongues ; and is originally from fond, i. e.
fand. To wit, from wittan to know; as videlicet and
fcilicet, in Latin, are abbreviations of videre-licet and
feire licet. Needs, he refolves into need is, ufed pa¬
renthetically ; as, “ I mud needs do fucb a thing,”—“ I
mu ft (need is) do fuch a thing i. e. “ I mifl dp it,
there is need of it.” Anon, which our old authors
ufe for immediately, inflantly, means, he fays, in one; i. e.
in one inflant, moment, minute. As,
“ And right anon withouten more abode.”
“ Anon in all the hatte I can.”
Alone and only are refolved into adl one, and one-
like. In the Dutch, ben is-ose,- and all-een alone;
and all-een-like, anciently alonely. Alive is
on live, or in life. Thus,
“ Chrift ccerne on live.” Chaucer.
Aught or ought ; a whit or 0 whit ; o being for¬
merly w'ritten for the article a, or for the numeral
one; and wto or Aw/V, in Saxon, fignifying a fmali
thing, a point or jot. Awhile, which is ufually claf-
fed with adverbs, is evidently a noun with the indefinite.
article prefixed; a while, i. e. a time. Whilst, an¬
ciently and more properly whiles, is plainly the Saxon
hwile-es, time that. Aloft was formerly written
on-loft : As,
“ And ye, my mother, my foveregne pleafance
“ Over al thing,ok! take Chrift on lofte ” Chaucer.
Now, fays Mr Horne Tooke, lyft, in the Anglo Saxon,
' is
(e) Thefe words were anciently written one's, twie's, thrie’s ; and are merely the genitives of one, two, three*
the. fubftantive time or turn being omitted* Thus, How often did you write? Anfwer, Once, i. e. one’s time. See
Horne Tooke'S Diverfums of Parley. f
77
V. GRAMMAR.
Is the air or the clouditZi in lytte cummende, coming
in the clouds, (St Luke.) In the Danifh, luft is air; and
“ at fpronge i lufter.” to blow up into the air, or aloft.
So in the Dutch, de loef hebbcn, to fail before the wind ;
loeven, to ply to windward ; loef, the weather gage,
&c. From the fame root are our other words: Loft,
lofty, to hiff\ lee, leeward, lift, &c. It would be need-
Itfs, as the ingenious author obferves, to notice fuch
adverbs as* afoot, aclays, ajhore, qftray, ajlope, aright,
abed, aback, abrtafl, afloat, aloud, afide, afield, aground,
aland, &c. Thefe are at firft view feen for what they
are. Nor {hall we follow him through the analyfis
which he has given of many other adverbs, of which
the origin is not fo obvious as of thefe. Of the truth
of his principles we are fatisfied; and have not a
doubt, but that upon thofe principles a man conver-
fant with our earliefl writers, and thoroughly {killed
in the prefent languages, may trace every Englilh (s)
adverb to its fource, and fhow that it is no part of
fpeech feparate from thofe which we have already
eenfidered. The adverbs, however, of affirmation and
negation, are of too much importance to be thus pafled
over; and as we have never feen an account of them
at all fatisfadtory, except that which has been given
by HorneToole, we {hall tranferibe the fubftance of
what he fays concern aye, yea, yes, and no. To us
thefe words have always appeared improperly clafled
with adverbs upon every definition which has been
given of that part of fpeech. Accordingly, our au¬
thor fays, that aye or yea is the imperative of a verb
of northern extraction ; and means, have, pojfefs, enjoy.
And yes is a contra&ion of ay-es, have, poffefs, en¬
joy, that. Thus, when it is afaed whether a man be
learned, if the anfwer be by the word yes, it is equi¬
valent to have that, enjoy that, belief or that propo-
fition. (See what was faid of the nature of interroga¬
tion, Chap. IV. n° 76.
The northern verb of which yea is the imperative,
is in Danilh ejer, to pojfefs, have, enjoy. Eja, aye or
yea; eje, pojfffon; pojejfor. in Swedilh it is
bga, to pojfefs ; of which the imperative is j a, aye, yea:
ILgake, pojjeffbr. In German, jA-fignifies aye or yea
iigen er, pojfef 'ar, owner; eigen, own. In Dutch,
Eigenen is to poffej's; ja, aye, yea.
Gieenwood derives not and its abbreviate-no from
the Latin ; Minfhow, from the Hebrew; and Junius,
from the Greek. Our author very properly obferves,
that the inhabitants of the North could not wait for a
word expreffive of difient till the eftablilhment of thofe
nations and languages: and adds, that we need not be
kiquifitive nor doubtful concerning the origin and fig-
nification of not and no ; fince we find that, in the
Danifh, nodig, in the Swedifh, nodig, and In the
Dutch, noode, node, and no, mean averfe, unwilling.
So that when It Is afked whether a man be brave, if
the anfwer be no, it is a declaration that he who
makes it is averfe from or unwilling to admit that pro-
pofition.
98. Moft writers on grammar have mentioned a
fpecies of adverbs, which they call ad erbs of interroga¬
tion; fuch as where, whence, whither, how, &c. But
the truth is, that there is no par*: of fpeech, which, of
itfelf, denotes interrogation. A queftion is never afk¬
ed otherwife than by abbreviation, by a Jingle word,
whether that word be a noun, a pronoun, a verb, or an
adverb. The word where is equivalent to—in what
place; whence to—from what place; and how to—fa
what manner, &c. In thefc phrafes, in what place, from
what place, apd in what manner, the only word that
can be fuppofed to have the force of an interrogative,
is what, which is .refolvable into that which-. But we
have already explained, in the chapter of Pronouns, the
principles upon which the relative is made to denote
interrogation, and the fame reafoning will account
for the adverbs where, whence, whither, how, &c. being
employed as interrogatives. When we fay, where were
you yejlerday? whence have you come? whither are you
going? how do you perform your journey ? We merely ufe
fo many abbreviations for the following fentences; tell
us, or deferibe to us, the place where (or in which)
you wereyejlerday; the place whence (or from which)
you have come; the place to which you are going; the
manner in which you perform your journey. Andfo much
for adverbs. We now proceed to thofe parts of fpeech
which are ufually called prepofitions and conjunctions, and*
of which the ufe is to connedl the other words of a
fentence, and to combine two or more Jimple fentenees
into one compound fentence.
CHAPTER VI.
(^Prepositions, Conjunctions, andlx-
TERJECTIONS.
99. It has been obferved, that a man while awake in
is confcious of a continued train of perceptions and Obje&s,
ideas paffing in his mind, which depends little upon and .
his own will 5 that he cannot to the train add a new ijuked'tQ. ’
idea; and that he can but very feldom break its con- gether,
neftion. To the llightell refkftion thefe truths mult
be apparent. Our firft ideas are thofe which we de¬
rive from external objefts making impreffions on the
fenfes; but all the external objefts which fall under our
obfervation are linked together in fuch a manner as
indicates them to be parts of one great and regular
fyftem.
(s) The fame refolution might probably be made of the Greek and Latin adverbs, were we as intimately
acquainted with the fources of thofe tongues as Mr Elorne Tooke is with the fources of the Englifh language.
“ Many of the Latin adverbs (fays the learned Ruddiman) are nothing elfe hot adjeCtne nouns or pronouns,
having the prepojition sod fubjlanti, e underftood ; as, quo, eo, eodem, for ad qua, ea, eddem (loca), or cut, ci, eidem
(loco); for of old thefe datives ended in o. Thus, qua, hac, iliac. See. are plainly adjectives in the abl. ftng.
femin. the word via “ a way,” and the prepofition in, being unuerftood. Many of them are compounds ; as,
qitombdo, i. e. quo modo ; quemadmodum, i. e. ad quern modum ; quamobrem, i. e. ob quam rem ; quare, i. e. (pro)
qua re; quorfum, I. e. verfus quern (locum); fcilicet, i.e.fcire licet; videlicet, i. e. videre licet; ilicet, i. e. ire licet;
illico, i. e. in loco;^ magnopere, i. e. magno opere ; nimirum, i. e. ni (ejl) mirmn ; hodie, i. e. hoc die ; pojlridie, i. e. po-
Jlerodie ; pridie, i.e.pra die. Profecio, certe, fane, male, bene, plane, are obvioufly adjectives. Forte is the abla-
tive oi fors ; and if we had leifure to purfue the fubjedt, and were mafters of all the languages from which the
Latin is derived, we doubt not but we fhould be able to refolve eyery adverb into a fuljlantive or adjective.
78
GRAMMAR. Chap. VI,
fyftera. When we take a view of the things by which
we are furrounded, and which are the archetypes of
our ideas, their inherent qualities are not more re-
na markable than the various relations by which they are
By various connefted. Caufe and ejfeEt, contiguity in time or in
relations: p[acej high and l0Wj prior andpojhrior, refemblance and
.contraji, with a thoufand other relations, connedt things
together without end. There is not a Angle thing
which appears folitary and altogether devoid of con-
nedtion. The only difference is, that fome are inti¬
mately and fome (lightly connedted, fome nearly and
fome at a diftance. That the relations by which ex¬
ternal objedts are thus linked together muft have great
influence in diredting the train of human thought, fo
that not one perception or idea can appear to the mind
wholly unconnedted with all other perceptions or ideas,
will be admitted by every man who believes that his
fenfes and intelledt reprefent things as they are.
This being the cafe, it is neceffary, if the purpofe
of language be to communicate thought, that the
fpeaker be furnifhed with words, not only to exprefs
the ideas of fubftances and attributes which he may
have in his mind, but alfo to indicate the order in
which he views them, and to point out the various re¬
lations by which they are connedted. In many inftan-
ces all this may be done by the parts of fpeech which
we have already confidered. The clofeft connexion
which we can conceive is that which fubfifts between
a fubftance and its qualities; and in every language
with which we are acquainted, that connedtion is indi¬
cated by the immediate coalefcence of the adjeftive
with the fubjlantive ; as we fay, a good man, a learned
man; vir bonus, vir do£lus. Again, there is a connec¬
tion equally intimate, though not fo permanent, be¬
tween an agent and his attion : for the adtion is really
an attribute of the agent; and therefore we fay, the
boy reads, the man writes; the noun coalefcing with
the verb fo naturally, that no other word is requifite to
unite them. Moreover, an action and that which is
d8ed upon being contiguous in nature, and mutually
affedting each other, the words which denote them
Ihould in language be mutually attradfive, and capable
of coalefcing without external aid ; as, he reads a book,
he builds a houfe, he breaks a Jlone. Further : becaufe
an attribute and its modifications are infeparably united,
an adjeBive or a verb is naturally connedted with the
adverb which illuitrates or modifies its fignification; and
therefore, when we fay, he walks Jlowly, he is prudently
brave, it is plain that no other word is neceffary to
promote the coalefcence of the attributes walking and
bravery with their modifications offiownefs and prudence.
The agreement between the terms of any propofition
which cpnftitutes truth is abfolutely perfedt; but as
either of the terms may agree with many other things be-
iides its correlate, fome word is requilite in every pro-
polition to connect the particular predicate with the
particular fubjeS: and that is the office of the fimple
verb to be; as, the three angles of every rectilineal triangle
are equal to two right angles.
Thus we fee, that many of the relations fubfifting
between our ideas may be clearly expreffed by means
of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs; and in thofe
languages of which the nouns have cafes, there is per¬
haps no relation of much importance which might not
be thus pointed out, without being under the neceffity
of employing the aid of any additional part of fpeech.
In Englifh, however, the cafe is btherwife ; for were
we to fay, “ He rode Edinburgh, went the parliament-
houfe, walked his counfel the court met,” we fhould
fpeak unintelligibly; as in thefe expreffions there is
either a total want of connedtion, or fuch a connec¬
tion as produces falfehood and nonfenfe. In order to
give meaning to the paffage, the feveral gaps muft be
filled up by words fignificant of the various relations
by which the different ideas are connedled in the mind; ri^ |
as, “ He rode to Edinburgh, went to the parliament- Exprefled
houfe, and walked with his counfel till the court met.” by prepofi.
Of thefe connecting words, to and with are called pre- t'01ls and ;
pofitioHs, and and till are ufually called conjunctions, I
Although thefe prepofitions and conjunctions are not fo
abfolutely necejfary in Greek and Latin as they are in
Englifh; yet as there is no language wholly without
them, nor any language in which it is not of import¬
ance to underftand their force, they well deferve a place
in univerfal grammar. IT4 ’i
IOO. The foie ufe of conjunctions and prepofitions in lan- Thefe con- l|
guage is to connedt either fentences or other words ; but neA either ?
the theory of thefe connectives themfelves has certainly fent®nce80r !
never been underftood, unlefs Horne Tooke have atW°r S'
laft hit upon the truth. Mr Harris writes about them
and about them, quoting paffages from Greek and Latin
authors, and produces at laft no information. His de¬
finitions of both, as parts of fpeech void of fignfication,
are highly abfurd ; and even the principal dfiinClion
which he makes between them feems not to be well
founded. Prepofitions and conjunctions denote the rela¬
tions fubfifting between the ideas expreffed by thofe
words or fentences which they ferve to connedt; and
as relations are contemplated by the mind as well aspo-
fitive ideas themfelves, the words which denote thofe re¬
lations cannot be infignificant. The effential difference
between the conjunction andprepofition, according to the
fame author, confifts in this, that xhz former connedts
fentences, and the latter words : but the fadt is often
otherwife. An obvious example occurs where the con-
jundtion and connedts not fentences but words. “ A man
of wisdom and virvue is a perfedt charadter.” Here
it is not meant'to be afferted, “ that the man of wis¬
dom is a perfedt charadter, and that the man of virtue
is a perfedt charadter:” both thefe affertions would be
falfe. This fentence therefore (and many fuch will
occur) is not refolvable into two : whence it follows,
that the conjundtion and does not always connedt fen¬
tences; and the fame is frequently the cafe with other
conjunctions.
Horne Tooke’s idea of prepqfitions and conjunctions is,
that they do not form dfiinCt daffies of words, but are
merely abbreviations of nouns and verbs : and with re-
fpedt to the Englijh language, he has been remarkably
fuccefsful in proving his pofition. But though fuch
be undeniably the cafe in Englifh, it would be rafh to
conclude « priori that it is fo in all other tongues. To
eftablifh this general conclufion would require a long
and tedious dedudtion in each particular language :
and how much learning, leifure, induftry, and acute-
nefs, fuch an undertaking would require, even in one
tongue, it is not ealy to determine. In the languages
with which we are beft acquainted, many conjunctions,
and moftprepofitions, have the appearance at leaft of ori¬
ginal words : and though this moft acute grammarian,
from his knowledge of the northern tongues, has been
able to trace the moft important of thole in Englifh to
very
79
;!hap. VI. G R A
very plaufible fources, the fame thing; would be diffi¬
cult in other languages of which the fources are ob-
fcure, and abfolutcly impoffible in thofe of which they
are wholly unknown. It is, however, a ttrong pre-
fumption in favour of his opinion, that grammarians
have never been able to affign any general chara3enjlic
of thofe fpecies of words ; which, did they conttitute
diftinB parts of fpeech, one would think could not have
fo long remained undifcovered. It is a farther pre-
fumption in his favour, that many words in Greek and
Latin, as well as in Englifh, which have been called
conjunEtions, are obvioufly refolvable upon his principles,
and indeed difcover their meaning and origin upon
mere infpection. We ffiall therefore content ourfelves
with retailing the common doctrine refpefting thefe
parts of fpeech fo far as it is intelligible ; fubjoining at
the bottom of the page the analyfis given.by Horne
Tooke of the moft important Engl'ijh conjunctions and
prepofitions; and requefting our readers, who would un-
deriland the fubjedl, to attend more to the relations
between their various ideas, than to the frivolous di-
ftin&ions which, in compliance with cuftom, we are
compelled to lay before them. We ihall treat firft of
the conjunEtion.
Sect. I. (y Conjunctions.
Jefhvition 101' ^ conjun®ton a Part °f fpeec^ °f which, as its
if conjunc- name indicates, the ufe is to conned, either two or more
ions. words in a fentence, or to make of two Jimple fentences one
compound fentence. It is ufually faid, that conjunctions
never conned words, but fentences only; and that this
is the circumftance which diftinguilties them from pre¬
pofitions. We have already given one example which
proves this diftindion to be ill founded ; we Ihall now
give from Horne fooke one or two more, which will
place its abfurdity in a (till clearer light : Two and
two are four; John and Jane are a handfome couple;
AB and BC and CA forma triangle. Are two four? Is
John a couple and Jane a couple? Does one fraight line
form a triangle? From the fubjoined note it appears,
that and (g) may conned any two things which can
be connedtd, as it dignities addition.
Conjunctions conneding fentences, fometimes conned
their meaning, and fometimes not For example, let us
Which are ta^e t*le^ two fentenCes, Rome was enfaved, Cee-
:ither con- far was anPitious, and conned them together by the
undtive or conjundion b-ecause ; Rome was enjlaved because C<e-
iijwiCliMt. far was ambitious. Here the meanings, as well as the
fentences, appear to be conneded by that natural rela¬
tion which fublifts between an effed and its caufe; for
the enflaving of Rome was the effed of Ctefar’s ambi¬
tion. That particular relation therefore is that which is
M M A R.
denoted by the conjundion because (h), which would
be improperly ufed to conned two fentences between
which the relation of an effed to its caufe exifts not. But
if it be faid, manners muf be reformed, or liberty will be
lof; here the conjundion or, though hjoin the fen¬
tences, yet as to their meaning is a perfed disjundive.
Between the reformation of manners and the lofs of liber¬
ty there is certainly a natural relation ; but it is not the
relation of contiguity orfmilitude, or of caufe and efed,
but of contrariety. The relation of contrariety therefore
is the fignification of the word or (4). And thus it
appears, that though all conjundions may combine
fentences, yet, with refped to the fenfe, fame are con¬
junctive and others are disjunctive. ny
102. Thofe conjundions which conjoin both fentences Cnnjunc-
and their meanings nrz either copulatives or- conti-t'on'',ellIler
NUAT1VES. The principal copulative in Engli/h is orPConcma-
and, which we have already confidered. The conti-ative.
nuatives are much more numerous; if, an, because,
therefore, wherefore, hence, &c. The differ¬
ence between them is this : The copulative does no
more than barely couple words or fentences, and is
therefore applicable to all fubjeds of which the natures
are not incompatible (K). The relation which it denotes
is that of juxtapjition, or of one thing added to another*
Continuaiives, on the contrary, by a more intimate con-
nedion, confolidate fentences into one continuous whole ;
and are therefore applicable only to fubjeds which
have an effential relation to each other, fuch as that of
an effed to its caufe or of a caufe to its effed. For ex¬
ample, it is no way improper to fay, Lyfppus was a
fatuary, and Prifcian a grammarian; the fun fj'metb,
and theJky is clear ; becaufe thefe are things that may
coexift, and yet imply no abfurdity. But it would
be abfurd to fay, Lyfppus was a fatuary because Prif¬
cian was a grammarian; though not to fay, the fun
Jhineth because the fy is clear. With refped to the
firit, the reafon is, that the word because denotes the
relation which an effed bears to its caufe: but the Hull
of Prifcian in grammar could not poffibly be the caufs
Lyfppus's Ikill in fatuary ; the coincidence between
the fkiil of the one and that of the other, in arts fo very
different, was merely accidental. With refped to the
Jhining of the fun and the clearnefs of the Jky., the cafe is
widely different; for the clearnefs of the Jky is the cause
of the fun's fining, at leaft fo as to be feen by us. 118
As loxhtcontinuaiives,X.\te^ areeither suppositive, fuch Ccntinua-
as if, an ; or positive, fuch as becauf, therefore, as, &C.
Take, examples of each: Tou will live happily if you '^po’fitivcv
live honefly ; you live happily because you live honefly ;
you live honef ly-, therefore you live happily. The diffe¬
rence between thefe continuatives is this : The fuppof-
tives denote connetlion, but do not affert adual ex-
irtence;
(g) And is a Saxon word, being (according to Mr H. Tooke) an abbreviation of an ad; the imperative of
the verb ananad, to add to, or heap up. So that when we fay two and two are four, we only declare that two
added to two are four.
(h) Because is compounded of the Saxon be —and cauf ; and by fome of our moll ancient authors it
was written by cause. Rome was enfaved because Cffar was ambitious, is therefore equivalent to, Rome was
enfaved by the caufe Cassar was ambitious-; taking the phrafe, Cafar was ambitious as an abftrad noun in con¬
cord with the other noun caufe.
(1) Or feems to be a mere contradion of the Saxon oder, which fignifies other, i. e. fomething different an i
often contrary. So that the conjundion or mud always denote diverfty, and very often contrariety.
(k) As day and night, heat and cold: for we cannot fay of the fame portion of time, it is day and it is night:.
or of the fame body, it is both hot and cold.
8o
II8
Pofitives,
fll or col-
leitive.
G R A M M A R. Chap
iftence ; tliC pofulves imply both the one and the a- as, therefore, wherefore, 8ic. The difference between
tier (i). thefe is this : The caufals fubjoin caufcs to ejfeih ; as.
The pofitives above mentioned are either causal; the fun is in eclipfe, because the moon intervenes •. The
fuch as, becaufe,ftnce, as(m),&c.: Or collective; fuch colktiives fubjoin effects to caufes; as, the moon intervenes.
No, 142 THERE-
(l) The reafon of all this will be apparent from the analyfis given by Horne Toole of thofe words which
we have called fuppofitive conjunctions. If and an may be ufea mutually and indifferently to fupply each other’*
place ; for they are both verbs, and of the fame import. If is merely the imperative of the Gothic and Anglo-
Saxon verb gifan, to give ; and in thofe languages, as well as in the Englifh formerly, this fuppofed conjunction
was pronounced and written as the common imperative gif. Thus,
“ Hath lotted her to be yoisr brother’s mittreffe,
“ Gif fhee can be reclaimed ; gif not, hi* prey.” Sad Shepherd, Act II. Scene iff.
Gawin Douglafs almoft always ufes gif for if, as the common people in fome counties of Scotland do even at
this day ; and it is obvious, that our if has always the fignif cation of the Engliih imperative give, and no other.
So that the refolution of the conftru&ion in the fentence, Iv you live honejlly you will live happily, is limply
this, Gier you live honefly (taking you live honejlly as an abftract noun) you will live happily. Your living
happily is declared to depend upon your living honejlly as the condition; but gice that, and your happinefs is po-
fitively afferted. In like manner may fuch fentences be refolved as,
“ I wonder he can move! that he’s not fixed!
“ If that his feelings be the fame with mine.”
Thus, “ His feelings be the fame with mine, give that, I wonder he can move,” &c. And here we cannot
forbear giving our affent to the truth of Mr Tooke’s obfervation, that when the datum upon which any con-
clufion depends is a fentence, the article that, if not expreffed, may always be inferted. We do not, however,
think the infertion at all times abfolutely neccjjary. to complete the fyntax; for active verbs govern whole fentences
and claufes of fentences as well as fubftantive nouns. Inftances of this occur fo frequently in the Latin claffics,
that they can have efcaped no man’s notice who has ever read Horace or Virgil with attention. We agree
likewife with our moft ingenious author, th^t where the datum is not a fentence, but fome noun governed by
the verb if or give, the article that can never be inferted. For example, if we be afked, how the weather
will difpofe of us to-morrow ? we cannot fay : “ If that fair, it will fend us abroad ; if that foul, it will
keep us at home;” but “ if fair, it will fend us abroad,” &c. The reafon is obvious : the verb in this cafe
dire&ly governs the noun ; and the refolved cpnftruftion is, “ give fair weather, it will fend us abroad ; give
foul weather, it will keep us at home.”
An, the other fuppofnive conjunction mentioned, is nothing elfe than the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon
verb anan, which likewife means to give or to grant. As, “ An you had an eye behind you, you might fee
more detraction at your heels than fortunes before you ;” that is, “ Grant you had an eye behind you, you
might fee,” &c. This account of the two conditional conjunctions in Engliih is fo rational and fatisfaCtory,
that we are ftrongly inclined to believe that all thofe words which are fo called, are in all languages to be ac¬
counted for in the fame manner. Not indeed that they muff all mean precifely to give or grant, but fome
word equivalent; fuch as, be it,fuppofe, allow, permit. See.; which meaning is to be fought for in the particular
etymology of each refpeCtive language.
(m) Of the caufal conjunctions mentioned in the text, because has been already coniidered; and fome account
muff be now given of the two words since and as. The former of thefe, according to Mr H. Tooke, is a
very corrupt abbreviation, confounding together different words and different combinations of words. To
us it appears to be compounded of seeho, feeing •, and es, that or it; or of sin, feen, and es. Seand and sin are
tdat prefent and pajl participles of the Anglo Saxon verb seon, to J'ee. In modern Engliih since is ufed four
ways; two as a preposition affeCting words, and two as a conjunction affecting fentences. When ufed as a
prepofition, it has always the fignifieation of thg pail participle seen joined to thence (i. e. feen and thencefor¬
ward), or elfe the fignification of the paft, participle seen only. When ufed as a conjunction, it has fometimes
the fignification of the prefent participle seeing, or seeing that ; and fometimes the fignitication of the pall
participle seen, or seen that. We fhall give examples of all thefe fignifications. iff. As a prepoftion figni-
fying seen and thenceforward-. “ A more amiable fovereign than George III. has not fwayed the Englifh feeptre
since the conquejl.,> That is, “ The conquef feen (or at the completion of the fight of the conqueft), and thence¬
forward, a more amiable fovereign than George III. has not fwayed the Englifh feeptre.” Since, taken in
this fenfe, feems rather to be a corruption of siththan or sithenge, than a compound of seand and es. 2dly,
As a prepofition fignifyiiig seen fimply : “ Did George III. reign before or since that example ?” 3dly, As a
conjunction, since means feeing that: as, “ If I ffiould labour for any other fatisfaftion but that of my own
mind, it would be an effed of phrenzy in me, not of hope ; since (or feeing that) it is not truth but opinion
that can travel through the world without a paffport.” qthly, It means seen that, or that seen; as, “ Since
death in the end takes from all whatfoever fortune or force takes from any one, it were a foolifh madnefs in
the fhipwreck of worldly things, when all finks but the forrow, to lave thati e.—“ Death in the end
takes from all whatfoever fortune or force takes from any one ; that seen, it were a foolilh madnefs,” &c.
As, the other caufal conjunction mentioned in the text, is an article meaning always it, or that, or which.
Jake the following example :
“ She glides away under the foamy feas
“ As fwift as darts or feather’d arrows fly.”
That
[jfchap. VI, GRAM
THERE TO RF.(s) the fun is in eclipfe. We therefore ufe cm-
fals in thofe inftances where, the effeB being confpicu-
ous, we feek for its caufe; and collectives^, in- demonftra-
tion and fcience, properly fo called, where the caufe
being firft known, by its help we difcern ejfeBs.
Tip As tocti»/«/conjun&ions, we may further obferve,.
^r*u^con* that there is no one of the four fpecies of caufes
ufenote four w'^'c^ they are not capable of denoting. For ex-
;Jijnds of ample, the material caufe; The trumpet founds becaosb
ajaufes. it is made of metal The formal ; The trumpet founds be¬
cause it is long and hollow. The efficient; The trumpet
founds becaus-e an artijl blows it. The final ; The
trumpet founds that it may raife our courage. It is
worth obferving, that the three firft caufes are ex-
preffed by the ftrongeft affirmation ; becaufe if the •
ejfeft aflually be, thefe muft be aifo. But this is not
the cafe with refpeft to the laft, which is only af¬
firmed as a thing that may happen. The r’eafon i»
obvious: for whatever may be the end which fet the
artift firft to work, that end it may ftiil be beyond his
power to obtain ; as, like all other contingents, it
may either happen or not. Hence alfo it is connected
by a particular conjunftion, that(o), abfolutely con-
J fined to this caufe.
JaUjuiuaive 103. We come now to the disjunctive conjunc-
ufonjunc- Vol. VIII. Part I,
fel*ions,       
MAR. 8t
tions: a fpecies of words which bear this contradic¬
tory name, becaufe while they conjoin the fentences^
they disjoin the fenfe; or, to fpeak a language more
intelligible, they denote relations of diversity or op¬
position.
That there ffiould be fuch words, whether called
conjunfiions or not, is extremely natural. For as there
is a principle of union diffufed through all things, by
which this whole is kept together and preferred from
diffipation ; fo is there in like manner a principle of
diversity diffufed through all, the fource of cliflinBion,
of number, and of orden Now it is to exprefs in fome
degree the modifications of this divetfity, that thofe words-
called disjunctive conjunctions are employed. I2r
- Of thefe disjunBives, fome are simple, and fome AD- Either fimi
versative: Simple; as when we fay, either it is dayV^ °r ad-
or it is night: Adverfalive; as when we fay, it is nolver^iit*v''v
day but it is night. The difference between thefe is,
that thefimple exprefs nothing more than a relation of
diversity; the adverfative exprefs a relation not barely
of diverfty, but alfo of opposition. Add to this, that
the adverfatives bxc. definite, the fimple indefinite.
Thus when we fay, the number three is not an even num¬
ber but^v) an odd; we not only disjoin two oppofite
attributes, but we definitely affirm the one to belong to
JL the
That is, “ She glides away (with) that fwiftnefs (with) which darts or feathered arrows fly.” In German,
where as ftill retains its original fignification and ufe, it is written es. So is another conjunBion of the fame
import with as, being evidently the Gothic article sa or so, which fignifies it or that.
(n) As Mr Harris has called therefore, wherefore, &e. colkBive conjunBions; we have retained the deno¬
mination, though perhaps a more proper might be found. It is indeed of little confequence by what name,
any.clafs of words be called, provided the import of the words themfelves be underftbod. Wherefore and
therefore evidently denote the relation of a caufe to its efifeBs. They are compounds of the Saxon words?
HvvvERand thalr with for or voor ; and fignify,/or which, for thofe or that.^ It is worthy of remark, that in
fome parts of Scotland the common people even at this day ufe thir for thefe.
(o) We have already confidered the word that, and feen that it is never a .conjun&ion, but uniformly a:
definite article. “ The- trumpet founds (for) that it may raife our couragetaking the claufe it may raife our.
courage as an abftraft noun in concord with and governed by for. Or the fentence may be refolved thus:
“ The trumpet may raife our courage (for) that (purpofe) it founds.”
(p) Mr Horne Tooke has favoured us with fome ingenious remarks on the two different derivations of the
word but; when ufed in the two acceptations that are ufually annexed to it, viz. that vyhich it bears in the
beginning of a fentence, and that which it has in the wirM?. He has given it as his opinion, that this word,t
when employed in the former way, is corruptly put for bot, the imperative of the Saxon verb botan, to boot, to.
fuperadd, to fupply, &c. and that when -ufed in the latter it is a contra&ion of be-utan, the imperative of beon-
utan, to be out. Our ancient ■ writers made the proper diftindlion between the orthography of the one word,
and that of the other. Gawin Douglafs in particular, although he frequently confounds the two words, and.
ufes them* improperly, does yet abound with many inftances of their proper ufe ; and fo contrafted, as to,
awaken, fays our author, the moft inattentive reader. Of the many examples quoted by hir,», we fhall content -
ourfelves with the two following :
“ Box thy worke fliall endure in laude and glorie, ,
“• But fpot or fault condigne eterne memorie.” Preface.
 “ Bot gif the fates, but pleid,
“ At my pleafure fuffer it me life to leid.” Bmh
If this derivation-of the word but from botan, to fuperadd, be juft, the fentence in the text, “the number •
three is not an even number but an odd,” will be equivalent to, “ the number three is Dot an even number,-
fuperadd (it is) an.odd number ;” and if fo, the oppolition is not marked (at leaft direftly) by the word but,.
but by the adjeiftives even and odd, which denote attributes in their own nature oppofite. It is only when -
dut has this fenfe that it anfwers to fed in Latin, or to mass in French. In the fecond line of the quotation,
from Gawin Douglafs’s Preface, the word,but is evidently a contraftion of be-utan, and has a fenfe very differ¬
ent from that of bot in the preceding line. The meaning of the couplet is,Superadd (to fomething faid ;
or fuppofed tq be faid before) thy work fhall endure in Jaude and glorie, be out (I. e. without) fpot. or fault,,
k.c. In the following paffage from Donne, the word but, although written in the fame manner, is ufed in
both its meanings: “ You muft anfwer, that fhe was brought very near,the fire, and as good as thrown in ;
®r elfe, that fhe was provoked to it by a divine infpiration. But that another divine infpiration moved,
the .beholders to-believe .that ihe did therein a noble.a6t, this. a&.of her’s might have been calumniated.” That.
is,.
82
GRAMMAR. Chap. VI.
\hzfubjeB, and deny the other. But when we fay, the less and although. For example, “ Troy will be
tiumber of the Jlars is either (of) even or odd; though taken, unless the palladium be preferved ; Troy will
we affert one attribute to le, and the other not to be, be taken, although He&or defend it.” The na*
ill yet the alternative is notwithftanding left indefinite.
An impro- As to adverfati'oe disjunBives, it has been already faid,
per diftinc &fter Harris, that they imply opposition: but the
uon’ truth feems to be, that they onlyunite in the fame fentence
•words or phrafes of oppofite meanings. Now it is ob¬
vious, that oppofite attributes cannot belong to the fame
fubject: as when we fay, Nereus <ums beautiful, we can¬
not superadd to this fentence, that he was ugly; we
cannot fay, he was beautiful but ugly. When there is
oppolition, it muft be either of the fame attribute in
different fubjefts ; as when we fay, “ Brutus was a pa¬
triot, but Ctcfar was notOr of different attributes
in the fame fubjeft; as when we fay Gorgius was a fo-
phifi, but not a philofopher:" Or of different attributes in
differentfubjeBs ; as when we fay, “ Plato was a philofo-
pher, but Hippias was a fophyiP The conjunctions
ufed for all thefe purpofes have been called abfolute ad-
yerfatives, we think improperly, as the oppofition is not
marked by the conjundions, but by the words orfentences
which they ferve to conneft. Mr Locke, fpeaking of the
word but, fays, that “ it fometimes intimates a flop
of the mind, in the courfe it was going, before it came
to the end of itto which Mr Tooke replies with
truth, that but itfelf is the fartheft of any word in
the language from intimating a flop. On the contrary, it
always imitates fomething to follow; infomuch, that
when any man in difcourfe finifhes his words with but,
inftead of fuppofing him to have flopped, we always afk,
but what ?
Befides the adverfatives already mentioned, there are
two other fpecies, of which the moft important are un-
ture of thefe adverfatives may be thus explained. As
every event is naturally allied to its caufe, fo by parity
of reafon it is oppofed to its preventive ; and as every
caufe is either adequate or inadequate (inadequate when
it endeavours without being effectual), fo in like man¬
ner is every preventke. Now adequate preventives are
expreffed by fuch adverfatives as unless: “ Troy will
betaken, unless the palladium be preferved;” that
is, this alone is fufficient to pre ent it. The inadequate
are expreffed by fuch adverfatives as although : “ Troy
will be taken although HeBor defend it;” that is,
Heflorh defence will prove ineffeBual. Thefe may be
called adverfatives adequate and inadeqjuate.
Such is the doCtrine of Mr Harris ; which although
we can difcover in it no determinate meaning, we have
ventured with others to retail, in refpeCt to our readers,
who may be more perfpicacious than ourfelves. The au¬
thor was a man of great learning; and the fubjeCf, as
he has treated it, appears to be intricate. But what¬
ever fenfe or nonfenfe there may be in what he fays of
caufes and preventives adequate and inadequate, we have
no hefitation to affirm that he has totally miftaken the
import of the words unless andALTHOUGH. From thefe
being called both preventives, ihtone adequate and tht other
inadequate, an unwary reader might be led to infer, that
they denote the fame idea or the fame relation; and that
the whole difference between them is, that the expref-
fion of the one is more forcible than that of the other.
Nothing, however, can be farther than this from the
truth. The meaning of unless is direftly oppofite
to that of although. Unless (r) and though
are
is, “ You muft anfwer, that fhe was brought very neare the fire, &c. “ Superadd (to that anfwer) be out
(or unless or without ; for, as will be feen by and bye, all thofe words are of the fame import) that another
divine inspiration moved,” &c. To thefe remarks and examples it may be worth while to add, that even
now but is often ufed by the illiterate Scotch for without; as nothing is more common than to hear a clown
fay, “ He came from home but his breakfaft.”
Having mentioned without as a word of the fame import with but when diftinguifhed from bot, it may
not be improper to confider that word here ; for though in modern Englifti it is entirely confined to the
office of a prepofition, it was formerly ufed indifferently either as a prepofition or a conjunBion. Without then
is nothing but the imperative wyrthan-utan, from the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic verb weorthan, withan ;
which in the Anglo-Saxon language is incorporated with the verb beon, effe. According to this derivation,
which is Horne Tooke’s, the word without, whether called conjunction or prepofition, is the fame as be out ;
and fuch will be its import, fhould it after all be nothing more than a compound of wyth, which fignifies to
join and fometimes'to be, and ute, out.
(df) Either is nothing more than the diftributive pronoun, which every body underftands ; and or we have
already explained. <
(r) .-io low down as in the reign of queen Elizabeth (fays i/erwr this conjunction was fometimes
written oneles or oneleffe; but more anciently it was written onles and fometimes onlesse. Thus, in the trial
of Sir John Oldcalilc in 1413, “ It was not poffible for them to make whole Chriftes cote without feme, on-
I.ESSE certeyn great men were brought out of the way.” So, in “ The image of governance” by Sir T. El¬
liot, 1541, “ Men do fere to approche unto their fove.regne Lord, oneles they be called.” So again, in
“ A neceffary doCtrine and erudition for any Chriftian man, fet furthe by the kinge’s majeltie of England,”
1543, “ Onles ye believe, ye (hall not underftande.” “ No man (hall be crowned, onles he lawfully fight.”
“ The foul waxeth feeble, onlesse the fame be cherifhed.” “ It cannot begynne, onelesse by the grace
of God.” Now, onles is the imperative of the Anglo Saxon verb onlksan, to difmifs, or remove.
Les, the imperative of lesan (which has the fame meaning as onlesan), is likewife ufed (ometimes by old
writers inftead of unless, fnftances might be given in abundance from G Douglas and Ben. Johnfon; but
perhaps it may be of more importance to remark, that it is this fame imperative les, which, placed at the
and of nouns and coalefcing with them, has given to our language fuch adjeCtives as hopelefs, refilefs, deathlefi,
motionlefs, &c. i. e. difmifs hope, reft, death, motion, &c.
Mr Tooke obferves, that all the languages which have a conjunction correfpondiBg to les or unless, as
3 well
S3
Chap. VI. GRAM
are both itrh in the imperative mode; the former fig-
nifying take away or difmifs ; the latter, allow, permit,
grant,yield, ajfent. This being the cafe, “ Trey will be
taken unless the palladium be preferred,” is a fen-
tence equivalent to “ Remove the palladium be prefen ed
(taking the palladium be preferved as an abitraft noun, the
prefervation of the palladium) Troy will be taken.” A-
gain, “TVqy willbe taken, although HeBor defend it,”
/ is the fame as “ Troy will be taken allow HeBor (to)
defend it.” The idea, therefore, ex prefled by unless
is that of the removal of one thing to make 'Way for ano¬
ther; the idea exprefled by although (s) is that of
allowing one thing to coexist with another, with
which it is apparently incompatible.
104. Before we take leave of this fubjeft, we might
treat, as others have treated, of adverbial conjunctions,
and conjunctions (t) of various other denominations.
But of multiplying fubdivifions there is no end ; and
fyftems, in which they abound, convey for the moft
part no information. The nature of conjunctions can
be thoroughly underftood only by tracing each to its
original in fome parent or cognate tongue ; and when
that fliall be done in other languages with as much fuc-
MAR.
cefs as it has lately been done by Mr Horne Tooke in
Englifli, then, and not till then, may we hope to fee a
rational, comprehenfive, and confiftent theory of this
part of fpeech. Then too (hall we get rid of all that
farrago of ufelefs diftinftions into conjunBive, adjunc¬
tive, disjunBive, fubdisjunBive, copulative, continuative, fub-
continuative, pofitire, fuppofitive, caufal, colleBive, pre¬
ventive adequate and inadequate, adverfative, conditional,
illative, &c. &c. ; which explain nothing, and which
ferve only to veil ignorance and perplex fagacity. fcrves only
That Mr Tooke’s principles will apply exaCtly to the to veil ijy-
conjunftions of every language both dead and living, iterance,
what our limited knowledge of thefe languages does
not authorife us pofilively to affirm. It is however a
ftrong prefumption in favour of his opinion, that illi¬
terate favages, the firlt cultivators of language, arelittlfe
likely to have fent out their faculties in quell of words
to denote the objlraB relations fubfirting among their
ideas, when we have fuch evidence as his book affords,
that the names of the moft common fulflances and qualities
could anfwer that and every other purpofe, which in the
ordinary intercourfe of life can be anfwered by the
faculty of fpeech. It is a farther prefumption in his
L 2 favour,
well as the manner in which the place of thefe words is fupplied in the languages which have not a conjundion
Correfpondent to them, ftrongly juftify his derivation which we have adopted. The Greek the Latin
rift, the Italian fe non, the Spanilh fmo, the French ft non, all mean be it not. And in the fame manner do we
fometimes fupply its place in Englilh by but, without, be it not, but if, &c. It may be proper juft to add, that,
According to the fame author, the conjunClion lest is a contraClion of lesed, the pad participle of lesen; and
that lest, with the article that, either expreffed or underftood, means no more hoc dimi/fo or quo dimiffo.
(s) Although is compounded of al or all, and tho’ though, thah, or, as the vulgar more purely pronounce
it, thaf, thauf, and thof. Now, thaf or thauf is evidently the imperative thaf or thafig of the verb tha-
f’lAN or thafigan, to allow, permit, grant, yield, ajfent; and thafig becomes thah, though, thoug (and thoch, as
G. Douglas and other Scotch authors write it) by a tranfition of the fame fort, and at lealt as eafy as that
by which hafuc becomes hawk. It is no fmall confirmation of this etymology, that anciently they often ufeej.
all be, albeit, all had, all were, all give, inftead of although; and that as the Latin si (if) means be it, and
nisi and sine [yinlefs and without) mean be not, fo etsi (although) means and be it.
(t) In a work of this kind, which profeffes to treat of uni. erfal grammar, it would be impertinent to wafte
our own and our readers time on a minute analyfis of each conjun&ion which may occur in any one particular
language. We fliall therefore purfue the fubject no farther; but Ihall fubjoin Mr Horne Tooke’s table of
the Englifli conjunftions, referring thofe who are defirous of fuller fatisfa&ion to his ingenious work intitled
The Dive fions of Parley.
* J-GlF ") fGlFAN
' An Anan
Ohles & Onlesan
Eac f Eacan
Get \j Getan
Steel Stellan
Ales ^ Alesan
Thafig Thafigan '
If
An
Unless
Eke
Yet
Still
Else
Though
or
Tho’
But
But
without
And
Lest
To give.
To grant.
To difmifs.
To add.
To get.
To put.
To diminifli.
Thaf 1 an
Botan
Beon-utan
Since
Thaf
Bot
Be-utan
Wyrth-utan
_An ad
s the participle lesed of lesan, to difmifs.
fSlTHTHAN")
I Syne
J Seand-es
1 SlTHTHE
To allow.
To boot, to fuperadd.
To be out.
Wyrthan-utanTo be out.
Anan-ad Dare congeriem.
1 OITHiHE
I 0r I
l_SlN-ES J
I .
}> is the participle of Seon, to fee.
(_SlN-ES
That is the article or pronoun that.
As is es, a German article, meaning it, that, or which. And
So is sa or so, a Gothic article of the fame import with as.
*4
GRAMMAR. Chap. VI.
favour, "that In the rudeft languages there are few if
any conjun&ions; and that even in others which are
the molt highly polifhed, fuch as Greek and Lat'in as
well as Engli/J), many of thofe words which have been
called conjunctions are obvioufly refolvable into other
parts of fpeech. ThusA**.?, tranflated is evidently the
neuter gender of either the nominative or accufalive plu¬
ral oi awos another; and when ufed as a conjunSion, it
intimates that you are going to add fomething to what
you have already faid. - Caterum has the fame mean¬
ing, and is nothing but.**' tUf>oy. Mais (but in French)
is the Latin majus; tit, uti, °1‘> quod, is the relative pro-
noun. Of quocirta, quia, pmterea, antequam, quenquam,
quemvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, &c. the refolution is too
obvious to require being mentioned. Where fuch rc-
folutions as thefe can be made, or when the conjunctions
of any particular tongue can be traced to their origin in
any other, there needs be no difpute about ■ their true
import: but when the cafe is otherwife, and the con-
junSion either appears to be an original word, or is de¬
rived from a fource to which it cannot be traced, we
would advife fuch of our readers as with to fpeak or
write correctly, to difmifs from their minds all con-
'Thc import fK]erat;on cf copulatives, continuatives, cadfals and dis-
•tions in sxxyjunftives, with the reft of that jargon'which we have
language to already mentioned ; and to inquire diligently in what
be learned -manner and'for what purpofe the conjunction in qvejlion is
bTftautlfors11^ t^le vuriters, both ancient and modern, of the
ancient andTart‘Cl^ar !anguage which they are ftudying. This
. inodern. will indeed be found a work of labour : but it appears
t to us to be the only means left of difeovering the pre-
■ cife relations which fuch conjunctions were intended to
exprefs; and, by confequence, of knowing what words
or fentences they are fitted to conneft, fo as to pro¬
duce a ftyle at once accurate and perfpicuous.
Sect. II. Of Prepositions.
j^repofi- 105. By Mr Harris and his followers, a preposi-
tions unite tion is defined to be a part of fpeech devoid itfelf offigni-
two words fcation, but fo formed as to unite two words that are fig-
to^oalefce n'lficanti an(l that rcfufe coalefce or unite of themfelves.
■of them- Vve have already expreffed our opinion of that theory
pelves, whiclrholds certain words to be devoid offignif cation ;
but its abfurdity, in the prefent inftance, is more than
ever glaring. Concerning the number of prepofitions,
it is well known that hitherto authors have never
agreed. The ancient Greek grammarians admitted
only 18 ; the ancient Latin grammarians, above 50 ;
though the moderns, SanBius, Sciopius, Perizonius, Vof-
fius, and Ruddiman, have endeavoured to leffen the
number without fixing it. Bilhop Wilkins thinks that
36 are fufficient; and Girard fays, that the French
language has done the bufmefs effectually with 32.
But if prepofitions be words devoid oi ftgnif cation, why
.ftiould there be difputes refpecting their number? or
why in any language fltould there be more than one
prepofition, fince a fingle unmeaning mark of connexion
would certainly anfwer the purpofe as well asa thoufand ?
The cypher, which has no value of itfelf, and only
ferves (if we may ufe the language of grammarians)
to connote and corfignify, and to change the value of fi¬
gures y is not feveral and various, but uniformly one and
the fame. That “ the prepofition is fo formed, as to
unite two words which refufe to coalefce or unite of
themfelves,” is indeed truej and this union it effefts,
not by having no fignif cation of its own, but by fgnifying 12&
the relation by which the things expreffed by the united ,By
words are conne&ed in nature. Prepofitions are to
accounted for in much the fame manner as the cafes of tVveea
nouns. The neceffity of this fpecies of-words, or of fomethem.
equivalent invention, follows from the impoffibility of
having in language a diftinft complex term for each di-
ftinft collection of ideas which we may have occafion to
put together in difeourfe. The addition or fubtrac-
tion of any one idea, to or from a collection of ideas,
makes it a different colledtion ; and if, after either of
thefe operations, it were to be expreffed by the fame
word as before, nothing could enfue but mifreprefenta-
tion and falfehood. Now, to ufe in language a differ¬
ent dijlinCl complex term for each different and di-
ftinft collection of ideas, is equally irr.poffible, as to ule
a particular term for each particular and indivi¬
dual idea. To fupply, therefore, the place of the com¬
plex terms which are wanting in a language, are the
cafes of nouns and prepofitions employed ; by the aid of
which, complex nuAgeneral terms are prevented from be¬
ing infinite or too numerous, and are ufed only for
thofe colleftions of ideas which we have moft frequent
occafion to mention in difeourfe. By means of pre-
pofitions this end is obtained in the moft fimple man¬
ner. For, having occafion to mention a collection of
ideas for which there is no ftngle complex term in the
language, we either take that complex term which
includes the greatcf number, though not all of the ideas
we would communicate ; or elfe we take that complex
term which includes a//,'and the feweft ideas wore than
thofe we would communicate; and then, by the help
of the prepofition, we either make up the deficiency in
the one cafe, or retrench the fuperfluity in the other.
For inftance, having occafion to mention a houfe of a
particular defeription, and knowing that the term houfe
is too general for our purpofe, and that the building
we have in view has no appropriate name, we fay, per¬
haps, a houfe with a party-wall, or a houfe without a
roof.—In the firft inftance, the complex term houfe is
deficient, and the prepofition diredts to add what is
wanting.—In the fecond inftance, the complex term is
redundant, as it denotes a complete houfe; the prepofi¬
tion, therefore, direCts to take away what isfuperfluous.
Now, confidering prepofitions in this the moft fimple
light, as ferving only to limit or modify general terms,
it is abfc/lutely neceffary that they ftiould have mean¬
ings of their own ; for otherwife, how could we, in the
inftances before us, make known by them our inten¬
tion, whether of adding to or retrenching from, the
fame general term houfe. If, to a difciple of Mr Har¬
ris, we (hould fay, a houfe join ; he would reply, join
what ? But he would not contend that join is an in¬
declinable word which has no meaning of its own, becaufe
he knows that it is the imperative of a verb, of which
the other parts are ftill in ufe ; and its own meaning is
clear, though the fentence is not completed. If, in-
ftead of join, we fhould fay to him, a houfe with ; he
would ftill alk the fame queftion, with what ? But if
we were to difcoUrfe with hirn concerning the word
with, he would probably tell us, that with is a pre¬
pofition, an indeclinable word, which is itfelf devoid of
fignification, but fo formed as to mite two words that are
fignif cant. And yet it would be evident by his que¬
ftion, that he felt it had a maning of its own ; which
2 is
Ifeap.
"They all
. VL GRAM
is in reality the fame "as join (xt). Indeed, fo far has
always been plainly perceived, that with and with¬
out are dire&ly oppofite and contradi&ory; and it
would puzzle the molt acute philofopher to difcover
oppofition and contradiction in two words where nei¬
ther of them had any fignification. Willtins, there¬
fore, has well expreffed their meaning, where he fays,
that with is a prepofition “ relating to the notion of
facial, or circumftance of fociity affirmed ; and that
without is a prepofition relating to the fame notion
offacial, or circumilance offociety denied.”
i 06. But to denote the relations of adding and taking
away, are not the only purpofes for which prepofitions
are employed. They all indeed ferve to modify fome
Ways fome general term or general affirmation, but not precifely in
general the fame way as with and without. It has been
'erm or already obferved, that words fignificant of thofe things
general af- coincide in nature, coalefce with one another in
fyntax, without being beholden to any auxiliary tie.
For inilance, an adjective coalefces with its fubjlantive,
a verb with its nominative ; a noun exprefiing an objeB
adted upon, with a t erb denoting aBion ; and an adverb
with its verb. Take the following example : The
splendid sun genially warmetii the fertile earth.
But fuppofe we were defirous to modify this affirmation
by the addition of other fubllantives, air, for inftance,
and beams how would thefe coincide with the other
words of the fentence, or under what charadtcr could
m a r;
they be introduced ? Not as nominatives or accufalives (o
the verb, for both thefe places are already filled}
the nominative by the fubfiance sun, which is cer¬
tainly the agent in this operation • the accufative by the
fubftance earth, which is as certainly the objedfc
adled upon. Not as qualities of the sun and earth ;
for qualities inhering in their fubftances can only be
expreffed by adjeBives, and the words air and beams
are both fubjlantives. Here then we mull have recourfe
to prepofitions ; but we can employ only fuch prepo¬
fitions as point out the relations which the air and the
beams have to the fun warming the earth. In Engliffi
we ffiould fay, the fplendid fun print his beams genially
warmeth through the air the fertile earth. The fen¬
tence, as before, remains entire and one ; thefibfantives
required are both introduced; and not a word which
was there before is detruded from its proper place..
The import of with we have already difcovered; it di-
reds to unite the beams to the fun, as jointly with
him performing the operation. But the air has n©
other connedion with this operation, than as the me¬
dium or passage between the sun and the earth : and
therefore the prepofition through (x) mull denote
that relation which fubfifts between an objeB in motion,
and the medium in which it moves ; nor could a prepo¬
fition of a different import have been employed, with¬
out altering the meaning of the whole fentence (y).
107. Mr Harris is of opinion that moft, if not all,
pre.
(u) This account of prepofitions is taken from Horne Tooke; who adds, that the only difference between the
two words with and join, is, that the other parts of the Gothic and Anglo Saxon verb withan, to join (of
which with is the imperative), have ceafed to be employed in the language. As with means join, fo the cor-
vefpondent French prepofition avec means, and have^that, or, have that alfo. But though with, as the impe¬
rative of withan, meansjoin, it has fometimes a very different fignification. Mr Tyrwhit in his Gloffary has
truly obferved, that with and by are often fynonymous. They certainly are fo: but then with feems to be
an abbreviation of the imperative of wyrthan, to be', as without is of wyrthan-utan, to be out. This being
the cafe, our two inttances in the text will Hand thus : a houfe join a party wall; a houfe be out a roof. Nor
let any one be furprifed that we make no difference between the conjunBion without and the prepofition with¬
out. The word is the fame, whether it be employed to unite words or fentences. Prepojitions were originally,
’and for a long time, claffed with conjunBions ; and when firft feparated from them, they were only diffinguiffied
by the name ofprepfitive conjunBions. They axe generally ufed to unite words, but not always ; for we may fay
indiffeiently, I came after his departure, or, I came after he departed. By the greater part of grammarians
indeed, after, when employed as in the firft. fentence, is claffed with the prepofitions ; when employed as iit
the fecond, it is claffed with the conjunftions. The word, however, is the fame in both fentences ; its meaning
is the fame, and its ejfeB precifely the fame. The only circumftance of difcrimination is, that in the firft ex¬
ample it is prefixed to a noun, his departure ; in the fecond, it is prefixed to a nominative and a verb, he departed.
But even the nominative and the verb, thus applied, exprefs no more than a fpecifying circumftance annexed
to the other propofition, I came', and whenever they are rightly apprehended by the mind, they are Itript of
their prepofitionary form, and confidered abflraBly under a new phafis, his departure. Thus then, the two fen¬
tences are fynonymous in every refpeff, excepting the apparent grammatical nature of the words his departure,
and he departed; and even thefe are reduced to one grammatic form in the mind, whenever the import of the
propofitions is rightly apprehended. Without, and many other prepofitions, efpecially in the learned lan¬
guages, are ufed exadly as after is ufed in the two inftances which we have given. Horne Tooke quotes Lord
Mansfield for faying, “ It cannot be read without the Attorney General confents to it.” This, in modern
Engliffi, is no#t the common phrafeology ; but it offends not againft any principle of grammar. The nominative
and the verb are here, as in the former inftance, confidered as an abfraB noun ; “ It cannot be read without the
confent of the Attorney General.”
(x) Thorough, thoub.ough, thorow, through, or thro’, is no other, fays Horne Toole, than the Gothic fub-
ftantive dauro, or the Teutonic fubftantive thuruh, and, like them, means door, gate, peffage. So that the fen¬
tence in the text, refolved upon his principles, Hands thus: “ The fplendid fun—join his beams—genially warm¬
eth-—passage tie air, (or, the air being thepajfage ox medium) —the fertile earth.” And in the fame manner may
we tranflate the prepofition through in every inllance where through is ufed in Engiiffi, or its equivalent prepo-
Tition in any language ; as from the Latin and Italian v; or & porta, (in Spanifh puerta and in Yxcnch porte), have
tome the Latin and Italian prepofition per, the French par, and the Spanifh por.
\r) If, for inftance, we were to fubftitute with or of iaftead of through, we-fhould in the one cafe alter the
meaning.
%6 GRAM
12S prcpofitions were originally formed to denote the rela-
PrcpoQ* t;ons 0j place. F'or this opinion we fee not fufficient
tl?“81®rje evidence. If indeed we could fuppofe the inventors or ear-
noted the Heft improvers of language to have at all concerned them-
various re- felves with relations as abjlracied from the objects related,
lations of we believe that thofe which firft attradted their at-
fcod^ tention were the relations fubfifting among themfelves,
and the various bodies with which they were furround-
cd. We mull likewife agree with our author, that place
is the grand relation which bodies or natural fubjlan-
ees maintain at all times to one another; but we do not
therefore think that it would attradl the earliejl notice
of untaught barbarians. On the contrary, we are of
opinion that mankind muft have made very confiderable
progrefs in fcience before they attempted to abftraft
place from body ; an attempt which, according to fome
of the moft profound philofophers (z), is hot only dif¬
ficult, but abfolutely impradticable. But whatever be
in this, the relations of caufe and eJfeB, of duration and
motion, are in themfelves as obvious, and as likely to arrejl
the attention and obtain names, as thofe of place. Among
men totally illiterate they are evidently more fo; iorpain
an&pleafure would fuggeft fome idea of caufe and effcCf as
matters of importance. There is, however, no prpbability
that the inventors of any language had the leaft idea of
/iJPwere akflracl relations. They doubtlefs expreffed complex con-
at firft ei- ceptions by nouns and verbs, fignificant at once of the
ther verbs particular ideas and of the various relations-by which
«r nouns. tbey viewed thofe ideas as combined together in a complex
conception. Afterwards, when mens minds became en¬
larged, and when, from the flu&uation infeparable
from a living language, obje&s or ideas received new
names, the old words, whether nouns or verbs, which
were originally employed to exprefs a particular complex
MAR. Chap.
conception, of which certain particular relation s made a
part, might be retained for the purpofe of deno¬
ting thofe and all fimilar relations ; and thus verbs
and nouns would degenerate into particles bearing
the names of prepofitions and conjunctions. For in-
ftance, one Anglo-Saxon being, deiirous to communi¬
cate to another his own conception of a houfe with a
party-avail, and having (we (hall fuppofe) no fuch word
in his tongue as a prepofition, would naturally utter the
word houfe, deliring his friend, at the fame time, to
add to that well known found another found (uttering
it) fignilicant of the particular circumftance wanting
to complete his complex conception;—A houfe with
(i. e. join) a party avail. The word with, as the
imperative of a verb, denotes of courfe three ideas com¬
bined together, viz. a command or avi/h, an affirmation,
and the idea of junftion. But when the verb withan
was difmiffed from the Engliih language, the impera¬
tive with was ftill retained ; but lofing its verbal and
modal nature, it was thenceforth employed to denote
only one of the three ideas for which it originally flood,
viz. the idea of junction. And thus it is, that verbs,
and alfo nouns and adjeAi.es, in palling from one lan¬
guage to another, may bzzovat prepofttiom (a) and con¬
junctions. Thus too it is, that fome of thofe prepofi¬
tions come to denote the contiguous, and fome the de¬
tached, relation of body. The contiguous, as when we
fay, Cams availed with crfflajf; i. e. Coins, join a
Jlaff, availed; the Jlatueflood upon (b) a pedefal, i. e.
theflatue food [the place of its Handing) the higher
part of a pedefal; the river ran over a /and, i. e.
the river ran (the place of its running) the higher
part of afand. The detatched relation, as when we
fay, He is going to (c) Italy, i. e. He is going, the
end
meaning, and in the other fpeak r.onfenfe. “ The fun warmeth with the air the fertile earth,” is an affirmation
that the fun avarmeth both the air and the earth ; whereas the original fentence affirmed nothing more than
that he avarmeth the earth. “ The fun warmeth of the air the fertile earth,” is nonfenfe, as it makes the earth
a part, or z confequence, of the air. So necelfary is it that prepofitions have a meaning, and that the meaning of
each be attended to.
(z) The Bilhops Berkeley and Law, with the very learned and ingenious Principal Campbell of Aberdeen.
See The Principles of Human Knowledge, Law’s Notes on King’s Origin of Evil, and The Philofophy of Rhetoric.
(a) As the Italian fubftantive casa, a hmfe, race, family, nation, &c. in palling to the French, becomes
the prepofition chez, to which there is not, fo far as we know, a prepofition of precifely the fame import in
any language. Senza or senze in Italian becomes sans in French, and means abfence. Nor is it necelfary
that verbs and nouns (hould always pafs from one language to another, in order to be converted into prepofitions:
The Greek prcpofition is evidently the corrupted imperative of to fever, to disjoin, to fepa-
rate. The Latin sine is sit ne, be not. The German sonder is the imperative of sondekn, which has the
time meaning as xaP’Ol'>-
(b) Up, upon, over, bove, above, have all, fays AWre Too/k, one common origin and fignification. In
the Anglo-Saxon, ufa, ufera, ufem.est, are the adjefiives altos, altior, altissimus. Ufaofufan,
up; comparative ufera, off.re or ofer, over or upper; fuperlative ufem-est, upmof or uppermof. Be-
ufan, bufan, on-bufan, bove, above. If this be a juft account of the origin of thefe words, the fentences
in the text, where upon, over, and above, occur, will run thus: “ The ftatue flood on high a pedeilal;” “the
river ran higher a fand “ the fun is rifen on high the hills.” And here we may obferve, that the mere
relation between funding, running, &c. and place, is rather inferred from the verb itfelf, than expreffed by a fepa-
rate word; and the reafon is obvious. For if a ftatuefand, every one knows that it muft Hand on fome thing
as well as at fome time. There is therefore no necefity, whatever elegance there may be in it, for employing any
word to denote that relation, which is commonly believed to be lignitied by on; but it is neceffary to infert, be¬
tween the verb and pedefal, a word fignificant of place, that pedfal may not be miftaken, by an ignorant per-
fon, for a portion of time, dr any thing elfe connedted with the funding of thefatue.
(c) That to is fignificant of detached relation, is the language of Mr Harris, which, though it may be al¬
lowed in a loofe and vulgar fenfe, is certainly not philofophically juft. The prepofition' to (in Dutch written
toe and tot) is the Gothic fubftantive ; taui or tauhts fignifying a£t, effeft, refill, or confummation ; which
Gothic fubftantive isitfelf no other than thepaft participle taviu or tauids of the verb taujan agere. And
it
Zf
m
Chap. vr. G R A
end (ofliis journey) Italy', the fun is rifen above the
hills, i. e. the fun is rifen (the place) the top of the
hills ; thefe figs came from Turkey, i. e. thefe figs came
beginning (their journey at) Turkey.
Befides the detached relation of body, Mr Harris is
ef opinion that the prepofition from denotes two other
relations not lefs different than thofe of motion and refi.
Thus if we fay, “ That lamp hangs from the cieling,
the prepofition from affumes a character of quiefcence.
M M A R.
But if we fay, That lamp is falling FROM the deling, the
prepofition in fuch cafe affumes a charafler of motion.>,
But this is evidently a miftake : the detached relation in
the former inftance of the figs, as well as the motion
and refit in the prefent inftances, are expreffed not by
tbt prepofition, but by the verbs came, falls, hangs. The
word from has as clear, as precife, and at all times as
uniform and unequivocal a meaning, as any word in the
language. From means merely beginning, and no-
it is obvious, that what is done, is terminated, ended, finifihed. In the Teutonic, this verb is written tuan or tuon;
whence the modern German thun, and its prepofition to. In the Anglo-Saxon, the verb is teogan, and the
prepofition to. Do, the auxiliary verb, as it has been called, is derived from the fame root, and is indeed the
fame word as to. The difference between a t and a D is fo very fmall, that an etymologift knows by the prac~
tice of languages, and an anatomift by the reafon of that prad ice, that in the derivation of words it is fcarce
worth regarding. To fupport this etymon of to, Mr Horne Tooke gives a fimilar inftance in the Latin
tongue. The prepofition ad, he fays, is merely the paft participle of agere, which paft participle is likewife
employed as a Latin fubfiantive. He exhibits the derivation of ad thus:
f AGDUM  AGD  AD
Agitum—agtum < or or or
^ACTUM  ACT  AT
The moft fuperficial reader of Latin verfe (he obferves), knows how readily the Romans dropped their final urn.
And a little confideration of the organs and pradice of fpeech will convince him how eafily agd or act would be¬
come ad or at; as indeed this prepofition was indifferently written either way by the ancients. By the later wri¬
ters of Rome, the prepofition was written ad with d only, in order to diftinguifti it from the other corrupt word
Called the conjunBion at ; which for the fame reafon was written with the t only, though that likewife had an¬
ciently been written, as iht prepofition, either ad or at. The prepofition to and the conjunftion too in Eng-
lifti, are both in fyntax and in meaning ufed exadly as the prepofition ad and the conjundion at in Latin. From
the fpecimens prefixed to Johnfon’s didionary, as a hiftoryof our language, it appears that, as late as the reign
of Elizabeth, prepofition and conjunBion were both written with one o. And it has been (hown in the firft
volume of the TranfaBions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, that to and too, as well as AD and at, are pre-
cifely of the fame import. The only difference, in either language, between the prepofition and the conjunc¬
tion, is, that the former direBs, as a modification of fome previous propofition, the addition of fame fubdantht
Or noun; the latter, fometimes afentence or claufe of a fentence confidered obfilraBly as a noun ; and that, when
the former is ufed, the propofition, to which the modifying circumftance is to be added, is formally exprfifsd, but
Emitted when the latter is employed. Thus Denham fays,
“ Wifdom he has, and, to his wifdom courage ;
“ Temper to that, and, unto all, fuccefs.”
In this example, every fucceeding circumftance is by the prepofition to marked as an addition to the preced¬
ing. “ Wifdom he has, and courage additional to his wifdom.” But Denham might with equal propriety
have omitted the objed which to governs, or to which it direds fomething to be added, though he muft then,
from the cuftom of the language, have employed the conjunBion inftead of \X\tprepofition. As,
“ Wifdom he has, and courage too,” &c.
This mode of expreflion would have been more concife, and as intelligible as the other, “ Wifdom he has, and
courage to his wifilom” 8cc.
Not only is the objed governed by to omitted, when it is reprefented by a fubfilantive in the context, but
alfo when it is involved in a propofition ; and then the conjundion, as it is called, is always ufed. Thus,
“ Let thofe eyes that view
“ The daring crime, behold the vengeance too.”
So, “ He made him prifoner, and killed him too.” In the one example, the circumftance of behold¬
ing the vengeance is ftated as an addition to the viewing of the crime; and in the other, the killing him
is ftated as an addition to the making him a prifoner. In both examples, the objed governed by too is the
amount of the preceding propofition taken abJlraBlyzs a noun or fubfiantive. Thus then it appears, that to and
too, though clafied the one with the prepofitions, and the other with the conjundions, are really one and the
fame word. The fame is true of ad and at. Thus, “ Ad hoc, promiffa barba et capilli efferaverant fpeciem
oris,” fignrfies, “ Additional to this, his long beard and hair had given a wildnefs to his afped.” But when
the objed governed by ad is not formally ftated, ad itfelf is clafled with the conjunBions, and written differently,
at. Thus Terence, “ Ph. Fac ita ut juffi, deducantur iiti. Pa. Faciam. Ph At diligenter Pa. Fiet.
Ph. At mature.” By the means of at, the circumftances of diligence and hafile are fuperadded to the adicn
commanded. “ Ph. It is not enough that you do it, you muft do it carefully too. Pa. Well, it fliall be carefully
done. Ph. In good time too.” At, taken in this fenfe, is moft commonly employed, like the Fngliih but,
to mark the une peBed union of incongruous objeBs : As, “ Aulam tyranni frequentabat, at patriam amabat;” li¬
terally, “ He frequented the court of the tyrant; joined even to that he loved his country.” “ He was a
courtier and a patriot too.” But if Ap and at in Latin, and to and too in Englifh, be derived from verbs
which fignify to do or act, it may be alked how they come themfelves to denote addition. The anfwer is obvious.
If
$8
GRAM
thing elfe. It is (imply the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic
noun from, beginning, origin, Jource, fountain, author (d).
Now if this meaning be applied to Mr Harris's in-
ftances, from will fpeak clearly for it fell', without the
afiiftance of the interpreting verbs, which are fuppofed by.
him to vary its char after,
“ Thefe figs eawe from Turkey.”
“ That lamp falls from the cieling.*'
“ That lamp hangs from the cieling.”
Came is a complex term for one fpecies of motion ;
falls is a complex term for another fpecies of motion ;
and hangs is. a complex (e) term fora fpecies of attach¬
ment. Have we occafion to communicate or mention
the COMMENCEMENT Or BEGINNING of thefe motions,
and of this attachment, and alio the place where they
commence or begin ? To have complex terms for each
occafion of this fort isabfolutely impoffible; and there¬
fore nothing can be more natural or more Ample than to
add thehignsof thofe ideas, viz. the word beginning
(which will remain always the fame) and the name of
ihzplace (which will perpetually vary). Thus,
“ Thefe figs came—beginning Turley."
“ That lamp falls—beginning deling.”
“ That lamp hangs—beginning cieling.”
That is,
Turkey t\it place of beginning to come.”
“ Cieling thzplace of beginning to fall.”
“ Cieling xhtplace of beginning to hang.”
It has been faid by no lefs a man than bifhop Wilkins,
that from refers primarily to place, and fecondarily to
time. But the truth is, that from relates to every
thing to which beginning relates, and to nothing elfe.
“ Fjiom morn tillnight the eternal larum rang.
That is, “ The latum rang beginning morning (or
morning being the time of its beginning) till night.”
As from always denotes beginning, fo to and till
always denote the end. There is, however, this dif¬
ference between them, that to denotes the w/ of any
thing ; till the end only of time. We may fay indif¬
ferently—“ From morn to,night,” or “ from morn
till night, the eternal larum rang but we cannot
fay—“ Thefe figs came from Turkey till England,”
N° 143.
M
R.
CIup. HI,
ThatriLL can, with propriety, be oppofedto from only
when we are talking oitime, is evident ; for it is a word
compounded.of to and while,!, e. time. And as the
coalefcence of thefe two words to-hwile, 100k place
in the language.long before the prefent fupc rfluous ufe
of the article the, the. phrafe—“ From morn , till,
night”—is neither more nor lefs than—From morn to
time night. When we fay, "from morn to night,” the
word time is omitted as unneceffary,
Befides FROM,Mri/flrw mentions over as fignificant,
fometimes of motion, and fometimes of rejl; and quotes*
as inllances, the two following paffages hoax. Milt on.
Here, fays he, over denotes motion. Again,
 He •with looks of cordial love
Hung OVER her enamoured.
Here over denotes rejl. But the truth is, that over.
denotes neither motion nor rejl in either of the palfages.
In the firft quotation, indeed, motion is implied; but it
is implied in the word steps ; and not in over, which,
denotes only that the place of the fteps was the top of
the burning marie. In the fecond quotation, rejl is im¬
plied, and that too a particular fpecies of relt; but it is
implied or rather exprejfed by the verb hung, and over.
denotes the place of that fpecies of reft.
108. But though the original ufe of prepofitions
was to denote the relations of body, they could not be
confined to this office only. They by degrees extend- They were
ed themfelves to fubje&s incorporeal; and.came to de- by degrees
note relations, disveehintelleftualas local. Thus, becaufe ^
place he, who is above, has commonly the advantage over, C0,p0rsal«
him who is below; hence we transfer over ^nd under ( f )
to dominion and obedience. Of a king, we fay, he ruled
qvek his people; of a foldier, he ferved under his. general.
So too we fay, with thought i without attention ; think-,
ing 0. er a fubjeft; under anxiety ; from fear.; through.,
jealoufy, &c. All which inftances, .with many others
of like kind, (how, that the JirJl words of men, like
their JirJl ideas, had an immediate reference to fenfibU
objefts ; and that in after days, when they began to
difcern. with their intelleft, they took thqfe words which..
they
If a man (hou-ld utter a fentence, and to the end of it fubjoin the very general word do, the perfon to whom he
fpoke, would naturally a(k, do what ? and this queition would, of courfe, produce an additional hnttnct.or claufe
of a fentence. Befides. it is to be obferved, that agere, from which, the Latin prepolition is derived, as well
as the Gothic verb, which is the fcurce of the Engliffi particles, means not only to do, but alfo to adduce ou
bring ; fo that when we fay, “ he is going to Italy,” we do nothing more than affirm that “ he is going,” and
defire the perfon to whom we fpeak, to “ add Italy to the journey.”
From this derivation of the prepoiition to, it will be feen at once upon what principle it is employed to
mark the infinitive mode. In the learned languages that mode is generally known by its termination ; but in
Engliffi it would be impoffible, without the aidxif to or of fome,other word fignificant of aftion, to diftinguiffi
the verb love from, the noun orfibjlantive.
(d) This derivation is Mr Horne Tooke’s ; and he fupports it by the following fentence : Ns rasdd ge se
the on frumman worthe, he worhte wmpMAN and wifmen ; which is the Anglo-.Saxon of St Matt. xix. 4.
“ Annon legiltis, quod qui eos in principio creavit, creavit eos marem et feminam.”
(e) Thefe are complex terms becaufe they are verbs. Each denotes. an affirmation and time ; and combined -
with thefe, came and falls denote motion, and hangs denotes rejl.
(f) Under and beneath, though by the found they feem to have little connexion, are yet infaft almoffi
the fame word, and may very well fupply each other’s place. Under is nothing but on-neder, and beneath'
is compounded of the imperative be and the noun neath. Neath uncompounded having flipped away front,
our language, would perhaps be unintelligible, had not the nouns nether and nethermost tlill continued in.
common ufe. Nbath; Anglo-Saxon, neothan, neothe ; Dutch, neden ; Daniffi, ned; German, nledrel
and Swediffi, nedre and neder ; is undoubtedly as much a fubftantive, and has.the fame meaning, as the word*.
nadir. In common language it denotes the tittom
Chap. VI. GRAM M A R.
they found already made, and transferred them by me- ther by the latter prepofition, the oljeSt expreded by the
taphor to intelkaual conceptions. JirJl word or fentence is declared to be the consje-
Among the relations which may be confidered ra- quence of, or to proceed from, the o3/V<2 expreiTed by
thtr as intelle&ual than corporeal, are thofe ofrOT/e and the. fecond. It is therefore a matter of perfeft indif-
confequence ; and for the denoting of thefe we have two ference to the fenfe, whether we fay ficknefs op hunger,
prepojitions, which fotnelimes appear in dire 61 oppnfit'wn or ficknefs for hunger ; The man, of he fpeaks little, is wife,
to one another, and at other times may exchange places ox the man is wife, for he fpeaks little. By means of the
without injury to the fenfe. prepofition of, we declare ficknefs to be the conse-
“ Well! ’tis e’en fo ! T have got the London dif- quence proceeding from hunger, and wifdom to be the
eafe they call love. I am lick of my hufband, and for
my gallant.” Wycherley’s Country Wife.
89
CONSEQUENCE we infer from the man’sfpeaking little ; by
means of for we declare hunger to be the cause of
Here of and for feem almoft placed in oppofition; at fteknefs, and the circumftance of fpeaking Utile to be the
leaft their effe&s in the fentence appear to be very dif¬
ferent ; for, by the help of thefe two prepofitions alone,
and without the affiftance of any other words, fee ex-
p re fits the two contrary affe&ions of loathing and defre.
The truth, however, is, that the author, if it had
pleafed him, might have ufed of where he has employ¬
ed for, and for where he has put of. This is evi¬
dent from the following quotation :
“ Marian. Come, Amie, you’ll go with us.”
“ Amie. I am not well.”
“ Lionel. She’s fick of the young fhepherd that be-
kift her.” Sad Shepherd.
In the fame manner we may, w'ith equal propriety,
fay—“ We are fick of hunger or-—“ We are lick
for hunger.” And in both cafes we feall have expref-
fed precifely the fame thing, with only this difference,
that, in the former fentence, we declareficknefs to be a
consequence ; in the latter, we declare hunger to be a
cause. But to return to the country wife; that poor lady
feems to have had a complication of diftempers ; fee
had, at leaft, two diforders—a ficknefs of loathing, and
a ficknefs of love. She was fick for difguft, and fick
for love. She was
Sick of difgujl for her hujhand;
Sick of love for her gallant.
Sick for difgujl of her hujband.
Sick for love of her gallant.
In the firft fentence, as thus ft a ted, fcknefs is declared
cause from which w'e infer the man’s wifdom. In the
one fentence, of is to be confidered as a noun in appofi-
tion to ficknefs ; in the other, as a noun in appoftion to
the man is wife taken abfraSly as a noun. In the one
fentence, for (i. e. cause) is to be confidered as a noun
in appcfition to hunger ; in the other, as the fame noun in
appofition to he fpeaks Utile, taken abfraBly as a noun. r^t
109. In the foregoing ufe of prepofitions, we have Prepofi-
feen how they are applied by W'ay of juxta-pfition;!lons conl*
that is to fay, where they are prefixed to a word with-
out becoming a part of it. But they are ufed alfo by or]ier
way of compoftion ; that is, they are prefixed to other words,
words fo as to become real parts of them. Thus in
Greek we have irurUa-dai • in Latin, intelligere; and in
Englifh, uNDF.ifand. So alfo, to FOREtel, to ovhRad,
to UNDERvalus, to cargo, &c.; and in Greek and Latin
other inftances innumerable. In this cafe the prepofi¬
tions commonly transfufe fomething of their own
meaning into the word writh which they arecompounded. 132
For example, if we fuppofe fome given fpace, e and ex Fransfufe
fignify out of that fpace ; per, through it; in, within it;
svb,under it. Hence e and per, in compofition, own mean-
Enormis is fomething not Amply big, but big in excefs; ifg into
fomething got out of the rule, and beyond the meafure.tllofe
Dico, “ to fpeak pdico, “ to fpeak out ;” whence"
Edittum “ an edift,” fomething fo effedlually fpoken
as all are fuppofed to hear and all to obey.— On the
contrary, in and sub diminife and leffen. InjuJus, in-
to be the consequence of difguft, of which her hujband iquvs, “ UNjuft, in equitablefomething that lies within
is declared to be the cause. In the [scowl, fteknejs is juftice and equity, that reaches not fo far, that falls
declared to be the consequence of love, of which her Jhort of them. Sunnigef, “ blackife svsrulicundus,
gallant is declared to be the cause. In the third fen- “ reddife :” tending to black, and tending to red ; but
tence, disgust is declared to be the cause of her ficknefs, yet under the ftandard, and below perfection.
and the con'Sf.quence or offspring of her hujband. 1 10. Before we difmifs this part of our fubjeCt, we Their real
In the fourth, love is declared to be the cause of her feall make the fame general remark on prepofttions that 1 i10'*
fclnefs, and the consequence or offspring of her we formerly made on cor.junaions ; vice, that the precife'° b jdlic0‘
gallant. _ import of each can with certainty be known only byVere '
Thus, then, it appears, that thour1 the two'frft of tracing it to its fource in fom'e word of known and de-
thefefentences, taken entire, convey t! -very fame mean- /fermfertfe meaning, either in the language where the
ing with the two laft, yet the import of the prepofition prepofition itfelf has place, or in fome parent or corT- .
for is as different from that of c., as cause is from nate tongue. And it maybe laid down as an infallible
consequence (g). When two words or /ententes are rule, that where different languages ufe the fame or a
linked together by the former of thefe prepofitions, the fimilaryw*V/e, that language ought to be confidered
oljeB expreffed by the/a/? word or fentence is declared as its legitimate parent, in which the true meaning of
to be the cause of that which is expreffed by the/>re- the word can be found, and where its ufe is as com-
ceding; when two words or fentences are linked toge- man and familiar as that of any other verbs and fub-
Vo 1.. VIII. Part I. M ftantives.
(g) Junius derives for from the Greek ; Skinner, from the Latin pro; but I believe,' fays Horne Tooke,
that it is no other than the Gothic fubftantive fairina, “ caufe.” He imagines alfo that of (in the Gothic
and Anglo-Saxon- af) is a fragment of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon words afara znl ora, poftcritas,
proles, &c. In a word, he confiders for and of as nouns or fubftantives; the former always meaning caw/?,
the latter always meaning confequence, offspring, fucceffor, follower, 8tc. If this account of thefe words be juft,
and we have no doubt of it, the prepofitions t or and of are in fyntax to be coi.fidered as nouns in appoftion
with other nouns, or with fentences taken ahftraclly as nouns.
fpo] 98 GRAMMAR. Chap. Vf.
fiantives. When prepofitions can be traced to fuch cal expreflion to the arbitrary form of articulation,
fburces as thefe, no room can be left for difputes
concerning their meaning. In carrying on this ety¬
mological purfuit, we find advantages in the nature of
prepofttions which conjun8ions do not afford us. With
and without, from and to, with many other words
belonging to this clafs, have meanings dire&ly oppo-
fite and contradiftory to each other. If, then, by the
total or partial extin&ion of an original language, the
toot of any one prepofition be loft, whilft that of its
oppofite remains, the philofopher ought to be fatisfied
with reafoning from contrariety; as nothing is more
evident, than that the meaning of a word is known
when we know with precifion the meaning of its op¬
pofite. When we meet, however, with a lucklefs
prepofition of which no root is left to be dug up, and
which has itfelf no diredt oppofite in the language, no¬
thing remains but that we inquire for what purpofe it
is ufed by the beft writers both ancient and modern ;
and if we can fix upon one meaning which will apply,
however aukwardly, to all the places where it occurs.,
or to the greater part of them, the probability is, that
we have difcovered the true and original ( h ) meaning of
the prepofition ; and by keeping that meaning con-
ftantly in view, we (hall ourfelves be enabled to ufe the
word with perfpicuity and precifion.
Sect. III. Of Interjections.
*34
The inter- 1 j j t Befides the above parts of fpeech, there is an-
jedlion not otyjer acknowledged in all the languages of Europe,
any part of calkd ^ interjection; a word which cannot be
fpeech. comprehended under any of the foregoing claffes.
The genuine interjeElions are very few in number, and of
very little importance, as they are thrown into a fen-
tence without altering its form either in fyntax or in
Jign'ification. In the words of Horne Tooke, the brutilh
inarticulate interjection has nothing to do with fpeech,
and is only the miferable refuge of the fpeechlefs. The
dominion of fpeech, according to the fame author, is
ere died on the downfal of interjeftions. Without the
artful contrivances of language, mankind would have
nothing but interjeSions with which to communicate
orally any of their feelings. “ The neighing of a
horfe, the lowing of a cow, the barking of a dog, the
purring of a cat, fneezing, coughing, groaning, ftiriek-
ing, and every other involuntary convulfion with oral
found, have almoft as good a title to be called parts of
fpeech as interjeSions. In the intercourfe of language,
interjedions are employed only when the fuddennefs or
vehemence of fome affedtion or pafiion returns men to
their natural ftate, and makes them for a moment
forget the ufe of fpeech ; or when, from fome circum-
iiance, the fhortnefs of time will not permit them to
exercife it.” The genuine interje&ion, which is ah
ways expreflive of fome very ftrong fenfation, fuch as
ah ! when we feel pain, does not owe its charadferifti-
but derives its whole force from the tone of voice and
modification of countenance and gefture. Of confe-
quence, thefe tones and geftures exprefs the fame
meaning, without any relation to the articulation which
they may affume; and are therefore univerfally under-,
ftood by all mankind. Voluntary interjedfions are
ufed in books only for embellifhment, and to mark
forcibly a ftrong emotion. But where fpeech can be
employed, they are totally ufelefs ; and are always in-
fufficient for the purpofe of communicating thought.
DrBeattieranksJlrange,prodigious,amaxhig, wonderful,0
dear,dear me, 8cc. whenufed alone, and without apparent
grammatical fyntax, among the interf Elions t but be
might with as much propriety have confidered hardly,
truly, really, and even many Latin verbs, as interjeclions;
for thefe too are often ufed alone to fupply the place
of whole fentences. The truth is, that all men, when
fuddenly and violently agitated, have a ftrong ten¬
dency to ihorten their difcourfe by employing a Jingle
word to exprefs a fentiment. In fuch cafes, the word
employed, whether noun, adjeElive, or verb, would be
the principal word of the fentence, if that fentence were
completed ; and the agitation of the fpeaker is fuch,
and the caufe of it fo obvious, that the heater is in no
danger of miftaking the fenfe, and can himfelf fupply
the words that are wanting. Thus if a perfon, after
liftening to a romantid narrative, were to exclaim,
Jlrange! would any man of common fenfe fuppofe,
that the word Jlrange, becaufe uttered alone, had loft
the power of an adjeEiive and become an interjeEtion ?
No, furely: Every one fees, that the exclamation is
equivalent to, That is strange, or That is a strange
Jlory. Real interje&ions are never employed to con¬
vey truth of any kind. They are not to be found
amongft laws, in books of civil injlitutions, in hi/lory, or
in any treatife of ufeful arts or fciences; but in rhetoric
and poetry, in novels, plays, and romances, where in Eng-
IKh, fo far from giving to the'ftyle, they have
generally an effeft that is difgufting or ridiculous.
Having now analyfed every part of fpeech which
can be neceffary for the communication of thought, or
which is acknowledged in any language with which
we are acquainted ; we fhall difmifs the article of
Grammar, after annexing a Table, which may prefent
at one view the feverai claffes and fitbdivifions of words.
Of the different modes of dividing the parts of fpeech,
as well as of the little importance of fyjlematic claffifica-
tions, we have already declared our decided opinion:
but for the fake of thofe who may think diffe¬
rently from us, we fhall in the annexed Table adopt
Mr Harris's clalfification as far as it is intelligible;
after informing a^ur readers that Mr Horne Tooke ad¬
mits only three parts of fpeech, the article, the noun,
and the verb, and confiders all other words as corrup¬
tions or abbreviations of the two lall of thefe.
A GRA.M-
(h) For inftance, let us fuppofe that Horne Tooke's derivation of for, from the Gothic fubftantive fairina,
is fanciful and ill-founded; yet there can be little doubt but cause is its true and original meaning, when it is found,
that of fixteen examples brought by Greenwood, and forty-fix by Johnfon, of different fignifications of the word
for, there is not one where the noun cause may not be fubftituted inftead of theprepofition. for ; fometimes
indeed aukwardly enough, but always without injury to the fenfe. Even where for feems to be loco alterius,
which Lowlh afferts to be its primary fenfe, it will be found to be cause, and nothing elfe : Thus, He made
tonfderable progrefs in the fludy of the law before he quitted that profefffon for this* of poetry ; i. e. before he quitted that
profeffion, this of poetry being the cause of his quitting it.
[‘Tbface p. 90. (Vol. VIII.)
ABLE,
M2
heaven
A
GRAMMATICA
T A B L E,
ITc face p. 90. (Vol. VIII.)
E X H
B
N G
A Systematic View of W0RDS as they are commonly arranged into diftincft Classes, with their Subdivihons
SUBSTANTIVE Sj
which are all thofe words
that are expreffive of
THINGS WHICH BXIST OR
ARE CONCEIVED TO EXIST
OF THEMSELVES, AND NOT <
AS THE ENERGIES OR QUA¬
LITIES OF ANY THING
else. Thefe may be
divided into two orders,
viz.
NOUNS, properly fo called, be¬
ing the NAMES OF ALL THOSE
things which exist, or are CON¬
CEIVED to exist. Thefe may
be divided into three kinds,
each ef which admits of the
fubdivifions after mentioned,
viz.
And
PRONOUNS, which are a fpe-
cies of words invented to sup-
fly THE PLACE OF NOUNS IN
CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES. They
are of two kinds, viz.
NATURAL, or thofe which are ufed as
the NAMES OF NATURAL SUBSTANCES
fuch are
:}l
ANIMAL;
ARTIFICIAL, or the fevcral names of
artificial objects; fuch as,
ABSTRACT, or thofe whichare;the names
of qualities confidered as abstracted
FROM THEIR SUBSTANCES; fuch aS,
l § EDIFICE, o
o
MOTION.
cu
CO
CMAN, l ALEXANDER, CYRUS, efr.
? DOG, ^ CERBERUS, ARGUS, fcfir.
C HOUSE, q The VATICAN, fsV.
£ CHURCH,£ St PAUL’S, &c.
KH
C FLIGHT, SThe FALCON’S FLIGHT, £sf^.
I COURSE. 7 The GRE-HOUND’sCOURSE, &c.
Nouns of all
kinds admit
of the fol¬
lowing Ac¬
cidents,
viz.
GENDER, which is a certain affe&ion of nouns denoting the fex of thofe fubitances of which they are the names. For as in nature every object
is either ma/e or female^ or neither the one nor the other, grammarians, following this idea, have divided the names of beings into three clqffes. Thofe
that denote males, are faid to be of the masculine gender', thofe that denote females, of the feminine gender; and thofe which denote neither the one
nor the other, of the neuter gender. The Englifh is the only language of which the nouns are, with refpeft to fex, an exaft copy of nature.
NUMBER. As there is no objedt in nature lingle and alone, and as by far the greater part of nouns are the names of whole clajfes of obje&s, it
| is evident that every fuch noun ought to have fome variation, to denote whether it is one individual of the clafs which is meant, or more than one.
<| Accordingly we tind, that in every language nouns have fome method of expreffing this. If one be mentioned, the noun is ufed in that form
j which is called the singular number; if more than one, it is ufed in a different form, which is called the plural number.
I CASES. All nouns except proper names axe general terms ; but it is often neceffary to ufe thotegeneral terms for the purpofe of expreffing particular
j ideas. This call be done only by connecting the general term with fome word fignificant of a quality or circumjlance peculiar to the individual in-
| tended. Whdi that quality or circumftance is not expreffed by an adjeEtive, it is in Englifh and moft. modern languages commonly conneSed with
J the noun by th|e intervention of aprepofttion; but in the Greek and Latin languages the noun has cases to anfwer the fame end, and even in
Englifh the notm has, befides the nominative, one cafe to denote poffeffion.
are divided into three orders, called the
pronouns of the \
f FIRST PERSON; in Englifh, I. This pronoun denotes the speaker as characterized by the present act of speaking, in contradiftinCtion to every other character which he may bear. It is faid to be of the first Person, bccaufe there
' PREPOSITIVE ; fo called becaufe they 1 mufl neceffarily be a fpeaker before there can be a hearer; and the fpeaker and hearer are the only perfons employed in difeourfe.
are capable of leading a sentence^ Thefe f SECOND PERSON, —thou. This pronoun denotes, the person addressed as characterized by the present circumstance of being addressed, in contradiflinftion, &c. It is faid to be of the second person, becaufe in difeourfe there.
cannot be a hearer till there be a fpeaker. The pronouns of the jirjl and fecond perfons have number and cafei, for the fame reafon that nouns have thefe accidents ; but in no language have they any variation denoting gender: the reafon is>
that sex, and all other properties and attributes whatever, except thofe juft mentioned as deferiptive of thU nature of thefe pronouns, are foreign from the mind of the fpeaker when he utters / or thou in difeourfe.
THIRD PERSON,—he, she, it; which words are employed to denote any obje8 which may be the fubjeCt of difeourfe different from the fpeaker and the hearer. They are improperly faid to be of any perfon; for there can be but two
perfons employed in difeourfe, the fpeaker and the party addrejfed. They are, however, pronouns; lince they Hand by themfelves, and are the fubjlitutes of nquns. He is the fubftitute of, a noun denoting a male animal; she, of a noun
denoting a female animal; and it, of a noun denoting an otyeft which has no fex. All thefe, like the pronouns perfoned, admit of number and cases ; but there is this peculiarity attending them, that though in every cafe of the fmgular
b number the diftin&ion of gender is carefully preferved, in the plural it is totally loft ; they, theirs, and feiM, being the nominative, poffeffve, and accufative, cafes of he, of she, and of it.
1 And
SUBJUNCTIVE • fo called becaufe it f WHICH and WHO. This fubjun&ive pronoun may be fubftituted in the place of any noun whatever, whither it be expreffive of a genus, a fpecies, or an individual', as the animal which, the man who, Alexander who, fife. Nay, it may
cannot lead a fentence but onl ferves to ^ even become the fubftitute of the perfonalpronouns themfelves ; as when we fay, / who now write, you who f/wro read, thou who readejl, he who wrote, fie wrHo fpoke ; where it is obfervable, that the fubjunEtive who adopts the person of that
fuboin a claufe to another which was pre- ^ prepofitive pronoun which it reprefents, and affe&s the verb accordingly. Who and which therefore axcr\alpronoum from fubftitution ; and they have this peculiarity befides, that they have not only the power of a pronoun, but alfo of
vious Of this kind are ^ I a conneSive oi the fame import with that which in Engiilh is expreffed by the prepofition of. The word that is now ufed indifferently for who or which, as a fubjunElive pronoun ; but it was originally ufed only as a definitive, and as fuch
b it ought ftill to be conlidered in philofophical grammar. i | i j 1 ‘
And
ATTRIBUTIVES;
which are thofe words
that are expreffive of
ALL SUCH THINGS AS ARE
CONCEIVED TO EXIST NOT
OF THEMSELVES, BUT AS
THE ATTRIBUTES OF O-
ther things. Thefe are
divided into
VERBS, or thofe words which
are expreffive of an attribute
and an assertion ; as, I write.
They all admit of the variations
after mentioned.
The attributes expreffed by verbs
have their effence in motion or
its privation; a'nd as motion is
always accompanied by time, \
therefore verbs are liable to j
certain varations called tenses,
viz.
"THE PRESENT, which reprefents the a&ion of the verb as going on, and as contemporary w’ith
fomething elfe ; as, I write, or I am writing, either juM now, or when you are reading, &c.
THE PRjETER-IMPERFECT, which reprefents the aftion of the verb as having been going on
put not jinijhed in fome portion of pajl time; as, I was writing, no matter when, yejlcrday, lajl
week, or lajl year.
THE AORIST OF THE PAST, which reprefents the a&ion of the verb as jinijhed in fome in¬
definite portion of pajl time; as I wrote, or did write, yejlerday, lajl week, &c.
THE PRiETER-PERFECT, which reprefents the action of the verb as juft now jinijhed, or
as finilhed in fome portion of time, within which the prefent injlant is comprehended; as I have
written this day or this week.
THE PLUSQUAM-PERFECT, which reprefents the aftion of the verb as having been
jinijhed in fome portion of time, within which a determinate pajl injlant was comprehended; as, I
had written lafl week before IJaw you.
THE FIRST FUTURE, which reprefents the a&ion of the verb as 'to be going on at fome
indefinite future time ; as I shall write or be writing to-morrow, next week, &c.
THE SECOND FUTURE, which reprefents the aftioft of the verb as to be completed at fome de
finite future time; as, I shall have written wheri you come to-morrow, next Week, &c.
AFFIRMATION fs the es- fTHE INDICATIVE, to denote the jirjl kind of
sence of every [verb ; info-
much that all vi\rbs may be
refolved into the fubftantive
verb is, and another attri¬
butive. But a ryaii may af¬
firm fomething I oil the ac¬
tion of the verb direEtly;
fomething of his l|bhrty or
capacity to perj\rm\ihat ac¬
tion 5 or fomething of his
wish that another ifhould per¬
form it. To denote thefe
feveral kinds of .affirmation,
all verbs have whit gnem-
marians call modes, viz.
affirmation; as, I write.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE, to denote the ficond; as,
I may or can write.
THE IMPERATIVE, to denote the third; as,
write thou, or do thou write.
Befides thefe, grammarians have given to every verb
a mode, called
THE INFINITIVE; as, to write. But this
feems, on every account, to be improperly ftyled
a mode. Nay, if affirmation be the effence of verb,
the infinitive cannot be confidered as any part of
the verb at all; for it expreffes no affirmation.
It is indeed nothing more than an abflraEt mm,
denoting the fmpk energy oi the verb, iaxonimnEtian
with time.
VERBS have likewife been diftinguilhed into the following
kinds, according to the nature of the attribute of which
they are expreffive.
xfl, ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE, or thofe which denote an
a&ion that pqffes from the agent to fome external objeEt', as,
Cafar conquered Pompey.
2d, ACTIVE-INTRANSITIVE, or thofe which exprefs
that kind of aftion which has no ejfeEt upon any thing
beyond the agent himfelf; as, Cafar walked.
3/, PASSIVE, or thofe which exprefs not a&ion butpafjon,
whether pleafing or painful; as, Portia was loved, Pompey
WAS CONQUERED.
qth, NEUTER, or thofe which exprefs an attribute that
oonfifta neither in aEtion nor in pqffwn ; as, Cafar stood.
PARTICIPLES, or thofe words which are expreffive of an attribute combined with time. In Englifh there are only two participles: the prefent, as writing, which expreffes the <z5iotejof the verb to write, as going on ; and the pajl, as written, which expreffes the aftion of the fame verb as jinijhed, and there¬
fore Jujl in time. Tn Greek and J.niln tbpre is a future guuetie'ple, by which the attribute is reprefented as to be in a ftate of exertion at fome future time ; as, ypapav, feripturus, “ about tojwrite.”
ADJECTIVES, or thofe words which exprefs as inhering in their fubjlances the feveral qualities of things, of which the effince conffls not in motion or its privation ; as, good, bad, black, white, large, small, £sV. As attributes are the fame whether they belong to males or females, to one oljeEl or to many, adjeElives
ought in ftri&nefs to admit of no variation refpe&ing fex or number; and in Engiilh they a&ually admit of none. Some qualities, however, are of fuch a nature, that one fubftance may have them in a greater degree than another ; and therefore the adjeElives denoting thefe qualities admit in moft languages of a
variation, which grammarians call the degrees of comparifon. Thus Plato was wise, Socrates was wiser than he, but Solomon was the wisest of men. There is a fpecies of adjeEtives derijed from nouns, and even from pronouns: for we fay, the Pompeian party, A brazen trumpet, and my book ; which are phrafes
equivalent to the party of Pompey, a trumpet of brafs, and the book of me.
^n(j fl. Thofe that are common to all attributives of the rOf INTENSION and REMISSION, or of QUANTITY CONTINUOUS; as, moderately, vastly, exceedingly, SsV. Tbefe, Xfcs: adjeElives of a fimilar nature, admit of the
first order; i. e. which coalefce equally with verbs, J different degrees of comparifon.
with participles, and with adjectives. Thefe may 1 Of QUANTITY DISCRETE; as, once, twice| thrice, &c. Thefe are not, i^ ftri&nefs of fpeech, adverbs, being in reality the possessive cases of one, two, threE, &c.
be divided into adverbs (.Of RELATION; as, more, most, less, least, jIually, proportionally, £sV.
DEFINITIVES; which
are all thofe words that
ferve to define and as¬
certain any particular
object or objects as
separated from others
OF THE SAME CLASS. 1
Thefe are commonly J
called J
And
CONNECTIVES, 'or
thofe words which are
employed to connect
OTHER WORDS, AND OF
SEVERAL DISTINCT PARTS '
TO MAJiE ONE COMPLETE
whole. Thefe may be
divided into two kinds,
i viz.
ADVERBS, or thofe words which, as they denote the attributes of. at¬
tributes, have been called attributives of the second order ; to diftin-i
guilh them from verbs, participles, and adjectives, which denote the*
attributes of substances, and are therefore called attributives of the
first order. Adverbs are divided into two kinds, viz.
I
f Of TIME; as, THEN, when, afterward, now, Zfi.
IT Tb ftb* , r 11 J 1 Of PLACE ; as here, there, where, hence, wh|nce, £sV. As alfo adverbs derived from prepfitions; as, upward, downward, Ie?c.
• nd hi h th fll ?/°.y l° CalIed’ < 0f INTENSIONS and REMISSIONS PECULIAR TO MOTION; as, speedily, hastily, slowly, tfc.—We have given adverbs a place among the parts of fpeech nece/ary
owing in . i £oj. tjie communjcatjon Qf thought; but it mavbe doubted whether they Ee intitled to this diftindtion. Engiilh adverbs at leaft feem to be nothing more than corruptions of
nouns, adjeElives, and verbs. See Chap. V. fe<ft.t.
ARTICLES; which are divided ^
into two kinds, viz.
INDEFINITE; as,
And
DEFINITE; as,
CONJUNCTIONS; by which
name are diftinguilhed all thofe
connectives which are com¬
monly employed to conjoin
sentences. Thefe have been
divided into two kinds, called
And
PREPOSITIONS, or thofe connectives of which the common ofmce is to j
A or AN, which is prefixed to a noun ox general term, to denote that but one individual is meant of that genus or fpecies of whicj the noun is the common name. This article, however, leaves the individual itfelf quite indeterminate. Thus man is the general name
of the whole human race ; a man is one individual, but that individual is unknown.
I ANY; which is prefixed to a noun either in the lingular or plural number, when it indifferent as to the truth of the propofition,zi»^/ individual or individuals be fuppofed : Thus, “ any man will be virtuous when temptation is away.”
SOME; which is prefixed to nows in the plural number, to denote that only part of the fpecies ox genus is meant, leaving that pat undetermined : Thus, “ some men are great cowards.”
THE; which is prefixed to a noun, to denote one individual of the fpecies of which fomething is predicated that diftinguilhes it frejn every other individual: Thus, “ the man that hath not mufic in himfelf is fit for treafon.” It is ufed before nouns in
both numbers and for the fame purpofe ; for we may fay, “ the men who have not mufic in themfelves are fit for treafons.1 >
^HIS; which prefixed to a noun in the fmgular number, denotes individual as present and near At hand ; as, “ this man tjffide me.” „ T Thefe two articles have plurals: these is the plural of this, and those the plural of that.
; Irizll ; which prefixed to a noun in theftngular number, denotes an individual as present but at a little distance ; as, “ THAr man in the corner. J x r
There are many other articles both definite and indefinite ; for which, fee Chap. II. !
’Accidental additkJn is expreffed by the' conjun&ion and ; as when we fay, “ Lyfippus was a ftatuary and Prifcian was a grammarian.”
The unexpected juiction of contrary truths is expreffed by but ; as, “ Brutus was a patriot but Caefar was not.”
The relation of as effect to its cause is expreffed by because ; as, “ Rome was enllaved because Casfar was ambitious.”
The relation of am effect to a cause of which the existence1 us doubtful, by if ; as, “ you will live happily if you live honeftly.”
The relation of a cause to its effect, by therefore ; as, “ Caefar was ambitious therefore Rome was enfiaved.”
CONJUNCTIVES, or thofe words which conjoin fentences and their meanings alfo ; and j
DISJUNCTIVES, or thofe words which, at the fame time that they conjoin fentences, disjoin their meanings. Each of thefe general
divifions has been again fubdivided. The former into copulatives and continuatives, the latter into simple disjunctives and ad¬
versative disjunctives, i But the general divifion is abfurd, and the fubdiv'fions are ufelefs. Conjunctions never disjoin the
l meanings of fentences, nor have any other effedi than to combine two-or more Jimple fentences into one compound fentence. If thofe fimplej m j • /r j i_ j •. • , •. • • . . ,,
' r ^ r f • ii r -u */- r v i. . ^ ■ cl' \. t j ^ 1 he idea of simpl^diversity is exprelied by either and or ; as, “ either it is day or it is night.
ientences be or oppoite meamngsiMore their combination, they will continue k> after it, whatever coniunction be employed to . F j- i .1 j j i . i  .     j 1. * « ►t'
• T a j » “ j j j jir7,. Contrariety betwien two affirmations, which though each may be true by itself, cannot both be true at once, is exprelied by unless ; as, ‘‘ iroy
unite them. In nalwre, different truths are connected, if they be connected at all, by different relations ; and therefore when „'u u J
the sentences expreffive of thofe truths are connected in language, it muft be by words fignificant of thofe natural rela- j ^ T* ' e en TJN1fss t e a a ium e Pre erve * . u tv™ .. tt o ^
rp, r s s > 1 o _ Coincidence of two affirmations apparently contrary to each other 1$ expreued by although ; as, “ 1 roy will be taken although Hector
jMML 1! - l defend it.”
f fThe accidental junction of two things between which there is no necessary connection ; as, ** a houfe with a party-wall.”
I The separation of two things wiiich we should expect to find united!; as, “ a houfe without a roof, a man without hands.”
j The relation subsisting between any thing and that which supports it ; as, “ the ftatue Hands upon a pedeftal.”
PROPER, or thofe which lite- The relations of higher and lower ; as, “ The fun is rifen above the Hills:—To fupport uneafy fteps over the burning marie:—The fun is fet below the horizon:—
rally denote the relations fub-. The Ihepherd reclines under the (hade of a beech-tree.”
fifting among the objefts of | The relation between any thing in motion and That in which it moveI; as, “ the rays of light pafs through the air.”
fenfe. Such as The relation between any thing continued, whether motion or rest* Und the point of its beginning; as, “ The rays of light proceed from the fan :—Thefe figs I
came from Turkey:—That lamp hangs from the ceiling.”
Or The relation between any- thing continued and the point to which it (ends ; as, “ He is going to Italy :—He flept till morning.
[The relation betwekj>i an effect and its cause ; as, “ I am fick of mjifyufband and for my gallant.”
METAPHORICAL. For as thofe who are above others in place have generally the advantage over themjthe prepositions which denote the one kind offuperiority or inferiority, are likewife employed to denote the other.
L of a king, “ he ruled over his people ;” and of a foldier, “ he ferved under fuch a general,”
INTERJECTIONS are a fpecies of words whicttj|ire found perhaps in all the languages on earth, but which cannot be included in any of the claffes above mentioned ; for tl^y are not fubjedt to the rules or principles of grammar, as they contribute nothing to the communication of thought. They may be
called a part of that natural language with whiehjran is endowed in common with other animals, to exprefs or ally fome very Jlrong fenfation ; fuch as, ah! when he feels pain\ In this view the interjection does not owe its charaEterflical expreffon to the arbitrary form of articulation, but to the tone of voice,
and the modifications of countenance and of gejjJri with which it is uttered ; it is therefore univerfally underftood by all mankind. In difeourfe interjections are employed oily when the fuddennefs or vehemence of fome affedtion returns men tg their naturalJlate, and makes them for a moment forget the
ufe of fpeech. In books they are thrown intbfcntences without altering their form either in fyntax or in fignification; and in Englifh this is generally done with a very baa effedi, though the writer no doubt employs them with a view to pathos or embcllifhtnent.
conjoin words which refuse to coalesce ; and this they can do omy by sig¬
nifying those relations by which the things expressed BY Til UNITED
words are connected in nature. The firfi words of men, likeitaeir firft
ideas, had an immediate reference to fenfible objedls ; and therefor^ t,here can
be no doubt but the original ufe of prepositions was to denote slid various ■
relations of body. Afterwards when men began to difeern witlw their intel-
leEl, they took thofe words which they found already made, pre|ositions as
well as others, and transferred them by metaphor to intellaSuM conceptions.
Prepositions therefore are either * if /
Conjunctions and prepositions
are indeed employed only to
conned fentencea and words ;
but it may be doubted whe-
. ther they be parts of fpeech
diftind from nouns, verbs, and
adjeElives. See Chap. VI.
Thus we fay
G 11 A [ 99 ] G R A
gramma* GRAMMARIAN} one that is {killed in or teaches
rian grammar.
11 Anciently the name grammarian was a title of ho-
,Granada- ncur, literature, and erudition, being given to perfons
' accounted learned in any art or faculty whatever.
But it is otherwife now, being frequently ufed as a
tet'm of reproach, to fignify a dry plodding perfon,
employed about words and phrafes, but inattentive to
the true beauties of expreflion and delicacy of fenti-
ment. The ancient grammarians, called alfo pbilolo-
gers, muft not be confounded with the grammatifts,
whofe foie bufmefs was to teach children the firft ele¬
ments of language. Varro, Cicero, Meffala, and even
Julius Casfar, thought it no difhonour to be ranked
grammarians, who had many privileges granted to them
by the Roman emperors.
GRAMMONT, a town of France, in the Limo-
fine, remarkable for its abbey, which is the chief of
the order. E. Long. 133. N. Lat. 45. 56.
GRAMPIAN-hills; a chain of high mountains
in Scotlahd, which run from eaft to weft almoft the
whole breadth of the kingdom. See (Scottijh) Ai.v$ and
Scotland.—They take their name from only a Angle
hill, the Mans Grampius of Tacitus, where Galgaeus
waited the approach of Agricola, and where the battle
was fought fo fatal to the brave Caledonians.
GRAMPOUND, a town of Cornwall in England,
feated on the river Valle, over which there is here a
bridge. W. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 50. 20. The in¬
habitants have a confiderable manufafture of gloves ;
and the town fends two members to parliament. Some
think that this town is the Voluba of the ancients,
becaufc it Hands on the fame river; and that on the
building of the bridge, the name was changed into
Grandpont. It was made a borough in the reign of
Edward III. by whofe charter it was endowed with
large privileges, particularly freedom from toll through
all Cornwall, a market On Saturday, and three fairs in
the year; which the burgeffes hold of the duchy of
Cornwall in fee-farm, at the rent of about 12 guineas.
Its privileges were confirmed by King Henry VIII.
but it did not fend members to parliament till the
reign of Edward VI. It is a corporation with a
mayor, 8 magiftrates, a recorder, and town-clerk.
The mayor is chofen annually the Tuefday before Mi¬
chaelmas, and the members by the majority of the
magiftrates and freemen, who are fuch of the inhabi¬
tants as pay fcot and lot. There is a chapel of eafe
in the town to the parifti-church, which is at Creed,
about a quarter of a mile off.
GRAMPUS, in ichthyology ; a fpecies of del-
phinus. See Delphinus.
GRANADA, a province of Spain, which for a
long time was a kingdom diftinft from the reft of that
country. See the article Spain.—It made a part
of the ancient Bsetica ; and was inhabited by the Ba-
ftuli, the Sexitani, &c. At prefent it is fometimes
called Upper Andalufia. It is bounded to the fouth
and eaft by the Mediterranean, to the weft and north
by Lower Andalufia, and to the north-eaft by Murcia.
Its extent from weft to eaft is two hundred and ten
miles; but its greateft breadth exceeds not eighty.
The air here is temperate and healthy; and though
tkere are many mountains in the province, and fome
of them very high, yet they are almoft every where
covered with vines and fruit-trees, together with lau- Oranacfe.
rel, myrtle, fweet-bafil, thyme, lavender, marjoram, ——
and other aromatic herbs, which give an exquifite
tafte to the fleih of their ftieep and cattle. A great
deal of filk and fugar, flax and hemp, honey and wax,
is alfo produced here; befides dates and acorns, fupe-
riorto the fineft nuts; good ftone for building; feve-
ral forts of gems; fumach, ufed in drefling goat-(kins;
and galls, of which a dye is made for leather. The
valleys, with which the mountains are interfperfed, are
extremely beautiful and fertile. The inhabitants of
fome of the higheft mountains ate faid to be defeen-
dants of the Moors ; and, though they are become Ro¬
man-catholics, retain, in a great meafure, their ancient
cuftoms, manners, and language. The principal river*
in the province are the Genii, or Xenil, and Gauda-
lantin, befides which there are many lefler ftreams.
Abundance of fait is made in this province ; which,
though neither fo populous nor fo well cultivated as
when fubjeA to the Moors, yet is as much fo as any in
Spain. It was the laft of the kingdoms poflefled by
the Moors, and was not reduced and annexed to the
crown of Caftile until 1492.
Granada, the capital of the above province, Is fitu-
ated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, or the Snowy
Mountain, in a wholefome air and fruitful country,
an hundred and eighty miles fouth of Madrid, in
W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 36. 56.. It (lands upon
two hills feparated by the Darro. The Genii runs un¬
der the walls, and thefe two rivers are formed from the
melting of the fnow with which the mountain is con-
ftantly covered. The Darro is faid to carry with it
fmall particles of gold ; and its name, derived from
dat aurum, may be alleged as a proof of this : the Ge¬
nii, in like manner, rolls with its ftream little pieces of
filver. When Charles V. came to Granada, in 1526,
with the emprefs Ifabella, the city prefented him with
a crown made ofagold gathered from the Darro. The
city is large and magnificent, containing a great num¬
ber of very handfome public and private buildings. Its
walls, which are adorned with many towers at equal
diftances, are faid to be ten miles in compafs. Here
are two caftles ; the one built by the Moors, and the
other by Charles V. and Philip TI. They both com¬
mand a very fine profpedl ; and the firft is fo large,
that it looks like a city by itfelf, and, it is faid, has
room enough to accommodate forty thoufand people,
exclufive of the royal palace, and the convent of St
Francis. Here is alfo a court of inquifition ; a royal
tribunal; and an univerfity, founded in 1531 ; with
the fee of an archbifhop, who has a revenue of forty
thoufand ducats per annum. A great many noble¬
men, clergymen, and wealthy citizens, refide in this ci¬
ty, of which the filk trade and manufafture is very
great, and the arfenal is faid to be the beft furnifhed of
any in Spain. The inhabitants, who are partly de-
feended of the Moors, are well fupplied with wa¬
ter. There are feveral fine fquares, particularly that
called the Bivaramba or Plaga Mayor, where the
bull-fights are held ; and without the city is a large
plain, full of towns and villages, called La Vega de
Granada.
The Moors are faid to regret nothing but Granada,
amongft all the Ioffes they have fuftained in Spain ; they
mention it in all their evening prayers, and fupplicate
M2 heaven
G R A [ ioo ] G R A
Granada, heaven to reftoreit to their poffeffion. The lad Moor-
ifn ambaffador who came into Spain obtained permif-
fion of the king to fee Granada ; he fhed tears on en¬
tering the Alhambra, and could not refrain from ex¬
claiming, that the folly of his anceftors had deprived
them and their pofterity of that delightful country.
Granada had formerly twenty gates : the 'firil, that
of Elvira, which Hill remains ; the fecond, that of Bi-
balmazar, or of Conference, becaufe, with the Moors, it
was a kind of place of refort where they converfed on af¬
fairs ; the third, Vivarambla, fo called from its leading
to agiand fquare which ttill beats the fame name ; the
fourth. Bib Racha, or of proviiions ; the fifth, Bita-
taubin, or the gate of the hermits, which led to diffe¬
rent folitudes, the abodes of derviies ; the fixth, Bib-,
mitre, or Biblacha, the firlt gate; the feventh, the
mill gate ; the eighth, that of the fun, becaufe it open¬
ed to the call; the ninth, the gate of the Alhambra,
called by the Moors Bib Luxar; the tenth. Bid Adam,
or the gate of the bones of Adam ; the twelfth, Bib
Ciedra, the gate of the nobles ; the Moors kept this
gate (hut for a long time, becaufe it had been predic¬
ted that the enemies which fhould one day take the
city, would enter by that gate ; the thirteenth, is that
of Faxalauza, or of the hill of almond trees ; the four¬
teenth, the lion gate, in Arabic, Bib Elecei ; the fif¬
teenth, the coaft gate, called by the Moors Alacabar ;
the lixteenth, Bib Albonut, or the gate of the Banners,
at prefent the magdalen gate ; the feventeenth, that of
the Darro ; the eighteenth, that of the Mofayca ; the
nineteenth, tiiat called the gate of Ecce Homo; the
twentieth, that by the fide of the Alhambra-
The Moors have left more monuments in Granada'
than in any other city in Spain. From the great num¬
ber of infcriptions in and about the city, and the fine
edifices of the Alhambra and the Generalif, it might
be fuppofed thefe people intended to make Granada
the great depfitory of their religion, manners, cuf-
toms, and magnificence. There is not a wall which
does not bear fome marks of their power; but, not-
withllanding this abundance of monuments, the reign
of the Moors in Spain is ftill buried in confufion and
obfcurity. The ignorance of the Spaniards, their fu-
perftiticn, and the hatred they bore the Moors, have
much contributed to this darknefs ; they have either
deftroyed, or fufftred to be effaced by time, every
thing which bore the mark of mahometanifm, inllead
of preferring the monuments of antiquity, which at
the fame time were thofe of their own glory ; and it
may be faid, that chance alone, and the folidity of
their conftru&ion, much more than curiofity or a love
of the arts, has preferred thofe which flill exiil, altho’
daily going to ruin.
An account of the Alhambra has been already gi¬
ven under its name in the order of the alphabet. From
the hall of Comares there mentioned, there is a modern
tittle flair cafe ; the old one, which correfponded to the
beauty of the edifice, having been deftroyed. At the
top of the ftaircafe is a gallery, a part of which is in-
clofed with an iron railing : this kind of cage is called
the prifon of the. queen. It was here the wife of the
laft king of Granada was imprifoned. The Gomels
and Legris, two families of diitindlion, bore falfe wit-
aefs againft her virtue, and occafioned the deftru&ion
ef the greateft part of the Abencerrages, another
powerful and numerous family of Granada of whom
they were jealous. The hiftory or this event is given
as follows.
In the year 149*, Abdali, furnamed the Little, ftill
reigned in-Granada ; but this city was upon the brink
of ruin, for the principal families were divided againft
each other. The Moors had carried their arms againft
Jaen, and had been bravely repulfed. Abdali was con-
foling himfelf in one of his pleafure houfes for the ill
fuccefs of his enterprife, when the Zegris, who long
had been the fecret enemies of the Abencerrages,
took the opportunity of this defeat to reprefent them
to the king as rebellious fubjecls, who employed their
immenfe riches to gain the favour of the people and
dethrone their fovereign. They accufed Albin Ha-
met, the moft rich and powerful among them, of ha¬
ving an adulterous commerce with the queen, and pro¬
duced witneffes who afferted they had on a certain fe-
ftival feen, at Generalif, under a bower of rofe trees,
Albin Hamet in the arms of that prineds. The fury
of Abdali may ealily be imagined ; he fwore the de-
ftruction of the Abencerrages. But the Zegris, too
prudent to let his anger break forth, advifed him to
difumulate, and not to fuifer it to be known to that
numerous and powerful family that he was informed of
their perfidy. It will be better, faid they, to entice
them into the fnare, and, before they can unite and
put themfclves into a ftate of defence, revenge upon
their heads the infult offered to the ct'ovvn. This ad¬
vice was followed : Abdali went to the Alhambra,
having ordered thirty of his guards to arm themfelves,
and the executioner to attend. The Abencerrages
were fent for one by one, and beheaded as foon as they
entered the hall of the lions, where-there is ftill a large
vafe of alabaftef, which was quickly filled with blood
and the heads of expiring bodies. Thirty-five heads
had already been llruck off, and all the Abencerrages
would have died in the fame manner, had not a page,
who had followed his mafter, and remained unpercei¬
ved in the hurry of the execution, taken an opportu¬
nity of withdrawing and giving information to the reft
of the unhappy family of what had paffed. Thefe im¬
mediately alfembled their friends in arms, crying out
through the city of Granada, “ Treafon ! treafon !
Let the king die ! he unjuftly puts to death the Aben¬
cerrages !” The people, with whom they were favour¬
ites, did not hefitate in afiifting them : fourteen thou-
fand men were foon found in arms, and immediately
proceeded towards the Alhambra, fhouting all the
way, Let the king die ! Abdali, furprifed his fecret
Ihould have been fo foon difeovered, and feverely re¬
penting of having followed the pernicious counfels he
had received, ordered the caftle gates to be Unit; but
they were prefently fet on fire. Muley Hacen, who had
been forced to abdicate the throne in favour of his fon,
hearing the tumult of the people, had one gate open¬
ed, and prefented himfelf to appeafe the rage of the
citizens; but he no fooner appeared, than he was lift¬
ed up b-y the multitude nearelt the gate, who cried out.
Behold our king, we will have no other, long live
Muley Hacen and leaving him furrounded by a
ftrong guard, the Abencerrages, and other nobles, en¬
tered the caftle, accompanied by upwards of an hun-
dredffoldiers. But they found the queen only, with,
her women, and in the utmoft confternation at tire
hidden
G-anada-.
G R A [ ioi ] G R A
Oranada fudden revolution, of which fhe knew not the caufe. the foundation of Granada : and that in the place Ora'
* They alked for the king ; and being informed he ,\vas
in the hall of the lions, entered it furioufly, and found
him defended by the Zegris and the Gomels, and in
lefs than two hours killed upwards of two hundred of
them. Abdali had the good fortune to efcape. Tire
bodies of the beheaded Abencerrages were laid upon
black cloth, and carried to the city. Muza, brother
to Abdali, and who by bis great a&ions had gained
the favour of the people, feeing the Abencerrages were
revenged, found means to appeafe them ; and having
learned that the king had taken refuge in a mofque
near the mountain now called. Saint Helena, went and
brought him back co the caftle of the Alhambra. Fur
feveral days nothing but fighs and groans were through¬
out the city. Abdali fhut hirr.i'elf up in the caftle,
and refufed to fee the queen. Thofe who had accufed
her of adultery, however, perfifted in their falfe accu-
fation, and faid, they would maintain, with arms in
their hands, againft all who fnould contradidt them,
that the queen was guilty. The unhappy princefs was
imprifoned, and the day arriving orf which ftie was to
perifii by the hands of the executioner, when none a-
mong the Moors offering to defend her, fhe was ad-
vifed to commit her caufe to fome Chriftian knights,
who prefented themfelves at the time appointed, and
conquered her falfe accufers, fo that fhe was immedi¬
ately fet at liberty. The taking of Granada foon fol¬
lowed this combat; Muza and the Abencerrages ha¬
ving, it is faid, facilitated the conqueft of it by Ferdi¬
nand and Ifabella.
From the Alhambra you enter the Generalif by a
low gate, which favoured the efcspe of Abdali when
Ferdinand took Granada. Generalif is faid to figni-
fy, in Arabic, the houfe of love, of dance, and pleafure.
It was built by a prince of the name of Omar, who
was fo fond of mufic, that he retired to this palace, en¬
tirely to give himfelf up to that amufement. The Ge-
neralif is tiie moft pleafing fituation in the environs of
Granada. It is built upon a very high mountain
whence waters rufh from every fide, which efcape in
torrents, and fall in beautiful cafcades in the courts,
gardens, and halls of that ancient palace. The gar¬
dens form an amphitheatre, and are full of trees, vene¬
rable from their antiquity. Two cypreifes in particu¬
lar are noted, called the Cypreifes of the queen, be-
caufe it was near them the perfidious Gomel impeach¬
ed the virtue of that princefs and the honour of the
Abencerfages. Of this place, travellers obferve, that
the writers of romances have never imagined a fcene
equal to it.
Granada was formerly called Illilerla, and founded,
if we will believe fome writers, by Liberia, a great
grand-daughter of Hercules, daughter of Hifpan, and
wife to Hefperus, a Grecian prince, and brother to
Atalanta. Others, who fupport their affertions by
proofs to the full as fatisfaftory, maintain that it was
founded by Iberus, grandfon of Tubal, and that it took
the name of Granada, or Garnata, from Nata the
daughter of Liberia ; this word being compofed of
Gar (which in the language of the time fignified grot¬
to) and Nata ; that is, “ the grotto of Nata,” becaufe
that princefs ftudied aftrology and natural hiftory, and
.delighted in the country. It is certain that fuch a
perfon as Nata, or Natayde, exifted in the firft ages of
where the Alhambra now {lands, t'lere was a temple II
dedicated to Nativala. The date of the foundation of °ran
Granada is faid to be 2808 years before Chrift. We
know that in the time of the Romans it was a munici¬
pal colony.—A defeription in Latin of Granada, fuch
as it was, in 1560, written by a merchant at Antwerp,
named George Hofnahel, who travelled into Spain, is
to be found in the work, intitled Clvitatcs orbis terra-
rum, printed at Cologne in 1576. This book alfo
contains a good plan of the city of Granada.
GRANADA, or Grenada, one of the Caribbee
Hands. See Grenada.
GRANADA, a town of America, in the pro¬
vince of Nicaragua, and in the audience of Gu&ti-
mala, feated on the lake Nicaragua, 70 miles from
the S. Sea. It was taken twice by the French buc¬
caneers, and pillaged. The inhabitants carry on a
great trade, by means of the lake, which communi¬
cates with the N. Sea. W. Long. 85. 10. N. Lat.
11. 8.
GRANADA, New, a province of South Ame¬
rica, in Terra Firma, about 75 miles in length, and
as much in breadth. It is bounded, on the north by
Carthagena and St. Martha, on the call by Venezuela,
on the fouth by Popayan, and ori the weft by Darien. It
contains mines of gold, copper, and iron ; horfes,
mules, good paftures, corn, and fruits. It belongs
to the .Spaniards, and Santa-Fe-de-Bagota is the ca¬
pital town.
GRANADILLOE3, the name of fome Hands
of the Caribbees, in America, having St Vincent to
the north and Granada to the fouth. They are fo in-
confiderable that they are quite negledted ; but were
ceded to England by the treaty of peace in 1763.
GRANADIER, a foldier armed with a fword, a
firelock, a bayonet, and a pouch full of hand-grana-
does. They wear high caps, are generally the tailed
and brifkeft fellow’s, and are always the firft upon all
attacks.
Every battalion of foot has generally a company
of granadiers belonging to it; or elfe four or five
granadiers belong to each company of the battalion,
which, on occafion, are drawn out, and form a com¬
pany of themfelves. Thefe always take the right of
the battalion.
GRANADO or Grenade, in the art of war, a
hollow ball or ftiell of iron or other raetal, of about 2\
inches diameter, which being filled with fine powder, is
fet on fire by means of a fmall fufe driven into the
fufe-hole, made of weil-feafoned beech-wood, and
throwm by the grenadiers into thofe places where the
men ftand thick, particularly into the trenches and 6-
ther lodgements made-by the enemy. As foon as the
compofition within the fufe gets to the powder in the
grenado, it burfts into many pieces, greatly to the da¬
mage of all who happen to be in its way, Granadoes
were invented about -the year 1594. The author of
the Military Dictionary has the following remark on the
ufe of granadoes. “ Grenades have unaccountably
funk into difufe ; hut I am perfuaded there is no¬
thing more proper than to have grenades to throw a-
mong the- enemy who have jumped into the ditch,.
During the fiege of Caffel under the Count de La.
Lippe, in the campaign of 1762, a yoking engineer-
G R A [ >oj 1 G R A
©ranard, undertoolt to carry one of the outworks with a much ing and fcreening is repeated, the better the grain will
Granary. fma]ler detachment than one which had been repul- be found to keep.—It is proper to leave an area of a
* fed, and fucceeded with eafe from the ufe of grenades; yard wide on every fide of the heap of corn, and other
which is a proof that they fiiould not be negle&ed, empty fpaces, into which they turn and tofs the corn
either in the attack or defence of polls.”—The word as often as they find occafion. In Kent they make
Granado takes its rife from hence, that the (hell is two fquare holes at each end of the floor, and
filled with grains of powder, as a pomegranate is with one round in the middle, by means of which they
kernels. throw the corn out of the upper into the lower rooms,
GRANARD, a borough, market, fair, and poft and fo up again, to turn and air it the better. Their
town in the county of Longford, province of Lein- fcreens are made with two partitions, to feparate the
Her; it gives title of earl to the family of Forbes ; fi- dull from the Corn, which falls into a bag, and when
tuated 52 miles from Dublin, and about 16 north ea(t fuffieieutly full this is thrown away, the pure and good
of Longford. N. Lat. 53. 44. W. Long. 7. 30. _ Here corn remaining behind. Corn has by thefe means
is a remarkable hill or mount, called the Moat of been kept in our granaries 30 years; and it is obfer-
GranarcU thought to be artificial, and the fite of ved, that the longer it is kept the more flour it yields
a Danirti calUe or fort; vehich commands from its in proportion to the corn, and the purer and whiter
fummit a mod extenfive profpedt into fix or feven ad- the bread is, the fuperfluous humidity only evapora-
joining counties. In this town have lately been given ting in the keeping. At Zurich in Swifierland, they
annual prizes to the beft performers on the Irifti harp, keep corn 80 years, or longer, by the fame fort of me-
Granard has a barrack for a company of foot; and re- thods.
turns two members to parliament; patronage in the The public granaries at Dantzick are feven, eight,
-families of Macartney and Greville. Fairs held 3d May or nine dories high, having a funnel in the midd of
and idOftober. This place takes its name from Grian- every floor to let down the corn from one to another.
ard, or “ the height of the fun”, and was formerly the They are built fo fecurely, that though every way
refidence of the chiefs of north Teffia. It is fometimes furrounded with water the corn contrails no damp,
written Grenard. and the veflels have the convenience of coming up to
GRANARY, a building to lay or flore corn in, the walls for their lading. The Ruffians preferve their
efpecially that defigned to be kept a confiderable time. corn in fubterranean granaries of the figure of a fugar-
Sir Henry Wotton advifes to make it look towards loaf, wide below and narrow at top : the fides are well
the north, becaufe that quarter is the cooled and mod pladered, and the top covered with dones. They
temperate. Mr Worlidge obferves, that the bed gra- are very careful to have the corn well dried before it
naries are built of brick, with quarters of timber is laid into thefe ftorehoufes, and often dry it by
wrought in the infide, to which the boards may be means of ovens; the fummer dry weather being too
nailed, with which the infide of the granary mud be (hort to effe£l it fufficiently.—Dantzick is the grand
lined fo clofe to the bricks, that there may not be any dorehoufe or repofitory of all the fruitful kingdom
room left for vermin to (helter themfelves. There of Poland. The wheat, barley, and rye, of a great
may be many dories one above another, which (horrid part of the country, are there laid up in parcels ofao,30,
be near the one to the other ; becaufe the (hallower or 60 lads in a chamber, according to the fize of the
the corn lies, it is the better, and more eafily turned. room ; and this they keep turning every day or two,
The two great cautions to be obferved in the ere&- to keep it fweet and fit for (hipping. A thunder
ing of granaries are, to make them fufficiently drong, dorm has fometimes been of very terrible confequen-
and to expofe them to the mod drying winds. The ces to thefe fiores. All the corn of the growth of
ordering of the corn in many parts of England, parti- former years having been found fo much altered by one
cularly in Kent, is thus: To feparate it from dud and night’s thunder, that though over night it was dry,
other impurities after it is thraflied, they tofs it with fit for (hipping or keeping, and proper for ufes of any
(hovels from one end to the other of a long and large fort, yet in the morning it was found clammy and
room ; the lighter fubdances fall down in the middle dicking. In this cafe there is no remedy but the
of the room, and the corn only is carried from fide to turning of all fuch corn three or four times a day for
fide, or end to end of it. After this they fcreen the two months or longer; in which time it will fome-
corn, and then bringing it into the granaries, it is times come to itfelf, though fometimes not. This ef-
fpread about half a foot thick, and turned from time feft of thunder and lightning is only obferved to take
to time about twice in a week ; once a week they alfo place in fuch corn as is not a year old, or has not
repeat the fcreening it. This fort of management they fweated thoroughly in the draw before it was threflied
continue about two months, and after that they lay it out. The latter inconvenience is eafily prevented by a
a foot thick for two months more; and in this time they timely care; but as to the former, all that can be
turn it once a week, or twice if the feafon be damp, done is carefully to examine all fiores of the lad year’s
and now and then fcreen it again. After about five corn after every thunder dorm, that if any of this
or fix months they raife it to two feet thicknefs in the have been fo affe&ed, it may be cured in time ; for a
heaps, and then they turn it once or twice in a month, negleft of turning will certainly utterly dedroy it.
and fcreen it now and then. After a year, they lay According to Vitruvius’s rules, a granary (hould al-
it two and a half or three feet deep, and turn it once ways be at the top of a houfe, and have its openings
in three weeks or a month, and fcreen it proportion- only to the north or eafl, that the corn may not be
ably. When it has lain two years or more, they turn expofed to the damp winds from the fouth and wed,
it once in two months, and fcreen it once a quarter; which are very dedruftive to it; whereas the contrary
-£nd how long Ibever it is kept, the oftener the turn- ones are very neceflary and whokfome to it, ferving
to
G R A
ORA [ 103 ]
Granary, to cool and dry it from all external humidity, from four feet from each other, which are to reach through Granary-
'V—- whatever caufe. There muft allb be openings in the the whole length of the granary, and their farther ' * f
roof to be fet open in dry weather, partly to let in ends are to be clofed : feams of ^<5 or T-r of an inch
fveth air, and partly to let out the warm effluvia which are to be left open at the four joinings of the boards,
are often emitted by the corn. The covering of the where they are nailed together, that the air may pafs
roofs fhould always be of tiles, becauff in the word through them into the corn. In fome of thefe ItfTer
feafons, when the other openings cannot be fafe, there trunks there may be Aiding fhutters, in order to flop
will always be a confiderable inlet for frefh air, and a the paflage of the air through thofe trunks which are
way out for the vapours by their joinings, which are not covered with corn ; or to ventilate one part of the
never clofe. If there happen to be any windows to granary more brifldy than others, as there may be oc-
the fouth, great care muft be taken to (hut them up in cafion. There muit alfo be wooden (butters, hung
moift weather, and in the time of the hot fouthern winds, on hinges at their upper part, fo as to (hut clofe of
There muft never be a cellar, or any other damp themfelves; thefe muft be .fixed to the openings in
place under a granary, nor (hould it ever be built the walls of the granary on their outfide : by thefe
over (tables ; for in either pf thefe cafes the corn will means they will readily open to give a free paffage for
certainly fuffer by the vapours, and be made damp in the ventilating air, which afcends through the corn,
one, and ill tailed in the other. to pafs off, but will inftantly (hut when the ventila-
M. Du Hamel and Dr Hales recorr.fr.end various tion ceafes, and thereby prevent any dampnefs of the
contrivances for ventilating or blowing fre(h air through external air from entering : to prevent this, the ven-
corn laid up in granaries or (hips, in order to pre-
ferve it fweet and dry, and to prevent its being de¬
voured by weevels or other infedts. This maybe done
by nailing wooden bars or laths on the floor of th<
tilation fliould be made only in the middle of dry days^.
unlefs the c@rn, when firfl put in, is cold and damp.
In leffer granaries, where the ventilators muft be
worked by hand, if thefe granaries (land on (laddies.
granary about an inch diftant from each other, when fo as to have their lowed floor at fome diftance from
they are covered with hair-cloth only ; or at the dif- the ground, the ventilators may be fixed under the
Tance of two or three inches, when coarfe wire-work, lowed floor, between the (laddies, fo as to be worked
or bafket-work of oiler is laid under the hair-cloth, or by men (landing on the ground, without or within
wdien an iron plate full of holes is laid upon them Thefe the granary. A very commodious and cheap venti-
laths may be laid acrofs other laths, nailed at the dif- lator maybe made for fmall granaries, by making a
tance of 15 inches, and two or more deep, that there ventilator of the door of the granary ; which may be
may be a free paffage for the air under them. The eafily done by making a circular fcreen, of the fize of
under laths mull come about fix inches (hort of the a quarter of a circle, behind the door: but in order to
wall of the granary at one end of them ; on which end this, the door muft be open, not inwards but out-
a board is to be fet edgeways, and (loping againft the wards of,the granary, fo that «s it falls back, it may
wall: by this difpofition a large air-pipe is formed, be worked to and fro in the fcreen ; which mud be
which having an open eommunication with all the exaftly adapted to it in all parts of the circular fide
interftices between and under the bars, will admit of the fcreen, as well as at the top and bottom. But
the paffage of air below forcibly through a hole at the there muft be a flop at about eight or ten inches dif-
extremity of it, into all the corn in the granary, that tance from the wall, to prevent the door’s falling back
wall confequently carry off the moift exhalations of the farther; that there maybe room for a valve in the
corn. The ventilators for fupplying fre(h air may be fcreen to fupply it with air; which air will be driven
fixed againft the wall, on the infide or ootfide of the in by the door, through a hole made in the wall near
granary, or under the floor, or in the cieling ; but the floor, into t!ie main air-trunk, in which there muft
wherever they are fixed, the handle of the lever that be another valve over the hole in the wall, to prevent
works them muft be out of the granary, otherwife the the return of the air.
perfon whoworks them would be in dangerof fuffocation, ‘To dejiroy ivervils and other Inftels ivilh which Gr an A-
when the corn is fumed with burning brimftone, as is ries are apt to be infefed.—The prefervation of grain
fometimes done for deftroying weevels. Small moveable from the ravages of infedls may be bed effedled by
ventilators will anfwer the purpofe for ventilating corn timely and frequent fereening, and ventilation; as
in large bins in granaries, and may be eafily moved little or no inconvenience will follow corn or malt lod-
from one bin to another. If the granary or corn (hip ged dry, but what evidently refults from a negleft of
be very long, the main air-pipe may’pafs lengthwife t; efe precautions. For, whether the obvious damage
along the middle of it, and.convey air, on both fides, arife from the weevil, th^moth, or the beetle, that da-
under the corn. In large granaries, large double ven- mage has ceafed'at-tbetime the vermin make their ap*
tilators, laid on each other, may be fixed at the middle pearance under either of thefe fpecies, they being, when
and near the top of the granary, that they may be in this laft (late of exiftence, only propagators of their
worked by a wind-mill fixed on the roof of the build- refpeflive kinds of vermiculi; which, while they conti-
ing, or by a water-mill. The air is to be conveyed nue in that form, do the mifehief.
from the ventilators through a large trunk or trunks, lu this lad, or infetSfc date, they eat little, their prih-
reaching down through the feveral floors to the bot- cipal bufinefs being to depofit their ova (eggs), which
tom of the granary, with branching trunks to each unerring inftintl prompts them to do where large col-
floor, by means of which the air may be made to pafs le&ions of grain furnilh food for their fucceffors while
into a large trunk along the adjoining crofs walls: in a vermicular (late. It is therefore the bufinefs of
from thefe trunks feveral leffer trunks, about four inch- induftry to prevent future generations of thefe ravagers,.
es.wide, are to branch off, at the diftance of three or by deftroying the eggs previous to their hatching; and
4 this
Granary.
G R A [ 104 ] G R A
this is btft accomplifhed by frequent fcfeening, and ex- to 500c. According to Brunich, moft of the garnets Granary,
pofure to draughts of wind or freflr air. By frequent- ftrike fire with fteel.  
]y furring the grain, the cohefion of their ova is bro- Cronltedt obferves, that the metallic calces, when
ken, and the nidus of thofe minute worms is deftroyed, mixed with other earthy fubftances, make great alter?-
which bn hatching colleA together, and fpin or weave tion in their fufibility ; iron, for intlance, in the argilla-
numerous r.efis of a cobweb like tubilance for their fe- ceous and micaceous earths, renders them fufible, tho*
curity. To thefe nefts they attach, by an infinity of otherwife they are not fo. Hence there may be fome
fmall threads, many grains of corn together, firft for reafons for confidering the garnet as a quartz impreg-
their protc&ion, and then for their food. When their nated with iron ; yet on the whole he thinks it will be
habitations are broken and feparated by the fcreen, better to call the garnet a (lone of a .different order, un-
they fall through its fmall interilices, and may be eafily til we have experiments fufficient to warrant us to rc-
removed from the granary with the dud. Tbpfe that duce the number of earths. The garnet earth is never
efcape an early fcreening will be deftroyed by fubfe- found but in an indurated ftate; and is divided into the
<}uent ones, while the grain is but little injured; and garnet properly fo called, and fhirl or cockle; though ,
t he corn will acquire thereby a fuperior purity. But by this perhaps is owing more to the figure of their cryftals
inattention to this, and fometimes by receiving grain than anything elfe. The fpecies are,
already infefted into the granary, thefe vermin, parti- 1. The granatus, or coarfe-grained garnet; a heavy
Cularly the weevil, wull in a fliort time fpread themfelves hard done, fryftallizing in form of polygonal balls,
in that ftate every where uppn its furface, and darken moftly of a red or reddifti brown colour. It is found
even the walls by their number. Under fueh circum- of a reddifh brown and whitith or pale yellow, in dif-
ilances a hen or hens, with new hatched chickens, if ferent parts of Sweden.
turned on the heap, will traverfe, without feeding (or 2. The granatus cryftallizatus, or cryftallized gar-
very fparingly fo) on the corn, wherever they fpread ; net, is reckoned among the precious ftones, but vary-
and are feemingly infatiable in the purfuit of thefe in- ing in its colour and form of its cryftal more than any
fe&s. When the numbers are reduced within reach, a of them. Sometimes it is of a deep and dark red co-
hen will fly up againft the walls, and brufh them down lour ; fometimes yellowifli or purplifir; fometimes
with her wings, while her chickens feize them with the brown, black, or opaque. It is inferior both in luftre
greateft avidity. This being repeated as often as they and hardnefs to the other gems, yielding to the file,
want food, the whole fpecies will in a day or two be although it will ftrike fire with fteel. The cryftals are
dtftroyed. Of the phalsena (moth), and the fmall fometimes irregular, but frequently affume rhomboidal,
beetle, they feem equally voracious: on which account tetradecahedral, and almoft all other regular forms,
they may be deemed the moft ufeful inftruments in Wallerius makes the fpecific gravityof thegarnet from
nature for eradicating thefe noxious and deftruflive 3600 to 3^00, and even 4400; Briflen makes it 4100 ;
verrtu’n. and Cotes fays that the garnets of Bohemia are 4360,
GRANATE, or Garnet : a genus of follilsrank- thofe of Sweden being 3978. The moft efteemed is
ed among the filiceous earths; but, according to M. the Syrian garnet ; which is of a fine red, inclining to
Magellan, analogous to gems, all of them being com- purple, very tranfparent, but lefs beautiful than the o-
pofed of the filiceous, argillaceous and calcareous 'riental amethyft. This, according to Magellan, is the
earths, with a greater or lefs proportion of iron. The amethyftizontas of Pliny ; and is found in Syria, Calcut-
opaque and black garnets contain about a fifth part of ta, Cananor, Camboya, and Ethiopia. The foranus cf
iron ; but the diaphanous ones only r*oth, according to the ancients was another kind of garnet of a red colour
Bergman. The garnets, properly fo called, contain a inclining to yellow, called •vermei/le by the French, and
greater quantity of filiceous earth than the (hirls, and gtacinto guarnacino by the Italians; the former having
both are nowjuftly ranked with the filiceous earths, the name of rubino di rocca among the laft mentioned
The general properties of the garnet, according to people. The name Soranus comes from Sorian or
Crcnftedt, are as follow: i.Tt is more fufible as it Surian, a town of Pegu, from whence thefe gems are
contains lefs metallic matter, and is more tranfparent or brought.
glaffy in its texture. 2. Mixed with fait of kelp, it Sometimes the garnets have a yellow colour, in
may, on a piece of charcoal, be converted into glafs which cafe they obtain the name of hyacinths. Like
by the blow-pipe, which cannot be done with flint, other gems, they are divided into oriental and occiden-
3. The moft tranfparent garnet may, without any ad- tal; but this means in fa<!l no more than more or lefs -
cition, be brought to a black opaque flag by the fame valuable ; the fined ftones being always called oriental,
means. 4. It is never, as far as is hitherto known, wherever they come from. Some very fine ones are
found pure, or without fome mixture of metal, efpe- found in Bohemia ; they are alfo met with in Hungary,
daily iron, which may be extradled by the common at Pyrna in Silefia, S. Sapiio in the canton of Berne
methods. 5. The garnet matter, during the cryftal- in Switzerland, in Spain, and in Norway. Their
lizaticn, has either been formed in fmall detached quan- colour is fuppofed to proceed from iron ; and, accord-
tities, or elfe has had the power of (hooting into cry- ing to M. Sauffure, even the fined oriental garnets at-
ftals, though clofely confined in different fubftances : trad the magnetic needle at a fmall diftance. In the
fince garnets are generally found difperfed in other fo- focus of a good burning-glafs the garnet melts into a
lid ftones, and oftentimes in the harder ones, fuch as brown mafs, which is attracted by the magnet; which
quartz and chert. Fabroni informs us, that the gar- (howsthatironentersintoitscompofitioninaconfider-
net is eafily melted by means of borax or the vegetable able proportion. Some garnets, however, contain a
alkali. Its fpecific gravity is greater than that of thp little gold ; and fome, called by the Germans zingrau-
precious ftones; viz. from 3600, and even from 4400 pen, contain tin. M. Magellan is of opinion, that
N° 143. 6 the
G R A
[ 105 ]
G R A
he mentions of a deep purple, were both true gar¬
nets.
3. The cockle or (hirl. See Cockle.
The garnets abound fo much with iron that they
fom'etimes worked with profit as ores of that metal; in
the lapis alabandicus of Pliny, and another gem which by defcent; made by the king’s faying, Be covered for Grandeur
’ -  -c - thyfelf arid heirs. Thefe laft are reputed far above „ ,an<i.
the former. _
There are fome who have three or four grandeefhips
in their family. r
GRANDEUR and Sublimity. Thefe terms Double fig-
which cafe no notice is taken of the natural charadfef have a double fignification : they commonly fignify the nification.
of the ftorie, in the fame manner as is done with clays quality or circumftance in objefts by which the emo-
andjafpers that contain iron ; for in thefe the quanti- tions of grandeur and fublitnity are produced ; fome-
ty of metal is gradually augmented, until at laft they times the emotions thcmfelves.
acquire the appearance of iron itfelf. The greateft In handling the prefent fubjcft, it is neceflary that
part of this genus, however, contain only from fix to the impreflion made on the mind by the magnitude of
twelve per cent, of iron, which is too poor to be work- an objeft, abftrafting from its other qualities, fhould be
ed any where with advantage as an ore of that metal, afcertained. And becaufe abftraftion is a mental ope- ,
When any of the garnet kind are to be tried for the ration of fome difficulty, the fafeft method forjudging
metal they contain, the iron ought to be melted out is, to choofe a plain objeft that is neither beautiful nor
of them by the common procefs; and if the garnet at deformed, if fuch a one can be found. The plaineft
the-fame time contains tin or lead, thefe will likewife that occurs, is a huge mafs of rubbiffi, the ruins per-
be included in the iron. They may be extra&ed out haps of-fome extenfive building 5 or a large heap of
of it, however, by a heat gradually augmented ; the ftqhes, fuch as are collefted together for keeping in
lead and tin fweating out in form of drops, though al- memory a battle or other remarkable event. Such an
ways fomewhat mixed with iron. None of the garnet objeft, which in miniature would be perfeftly indirfe-
kind have yet been found in the forth of an earth pro- rent, makes an impreffion by its magnitude, and ap-
perly1 fo called ; though at Swappawari in Lapland, pears agreeable. And fuppofin^ it fo large as to fill the
there is found a bole which has the fame figure with eye, arid to preverit the attention from wandering up-
the garnet; and the horrieblende of the Swedes, which on other objects, the impreffion it makes will be fo much
is fomewhat harder than this bole, has often the ap- the deeper. See Attention.
pearance of a cockle. But though a plain objedt of that kind be agreeable,
GRAHATE-PaJle. See Garnet. it is not termed „• it is not intitled to that cha-
GRAND, a term rather French than Engliffi, tho’ rafter, unlefs, together with its fize, it be poffefled of
ufed on many occafions in our language. It has the other qualities that contribute to beauty, fuch as regu-
fame import with great, being formed of the Latin larity, proportion, order, or colour: and according to
grandis. In this fenfe we fay, the grartd-mafter of an the number of fuch qualities combined with magnitude,
ordef, the grand-mafter of Malta, of the free-mafons, it is more or lefs grand. Thus St Peter’s church at
&c. So alfo the grand-fignor, the grand-vifir, &c. Rome, the great pyramid of Egypt, the Alps towering
grand-father, grand-mother, &c. above the clouds, a great arm of the fea, and above all
In the French polity and cuftoms there are feveral a clear and ferenelky, are grand; becaufe, befide their
officers thus denominated, which we frequently retain fize, they are beautiful in an eminent degree. On the
in Englifh ; as grand almoner, grand ecuyer, grand other hand, an overgrown whale, having a difagreeable
chambellan, grand voyer, &c. appearance, is not grand. A large building agreeable
Grand-Aflize. See Assise. by its regularity and proportions, is grand ; and yet a
Grand Dijlrefs [di/lritlio magna), in Englifh law, a much larger building deftitute of regularity, has not
writ of diftreis, fo called on account of its extent, which the leaft tinfture of grandeur. A Angle regiment in
reaches to all the goods and chattels of the party within battle-array, makes a grand appearance ; which the
the county. This writ lies in two cafes: either when furrounding crowd does not, though perhaps ten for
the tenant or defendant is attached and appears not, one in number. And a regiment where the men are all
but makes default; or where the tenant or defendant in one livery, and the horfes of one colour, makes a
hath once appeared, and after makes default. On fudh grander appearance, and confeqUently ftrikes more ter-
occafions, this writ lies by common law, in lieu of a ror, than where there is confufion of colour and drefs. Gran*e.]r
petit cape. Thus greatnefs or magnitude is the circumftance that diftinguifh«
Grand Gujlo, among painters, a term ufed to ex- diftinguilhes grandeur from beauty: agreeablcnefs is ed from
prefs that there is fomething in the pifture very great the genus, of which beauty and grandeur are fpecies. beauty*
and extraordinary, calculated to furprife, pleafe, and The eri^otion of grandeur, duly examined, will be
inftruft.—Where this is found, they fay, the painter found an additional proof of the foregoing doftrine.
was a man of grand gujlo ; and they ufe the words Jub- That this emotion is pleafant in a high degree, requires
lime and marvellous, when they fpeak of a pifture, in no other evidence but once to have feen a grand objeft:
much the fame fenfe. and if an emotion of grandeur be pleafant, its caufe or
Grand Jury, larceny, ferjeanty, &c. See Jury,&c. objeft, as obferved above, mull infallibly be agreeable
GRANDEE, is underftood of a lord of the firft rank in proportion,
or prime quality. _ The qualities of grandeur and beauty are not more
In Spain, the term grandees is ufed abfolutely to de- diftinft, than the emotions are which thefe qualities
note the prime lords of the court, to whom the king produce in a fpeftator. It is obferved in the article
has once given leave to be covered in his prefence: Beauty, that all the various emotions of beauty
there are fome grandees for life only ; made by the have one common charafter, that of fweetnefs and
king’s/aying Amply, Be covered. Others are grandees gaiety. The emotion of grandeur has a different cha-
Vol.VIII. Parti. ’ N rafter;
G R A [ 106 ] G R A
Grandeur radler : a large objeA that is agreeable, occupies the
Sublimit attention, and fvvells the heart into a vivid emo-
» tion, which, though extremely pleafant, is rather fe-
rious than gay. And this affords a good reafon for
diftinguifhing in language thefe different emotions.
The emotions raifed by colour, by regularity, by pro¬
portion, and by order, have fuch a refemblance to each
other, as readily to come under one general term, viz.
the emotion of beauty; but the emotion of grandeur is
fo different from thefe mentioned, as to merit a pecu-
Demands ^3r name'
not Andre- Though regularity, proportion, order, and colour,
gularity. contribute to grandeur as well as to beauty, yet thefe
qualities are not by far fo effential to the former as to
the latter. To make out that propolition, fome preli¬
minaries are requifite. In the fivft place, the mind, not
being totally occupied with a fmall objedl, can give its
attention at the fame time to every minute part; but
in a great or exrenfive object, the mind, being totally
occupied with the capital and ftriking parts, has no at¬
tention left for thofe that are little or indifferent. In
the next place, two fimilar objefts appear not fimilar
when viewed at different diftances: the fimilar parts of
a very large objedt, cannot be feen but at different di-
flaaces ; and for that reafon, its regularity, and the
proportion of its parts, are in fome meafure loft to the
eye ; neither are the irregularities of a very large ob-
jeft fo confpicuous as of one that is fmall. Hence it
is, that a large object is not fo agreeable by its regu¬
larity, as a fmall objedt; nor fo difagreeable by its irre¬
gularities
Thefe confiderations make it evident, that grandeur
• is fatisfied with a lefs degree of regularity, and of the
other qualities mentioned, than is requilite for beau-
4 ty ; which may be illuftrated by the following experi-
Quailtles ment. Approaching to a fmall conical hill, we take an
contribu- accurate furvey of every part, and are fenfible of the
grandeur, flighteft deviation from regularity and proportion. Sup-
pofing the hill to be conftderably enlarged, fo as to
make us lefs fenfible of its regularity, it will upon
that account appear lefs beautiful. It will not, how¬
ever, appear lefs agreeable, becaufe fome flight emo¬
tion of grandeur comes in place of what is loft in
beauty. And at laft, when the hill is enlarged to a
great mountain, the fmall degree of beauty that is
1' ft, is funk in its grandeur. Hence it is, that a
towering hill is delightful, if it have but the flighteft
refemblance of a cone ; and a chain of mountains not
lefs fo, though deficient in the accuracy of order and
proportion. We require a fmall furface to be fmooth ;
but in an extenfive plain, confiderable inequalities are
overlooked. In a word, regularity, proportion, order,
and colour, contribute to grandeur as well as to beau¬
ty ; but with a remarkable difference, that in paffing
from fmall to great, they are not required in the fame
degree of perfedtion. This remark ferves to explain
the extreme delight we have in viewing the face of na¬
ture, when fufficiently enriched and diverfified with ob-
jedts. The bulk of the objedls in a natural landfcape
are beautiful, and fome of them grand: a flowing ri¬
ver, a fpreading oak, a round hill, an extended plain,,
are delightful ; and even a rugged rock, or barren
heath, though in themfelves difagreeable,. contribute
by contraft to the beauty of the whole; joining to thefe
the verdure of the fields, .the mixture of light and lhade,
and the fublime canopy fpread over all; it will not ap- Grandeur
pear wonderful, that fo extenfive a group of fplendid . *nd.’
obje&s fliould fvvell the heart to its utmoft bounds, and Su >miT-
raife the ftrongeft emotion of grandeur. The fpediatoi¬
ls confcious of an enthufiafm which cannot bear con¬
finement, nor the ftridnefs of regularity and order: he
loves to range at large ; and is fo enchanted with mag¬
nificent objefts, as to overlook flight beauties or defor¬
mities. ’
The fame obfervation is applicable in fome meafure Subl.mi:jv
to works of art. In a fmall building, the flighteft ir¬
regularity is difagreeable : but in a magnificent palace,
or a large Gothic church, irregularities are lefs regard¬
ed. In an epic poem, we pardon many negligences
that would not be permitted in a fonnet or epigram.
Notwithftanding fuch exceptions, it may be juftly laid
down for a rule, That in works of art, order and re¬
gularity ought to be governing principles ; and hence
the obfervation of Longinus, “ In works of art we
“ have regard to exadt pioportion ; in thofe of nature,
“ to grandeur and magnificence.’^
The fame refledlions are in a good meafure applicable
to fublimity : particularly that, like grandeur, it is
a fpecies of agreeablenefs; that a beautiful objedl
placed high, appearing more agreeable than formerly,
produces in the fpe&ator a new emotion, termed the
emotion of fublimity; and that the perfection of or¬
der, regularity^ and proportion, is lefs required in
objedts placed high, or at a diltance, than at hand.
The pleafant emotion raifed by large objeCts, has not
efcaped the poets:
  — He doth beflride the narrow world
I.ike a Coloffiu ; and we petty men
Walk under his huge legs. Ju/ius C*far. aR i. fc. 3.
Cleopatra. J dreamt there was an enq.’ror Antony:
Oh fuch another fleep, that 1 might fee
But fuch an, ther man !
His f ee was a, the he iv’ns: and therein lluck
A fun and moon, which kept their courfc, and Ugh ed
The little Go’ th’ earth.
Hi- legs btftrid the ocean, hu rear’d arm
Crefled the world. Antony and Cleopatrat alt 5. fc. 3.
 Majefty
D es not alone ; but, like a gu;ph, doth draw
What's a a it with it. !t’s a maffy wheel
Fix’d on the fumtnit of the htghcft mount;
To whofe huge fpokes ten thouFnd lefier things
Are morti-’d and adjoin'd ; which when it falls,
Each finall annexment, petty ccnfequence,
Attends the boift’ruus ruin. Hamlet, aSi3. fc, 8.
The poets have alfo made good ufe of the emotion
produced by the elevated fituation of an objeft:
Quod fi me lyricis vatibus inferes,
Suhliini feriam fidera vertice. Horat. Cara l. %. ode I.
Oh thou ! the earthly author of my blood,
Whofe youthful fpirit, in me regenerate,
Doth with a twofold vigour lift me up,
To reach at victory above my head.
Richard IT. aft \.fc. 4.
Northumberland, thou ladder wherewithal
Them unting Bulinbroke afeends my throne.
Richard II. aa 3. fc. a.
Adony. Why was I rais’d the meteor of the world,
Hung in -he Ik es ; and blazing as 1 traveled,
Td1 all my fires were fpent; and then call downward
T > be trod out by Csefar ? JDryden, All for Love, aB I.
The defeription of- Paradlfe In the fourth book of
Paradife
G R A [ 107 I G R A
Grandeur Paradife lojl, Is a fine iiluftratlon of the impreffion
and made by elevated objefts :
Sublimity. ^ on jle fares> an^ to the border comes
Vu. _( £jen) where delicious Paradife,
Now nearer, crowns with her inclofure green,
As with a rural mound, the champain head
With a deep wildemefs; whofe hairy fides
Of thicltet overgrown, grotefque and wild,
Accefs deny’d ; and over head up grew
Infuperable height of loftiell fliade,
Cedar, and pine, and fir, and branching palm,
A fylvan fcene; and as the ranks afcend.
Shade above (hade, a woody theatre
Of ftatelieft view. Yet higher than their tops
The verd’rous wall of Paradife up fprung ;
Which to our general fire gave profpedl large
Into his nether empire, neighb’ring round.
And higher than that wall a circling row
Of goodlieft trees, loaden with faireft fruit,
Bloflbms and fruits at once of golden hue.
Appear’d, with gay enamell’d colours mix’d. 1.131.
Though a grand object is agreeable, we muft not in¬
fer that a little objedt is difagreeable ; which would be
unhappy for man, confidering that he is furrounded
with fo many objedts of that kind. The fame holds
with refpedt to place: a body placed high is agree¬
able ; but the fame body placed low, is not by that cir-
cumftance rendered difagreeable. Littlenefs and low-
nefs of place are precifely fimilar in the following par¬
ticular, that they neither give pleafure nor pain. And
in this may vifibly be difeovered peculiar attention in
fitting the internal conftitution of man to his external
circumftances. Were littlenefs and lownefs of place
agreeable, greatnefs and elevation could not be fo :
were littlenefs and lownefs of place difagreeable, they
would occafion uninterrupted uneafinefs.
The difference between great and little with refpedl
to agreeablenefs, is remarkably felt in a feries when we
pafs gradually from the one extreme to the other. A
mental progrefs from the capital to the kingdom, from
that to Europe—to the whole earth—to the planetary
fyftem—to the univerfe, is extremely pleafant : the
heart fwells, and the mind is dilated at every ftep.
The returning in an oppofite dire&ion is not pofnively
painful, though our pleafure leffens at every ftep, till
it vanifh into indifference : fuch a progrefs may fome-
times produce pleafure of a different fort, which arifes
from taking a narr6wer and narrower infpe&ion. The
fame obfervation holds in a progrefs upward and down¬
ward. Afcent is pleafant becaufe it elevates us; butde-
feent is never painful: it is for the mod part pleafant
from a different caufe, that it is according to the order
of nature. The fall of a done from any height, is ex¬
tremely agreeable by its accelerated motion. We
feel it pleafant to defeend from a mountain, becaufe
the defeent is natural and eafy. Neither is looking
downward painful; on the contrary, to look down up¬
on obje&s, makes part of the pleafure of elevation :
looking down becomes then only painful when the ob-
jeft is fo far below as to create dizzinefs ; and even
when that is the cafe, we feel a fort of pleafure mixed
with the pain: witnefs Shakefpeare’s delcription of Do¬
ver cliffs :
 —    ——How fearful
And dizzy ’tis, to caff one’s eye fo low!
The crows ant- choughs, that wing the midway air,
Show fcarce fo grofs as beetles. Half-way down
Hangs one tha; gathers famphire; dreadful trade!
Methinks he feenis no bigger than his head.
The fifliermen that walk upon the beach Granite ur
Appear like mice; and yon tall anchoring bark and
Diminilli’d to her cock; her cock, a buoy Sublimity.
At mod too fmall for fight. The murm’: ing ftx-ge, i. .-v~.
That on th’ unnumber’d idle pebbles chafes,
Cannot be heard fo high. I’ll look no more.
Left my brain turn, and the deficient fight
Tiopple down headlong. King Lear, alt 4. fc. 6
A remark is made above, that the emotions of gran'
deur and fublimity are nearly allied. And hence it is,
that the one term is frequently put for the other : an
increafmg feries of numbers, for example, producing
an emotion fimilar to that of mounting upward, is
commonly termed an afeending feries : a feries of num¬
bers gradually decreafing, producing an emotion fimi¬
lar to that of going downward, is commonly termed
a defending feries : we talk familiarly of going up to
the capital, and of going down to the country : from
a leffer kingdom we talk of going up to a greater;
whence the anabafis in the Greek language, when one
travels from Greece to Perfia. We difeover the fame
way of fpeaking in the language even of Japan ; and
its univerfality proves it the offspring of a natural feeling. 5
The foregoing obfervation leads us to con fide r Grandeur
grandeur and fublimity in a figurative fenfe, and
applicable to the fine arts. Hitherto thefe terms figurative
have been taken in their proper fenfe as applicable to fenfe.
obje&s of fight only : and it was of importance to be¬
llow fome pains upon that article ; becaufe, generally
fpeaking, the figurative fenfe of a word is derived from
its proper fenfe, which holds remarkably at prefent.
Beauty, in its original fignilication, is confined to ob-
je&s of fight; but as many other objefts, intelle&ual
as well as moral, raife emotions refembling that of
beauty, the refemblance of the effe&s prompts us to ex¬
tend the term beauty to thefe obje&s. This equally
accounts for the terms grandeur and fublimity taken in
a figurative fenfe. Every emotion, from whatever
caufe proceeding, that refembles an emotion of gran¬
deur or elevation, is called by the fame name : thus
generofity is faid to be an elevated emotion, as well as
great courage ; and that firmnefs of foul which is fu-
perior to misfortunes obtains the peculiar name of mag¬
nanimity. On the other hand, every emotion that con¬
trails the mind, and fixeth it upon things trivial or of
no importance, is termed /ow, by its refemblance to
an emotion produced by a little or low objeil of fight:
thus an appetite for trifling amufements is called a low
tafe. The fame terms are applied to characters and
actions : we talk familiarly of an elevated genius, of a
great man, and equally fo of littlenefs of mind : fome
actions are great and elevated, and others are little „
and groveling. Sentiments, and even expreffions, are The fub-
charaiterifed in the fame manner: an expreflion or lime in
fentiment that raifes the mind is denominated great or l;oetry-
elevated; and hence the SUBLIME in poetry. In
fuch figurative terms, we lofe the diffinclion between
great and elevated in their proper fenfe ; for the refem¬
blance is not fo entire as to preferve thefe terms diftind
in their figurative application. We carry this figure
ftill farther. Elevation, in its proper fenfe, imports
fuperiority of place; and lownefs, inferiority of place :
and hence a man of fuperior talents, offuperior rank.;
of inferior parts, of inferior tafte, and fuch like. The
veneration we have forouranceftors,and for the ancients
in general, being fxmilar to the emotion produced by an
N 2 derated
G R A [ 108 ] G R A
Grandeur elevated objedt of fight, juftifies the figurative exprefllon
of the ancients being raifed above us, or poffeffing a
u imity' futoerior place. The notes of the gamut, proceeding
regularly from the blunter or groiler founds to the more
acute and piercing, produce in the hearer a feeling
fomewhat fimilar to what is produced by mounting up¬
ward; and this gives occafion to the figurative expref-
8 Cons a high note, a low note.
Real and Such is the refemblance in feeling between real
figurative an(j figUvatiYe grandeur, that among the nations on
intimately the eaft coaft of Air^i who are directed purely by
connected, nature, the officers of Hate are, with refpedt to rank,
diftinguiffied by the length of the batoon each carries
in his hand ; and in Japan, princes and great lords
ftow their rank by the length and fixe of their fedau-
poles. Again, it is a rule in painting, that figures of
a fmall fize are proper for gn;tcfque pieces; hut that
an hiftorical fubjedi, grand and important, requires
figures as great as the life. The refeuablance of thefe
feelings is in reality fo ftrong, that elevation in a figu¬
rative fenfe is obferved to have the fame effedt, even
externally, with real elevation:
K. Henry. This day is call’d the feafl: of Crifpian.
He ihat outlives this day. and comes fafe home,
Will Rand a-tij toe when this day is nam’d,
And route him at the name of Crifpian.
Henry V. adt 4, fc. 8.
The refemblance in feeling between real and figura¬
tive grandeur is humoroufly illuftrated by Addifon in
* Stcftator cr*t*c^ng upon Englifh tragedy *. “ The ordinary
N° 4a. ’ method of making an hero is to clap a huge plume of
feathers upon his head, which rifes fo high, that there
is often a greater length from his chin to the top of
his head than to the foie of his foot. One would be¬
lieve, that we thought a great man and a tall man the
fame thing. As thefe fuperfluous ornaments upon the
head make a great man, a princefs generally receives
her grandeur from thofe additional incumbrances that
fall into her tail: I mean the broad fweeping train
that follows her in all her motions, and finds conllant
employment for a boy who Hands behind her to open
and fpread it to advantage.” The Scythians, imprefled
with the fame of Alexander, were aHonifhed when they
found him a little man.
A gradual progrefs from fmall to great is not lefs
remarkable in figurative than in real grandeur or eleva¬
tion. Every one muH have obferved the delightful
effeft of a number of thoughts or fentiments, artfully
difpofed like an afeending feries, and making impreffions
deeper and deeper : fuch difpofition of members in a
period is termed a climax.
Within certain limits grandeur and fublimity pro¬
duce their flrongeft effe&s, which leffen by excefs as
well as by defedt. This is remarkable in grandeur
and fublimity taken in their proper fenfe : the grand-
eH emotion that can be raifed by a vifible objeft is
where the objedt can be taken in at one view; if fo
immenfe as not to be comprehended but in parts, it
tends rather to didraft than fatisfy the mind (a) : in Grandsop
like manner, the flrongeft emotion produced by ele* „ ancl
vation is where the objeft is feen diftjnftly; a Sublimity«
greater elevation leffens in appearance the objeft, till ' ’ v" ' J
it vaniftr out pf fight with its pleafant emotions. The
fame is equally remarkable in figurative grandeur and Figurative
elevation; which {hall be handled together, becaufe, as grandeur,
obferved above, they are fcarce diftinguiffiable. Sen¬
timents may be fo {trained as to become obfeure, or to
exceed the capacity of the human mind : againft fuch
licence of imagination, every good writer will be upon
his guard. Aud therefore it is of greater importance
to obierve, that even the true fublime-may be carried
beyond that pitch which produces the higheft enter¬
tainment. We are undoubtedly fufceptible of a greater
elevation than can be infpired by human aftions the
moft heroic and magnanimous: witnefs what we feel
from Milton’s defeription of fuperior beings: yet
every man muft be fenfible of a more conftant and
fweet elevation when the hiftory of his own fpeeies is
the fubjeft : he enjoys an elevation equal to that of
the greateft hero, of an Alexander or a Csefar, of a
Brutus or an Epaminondas: he accompanies thefe he¬
roes in their fublimeft fentiments ajid moft hazardous
exploits, with a magnanimity equal to, theirs ; and
finds it no ftretch to preferve the fame tone of mind
for homrs together without finking. The cafe is not
the fame in dfferibing the aftions or qualities of fuper
rior beings: the reader’s imagination cannot keep pace
with that of the poet; the mind, unable to fupport it-
felf in a drained elevation, falls as from a height; and
the fajl is immoderate like the elevation : where that
effect is not felt, it mult be prevented by fame obfeurity
in the conception, which frequently attends the de-
feriptions of unknown objefts. Hence the St Francifes,
St Dominies, and other tutelary faints among the
Roman Catholics. A mind unable to raife itfelf to
the Supreme Being felf-exiftent and eternal, or to fup¬
port itfelf in a ftrained elevation, finds itfelf more at
eafe in ufing the interceffion of fome faint whofe piety
and penances while on earth are fuppofed to have
made him a favourite in heaven.
A ftrained elevation is attended with another in¬
convenience, that the author is apt to fall fuddenly
as well as the reader; becaufe it is not a little difficult
to defeend, fweetly and eafily, from fuch elevation to
the ordinary tone of the fubjeft. The following pa ft age
is a good illuftration of that obfervation:
Ssepe etiam immenfum ccelo venit agmen aqnarum,
fct feedam glomcrart tempeftatem imbrihus atria
Conle&a: e* ajto nubes. Ruit arduus ^ther,
fit pluvia ingenti lata Ixta boumqug labores
.Diluit. Inplentur fpflac, et cava flumina crefcunt
Cum fqnitu, fervetque fretis fpirantibus aequor.
Ipfe Rater, media mmborum in nocte, corufca
Fulmina molittir dextra. Quo maxunia motu
Terra tremit : fugerc ferae, et mortalia corda
Per gentes humiiis ftravit pavor. file flagranti
Ant Atho, aut Rhodopen, aut alta Ceraunia telo *
Dejicit : ingeminant Anfiri, et denftjjimus imber.
Virg. Gefirg-1. I.
u
(a) It is juftly obferved by Addifon, that perhaps a man would have been more aftoniflud with the nxa-
jeftic air that appeared in one of Lyfippus’s ftatues of Alexander, though no bigger than the life, than he
might have been with Mount Athos, had it been cut into the figure of the hero, according to the propofal. of
Phidias, with a river in one hand and a city in the other. Spettator, N6 41 j.
G R A [ 109 1 G R A
j Grandeue la the defcription of a ftorm, to figure Jupiter
■ throwing down huge mountains with his thunder-
3n aiity. js hypetholicaUy fublime, if we may ufe the
expreffion : the tone of mind produced by that image
is fo diftant from the tone produced by a thick
(bower of rain, that the fudden tranfition muft be un-
pleafant.
Objects of fight that are not remarkably great nor
high, fcarce iaife' any emotion of grandeur or of fub-
limity: and the fame holds in other objedts; for we
often find the mind roufed and animated, without
being carried to that height. This difference may
be difcerned in many forts of mufic, as well as in fome
mufical infiruments: a kettle-drum roufes, and a haut¬
boy is animating; but neither of them infpires an
emotion of fublimity: revenge animates the mind in a
eonfiderable degree; but it never produceth an emotion
that can be termed grand or fublime; and perhaps no
difagreeable paffion ever has that effedt.
No defire is more univerfal than to be exalted and
honoured; and upon that account, chiefly, are we
ambitious of power, riches, titles, fame, which would
fuddenly lofe their relifh did they not raife us above
others, and command fubmiffion and deference : and
it may be thought, that our attachment to things
grand and lofty, proceeds from their connexion with
our favourite paffion. This connedtion has undoubted¬
ly an effeft; but that the preference given to things
grand and lofty muft have a deeper root in human
nature, will appear from confidering, that many be¬
llow their time upon low and trifling amufements,
without having the leaft tindture of this favourite
paffion : yet thefe very perfons talk the fame language
with the reft of mankind; and prefer the more
elevated pleafures: they acknowledge a more refined
tafte, and are afhamed of their own as low and grove¬
ling. This fentiment, conftant and univerfal, muft
be the work of nature; and it plainly indicates an
original attachment in human nature to every objedl
that elevates the mind: fome men may have a greater
relifh for an objedl not of the higheft rank ; but they
are confcious of the preference given by mankind in
general to things grand and fublime, and they are
fenfible that their peculiar tafte ought to yield to the
general tafle.
What is faid above fuggefts a capital rule for
reaching the fublime in fuch works of art as are fuf-
10 ceptible of it; and that is, to prefent thofe parts or
Grandeur circumftances only which make the greateft figure,
ef manner, keeping out of view every thing low or trivial ; for
the mind, elevated by an important objedl, cannot,
without reludlance, be forced down to bellow any
fhare of its attention upon trifles. Such judicious
feledlion of capital circumftances, is by an eminent
• Spectator, critic ftyled grandeur of manner*. In none of the fine
arts is there fo great fcope for that rule as in poetry ;
which, by that means, enjoys a remarkable power
of beftowing upon objedts and events an air of gran¬
deur : when we are fpedlators, every minute objedl
prefents itfelf in its order ; but in defcribing at fecond
hand, thefe are laid afide, and the capital objedls are
brought clofe together. A judicious tafte in thus fe-
ledling the moft ihterefting incidents, to give them an
united force, accounts for a fadt that may appear fur-
prifing; which is, that we are more moved by fpirited
5
narrative at fecond hand, than hy being fpedlators of Grandeu*
the event itfelf, in all its circumftances.
Longinusf exemplifies the foregoing rule by a com- u m>ty^
parifon of two paffages. f chap. 8.
Ye pow’rs, what madnefs! how on fhips fo frail
(Tremendous thought!) can though'kfs mortals fail?
For ftormy feas they quit the pleafuig plain.
Plant woods in waves, and dwell am dll the main.
Far o’er the deep (a tracklefs path) they ^0,
And wander oceans in purfun of wo.
No eafe their hearts, no reft their eyes can find,
On heaven then looks, and on the waves rheir mind;
Sunk are their (pints, while then arms the) rear,
And gods aie wearied with their fruitkfs pra>er.
Akistjeus.
Burft as a wave that from the cloud impends,
And fweil’d with tempefts on the fijip defcends.
White are the decks with foam : the winds aloud
Howl o’er the marts, and fing through every fhroud.
Pale, trembling, tir’d, the failors freeze with fears,
And inftant death on every wave appears. Homer.
In the latter pafiage, the moft finking eircumftances
are fele£led to fill the mind with terror and aftonifh-
ment. The former is a colledilion of minute and low
circumftances, which fcatter the thought, and make
no impreffion : it is at the fame time full of verbal an-
tithefes and low conceit, extremely improper in a feene
of diftrefs.
The following defcription of a battle is remarkably
fublime, by colle&ing together, in the feweft words,
thofe circumftances which make the greateft figure.
“Like autumn’s dark ftorms pouring from two echo;-
ipg hills, toward each other approached the heroes ;
as two dark ftreams from high rocks meet and roar on
the plain, loud, rough, and dark in battle, meet Loch-
lin and Jnisfail. Chief mixes his ftrokes with chief,
and man with man : fteel founds on fteel, and helmets
are cleft on high: blood burfts and fmokes around:
firings murmur on the polifh’d yew : darts rufh alang
the fky : fpears fall like fparks of flame that gild the
ftormy face of night.
“ As the noife of the troubled ocean when roll the
waves on high, as the laft peal of thundering heaven,
fuch is the noife of battle. Though Cormac’s hundred
bards were there, feeble were the voice of a hundred
bards to fend the deaths to future times; for many
were the deaths of the heroes, and wide poured the
blood of the valiant ” Fingal.
The fptlowing paflage in the 4th book of the Iliad
is a defcription of a battle wonderfully ardent.
“ When now gathered on either fide, the hofls plun¬
ged together in fight; fhield is hardily laid to fhield ;
fpears crafh on the brazen corflets; boffy buckler with
buckler meets; loud tumult rages oyer all; groans
are mixed with boafts of men; the flain'and flayer join
in noife ; the earth is floating round with blood. As
when two rufhing flreams from two mountains come
roaring down, and throw together their rapid waters
below, they roar along the gulphy vale; the ftai tied
fliepherd hears the found as he {talks o’er the diftant
hills: fo, as they mixed in fight, from both armies
clamour with loud terror arofe.” But fuch general
deferiptions are not frequent in Homer. Even his
fingle combats are rare. The fifth book is the longeft
account of a battle that is in the Iliad ; and yet con¬
tains nothing but a long catalogue'of chiefs killing
chiefs.
G R A [i
I Grandeur low. Succeffive images, making thus ftronger and
H .antl. ftronoer intpreffions. mult elevate more than any Angle
Ipfo ‘‘J1 !t) image can do.
i ; .. As, on the one hand, no means direftly applied
have more influence to raife the mind than grandeur
and fublimity ; fo, on the other, no means indireftly
applied have more influence to fink and deprefs it: for
airecuv *n a ftate elevation, the artful introduction of an
t« <ink the humbling objedt, makes the fall great in proportion
imii.d. to the elevation. Of this obfervation Shakefpeare gives
a beautiful example in the paffage lafl. quoted :
The cloud capt tow’rs, the gorgeous palace ,
The loknui terop'es, the givat i-lobe itfeif,
Yea, all which it inhe it, fi.all diff lve,
And 'ike the bafclefi, fab ic of a vilion
Leave not a wreck beh rd ‘j'empef, adt 4 fc. 4
The elevation of the mind in the former part of this
beautiful paflage, makes the fall great in proportion,
jvben the moft humbling of all images is introduced,
that of an utter diffolution of the earth and its inhabi¬
tants. The mind, when warmed, is more fufceptible
cf imprefiions than in a cool ftate ;,and a deprefling
or melancholy objt-ft liftened to, makes the ftrongeft
imprefiion when it reaches the mind in its higheft ftate
of elevation or cheerfulnefs.
But a humbling image is not always neceffary to
produce that effedt: a remark is made above, that in
deferibing fuperior beings, the reader’s imagination,
unable to fupport itfeif in a ftrained elevation, falls
often as from a height, and finks even below its ordi¬
nary tone. The following inftance comes luckily in
view; for a better cannot be given : “ God faid, Let
there be light, and there w’as light.” Longinus
quotes this paflage from Mofes as a ftiining examp'e
of the fublime; and it is fcarce poffible, in fewer
words, to convey fo clear an image of the infinite
power of the Deity: but then it belongs to the pre-
* lent fubjtdl to remark, that the emotion of fublimity
raifed by this image is but momentary ; and that the
mind, unable to fupport itfejf in an elevation fo much
above nature, immediately finks down into humility and
veneration for a Being fo far exalted above groveling
mortals. Every one is acquainted w ith a difpute about
I* Boiltau that paflage between two French critics*, the one po-
a;:d Hurt, fitively affirming it to be fublime, the other as poli-
tively denying. What has been remarked, ffiows, that
both cf them have reached the truth, but neither of
them the whole truth : the primary effedt of the paf¬
fage is undoubtedly an emotion of grandeur ; which
fo far juftifies Boileau : but then every one muft be
fenfible, that the emotion is merely a flalh, which, va-
niffiing inftantaneoufiy, gives way to humility and ve¬
neration. That indiredt effedt of fublimity juilufies
Huet, on the other hand, who being a man of true
piety, and probably not much carried by imagina¬
tion, felt the humbling paffions more fenfibly than
his antagonift did. And laying afide difference of
chara&er, Huet’s opinon may perhaps be defended as
the more folid; becaufe, in fuch images, the deprefling
emotions are the more fenfibly felt, and have the longer
endurance.
The ftraining an elevated fubjeft beyond due bounds,
Falfefub and beyond the reach pf an ordinary conception, is
lime. not a vice fo frequent as to require the corredtion of
criticifm. But falfe fublime is a rock that writers of
II 3 G R A
more fire than judgment commonly fplit on ; and Grandeur
therefore a colledtion of examples may be of ufe as a ,?rid>
beacon to future adventurers. One fpecies of falfe fu- . u imi;y*
blime, known by the name of lombqjl, is common among >
writers of a mean genius : it is a ferious endeavour, by
ftrained defeription, to raife a low’ or familiar fubjeft
above its rank ; which, inftead of being fublime, fails
not to be ridiculous. The mind, indeed, is extremely
prone, in fome animating paflions, to magnify its ob-
jedfs beyond natural bounds: but fuch hyperbolical
defeription has its limits; and when carried beyond
the impulfe of the propenfity, it degenerates into bur-
lefque. Take the following examples:
Stjanus. Great and hi^h
The world knows only two, ‘hue’s Rome and 1.
Ary roof receives me not : ’tis air I tread.
And at each Hep 1 fee! my advanc’d head
Knock out a ftar in heav’n. Scjanui, Eenjuhnfon, aft 5.
A writer who has no natural elevation of mind devi¬
ates readily into bombaft : he drains above his natu¬
ral powers; and the violent effort carries him beyond
the bounds of propriety.
Guilford. Give way, and let the gufliing torrent come;
Behold the*tears we bring to fwell the deluge,
Till the llo d rife upon the guilty world,
And make the ruin common.
Lady "fane Grey, aft 4. near tie end.
Another fpecies of falfe fublime is ftill more faulty
than bombaft: and that is, to force elevation by in¬
troducing imaginary beings without preferving any
propriety in their aftions ; as if it were lawful to a-
feribe every extravagance and inconfiftence to beings of
the poet’s creation. No writers are more licentious in
that article than Johnfon and Dryden:
Methhiks 1 fee Death and ihe Furies waiting
What we will do, and ail the heaven at leifure
For the great fpe&acle. D aw then your fwords :
And if our dtftiny envy our virtue
The honour of the day, yet let us care
To fell ou, felyes at fuch a p: ice, as may
Undo the world to huy m, and make Fate,
While Ihe tempts ours, to fear her own eftate
Catiline, aft 5,
-— The Furies flood on hills
Circling the place, and tremMed to fee men
Do more than they : whi ft Piety left the field.
Griev’d ft r that fide, that in fo bad a caufe
1 hey knew not what a c;ime their valour was.
The Sun flood ftdl, and war, behind the cloud
The battle made, feen fweating to drive up
His flighted horfe, whom ftill the noiie drove backward.
d. Q cl J,
Ofnyn. While we indulge our common harpinefs.
He is forgot by whom we all poflefs,
The brave Almnazor, to whofe arms we owe
All that we did, and all that we fliall do;
Who like a tempeft that outrides the wind.
Made a juft battle ere the bodies join’d.
Abdulla. His vidhiries we fcarce could keep in view
Or poufli ’em fo faft as he rough drew.
Abdemelech. Fate after him below with pain did move.
And Vuftory could fcarce keep pace above.
Death did ar length fo many flain forget,
And loft the talc, and took ’em by the great.
Conquefl of GraraJa, all 1. at beginning
An a&or on the fiage may be guilty of bombaft as
well as an author in his clofet: a certain manner of
afting, which is grand when fupported by dignity in
the fentiment and force in the exprefiion, is ridiculous
where the fentiment is mean and the expreffion flat.
GARNI?-
G 11 A [si
Crandgor GRANDGOR is ufed in Scotland for the pox. In
Grallicus ^ie Tranfaftions, n° 469. fe£t. 5. we
. have a proclamation of king James IV. of Scot-
1 land, ordering all who had this difcafe, or who had
attended others under it, forthwith to repair to an
illand in the Frith of Forth. If the grandgor was
the pox, and this diftetnper came into Europe at
the fiege of Naples in 1495, it muft have made a
very quick progrefs to caufe fuch an alarm at Edin¬
burgh in 1497.
GRANGE, an ancient term for a barn or place
wherein to lay up and threfti corn. The word is
formed of the Latin granea; or of granum, “grain,
corn,” &c. Hence zKogranger orgrangier, “ a grange-
keeper or farmer.”
, Grange is alfo ufedi in a more extenfive fenfe, for
a whole farm, with all the appendages of llables for
horfes, ftalls for cattle, &c. and for an inn.
GRANI, in our ancient Writers, muftachoes or
whilkers of a beard. The word feems formed from
the ancient Britilh or Irilh greann, “ a beard.” It
is given for a reafon why the cup is refufed to the
laity, ^jfla barbati, & prolixos habent granos, dum pocu-
lum inter epulas fumunt, prius liquore pilot injiciunt, quam
ori infundunt.
GRANICUS, a fmall river near the Hellefpont
in Leffer Afia, remarkable for the firft vi&ory gained
by Alexander the Great over the armies of Darius.—
Authors difagree very much about the number of the
Perfians, though all agree that they were vaftly more
numerous than the Greeks. Juftin and Orofius tell us,
that the Perfian army confifted of 600,000 foot and
20,000 horfe; Arrian makes the foot amount to
200,000 ; but Diodorus tells us, that they were not
more than 100,000 foot and 10,000 horfe. The
Macedonian army did not exceed 30,000 foot and 5000
horfe. The Perfian cavalry lined the banks of the
Granicus, in order to oppofe Alexander wherever he
Ihould attempt a paffage ; and the foot were poded be¬
hind the cavalry on an eafy afcent. Parmenio would
have had Alexander to allow his troops fome time to
refrelh themfelves; but he replied, that, after having
crofied the Hellefpont, it would be a difgrace to him
and his troops to be flopped by a rivulet; Accor¬
dingly a proper place for croffing the river was no
fooner found, than he commanded a ftrong detach¬
ment of horfe to enter ; he himfelf followed with the
right wing, which he commanded in perfon ; the trum¬
pets in the mean time fonnding, and loud fliouts of joy
being heard through the whole army. The Perfians let
fly fuch fhowers of arrows againft the detachment of Ma¬
cedonian horfe, as caufed fome confufion ; feveral of
their horfes being killed or wounded. As they drew
near the bank a moft bloody engagement enfued ; the
Macedonians attempting to land, and the Perfi^ins
puftiing them back into the river. Alexander, who
obferved the confufion they were in, took the com¬
mand of them himfelf; and landing in fpite of all op-
pofition, obliged the Perfian cavalry, after an obftinate
refiftance, to give ground. However, Spithrobates,
governor of Ionia, and fon-in-law to Darius, ftill main¬
tained his ground, and did all that lay in his power
to bring them back to the charge. Alexander ad¬
vanced full gallop to engage him ; neither did he de¬
cline the combat, and both were llightly wounded at
N°143.
2 ] G R A
the firft encounter. Spithrobates having thrown his
javelin without effeft, advanced fword in hand to meet
his antagonift, who ran him through with his pike
as he raifed his arm to difcharge a blow with his fcy-
mitar. But Rofaces, brother to Spithrobates, at the
fame time gave Alexander fuch a furious blow on
the head with his battle-ax, that he beat off his plume,
and flighty wounded him through the helmet.. As
he was ready to repeat the blow, Clitus with one
ftroke of his fcymitar cut off Rofaces’s head, and thus
in all probability faved the life of his fovereign. The
Macedonians then, animated by the example of their
king, attacked the Perfians with new vigour, who
foon after betook themfelves to flight. Alexander
did not purfue them ; but immediately charged the
enemy’s foot with all his forces, who had now paffed the
river. The Perfians, difiieartened at the defeat of their
cavalry, made no great refiftance. The Greek merce¬
naries retired in good order to a neighbouring hill,
whence they fent deputies to Alexander defiring leave
to march off unmolefted. But he, inftead of coming to
a parley with them, rulhed furioufly into the middle of
this fmall body ; where his horfe was killed under him,
and he himfelf in great danger of being cut in pieces.
The Greeks defended themfelves with incredible va¬
lour for a long time, but were at laft almoft entirely
cut off. In this battle the Perfians are faid to have loll
20,000 foot and 2500 horfe, and the Macedonians on-
ly 55 foot and 60 horfe.
GRANITE, in natural hiftory, a diftintt genus
of ftones, compofed of feparate and very large con¬
cretions rudely compared together; of great hard-
nefs, giving fire with fteel, not fermenting with a-
cids, and flowly and imperfectly calcinable in a great
fire.
Of this genus there are three fpecies : 1. The hard
white granite, with black fpots, commonly called moor-
ftone. This is a very valuable kind, confifting of a
beautiful congeries of very varioufly conflruCted and
differently coloured particles, not diffufed among or
running into one another, but each pure and diftinft,
though firmly adhering to whichever of .the othe s it
comes in contaCt with, and forming a very firm mafs.
It is much ufed in London for the fteps of public
buildings, and on other occafions where great ftrength
and hardnefs are requited. 2. The hard red granite
variegated with black and white, and common in E-
gypt and Arabia. 3. The pale whitifh granite, varie¬
gated with black and- yellow; This is fometimes
found in ftrata, but more frequently in loofe nodules,
and is ufed for paving the ftreets.
Some of thefe" kinds of ftones are found in almoft
every country, and in many places they are found of
immenfe bignefs. The largeft mafs of this kind in
the known world, lying as ah unconnected ftone, is
found near the Cape of Good Hope in Africa, and
of which we have the following defcription in’the Phi-
lofoph. Tranfafft. vol. 68 p. 102, given by Mr An-
derfon in a letter to Sir John Pringle. “ The ftone
is fo remarkable, that it is called by the people here
the Tower of Babel, and by fome the Pearl Dia¬
mond. It either takes the laft name from a place
near which it is fituated, or it gives name to the traft
of cultivated land called the Pearl. It lies upon the
top of a ridge of low hills, beyond a large plain, at
G R A I 113 1
I ^Granite, tlie o Ida nee of about thirty miles from the Cape Town;
"•’"y—""- beyond which, at a little diitance, is a range of hills
of a much greater height. It is of an oblong fliape,
and lies north and fouth. The fouth end is higheft ;
the eaft and weft fides are fteep and high ; but the
top is rounded, and dopes away gradually to the north
end, fo that you can afeend it by that way, and en¬
joy a moft extenfive profpeft of the whole country.
I could not precifely determine its circumference, but
it took us above half an hour to walk round it ; and
by making every allowance for the rugged way, and
Hopping a little, I think the moft moderate compu¬
tation muft make it exceed half a mile. The fame dif¬
ficulty occurred with refpett to knowing its height:
but I think, that, at the fouth end, it is nearly equal
to half its length : or, were I to compare it to an
objedt you are acquainted with, I fhould fay it equal¬
led the dome of St Paul’s church.
“ I am uncertain whether it ought to be confidered
as the top of the hill, or a detached ftone, becaufc there
is no pofitive proof of either, unlefs we were to dig
about its bafe ; but it would certainly imprefs every
beholder, at firft fight, with the idea of its being one
ftone, not only from its figure, but becaufe it is real¬
ly one folid uniform mafs from top to bottom, with¬
out any interruption ; which is contrary to the gene¬
ral chara&er of the high hills of this country, they
being commonly divided, or compofed of different ftra-
ta, at lead if we may judge from the rows of plants
or fiirubs which grow on the Tides of the fteepeft, and,
os I fuppofe, are produced from the fmall quantity of
earth interpofed between them. It has indeed a few
fiffures, or rather impreffions, which do not reach
deeper than four or five feet ; and near its north end
a ftratum of a more compaft ftone runs acrofs, which
is not above twelve or fourteen inches thick, with 's
furface divided into little fquares, or oblongs, o:.po-
fed obliquely. This ftratum is perpendicular; but
whether it cuts the other to its bafe, or is fuperficial,
I cannot determine. Its filrface is alfo fo fmooth,
that it does not appear to have formerly been joined to,
or feparated from, any other part by violence, as is
the cafe with many other large fragments; but enjoys
the exa£t fituation where it w-as originally placed, and
has undergone little change from being expofed for fo
many fucceffive ages to the calcining pow’er of a very
hot climate.’’—A part of this ftone being examined
by Sir William Hamilton, he determined it to be a
granite, and of the fame nature with the tops of fome
of the Alps ; and fuppofes both of them to have been
elevated by volcanic expflofions.
Granite, a genus of ftones of the order of petrse,
belonging to the clafs of faxa. The principal confti-
tuent parts of this ftone are felt-fpar or rhombic quartz,
mica, and quartz. Thefe ingredients conftitute the
hardeft fort of granite, and that moft anciently knowrru
That into which fchoerl enters is more fubjedt to de-
compofition. They never have any particular texture
or regular form, but confiftof enormous Ihapekfs maffes
extremely hard. In the finer granites the quartz is
tranfparent ; in others generally white or grey, violet
or brown. The felt-fpar is generally the moft: copious
ingredient, and of a white, tyellow, red, black, or
brown colour. The mica is alio grey, brown, yellow,
green, red, violet, or black ; and commonly the lealt
Voa.VIII. Parti.
G R A
copious. The ftioerl is generally black, and abounds Grsn'tella
in the granites that contain it. Hence the colour of Grj[nt
the granites depends principally on that of the fpar or f
fchoerl. The red granites confift commonly of white
quartz, red felt fpar, and grey mica ; the grey ones of
white quartz, grey or violet felt-fpar, and black mica.
The black granites commonly contain fchoerl inftead
of felt-fpar; and the green ufually contain green quartz.
On expofing granite to the flame of a blow’-pipe,
the component ingredients feparate from one another.
Mr Gerhard having melted fome in a crucible, found
the felt-fpar run into a tranfparent glafs ; below it the
mica lay in form of a black flag, the quartz remaining
unaltered. It melted fomewhat better when all the
three were powdered and mixed together; though
even then the quartz wras ftill difcernible by a magnify-
ing glafs. Hence we may explain the reafon wdiy
grains of a white colour are fometimes found ip volcanic
lavas; The mixture of mica prevents the filex or
quartz from fphtting or cracking ; and hence its in-
fufiblity and ufe in furnace-building.
Granites are feldom flaty or laminated. In thofe
which are of a clofe texture, the quartz and fchoerl pre¬
dominate. They take a good polifh ; for which rea¬
fon the Egyptians formerly', and the Italians ftill work
them into large pieces of ornamental architeclure, for
which they" are extremely fit, as not being liable to de¬
cay in the air. Farber, in his letters from Italy, men¬
tions a kind of ftone ‘named granitone, compofed of
felt-fpar and mica: a fubftance of this .kind, which
moulders in the air, is found in Finland ; w'hich is faid
to contain falt-petre, and fometimes common fait. In
that country it is called rapakiri. Wailerius deferibes
18 fpecies of granites, beiides many others akin to this
genus. Thofe deferibed by Cronftedt are, 1. Loofe
or friable, which comes from France, and is ufed at the
brafs-works for calling that metal in. 2. Hard or com-
pa6l, of which there are two varieties, red and grey.
The former is met with of two kinds; viz. fine-grain¬
ed from Swappari in Lapland, or coarfe-grained from
the province of Dalarne in Sweden. The grey, with
other colours, is met with on the coaft round Stockholm
and Norland in Sweden.
GRAN ITELLO, a genus of ftones of the order of
petrae, belonging to the clafs of faxa. There are two
fpecies, 1. That compofed of diftinft particles, found
in feveral of the mountainous parts of Sweden. In
fome of thefe there is a predominance of quartzofe
particles, in others of micaceous ; in which laft cafe
the ftone is flaty, and eaiily fplit. 2. Granitello, com¬
pofed of convoluted particles. This is met with of dif¬
ferent colours, as whitilh grey', greenilh, and reddiftt.
Both thefe kinds of ftone are ufed in building fur¬
naces, on account of the powerful refiftance they make
to the fire ; but the latter is preferable to the other,
on account of its containing a little of a refraftory
clayilh fubftanee. It is likewife of great ufe in mills,
where the fellow is a coarfe fand-ftone.
GRANIVGROUS, an appellation given to ani¬
mals which feed on corn or feeds. Thefe are princi¬
pally of the bird kind.
GRANT, in law, a conveyance in writing of fuch
things as cannot pafs or be conveyed by word only ;
fuch are rents, reverfions, fervices, &c.
Grant (Francis}, Lord Cullen, an enwnent law-
O yer
Grant.
G R A [ 114 ] G R A
yer and judge in Scotland, was descended from a
younger branch of the family of the Grants of Grant
in that kingdom, and was born about the year 1660.
When he commenced advocate, he made a diftinguifh-
ed figure at the revolution, by oppofing the opinion
of the old lawyers, who warmly argued on the inabi¬
lity of the convention of eftates to make any difpo-
.fition of the crown. The abilities he Ihowed in
favour of the revolution recommended him to an ex-
tenfive pra&ice ; in which he acquired fo much honour,
that when the union between the two kingdoms was
in agitation, queen Anne unexpectedly, and withoutap-
plication, created him a baronet, with a view of fe-
curing his intereft in that meafure ; and upon the fame
principle, (lie foon after created him a judge, or one
of the lords of fefiion. From this time, according
to the cuftom of Scotland, he was ftyled, from the
name of his eftate, Lord Cullen ; and the fame good
qualities that recommended him to this honourable
office, were very confpicuous in the difcharge of it ;
which he continued for 20 years with the higheft
reputation, when a period was put to his life by
an illnefs which lailed but three days. He expired
without any agony on March 16th 1726.—His cha¬
racter is drawn to great advantage in the Biogra-
phia Britannica; where it is obferved, among other
remarks to his honour, “ That as an advocate he was
indefatigable in the management of bufinefs; but at
the fame time that he fpared no pains, he would
ufe no craft. He had fo high an idea of the dignity
of his profefiion, that he held it equally criminal to
negleft any honeft means of coming at juftice, or to
make ufe of any arts to elude it. In refpeft to for¬
tune, though he was modeft and frugal, and had a
large practice, yet he was far from being avaricious.
His private charities were very confiderable, and grew
in the fame proportion with his profits. He was, be¬
tides, very fcrupulous in many points ; he would not
fuffer a juft caufe to be loft through a client’s want of
money. He was fuch an enemy to oppreffion, that
he never denied his affiftance to fuch as laboured un¬
der it ; and with refpeCt to the clergy of all profeffions
(in Scotland), his confcience obliged him to ferve them
without a fee. When his merit had raifed him to the
bench, he thought himfelf accountable to God and
man for bis conduCt in that high office; and that deep
fenfe of his duty, at the fame time that it kept him
ftriClly to it, encouraged and fupported him in the per¬
formance. Whenever he fat as lord ordinary 5 the pa¬
per of caufes was remarkably full, for his reputation
being equally eftablifhed for knowledge and inte¬
grity, there were none, who had a good opinion of
their own pretenfions, but were defirous of bringing
them before him, and not many who did not fit down
fatisfied with his decifion. This prevailed more efpe-
cially after it was found that few of his fentences were
reverfed ; and when they were, it was commonly owing
to himfelf: for if, upon mature refledion, or upon new
reafons offered at the re-hearing, he faw any juft ground
for altering his judgment, he made no fcruple of de¬
claring it; being perfuaded, that it was more manly, as
well as more juft, to follow truth, than to fupport opi¬
nion : and his conduCt in this refpeCt had a right effeCt;
for in Head of leffening, it raifed his reputation. He
would noL however, with all this great ftock of know¬
ledge, expeiience, and probity, truft himfelf in matters Grantham,
of blood, or venture to decide in criminal cafes/m the Granv‘ile*j
lives of his fellow-creatures ; which was the reafon ,J
that, though often folicited, he could never be prevail¬
ed upon to accept of a feat in the jufticiary court.—
In his private chara&er he was as amiable as he w'as
refpedable in his public. He was charitable without
oftentation, difinterefted in his friendftiips, and benefi¬
cent to all who had any thing to do with him. He
w'as not only ftri&ly juft ; but fo free from any fpeciea
of avarice, that his lady, who was a woman of great
prudence and difcretion, finding him more intent on
the bufinefs committed to him by others than on Ip*
own, took upon herfelf the care of placing out his mo¬
ney ; and to prevent his poftponing, as he was apt to
do, fuch kind of affairs, when fecurities offered, fhe cau-
fed the circumftances of them to be Hated in the form
of cafes, and fo procured his opinion upon his own
concerns as if they had been thofe of a client. He
w'as fo true a lover of learning, and was fo much ad- '
difted to his ftudies, that, notwithftanding the multi¬
plicity of his bufinefs while at the bar, and his great
attention to his charge when a judge, he neverthelefs
found time to write various treatifes on very different
and important fubjefts: Some political, which were
remarkably well-timed, and highly ferviceable to the
government: others of a moft extenfive nature, fuch as
his effays on law, religion, and education, which were
dedicated to George II. when prince of Wales; by
whofe command, his then fecretary, Mr Samuel Mo-
lyneaux, wrote him a letter of thanks, in which were
many gracious expreffions, as well in relation to the
piece as to its author. He compofed, befides thefe,
many difeourfes on literary fubjefts, for the exercife of
his own thoughts, and for the better difeovery of
truth ; which went no farther than his own clofet, and
from a principle of modefty were not communicated
even to his moft intimate friends.”
GRANTHAM, a town of*Lincoln{hire, 110 miles
from London. It is a neat populous town, with abund¬
ance of veiy good inns of great refort, on the north
road, and fituated on the river Witham. It is fup-
pofed to have been a Roman town by the remains of
a caftle which have been formerly dug up here. It is
governed by an alderman and 12 juftices of the peace,
a recorder, a coroner, an efeheater, 12 fecond twelve
men, who are of the common council, and 12 confta-
bles to attend the court. Here is a fine large church
with a ftone fpire, one of the loftieft in England, be¬
ing 288 feet high, and, by the deception of the fight,
feems to Hand awry, which, by the church being fitu¬
ated fo low, appears to a very great difadvantage.
Here is a good free-fehool, where Sir Ifaac Newton
received his firft education, beiides two charity-
fchools. On the neighbouring courfe are frequent
horfe races.
GRANVILLE (George), lord Lanfdowne, was
defeended from a very ancient family, derived from
Rollo the firft duke of Normandy. At eleven years
• of age he was fent to Trinity College in Cambridge,
where he remained five years : but at the age of 13
was admitted to the degree of mafter of arts ; ha¬
ving, before he was 12, fpoken a copy of verfes of
his own compofition to the duchefs of York at his
college, when ffie paid a vifit to the Univerfity of
Cam*
G R A [ 115 ] G R A
Granulated Cambridge. In 1696, his comedy called the She-gal-
{] lants was a&ed at the theatre-royal in Lincolns-inn-
rapte°me* fields, as his tragedy called Heroic Love was in the
y_— year 1698. In 1702 he tranfiated into Englifh the
fecond Olynihian of Demojihenes. He was member for
the county of Cornwall in the parliament which met in
1710; was afterwards fecretary of war, comptroller
of the houfehold, then treafurer, and fworn one of the
privy-council. The year following, he was created
baron Lanfdowne. On the acceffion of king George I.
in 1714, he was removed from his treafurer’s place 5
and the next year entered his proteft againfl the bills,
for attainting lord Bolingbroke and the duke of
Ormond. He entered deeply into the fcheme for
raifing an infurre&ion in the weft of England; and
being felzed as a fufpedled perfon, was committed to
the Tower, where he continued two years. In 1719,
he made a fpeech in the houfe of Lords, againft the
bill to prevent occafional conformity. In 1722, he
withdrew to France, and continued abroad almoft ten
years. At his return in 1732, he publifhed a fine
edition of his works in 2 vols quarto. He died in
1735, leaving no male ifiue.
Granville, a fea-port town of France, in Lower
Normandy, partly feated on a rock and partly on a
plain. It gave title to an Englifti earl, now extinft.
W. Long. 1. 32. N. Lat. 48. 58.
GRANULATED, fomething that has undergone
granulation. See the next article.
GRANULATION, in chemiftry, an operation by
which metallic fubftances are reduced into fmall grains,
or roundiih particles ; the ufe of which is, to facilitate
their combination with other fubftances.—This opera¬
tion is very fimple ; it confifts only in pouring a
melted metal flowly into a vefiel filled with water,
which is in the mean time to be agitated with a
broom. With melted copper, however, which is apt
to explode with great violence on the contadf of water,
fome precautions are to be obferved, of which an ac¬
count is given under the article Chemistry, n° 1148.
Lead or tin may be granulated by pouring them when
melted into a box ; the internal furface of which is to
be rubbed with powdered chalk, and the box ftrongly
fhaken till the lead has become folid. Metals are
granulated, becaufe their dudftility renders them inca¬
pable of being pounded, and becaufe filing is long
and tedious, and might render the metal impure by
an admixture of iron from the file.
GRAPE, the fruit of the vine. See Vine and
Wine. See alfo Currant and Raisin.
GnAPK-Shot, in artillery, is a combination of fmall
fhot, put into a thick canvas bag, and corded ftrongly
together, fo as to form a kind of cylinder, whofe dia¬
meter is equal to that of the ball adapted to the can-
Bon. The number of fhot in a grape varies according
to the fervice or fize of the guns: in fea-fervice nine
is always the number ; but by land it is increafed to
any number or fize, from an ounce and a quarter in
weight to three or four pounds. In fea-fervice the
bottoms and pins are made of iron, whereas thofe ufed
by land are of wood.
Grapes, in the manege, a term ufed to fignify the
amfts or mangy tumours that happen in the horfe’s
legs.
GRAPHOMETER, a mathematical inftrument,
otherwife called a Semicircle ; the ufe of which is to Grapffrf,
obferve any angle whofe vertex is at the centre of the Grafe-~*
inftrument in any plane (though it is moft commonly
horizontal, or nearly fo), and to find how many de¬
grees it'contains. See Geometry, p. 674. prop. xi. &c.
GRAPNEL, or Grappling, a fort of fmall an¬
chor, fitted with four ok five flukes or claws, and com¬
monly ufed to ride a boat or other fmall veffel.
Flrc-GRAPPUNG, an inftrument nearly refembling
the former, but differing in the conftruftion of its
flukes, which are furnifhed with ftrong barbs on
their points. Thefe machines are ufually fixed on the
yard-arms of a fhip, in order to grapple any adver-
fary whom fhe intends to board. They are, however,
more particularly ufeful in Fire Ships for the purpofes
defcribed in that article.
GRASS, in botany, is defined to be a plant having
fimple leaves, a ftem generally jointed and tubular, a
bulky calyx (calledand the feed Angle. Hence
wheat, oats, barley, &c. are properly grafles, accord¬
ing to the definition given ; while clover and fome o-
ther fimilar plants are not grafles, though fo frequent¬
ly called by that name.—Ofgrafs, the leaves are food
for cattle, the fmall feeds for birds, and the larger grain
chiefly for man. And it is obfervable, that nature has
fo provided, that cattle (in grazing) feldom eat the
flower intended to produce feed, unlefs compelled by
hunger.
For the culture of the different forts of grain, fee
Agriculture, no 122. &feq.; and for that of the
graffes commonly fo called, fee the fame article,
n° 175. & feq. and the references below.
Culmiferous graffes might be divided into two ge¬
neral claffes for the purpofes of the farmer, that it
might be of ufe for him 10 attend to : viz. > ft, Thofe
which, like the common annual kinds of corn, run
chiefly to feed-ftalks; the leaves gradually decaying
as thefe advance towards perfedlion, and becoming to¬
tally withered or falling-off entirely when the feeds are
ripe. Rye-grafs belongs to this clafs in the ftriAeft
fenfe. To it likewife may be afligned the vernal-
grafs, dogs tail-grafs, and fine bent-grafs. 2dly, Thofe
whofe leaves continue to advance even ^ftcr the feed-
ftalks are formed, and retain their verdure and fuccu-
Fnee during the whole feafon, as is the cafe with the
fefeue and poa tribes of graffes, whofe leaves are as
green and fucculent when the feeds are ripe and the
flower-ftalks fading, as at any other time.
“ It is wonderful, Mr StiUingfteet f remarks, to fee » <Tra?h re*
.how long mankind has neglefted to make a proper ad- luting to
vantage of plants of fuch importance, and which, in Nat-
ahnoft every country, are the chief food of cattle. &c*
The farmer, for want of diftinguifhing and fele&ing
graffes for feed, fills his paftures either with weeds or
bad or improper graffes; when, by making a right
choice, after Tome trials, he might be fure of the beft
grafs, and in the greateft abundance(that his land ad¬
mits of. At prefent, if a farmer wapts to lay down
his land to grafs, what does he do ? he either takes
his feeds indiferiminately from his own foul hav-rick,
or fends to his next neighbour for a fupply. By thi^
means, befides a certain mixture of all forts of rubbifti,
which muft neceffarily happen, if he chances to have
a large proportion of good feeds, it is not unlikely but
that what he intends for dry land may come from moift,
O 2 where-
G R A [
Craft, where it grew naturally, and the contrary. This is
u" V fuch a ilovenly metliod of proceeding, as one would
think could not pofiibly prevail univerfally r yet this
is the cafe as to all graffes except the darnel-grafs, and
what is known in fome few counties by the name of
the Su/folk-graft; and this latter inftance is owing, I
believe, more to the foil than any care of the hufband-
man. Now, would the farmer be at the pains of fe-
parating once in his life half a pint or a pint of the
different kinds of grafs-feeds, and take care to fow
them feparately, in a very little time he would have
wherewithal to ftock his farm properly, according to
the nature of each foil, and might at the fame time
fpread thefe feeds feparately over the nation, by fup-
plying the feed-lhops. The number of graifes fit for
the farmer is, I believe, fmall, perhaps half a dozen
or half a fcore are all he need to cultivate ; and how
fmall the trouble would be of fuch a talk, and how
great the benefit, muft be obvious to every one at firft
fight. Would not any one be looked on as wild who
fhould fow wheat, barley, oats, rye, peafe, beans,
vetches, buck-wheat, turnips, and weeds of all forts
together ? yet how is it much lefs abfurd to do what
is equivalent in relation to graffes? Does it not import
the farmer to have good hay and grafs in plenty ?
and will cattle thrive equally on all forts of food ? We
know the contrary. Horfes will fcarcely eat hay
that will do well enough for oxen and cows. Sheep
are particularly fond of one fort of grafs, and fatten
upon it fafter than any other, in Sweden, if we may
give credit to Linnasus. And may they not do the
fame in Britain ? How fhall we know till we have
tried ?”
As the generality of farmers know fcarce any of the
graffes by name, and as without fuch knowledge little
improvement can be made in this branch of husbandry,
we have on Plate CCXXIII. givenfiguresof thofe forts
which have been recommended as the molt profita¬
ble, viz.
1. Horcleum murinum, Rye-grass vulgb. [Rye-
grafs propric is the secjle •villqfum. Perennial darnel,
loilium perenne, is alfo, in fome counties of England,
improperly called rye grafsSee Agriculture,
no i79.
2. Fejluca rubra. Purple Fescue-grass. See A-
GINCULTURE, n° 54.
3. Fejluca- oc in a, Sheeps ditto. See Agricul¬
ture, no 56—58. This is perhaps the moft valuable
grafs of all. It is obferved to grow and thrive on lands
of all qualities and in all fituations, from the drieft up-
^ land paflures to the very moift parts of meadows. It
does not part with its feeds till fome time after they
are ripe, and even quite dry. It makes the thickeft
and clofeft pile of any of them, and fends up but few
flower-ftalks in proportion to its leaves. It flowers in
June, and is ripe in July.
4. Holcus lanatus, Creeping Soft-grass. See
Agriculture, n° 59.
J Ffays on 5‘ -dlopecurus hulbofus, Bulbous Foxtail-grass,
^Agriculture, is recommended by Dr Anderfon f, as promifmg on
&c. fome occafions to afford a valuable pafture-grafs. It
feems chiefly, he obferyes, to delight in a ini-ift foil,
and therefore promifes to be only fit for a meadow
pafture grafs. The quality that firft. recommended it
to his notice, was the unufual lirmnefs that its matted
116 ] G R A
roots gave to the furface of the ground, naturally foft Grafs,
and moift, in which it grew ; which feemed to promife 5
that it might be of ufe upon fuch foils, chiefly in pre¬
venting them from being much poached by the feet of
cattle which might pafture upon them. Moffy foils
efpecially are fo much hurt by poaching, that any
thing that promifes to be of ufe in preventing it de¬
ft rve 3 to be attended to.
6. Poapratenfis. Great Meadow-grass, feems to
approach in many refpedts to.the nature of the purple-
fefeue ; only that its leaves are broader, and not near fo
long; being only about a foot or 16 inches at their
greateft length. Like it, it produces feyy feed-ftalks
and many leaves, and is an abiding plant. It affedts
chiefly the dry parts of meadows, though it is to be
found on moft good paftures. It is very retentive of its
feeds, and may therefore be fuffered to remain till the
ftalks are quite dry. It bloflbms the beginning of June,
and its feeds are ripe in July.
7. _ Poa comprejfa, Creeping Meadow-grass, ac¬
cording to Dr Anderfon, feems to be the moft valuable
grafs of any of this genus. Its leaves are firm and fuc-
culent, of a dark Saxon-green colour; and grow fo
clofe upon one another, as to form the richeft pile of
pafture-grafs. The flower-ftalks, if fulfered to grow,
appear in fufficient quantities; but the growth of thefe
does not prevent the growth of the leaves, both advan-
cing together during the whole fummer ; and when the
ftalks fade, the leaves continue as green as before. Its
leaves are much larger and more abundant than the
common meadow-grafs, poa Iriviahs ; and therefore it
better deferves to be cultivated.
8. Anthoxanthwn odoratum. Vernal Grass, grows,
very commonly on dry hills, and likewife on found
rich meadow-land. It is one of the carlieft grafles we
have ; and from its being found on fuch kinds of paf¬
tures as flieep are fond of, and from whence excellent
mutton comes, it is moft likely to be a good grafs for-
flieep-paftures. It gives a grateful odour to hay. la
one refpedt, it is very eafy to gather, as it ftieds its
feeds upon the leaft rubbing. A correfpondent of the
Bath Society, however, mentions a difficulty that oc¬
curs in collecting them, owing to its being furrounded
with taller grafles at the time of its ripening, and be¬
ing almoft hid among them. If it be not carefully,
watched when nearly ripe, he obferves, and gathered
within a few days after it comes to maturity, great
part of the feed will be loft. The twilled elaftic awns*
which adhere to the feed, lift them out of their recep¬
tacles with the leaft motion from the wind, even while
the ftraw and ear remain quite ereft. It is found moftly
in the moift parts of meadows; very little of it on dry
paftures. It flowers about the beginning of May, and
is ripe about the middle of June.
9. Cynofurus crijlatus, Crested Dog’s-tail Grass.
Mr Stillingfleet imagines this grafs to be proper for
parks, from his having known one, where it abounds*
that is famous for excellent venifon. He recommends,
it alfo, from experience, as good for Iheep; the beft.
mutton he ever tailed, next to that which comes front
hills where the purple and flieeps fefeue, the fine bent*
and the filver hair grafles abound, having been from
flieep fed with it. He adds, that it makes a very fine,
turf upon dry fandy or chalky foils: but unlefs fwept.
over with the feythe, its flowering-ftems will look
brawny
G R A r I
brown ; which is the cafe of all grafles which are not
fed on by variety of animals. For that fome animals will
eat the flowering-ftems is evident by commons, where
fcarcely any parts of graifes appear but the radical
leaves. This grafs is faid to be the ealieft of the whole
groupe to colle& a quantity of feed from. It flowers
in June, and is ripe in July.
to. Stipa pennata, Cock’s-tail or Feather.
Grass.
11. Agrqftis capillaris, Fine Bent, is recommend¬
ed by Mr Stillingfleet, from his having always found
it in great plenty on the befl. Iheep paltures, in the
different counties of England that are remarkable for
good mutton.’1' This grafs flowers and ripens its feed
the lateft ofnhem all. It feems to be loft the former
part of the year, but vegetates luxuriantly towards the
autumn. It appears to be fond of moift ground. It
retains its feed till full ripe ; flowers the latter end of
July, and is ripe the latter end of Auguft.
12. AreiraJlexuofa, Mountain Hair.
13.  caryophillea. Silver Hair.
The fame may be faid of thefe two grafles as of
the preceding one.
14. Fejluca Jluitans, Flote Fescue. In a piece
pubiilhed in the Amoenitates Academicae, vol. 3. in-
titled Plant# Efculenta, we are informed, that “ the
feeds of this grafs are gathered yearly in Poland, and
from thence carried into Germany, and fometimes into
Sweden, and fold under the name of manna feeds.
Thefe are much ufed at the tables of the great, on ac¬
count of their nourilhing quality and agreeable tafte.
It is wonderful (adds the author), that amongft us
thefe feeds have hitherto been neglefted, fince they are
fo eafdy cclle&ed and cleanfed.” There is a clammi-
nefs on the ear of the flote-fefcue, when the feeds are
ripe, that taftes like honey ; and for this reafon per¬
haps they are called manna feeds.
Linnaeus (Flor. Seuc. art. 95.) fays that the bran
of this grafs will cure horfes troubled with botts, if
kept from drinking for fome hours.
Concerning this grafs we have the following in for-'
mation by Mr Stillingfleet. “ Mr Dean, a very fen-
lible farmer at Rufcomb, Berklhire, afliired me that a
field, always lying under water, of about four acres,
that was occupied by his father when he was a boy,
was covered with a kind of grafs, that maintained five
farm-horfes in good heart from April to the end of
harveft, without giving them any other kind of food,
and that it yielded more than they could eat. He, at
my delire, brought me fome of the grafs, which pro¬
ved to be the flote-fefcue with a mixture of the marlh-
bent; whether this laft contributes much towards fur-
nifhing fo good pafture for horfes, I cannot fay.
They both throwout roots at the jointsof theftalks, and
therefore are likely to grow to a great length. In the
index of dubious plants at the end of Ray’s Synopfis,
there is mention made of a grafs under the name of
gramen caninum fupinmn longiffimum, growing not far
from Salifbury, 24 feet long. This muft by its length
be a grafs with a creeping ftalk; and that there is a
grafs in Wiltlhire growing in watery meadows, fo va¬
luable, that an acre of it lets from 10 to 12 pounds, I
have been informed by feveral perfons. Thefe circum-
ftances incline me think it muft be the flote-fefcue j
17 ] G R A
but whatever grafs it be, it certainly muft deferve to Grafs,
be inquired after.” '
15. Alopecuruspratenfis. Meadow Foxtail. Lin-
nxus fays that this is a proper grafs to fow on grounds
that have been drained.—Mr Stillingfleet was informed,
that the be-t hay which comes to London is from the
meadows where this grafs abounds. It is fcarce in-
many parts of England, particularly Herefordlhire,
Berklhire, and Norfolk. It might be gathered at al-
moft any time of the year from hay-ricks, as it does not
fhed its feeds without rubbing, which is the cafe of but
few grafles. It is amongft the moft grateful of all
grafles to cattle. It is ripe about the latter end of June.
16. Poa annua, Annual Meadow Grass. “This
grafs (fays Mr Stillingfieet) makes the fineft of turfs.
It grows every where by way fides, and on rich found
commons. It is called in fome parts \)az Suffolk grafs.
I have feen whole fields of it in High Suffolk without
any mixture of other grafles ; and as fome of the beft
falt-butter we have in London comes from that coun¬
ty, it is moft likely to be the beft grafs for the dairy.
I have feen a wlvole park in Suffolk covered with this
grafs ; but whether it affords good venifon, I cannot
tell, .having never tailed of any from it. I ftiould ra¬
ther think not, and that the beft pafture forflieep isal-
fo the beft for deer. However, this wants trial. I re¬
marked on Malvern-hill fomething particular in relation
to this grafs. A walk that was made there for the
convenience of the water-drinkers, in lefs than a year
was covered in many places with it, though 1 could not
find one fingle plant of it befides in any part of the
hill. This was no doubt owing to the frequent tread¬
ing, which above all things makes this grafs flourifli r
and therefore it is evident that rolling muft be very fer-
viceable to it. It has been objedled, that this grafs is
not free from bents, by- which word is meant the flovv-
ering-ftems. I anfwer, that this is moft certainly true,
and that there is no grafs without them. But the
flowers and lie ms do not grow fo foon brown as thofe
of other graffes ; and being much fliorter, they do
not cover the radical leavea fo much ; and therefore
this grafs affords a more agreeable turf without mow¬
ing, than any other whatever that I know of.”—The
feeds of this fpecies drop off before they are dry, 'and;
to appearance, before they are ripe. The utmoft care
is therefore neceffary in gathering the blades, without
which, very few of the feeds will be faved. It ripens
from the middle of Apiil, to fo late, it is believed, aa
the end of Odlover; but moftly difappears in the
middle of the futnmer. It grows in any foil and fitua-
tiorv, but rather affects the flrade-.
17. A new grafs from America (nzmzdi Agrojl's cor*
nucopLe) was fome time ago much advertifed and ex¬
tolled, as poffefiing the moft wonderful qualities, and
the feeds of it were fold at the enormous rate of L. 68
the bulhel. But we have not heard that it has at all
anfwered expectation. On the contrary, we are in¬
formed by Dr Anderfon in his new publication f, that
“ it has upon trial been found to be good for no-vo*'1
thing. Of the feeds fown, few of them ever germi¬
nated : but enow of plants made their appearance, to
afcertain, that the grafs, in refpeCt of quality, is a-
mong the pooreft of the tribe; and that it is an an¬
nual plant, and altogether unprofitable to the farmer.” •
G&ns
G R A [ ii
O af* Grass-Walks are made, for the moft part, not by
II - fowing grafs feeds, but by laying turfs : and indeed the
, Grates. turjfs from a fine common or down are much preferable
* to fown grafs : but if- walks or plats are to be made by
fowing, the bell way is to procure the feed from thofe
paftures where the grafs is naturally fine-and clear;
or elfe the trouble of keeping it from fpiry or benty
grafs will be very great, and it will fcarce ever look
handfome.
In order to fow grafs walks, the ground mull be firft
dug; and when it has been drefftd and laid even, it
muft be very carefully raked over, and all the clods and
ftones taken off, and then covered over an inch thick
with good mould.
This being done, the feed is to be fown pretty thick,
that it may come up clofe and fhort; it mull then be
raked over again, to cover the feed, that if the weather
(hould happen to be windy, it may not be blown a-
way. It ought alfo to be obferved, that where grafs
is fown in gardens, either for lawns or walks, there
fhould always be a good quantity of the white trefoil
or Dutch clover fown with it; for this will make a fine
turf much fooner than any other fown grafs, and will
continue a better verdure than any other of the grafs-
tribe.
In order to keep grafs-plats or walks handfome, and
in good order, you may fow in autumn frelh feed over
any places.that are not well filled, or where the grafs is
dead : but nothing improves grafs fo much as mowing
and conllant rolling.
When turf is laid in gardens, it is a general prac-.
tice to cover the furface of the ground under the turf,
either with fand or very poor earth : the defign of
this is to keep the grafs fine, by preventing its grow¬
ing too rank. This is proper enough for very rich
ground: but it-is not fo for fuch land as is mid¬
dling, or but poor ; for when this is pradlifed in fuch.
places, the grafs will foon wear out and decay in
patches.
When turf is taken from a common or down, fuch
ought to be chofen as is free from weeds : and when
it is defigned to remain for years without renewing, a
dreffing Ihould be laid upon it every other year, either
of very rotten dung, allies, or, where it can be eafily
procured, very rotten tan ; but thefe dreffings Ihould
be laid on early in the winter, that the rain may walh
them into the ground, otherwife they will occafion the
grafs to burn, when the warmth of the fummer begins.
When grafs is fo dreffed, and well rolled and mow¬
ed, it may be kept very beautiful for many years; but
where it is not drelfed, or fed with fheep, it will rarely
continue handfome more than eight or ten years.
GRASSHOPPER, in zoology, a fpecies of gryl-
lus. SccGryllus.
GRATAROLUS (William), a learned phyfician
in the 16th century, was born at Bergamo in Italy ;
and taught phyfic with reputation at Padua: but ha¬
ving embraced the Proteilant religion, he retired to
Switzerland, where he was made profellbr of phyfic.
Pie died at Bafil in 1568, aged 52. He wrote feveral
curious works in Latin ; amongft which are, r. The
manner of preferving and improving the memory.
2. Of preferving in health travellers, men of letters,
magiftrates, and ftudious perfons, &c.
GRATES for Fir.es, are compofed of ribs of iron
8 ] G R A .
placed at fmall diftances from one another, fo that the Gratian
air may have fufficient accefs to the fuel, and the accu- Gra|0jJ[>
mulation of the alhes, which would choke the fire,
may be prevented.—Grates feem peculiarly adapted to
the ufe of pit-coal, which requires a greater quantity
of air to make it burn freely than other kinds of fuel.
The hearths of the Britons feem to have been fixed in
the centre of their halls, as is yet praftifed in fame
parts of Scotland, where the fire is nearly in the middle
of the houfe, and the family fit all around it. Their
fire place was perhaps nothing more than a large (lone,
depreffed a little below the level of the ground, and
thereby adapted to receive the alhes. About a cen¬
tury ago, it was only the floor of the room, with the
addition of a bank or hob of clay. But. it was now
changed among the gentlemen for a portable fire¬
pan, raifed upon low fupporters, and fitted with a
circular grating of bars. Such were in ufe among the
Gauls in the firft. century, and among the Wellh in
the tenth.
GRATIAN, the fon of Valentinian I. by his firft
wife, was declared Auguftus by his father at the city
of Amiens in 365, and fucceeded him in 367 ; a prince
equally extolled for his wit, eloquence, modefty, cha-
ftity, and zeal againft heretics. He afibciated Theo-
dofius with him in the empire, and advanced the poet
Aufonius to the confulate. He made a great daugh¬
ter of the Germans at Strafburg *, and hence was fur- *see /}rsen.
named Alemanmciis. He was the firft emperor who rora.
refufed the title of Pontifex Maximus, upon the fcore
of its being a Pagan dignity. He was aflaflinated by
Andragathius in 375, in the 24th year of his age.
Gratian, a famous Benedidtine monk, in the 12th
century, was born at Chiufi, and employed near twen¬
ty-four years in compofing a work, intitled, Decre-
tum, or Concordantia Difcordantium Canonum, becaufe
he there endeavoured to reconcile the canons wdiich
feemed contradidlory to each other. This work he
publilhed in 1151. As he is fiequently miftaken, in
taking one canon of one council, or one pafiage of one
father, for another, and has often cited falfe decretals,
feveral authors have endeavoured to corredt his faults ;
and chiefly Anthony Auguftine, in his excellent work,
intitled, De emendatione GraUani. To the decretals
of Gratian, the popes principally owed the great
authority they exercifed in the thirteenth and follow¬
ing centuries.
GRATINGS, in a ftiip, are fmall edges of fawed
plank, framed one into another like a lattice or prifon
grate, lying on the upper deck, between the main-maft
and fore-maft, ferving for a defence in a clofe fight,
and alfo for the coolnefs, light, and conveniency of the
(hip’s company.
GRATIOLA, hedge hyssop : A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the diandria clafs of
plants. The corolla is irregular ; there are two bar¬
ren ftamina; the capfule is bilocular; the calyx has fe-
ven leaves, with the two exterior ones patulous.
There are four fpecies; the moft remarkable of
which is the officinalis, or common hedge-hyflbp.
This grows naturally on the Alps and other moun¬
tainous parts of Europe. It hath a thick, fleftiy, fi¬
brous, creeping root, which propagates very much,
when planted in a proper foil and fituation. From
this arife feveral upright fquare ftalks, garnilhed' with
narrow
G R A
G;atio!a, narrow fpear-fhaped leaves, placed oppofite. The
^Gratitude, flowers are produced on the fide of the Italics at eaeh
joint; they are fhaped like thofe of the fox glove, but
are fmall, and of a pale yellowifh colour.—This herb
has an emetic and purgative virtue ; to anfwer which
intentions, it was formerly ufed by the common people
in England, but was never much prefcribed by the
phyficians, and at laft fell totally into difufe. Of late,
however, it has been the fubjedt of a difiertation by
Dr James Koftrzewlki of Warfaw, in Poland ; who
gives tome remarkable accounts of its effeds in ma¬
nia and obftinate venereal cafes. It was given in pow¬
der, or in cxtrad, to the quantity of half a drachm
of the firft, and a whole drachm of the fecond, at
each dofe. From the cafes related in his differtation,
the" author draws the following conclufions: i. The
gratiola may be given with fafety both to male and
female patients. 2. In all diforders proceeding from
a fuperabundance of ferum in the fluids, it appears
to be a moll effedual remedy. 3. In confequence of
this, it is had recourfe to with very great advantage in
melancholy and mania arifing from that ftate of the
fyftem. 4. It powerfully promotes purging,' vomit¬
ing, fweat, and urine; and is therefore much fuperi-
or to any of the ufual evacuating medicines, moft of
which prove only aftive in promoting one of thefe
difcharges at once. 5. The moft obftinate cafes of
gonorthoea, fluor albus, and venereal ulcers, are cured by
the powder.—In fome inftanc’s it has induced faliva-
tion ; but whether or not it can always be made to
produce that effedt, is not ?s yet altogether certain.
6. The powder of gratiola prepared from the extradl,
and exhibited with fugar, does not induce vomiting ;
and, on the contrary, the powder of the root always
promotes that evacuation.
GRATITUDE, in ethics, a virtue difpofing the
mind to an inward fenfe and outward acknowlegsnent
of benefits received.
Examples of ingratitude, Mr Paley obferves, check
and difcourage voluntary beneficence ; hence the cul¬
tivation of a grateful temper is a confideration of pu¬
blic importance. A fecond reafon for cultivating in
ourfelves that temper is : That the fame principle
which is touched with the kindnefs of a human bene-
fadtor, is capable of being affedfed by the divine good-
nefs, and of becoming, under the influence of that af¬
fection, a fource of the pureft and moft exalted virtue.
The love of God is the fublimeft gratitude. It is a
miftake, therefore, to imagine, that this virtue is
omitted in the Scriptures; for every precept, which
commands us “ to love God, becaufe he firft loved us,”
prefuppofes the principle of gratitude, and directs it to
its proper objedt.
It is impoffible to particularize the feveral expref-
fions of gratitude, which vai-y with the charadter and
fituation of the benefadtor, and with the opportunities of
the perfon obliged; for this variety admits of no bounds.
It may be obferved, however, that on one part grati¬
tude can never oblige a man to do what is wrong, and
what by confequence he is previoufly obliged not to
do: On the other part, it argpes a total want of every
generous principle, as well as of moral probity, to
take advantage of that afcendency, which the con¬
ferring of benefits juftly creates, to draw or drive
G R A
thofe whom we have obliged into mean or diflioneft Gratitude,
compliances. —v—
The following pleafing example of genuine gratitude
is extradted from HackweVs Apol. 1. 14. c. 10. p. 436.
— Francis Frefcobald, a Florentine merchant defeend-
ed of a noble family in Italy, had gained a plentiful
fortune, of which he was liberal handed to all in ne-
cefiitywhich being well known to others, though
concealed by himfelf, a young ftranger applied to him
for charity. Signior Frefcobald, feeing fomething in his .
countenance more than ordinary, overlooked his tat¬
tered clothes ; and compaflionatiog his circumftances,
alked him “What he was, and of what country?”
“ I am (anfwered the young man) a native of Eng¬
land ; my name is Thomas Cromwell, and my father-in-
law is a poor ftieer-man. 1 left my country to feek
my fortune; came with the French army that were
routed at Gatylion, where I was a page to a footman,
and carried his pike and burgonet after him.” Fref¬
cobald commiferating his necefimes, and having a
particular refpedt for the Englifti nation, clothed him
genteelly ; took him into his houfe till he had recover¬
ed ftrength by better diet; and, at his taking leave,
mounted him upon a good horfe, with 16 ducats of
gold in his pockets. Cromwell exprefled his thank-
fulnefs in a very fenfible manner, and returned by land
towards England ; where, being arrived, he was pre¬
ferred into the fervice of Cardinal Woolfey. Af¬
ter the Cardinal’s death, he worked himfelf fo ef-
feftually into the favour of King Henry VIII. that
his majefty made him a baron, vifeount, earl of Eflex,
and at laft made him lord high chancellor of England.
In the mean time, Signior Frefcobald, by repeated
Ioffes at fea and land, was reduced to poverty; and
calling to mind (without ever thinking of Cromwell),
that fome Englifh merchants were indebted to him in
the firm of 15,000 ducats, he came to London to pro¬
cure payment. Travelling in purfuit of this affair, he
fortunately met with the lord chancellor as he was
riding to court; who thinking him to be the fame
gentleman that had done him fuch great kindnefs in
Italy, he immediately alighted, embraced him, and
with tears of joy alked him. If he was not Signior
Francis Frefcobald, a Florentine merchant ? “ Yes,.
Sir (faid he), and your moft humble fervant.” “ My
fervant! (faid the Chancellor) No; you are my
fpecial friend, that relieved me in my wants, laid the
foundation of my greatnefs, and, as fuch, I receive you;
and, fince the affairs of my fovereign will not now per¬
mit a longer conference, I beg you will oblige me this
day withyour company at my houfe to dinner with me.”
Signior Frefcobald was furprifed and aftonilhed with
admiration who this great man Ihould be that ac¬
knowledged fuch obligations, and fo palfionately ex-
preffed a kindnefs for him : but, contemplating a
while his voice, his mien, and carriage, he concludes
it to be Cromwell, whom he had relieved at Florence;
and therefore not a little overjoyed, goes to his houfej,
and attended his coming. His lordlhip came foon
after ; and immediately taking his friend by the hand,
turns to the lord high admiral and other noblemen
in his company, faying, “ Don’t your lordfhips won¬
der that I am fo glad to fee this gentleman ? This is
he who firft contributed to my advancement.” He.
5 then
[ n9 1
G R A [
■ then told them the whole ftory ; and, holdingliim ftill
by the hand, led him into the dining-room, and pla¬
ced him next himfelf at table. The company being
gone, the Chancellor made ufe of this opportunity to
know what affair had brought him into England. Fre-
fcobald in few words gave him the true Hate of his cir-
cumflances: To which Cromwell replied, “ I am forry
for your misfortunes, and I will make them as eafy to
you as I can ; but, becaufe men ought to be iuft be¬
fore they are kind, it is fit I ftiQuld repay the debt I
owe you.” Then leading him into his clofet, he lock¬
ed the door; and opening a coffer, firft took out iG
ducats, delivering them to Frefcobald, and faid, “ My
friend, here is the money you lent me at Florence,
with ten pieces you laid out for my apparel, and
ten more you paid for my horfe; but, confidering you
are a merchant, and might have made fome advantage
by this money in the way of trade, take thefe four
bags, in every one of which is 400 ducats, and enjoy
them as the free gift of your friend.” Thefe the mo-
delly of Frefcobald would have refufed, but the other
forced them upon him. He next caufe’d him to give
him the names of all his debtors, and the fums they
owed : vvh ich account he tranfmitted to one of his fer-
vants, with a charge to find out the men, and oblige
them to pay him in ij^days under the penalty of his
difpleafure ; and the fervant fo well difeharged his du¬
ty, that in a fhort time the entire fum vras paid. All
this time Signior Frefcohald lodged in the Chancellor’s
Eoufe, where he was entertained according to his me¬
rits, with repeated perfuafions for his continuance in
England, and an offer of the loan of 60,000 ducats for
four years if he would trade here : but he defired to
return to Florence, which he did, with extraordinary
favours from the Lord Cromwell.
There.is afpeciee of grateful remorfe, which fometimes
-has been fenown to operate forcibly on the minds of the
moft hardened in impudence. Of this Mr Andrews,
who makes the remark, gives an inftance in the fol¬
lowing anecdote, faid to have been a favourite one with
the late Dr Campbell. “ Towards the beginning of this
century, an a&or, celebrated for mimicry, was to have
been employed by a comic author, to take off the
per'fon, the manner, and the Angularly aukvvard de¬
livery of the celebrated Dr Woodward, who was in¬
tended to be introduced on the ftage in a laughable
character, (viz. in that of Dr Fqffilc, in Three Hours
after Marriage). The mimic dreffed himfelf as a
country man, and waited on the Doftor with a long
catalogue of ailments, which he faid attended on his
wife. The phyfician heard with wjnazement dif-
eafes and pains of the moft oppofite naifttre, repeated
and redoubled on the wretched patient. For, fince
the aftor’s great eft wifii was to keep Dr Woodward
in his company as long as poffible, that he might
make the more obfervations on bis geflures, he loaded
his poor imaginary fpoufe with every infirmity which
had anyprobable chance of prolonging the interview. At
length, being become completely mafter of his errand,
he drew from his purfe a guinea, and, with a ferape,
made an uncouth offer of it. ‘ Put up thy money,
poor fellow’ (cried the Do&or); ‘ thou haft need of all
thy caftt and all thy patience too, with fuch a bundle
<>f difeafes tied to thy back.’ The aftor returned to
Jus employer, and recounted the whole converfation,
tfe 143-
120 ] G R A
with fuch true feeling of the phyfician’s chara&er, G'-atz
that the author fereamed with approbation. His rap- ||
tures were fqon checked ; for the mimic told him. Grave
with the empkafis of fenfibility, that he would fooner
die than proftitute his talents to the rendering fuch ge¬
nuine humanity a public laughing-ftock. The player’s
name was Griffin.”
GRATZ, a handfome ftrong town of Germany,
and capital of Styria, with a caftie feated on a rock,
and an univerfity. The Jefuits have a college here;
and there are a great number of handfome palaces,
and a fine arfenal. The caftie Hands on a very lofty
hill, and communicates with the river by means of a
deep w^ell. The emprefs-dowager was obliged to re¬
tire hither during the war of 1741 and 1742. It is
feated on the river Muer, in E. Long. 16. 25. N. Lat.
47- 4-
GRATIUS, a Latin poet, cotemporary with O-
vid, the author, of a poem intitled Cynegeticon, or the
Manner of hunting with dogs ; the heft edition of which
is that of Leyden, i2mo, with the learned notes of
Janus Ulitius.
GRAVE, in grammar, a fpecies of accent oppo¬
fite to acute. The grave accent is expreffed thus (') ;
and (hows, that the voice is to be depreffed, and the fyl-
lable over which it is placed pronounced in a low deep
tone.
Grave, in mdfic, is applied to a found which is in
a low or deep tone. The thicker the chord or firing,
the more grave the tone or note, and the fmaller the
acuter. Notes are fuppofed to be the more grave, in
proportion as the vibrations of the chord are lefs quick.
Grave, in the Italian mufic, ferves to denote the
floweft movement.
Grave is alfo ufed for a tomb, wherein a perfon de-
fun& is interred.
Graves, among the Jews, were generally out of the
city, though we meet with inftances of their interring
the dead in towns. Frequent mention is made of
graves upon mountains, in highways, in gardens, and
private houfes. So that nothing on this head feems
to have been determined. The fame may be obferved
with refpe& to the Greeks. The Thebans had a law
that every perfon who built an houfe ftiould provide a
burial-ground. Men who had diftinguifhed themfelves
were frequently buried in the public forum. The moft
general cuilom was, however, to bury out of the city,
chiefly by the highway fide. , The Romans were for¬
bidden by the law of the 12 tables to bury or burn
the dead in the city; but fome wje find had their fe-
pulchres in Rome, though they paid a fine for the in¬
dulgence.
Grave, a very ftrong town of the Netherlands, in
Dutch Brabant, feated on the river Maefe, beyond
which there is a fort. E. Long. 5. 41. N. Lat. 51.
46.
GRAVEL, in natural hiftory and gardening, a
congeries of pebbles, which, mixed with a ftiff loam,
makes lading and elegant gravel-walks; an ornament
peculiar to our gardens, and which gives them an ad¬
vantage over thofe of other nations.
Gravel, in medicine.” See the Index fubjoined to
that article ; and fee Alkali, n° 17.
Gravel-Walks. To make thefe properly, the bot¬
tom ftiould be laid with llme-rubbifh, large flint-ftones,
or
G R A f 12
Gravel oi* any other hard matter, for eight or ten inches thick,
II to keep weeds from growing through, and over this
<fande" the gravel is to be laid fix or eight inches thick. This
L ftiould be laid rounding up in the middle, by which
means the larger ftones will run off to the fides, and
may be raked away ; for the gravel fhould never be
fcreened before it is laid on. It is a common mif-
take to lay thefe walks too round, which not only
makes them uneafy to walk upon, but takes off from
their apparent breadth. One inch in five feet is a fuf-
ficient proportion for the rife in the middle; fo that
a walk of 20 feet wide firould be four inches higher
at the middle than at the edges, and fo in proportion.
As foon as the gravel is laid, it fliould be raked, and
the large ftones thrown back again: then the whole
Ihould be rolled both length wife and croffwife; and the
perfon who draws the roller ftiould wear ftioes with
fiat heels, that he may make no holes ; becaufe holes
made in a new walk are not eafily remedied. The
walks fhould always be rolled three or four times in
very hard fhowers, after which they will bind more
firmly than otherwife they could ever be made to do.
Gravel, with fome loam among 'it, binds more
firmly than the rawer kinds ; and when gravel is na¬
turally very harfti and fharp, it is proper to add a
mixture of loam to ^t. The beft gravel for walks is
fuch as abounds with fmooth round pebbles, which,
being mixed with a little loam, are bound fo firmly
together, that they are never afterwards injured either
by wet or dry weather. Thefe are not fo liable to be
turned up by the feet in walking, as the more irregu¬
larly fliaped pebbles, and remain much more firmly in
their places after rolling.
GRAVELINES, a very ftrong fea-port town of
the Netherlands in French Flanders, with a caftle and
harbour. It was ceded to France by the treaty of
the Pyrenees, and is feated in a marlhy country on
the river Aa, near the fea, in E. Long. 2. 13. N. Lat.
50.59.
GRAVELLY land, or soil, that abounding with
gravel or fand, which eafily admits of heat and moi-
fiure ; and the more ftony fuch lands are, the more
barren they prove.
GRAVENAC, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Suabia, and capital of a county of the fame name.
E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 48. 22.
GRAVER, in the art of engraving, a tool by
which all the lines, fcratches, and (hades, are cut in
copper, &c. See Engraving.
GRAVESANDE (William James), was born of
an ancient and honourable family at Delft in Holland,
in 1688. He ftudied the civil law at Leyden, but
mathematical learning was his favourite amufement.
When he had taken his doftor’s degree in 1707, he
fettled at the Hague, and praftifed at the bar, in
which fituation he cultivated an acquaintance with
learned men ; with a fociety of whom, he publifhed a
periodical review intitled Le Journal Litteraire, which
was continued without interruption from the year 1713
to the year 1722, when he died. The moft confider-
able of his works are, “ A treatife on perfpe&ive ; An
iutroduftion to the Newtonian philofophy, or a trea¬
tife on the elements of phyfics confirmed by experi¬
ments ; A treatife on the elements of algebra, for the
u.'e of young ftudents and “ A courfe of logic and
Vol.VIIL Parti.
!I ] G R A
metaphyfics.” He had intended to have prefented the Gravefend,
public with a fyftem of morality, but his death pre- Gravma. ^
vented the execution. The minifters of the republic *
confulted him on all occafions wherein his talents were
requifite ; and his (kill in calculation was often of fer-
vice to them ; as was his addrefs in decyphering, for'
detecting the fecret correfpondence of their enemies.
As profeffor of mathematics and aftronomy at Leyden,
none ever applied the powers of nature with more fuc-
cefs, or to more ufeful purpofes.
GRAVESEND, a town of Kent in England, fi-
tuated on the banks of the Thames. It is 23 miles
from London ; and has a blockhoufe well mounted
with cannon, to command the Ihips and river, dire&ly
oppofite to Tilbury fort in Effex. The town was
plundered and burnt by the French and Spaniards in
the reign of Richard II. to compenfate which, the king,
at the requeft of the abbot of St Mary-le-Grace of
Tower-hill, to whom he had granted a manor there
called Parrocks, veiled it and Milton with the
foie privilege of carrying paffengers by water from
hence to London at 4s. the whole fare, or 2d. a head;
which was confirmed by Henry VIII.; but now the
fare is qd. a head in the tilt-boat, and is. in the wherry.
The former muft not take in above 40 paffengers, the
latter no more than 8. Coaches ply here at the land¬
ing of people from London, &c. to carry them to Ro-
chefter, at is. 6d. each. This town and Milton were
incorporated by queen Elizabeth by the name of the
portreeve (now the mayor), jurats, and inhabitants of
Gravefend and Milton: And, as Gravefend is the place
where moft paffengers through Kent from foreign parts
take boat for London, that queen, in order to fhow
the grandeur of the metropolis of her kingdom, order¬
ed the lord mayor, aldermen, and city companies, to
receive all ambaffadors and eminent ftrangers here in
their formalities, and to attend them to London in
barges if by water ; or if they choofe to come by
land, they were to meet them on horfeback on Black-
heath in their livery-gowns. The towns for feveral
miles round are fupplied from hence with garden fluffs;
of which great quantities are alfo fent to London,
where the afparagus of Gravefend is preferred to that
of Batterfea. All outward-bound (hips are obliged to
anchor in this road till they have been vifited by the
cuftom-houfe officers; and for this purpofe a centinel
at the block-houfe fires a mufket: but the homeward-
bound all pafs by without notice, unlefs it be to put
waiters on board, if they are not fupplied before. As
the outward-bound generally take in provifions here,
the place is full of feamen, who are all in a hurry.
The whole town being burnt down in 1727, 5000I.
was granted by the parliament in 1731 for rebuilding
its church, as one of the 50 new ones. In 1624, one
Mr Pinnock gave 21 dwelling-houfes here, befides one
for a mafter weaver, to employ the poor; and here is
a charity-fehool for 24 boys, who are both taught and
cloathed. The tpwn-houfe was eredted in 1764; and
in 1772 an aft of parliament empowered the inhabi¬
tants to pave and light their ftreets.
GRAVINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, and Terra di Bori, with a bifhop’s fee, and the
title of a duchy. E. Long. 17. N. Lat. 41.
Gravina (John Vincent), an eminent fcholar,
and illuftrious lawyer of Italy, born at Roggiana.in
P ' 1664.
G R A [ 122 ] G R A
Gnvr.ia 1664. He was profeflbr of the canon law in the’coh
^ l! lege of Sapknzi at Rome; and though many foreign
"y univerlities made propofals.to draw him to them, he
never quitted that city, but died there in 1718. His
works are both curious and ufeful; the greateft of
them is De ortu et progrejfa Juris Civi/is. A collection
of his works was printed in 410 at Leipfic in 1737,
with the notes of Mafcovius.
Gravina (Peter), an Italian poet, much efteemed
by the great general Gonfalvo, and Profper Colonna.
Pie wrote, in a pure Roman ftyle, Difcourfes on Mat¬
ters relating to the Law and to the Belles Lettres, as
well as Poems. He died in 1527.
GRAVITATION, in natural philofophy, is fome-
times diftinguiflied from gravity. Thus M. Mauper-
tuis takes gravity for that force whereby a body would
fall to the earth ; but gravitation for the fame dimi-
nilhed by the centrifugal force. See Newtonian Phi-
lofophy.
GRAVITY, or Gravitation (for the words are
rnoft commonly ufed fynonymoully), fignifies either
the force by which bodies are prefled towards the fur-
face of the earth, or the manifeft. effect of that force ;
in which laft fenfe the word has the fame flgniflcation
with weight or heavintfs.
Concerning gravity in the firft fenfe of the word,
or that adlive power by which all bodies are impelled
towards the earth, there have been great difputee.
Many eminent philofopher, and among the reft Sir
Ifaac Newton himfelf, have confidered it as the firft of
all fecond caufeS; an incoiporeal or fpiritual fubflance,
which never can be perceived any other way than by
its efTeffs; an univerfal property of matter, &c. Others
have attempted to explain the phenomena of gravita¬
tion by the adfion of a very fubtile etherial fluid;
and to this explanation Sir Ifaac, in the latter part of
his life, feems not to have been averfe. He hath even
given a conjedlure concerning the matter in which
this fluid might occafion thefe phenomena. But for a
full account of the difeoveries of this great philofopher
concerning the law's of gravitation, the conjedfures
made by him and others concerning its caufe, the va¬
rious objections that have been made to his dodtrine,
and the ftate of the difpute at prefent, fee the atticles
Newtonian Philofophy, Astronomy, Atmosphere,
Earth, Electricity, Fire, Light, Attraction,
Repulsion, Plenum, Vacuum, &c.
Specific Grafity, denotes the weight belonging to
an equal bulk of every different fubftance. Thus the
exadt weight of a cubic inch of gold, compared with a
cubic inch of water, tin, lead, &c. is called its fpecific
gravity. See Hydrostatics.
GRAUNT (John), author of a curious and cele¬
brated book, intitled. Natural and Political Obferva-
tions made upon the Bills of Mortality. He was a ha-
berdaftier of fmall wares; but laid down his trade, and
all public employments, on account of his religion.
He was educated a puritan; afterwards profeffed him¬
felf a Socinian ; yet in the latter part of his life de¬
clared himfelf of the Roman Catholic religion. He
was a member of the royal fociety, and died in 1674.
GRAY, or Grey, a mixed colour partaking of the
two extremes, black and white. See Black, nc 8,
9, 10. and Dyeing, n° 82, and 90.
In the manege they make feveral forts of grays;
as the branded or blackened gray, which has fpots Gray,
quite black difperfed here and there. The dappled —v~—
gray, which has fpots of'a darker colour than the reft
of the body. The light or filver gray, wherein then*
is but a fmall mixture of black liairs. The fad or iron
gray, which has but a fmall mixture of white. And
the browniih or faiidy coloured gray, where there are
bay-coloured hairs mixed with the black.
Gray, a town of Fiance, in the Franche Compte,
and capital of the bailiwick of Amont. It is a trading
place, and feated on the river Saone, in. E. Long. 5.41.
N. Lat. 47. 301
Gray (Lady Jane). See Grey.
Gray (Thomas), an admired Englifh poet, was the
youngeft and only furviving fon of a reputable citi«
p.en of London, and was born in Cornhill in 171(1.
He was educated at Eton, where he contradled a friend-
ftiip with Mr Horace Walpole, and with Mr Richard
Weft fon of the lord chancellor of Ireland. MrWeft and
Mr Gray were both intended for the bar; but the for¬
mer died early in life, and the latter was diverted from
that purfuit by an invitation to accompany Mr Wal¬
pole in his travels; which he accepted without any
determined plan for his future life. During Mr Gray’s
travels, he wrote a variety of letters to Mr Weft and
to his parents, which are printed with his poems; and
when he returned, finding himfelf in narrow circum-
ftances, yet with a mind indifpofed for adtive employ¬
ment, he retired to Cambridge, and devoted himfelf tr>
ftudy. Soon after his return, his friend Weft died :
and the melancholy impreffed on him by this event may
be traced in his admired “ Elegy wiitten in a country
churchyard which is thought to have been begun,
if not finiftied, at this time : though the conclufion,
as it ftands at prefent, is certainly different from what
it was in the firft manufeript copy. The fiift impulfe
of his forrow for the death of his friend gave birth to
a very tender fonnet in Eaglilh, on the Petrarchiaa
model; and alfo to a fublime apoftrophe in hexame¬
ters, written in the genuine ftrain of claflical majefty,
with which he intended to begin one of his books Zfe
Principiis cogitandi.
From the winter of the year 1742, to the day of his
death, his principal refidence was at Cambridge : from
which he was feldom abfent any confiderable time, ex¬
cept between the years 1 759 and 1762 ; when, on the
opening of the Britifti Mufeum, he took lodgings in
Southampton-row, in order to have recourfe to the
Harleian and other manuferipts there depofrted, from
which he made feveral curious extradfs, amounting in
all to a tolerable-fized folio, at prefent in the hands of
Mr Walpole.
About the year 1747, Mr Mafon, the editor of Mr
Gray’s poems, was introduced to him. The former
had written, a year or two before, fome imitations of
Milton’s juvenile poems, viz. A Monody on the death
of Mr Pope, and two pieces intitled II Bellicofo and
II Pacifico on the peace of Aix-la-Chaptlle; and the
latter reviftd them, at the requeft of a friend. This
laid the foundation of an intimacy which continued
without interruption to the death of Mr-Gray.
About the year 1750, Mr Gray had put his laft
hand to his celebrated Elegy written in a country
church yard, and had communicated it to his friend
Mr Walpole, whofe good tafte was too much charmed
with
c r a r i
r Gray. with it to fuffer him to with hold the fight of it from
W—y—— acquaintance. Accordingly it was fiiown about for
fome time in manufcript, and received with all the ap-
plaufe it fo juftly merited. At laft the publiftrer of
one of the magazines having obtained a furreptitious
copy of it, Mr Gray wrote to Mr Walpole, defiring
that he would put his own manufcript into the hands
of Mr Dodfley, and order him to print it immediately.
This was the moil popular of all our author’s publica¬
tions. It ran through eleven editions in a very ihort
fpace of time; was finely tranfiated into Latin by
by Meffrs Anfiy and Roberts; and in the fame year
by Mr Lloyd.
From July 1759 to the year 1762, he generally re-
fided in London, with a view, as we have already ob-
ferved, of having recourfe to the Britifli Mufeum. In
July 1768, his grace the duke of Grafton wrote him
a polite letter, informing him, that his majefty had
been pleafed to offer to him the profefforihip of Mo¬
dern Hiilory in the univerfity of Cambridge, then va¬
cant by the death of Mr Laurence Brocket. This
place was valuable in itfelf, the falary being 4001. a-
year; but what rendered it particularly acceptable to
Mr Gray was its being given him without any felici¬
tation. He was indeed remarkably difinterelled in all
his purfuits. Though his income, before this addi¬
tion, was very fmall, he never read or wrote with a
view of making his labours ufeful to himfelf. He may
be faid to have been of thofe few perfonages in the
annals of literature, efpecially in the poetical clafs,
who are devoid of felf .intereft, and at the fame time
attentive to economy ; and alfo was among mankind
in general one of thofe very few economills, who pof-
fefs that talent, untin&ured with the flighteft ftain of
avarice. When his circumftanccs were at the lowed,
he gave away fuch fums in private charity, as would
have done credit to an ampler purfe. But what chief¬
ly deterred him from feeking any advantage by his
literary purfuits, was a certain degree of pride, which
' led him to defpife the idea of being thought an author
by profefiion.
However, it is probable, that early in life he had
an intention of publilhing an edition of Strabo; for
his papers contain a great number of notes and geo¬
graphical difquifitions on that author, particulaily
with refpect to that part of Afia which comprehends
Perfia and India. The indefatigable pains which he
took with the writings of Plato, and the quantity of
critical as well as explanatory obfervations which he
has left upon almoft every part of his works, plainly
indicate, that no man in Europe was better prepared
to republifh and illufirate that philofopher than Mr
Gray. A nother work, on which he bellowed uncom¬
mon labour, was the Anthologia. In an interleaved
copy of that colledlion of Greek epigrams, he has tran-
feribed feveral additional ones, which he file died in his
extenfive reading ; has inferted a great number of cri¬
tical notes and emendations, and fubjoined a copious
index. But whether he intended this performance for
the prefs or not, is uncertain. The only work which
he meditated upon with this diredt view from the be¬
ginning was a hiilory of Englilh poetry, upon a plan
Iketched out by Mr Pope. He has mentioned this
himfelf in an advertifement to thofe three fine imita¬
tions of Norfe and Welch poetry, which he gave the
23 ] G R A
world in the lall edition of his poems. But after he Gray,
had made fome confiderable preparations for the exe-
cution of this defign, and Mr Mafon had offered him
his affiftance, he was informed, that Mr Warton, of
Trinity College, Oxford, was engaged in a work of
the fame kind. The undertaking was therefore relin-
quilhed, by mutual confent; and foon after, on that
gentleman’s defiring a fight of the plan, our author
readily fent him a copy of it.
Among other iciences, Mr Gray had acquired a
great knowledge of Gothic architedlure. He had feen
and accurately lludied in his youth, while abroad, the
Roman proportions on the fpot, both in ancient times,
and in the w-orks of Palladio. In his later years he
applied himfelf to confider thofe llupendous llrudlures
of more modern date that adorn our own country ;
which, if they have not the fame grace, have undoubt¬
edly equal dignity. He endeavoured to trace this
mode of building from the time it commenced through
its various changes, till it arrived at its perfe&ion in
the reign of Henry VIII. and ended in that of Eliza¬
beth. For this purpofe, he did not fo much depend
upon written accounts, as that internal evidence which
the buildings themfelves give of their refpedlive anti¬
quity; fince they conllantly furnilh to the well inform¬
ed eye, arms, ornaments, and other marks, by which
their feveral ages may be afeertained. On this account
he applied himfelf to the lludy of heraldry as a prepa¬
ratory fcience ; and has left behind him a number of
genealogical papers, more than fufficient to prove him
a complete mailer of it. By thefe means he arrived at
fo very extraordinary a pitch of fagacity, as to be en¬
abled to pronounce, at firll fight, on the precife time
when every particular part of any of our cathedrals was
eredled. But the favourite fludy of Mr Gray for the
laft ten years of his life was natural hiilory, which he
then rather refumed than began ; as by the inllruc-
tions of his uncle Antrobus, he was a confiderable bo-
tanift at 15. The marginal notes which he has left on
Linnseus and other writers on the vegetable, animal,
and foflile kingdoms, are very numerous: but the moft
confiderable are on Hudfon’s Flora Anglica, and the
tenth edition of the Syjtema Nature; which latter he
interleaved and filled almoft entirely’. While employ¬
ed on zoology, he read Ariftotle’s treatife on that fub-
jeift with great care, and explained many difficult paf-
fages of that obfeure ancient by the lights he had re¬
ceived from modern naturalifts. In a word, excepting
pure mathematics, and the ftudies dependent on that
fcience, there was hardly any part of human learning
in which he had not acquired a competent fle-iil, and
in moft of them a confummate maftery. To this ac¬
count of his literary chara&er we may add, that he
had a fine tafte in painting, prints, gardening, and
mufic; and was moreover a man of good-breeding,
virtue, and humanity.
He died in 1771 > an<l an edition of his poems, with
memoirs of his life and writings, were publilhed in qto,
jn by Mr Mafon. This gentleman, however,
inftead of employing his own pen in drawing Mr Gray’s
charadler,hasadoptedonedrawn by the Rev. Mr Temple,
reilor of Mamhead in Devonfhire, in a letter to Mr Bof-
well; to whom the public are indebted for communi¬
cating it. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Temple) he was the
moft learned man in Europe. He was equally acquainted
P 2 with
Gray
II
Great.
G R A [ 124 ] G R E
with the elegant and profound parts of fcience, and
that not fuperficially but thoroughly. He knew every
branch of hiftory, both natural and civil; had read all
the original hiltorians of England, France, and Italy :
and was a great antiquarian. Criticifm, metaphyfics,
morals, politics, made a principal part of his plan of
ftudy; voyages and travels of all forts were his favou¬
rite amufement; and he had a fine tafte in painting,
prints, archite&ure, and gardening. With fuch a
fund of knowledge, his converfation muft have been
equally inftrudting and entertaining; but he was alfo
a good man, a well-bred man, a man of virtue and hu¬
manity. There is no charafter without fame fpeck,
fome imperfeftion; and I think the greateft deleft in
his was an affeftation in delicacy, or rather effeminacy,
and a vifible faftidioufnefs, or contempt and .difdain of
his inferiors in fcience. He alfo had, in fome degree,
that weaknefs which difgufted Voltaire fo much in Mr
Congreve: though he feemed to value others chiefly
■according to the progrefs they had made in knowledge,
yet he could not bear to be confidered himfelf merely
as a man of letters; and though without birth, or for¬
tune, or ftation, his defire was to be looked upon as a
private independent gentleman, who re^d for his a-
mufcment. Perhaps it may be faid, What fignifies fo
much knowledge, when it produces fo little ? Is it
worth taking fo much pains to leave no memorial but
a few poems ? But let it be confidered, that Mr Gray
was, to others, at lead innocently employed ; to him¬
felf, certainly beneficially. His time paffed agreeably;
he was every day making fome new acquifition in
fcience; his mind was enlarged, his heart foftened, and
his virtue flrengthened ; the world and mankind were
fhown to him without a mafic; and he was taught to
conlider every thing as trifling, and unworthy the at¬
tention of a wife man, except the purfuit of know¬
ledge, and the praftice of virtue in that date wherein
God hath placed us.”
GRAYLING, in ornithology, a fpecies of Salmo.
In angling for this fifli your hook mud be armed
upon the flunks with a very narrow plate of lead, which
fliould be flendered at the bent of the hook, that the
bait (which is to be a large grafliopper, the uppermod
wing of which mud be pulled off) may come over to
it the more eafily. At the point lei there be a cad-
bait in a continual motion. The jag-tail, which is a
worm of a pale flefti-colour, with a yellow tag on its
tail, is an excellent bait for the grayling in March and
April.
GREASE, a fwelling and gourdinefs of the legs
of a horfe. See Farsliery, § xxxvi.
GREAT, a term of comparifon, denoting a thing
to have more extenfion than fome other to which it is
referred. Thus we fay, a great fpace, a great didance,
a great figure, a great body, &c.
Great is likewife ufed figuratively in matters of
morality, &c. to fignify ample,.noble, elevated, extra¬
ordinary, important, &c. Thus we fay, Shakefpeare
was a great genius, Da Vinci a great painter, Galileo
a great philofopher, Boffu a great critic, &c.
Great is alfo a title or quality appropriated to cer¬
tain princes and other illudrious perfonages. Thus
we fay, the great Turk, the great Mogul, the great
cham of Tartary, the great duke of Florence, &c.
Great is alfo a furname bedowed on feveral kings
and emperors. Thus we fay, Alexander the great;
Cyrus the great; Charles the great, or Charlemagne ;
Henry thegreat of France, &c.
Great is alfo applied to feveral officers who have
pre-eminence over others. Thus we fay, the lord
great chamberlain; the great marihal of Poland, &c. .
GREATER tone, in mufic. See Tone.
GREAVES (John), an eminent phylician and an¬
tiquary, was the elded fon of John Greaves reftor of
Colemore, near Alresford in Hampfliire, and born in
1602. He was educated at Baliol College in Oxford,
from which he removed to Merton. He was after¬
wards, on the foot of his great merit,, chofen geo¬
metry profeffor of Grefliam college. His ardent third
of knowledge foon carried him into fevtral parts of
Europe, where he eagerly feized every opportunity of
improving it. His next voyage was into the ealtern
countries; where nothing remarkable in the heavens,
earth, or even fubterraneous places,' feetns to have
efcaped his nice obfervation. He, with indefatigable
indudry, and even at the peril of his life, collefted
a confiderable number of Arabic, Perfic, and Greek,
manuferipts, for archbilhop Laud. Of thefe he well
knew the value, as he was a mafler of the languages
in which they were written. He alio collefted for
that prelate many oriental gems and coins. Fie took
a more accurate furvey of the pyramids than any tra¬
veller who went before him. On his return from the
Ead, he vifited feveral parts of Italy a fecond time.
During his day at Rome, he made a particular inquiry
into the true date of the ancient weights and meaiures-.
Soon after he had finiflred his fecond voyage, he was.
chofen Savilian profeffor.of adronomy at Oxford. He
was eminently qualified for this profefforfhip, as the
works of ancient and modern adronomers were fami¬
liar to him. Flis books relating to oriental learning,
his Pyraniidograthia, or a defeription of the pyramids
in Egypt, his Epocha Celebriores, and other curious
and ufeful pieces, of which Mr Ward has given us a
catalogue, fliowhim to have been a great man. Thofe
which he intended to publiih would haye fliown him
to be a greater; but he was flopped in his great career
by death in 1652.
GREBE, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
GREfc.CE, the prefent Rumelia, and in many re-
fpefcls one of the mod defervedly celebrated countries
in the world, was anciently bounded on the north by
Macedonia and the river Strymon; on the wed oy the
Ionian fea ; on the fouth by the Mediterranean ; on
the ead by the Egean fea and Archipelago. It ex¬
tended from the Strymon, by which it was parted from
Thrace, to the promontory of Tenarus, the fouthmod
point of the Peloponnefus, now the Morea, about 6°
20' of latitude, or nearly 440 Englifli miles, and in
breadth from ead to wed about 359 miles.
The general names by which tfie inhabitants of this
country were known to tire ancients were thofe of
Gram, or Graicoi, from whence the name of Greece is
plainly derived. Thefe names are thought to come from
Graecus, the father, or (according to fome) ihe fon, of
Theffalus, who gave name to Theffaly ; but fome mo¬
dern critics choofe to derive it from Ragau, the fame
with Rea, the fon of Peleg, by the tranfpofition of a
letter to foften the found.—Thefe names were after¬
wards changed for Ach<zi and Hellenes; the firfl, as is
fuppofed,,
Great
Gr"
G R E
fuppofed, from Achtus, the foil of Xuthus, the fon of
' He lien, and father of Ion ; or, according to the fable,
the fon of Jupiter: the other from Hellen, above-men¬
tioned, the fon of Deucalion, and father of Dorus,
from whom came the Dores, afterwards a famous na¬
tion among the Greeks.- -Another name by which the
Greeks were known in fome parts of the country, was
that of Pelafgi, which the Arcadians, the moft ancient
people in Greece, deduced from their pretended foun¬
der Pclafgus ; who is faid to have got fuch footing in
Peloponnefus, that the whole peninfula from him was
called Pelafgia. But the moft ancient name of all is
univerfally allowed to have been that of lones, which
the Greeks themfelves derived from Ion the fon of
Xuthus; or, as the fable hath it, of Apollo, by Cre-
ufa the daughter of Erichtheus the grandfon of Deu¬
calion. Jofephus, however, affirms, that their origi¬
nal is of much older date ; and that Javan, the fon of
Japhet, and grandfon of Noah, was the firft who
peopled thefe countries; which Bochart hath alfo ren¬
dered very probable. It is true, indeed, that among
the Greeks themfelves, only the Athenians, and fuch
colonies as fprung from them, were called lones : but
it is alfo plain beyond exception, that other nations
gave this name to all the inhabitants of Greece.
The inhabitants of Greece in the firft ages, even
by the confefiion of their own hiftorians, appear to
have been favages fcarce a degree removed from brutes.
They lived indifferently on every fruit, herb, or root
that came in their way ; and lay either in the open
fields, or at beft fheltered themfelves in dens, caves,
and hollow trees; the country itfelf in the mean time
remaining one continued uncultivated defart.—The firft
improvement they made in their way of living, was
the exchanging of their old food for the more whole-
fome acorns, building huts for themfelves to fleep in,
and covering their bodies with the fkins of beafts. For
all this, it feems, they were beholden to Ptlafgius a-
bove-mentioned (fuppofed by fome to be Peleg fpoken
of in Scripture), and who was highly reverenced by
them on that account.—This reformation in their way
of life, however, it feems wrought none in their man¬
ners. On the contrary, they who had nothing to fight
for but a hole to fleep in, began now to envy and rob
one another of thefe flender acquifkions. This, in
procefs of time, put them under a ntceffity of joining
themfelves into companies under fome head, that they
might either more fafely plunder their neighbours,
or preferve what they had got. Laws they had none,
except that of the fword : fo that thofe only lived in
fafety who inhabited the moft barren and craggy pla¬
ces; and hence Greece for a long’time had no fettled
inhabitants, the weakeft being always turned out by
the ftrongeft. Their gigantic fize and ftrength, if we
may believe Plutarch, added fo much to their infolence
and cruelty, that they feemed to glory in committing
the greateft a6b of violence and barbarity on thofe
that unhappily fell into their hands.
The next advance towards civilization, was their
forming themfelves into regular focieties^ to cultivate
the lands, and build themfelves towns and cities for
their fafety. Their original barbarity and mutual vio¬
lences againft each other naturally prevented them, from
uniting as one nation, or even into any confiderable
community : and hence the great number of ftates in-
G R E
to which Greece was originally divided. The moft
remarkable of thefe fmall principalities mentioned in
hiflory are the following : In Peloponnefus were thofe
of Sicyon, Argos, and Meffenia, Achaia Propria,
Arcadia, and Laconia. In Gre’cia Propria (that
part of Greece which lay without Peloponnefus), were
thofe of Attica, Megara, Eoeotia, Locris, Epichne-
midia, Doris, Phocis, Locris, Ozolsea, and iEtolia.
In Epirus were the Mololfi, Amphilochi, Cafliopaei,
Drseopes, Chaoces, Threfpotii, Almeni, and Acar-
nani. In Theifaly were thofe of Theffaliotis, Efti-
otis, Pelafgiotis, Magnefia, and Phthia.—All thefe
have at one time or other been feverally governed by
kings of their own, though we only find the names of
many of them mentioned in the hiftories of the more
confiderable kingdoms of Sparta, Attica, Thebes,
See.—The eredfion of thefe kingdoms, however, for
fome time, did not much alter the cafe ; the inhabi¬
tants of the new kingdoms plundered and deftroyed
one another without mercy. Attica was the only place
in any degree free from thefe incurfions, becaufe it
was naturally deftitute of every thing that could in¬
vite a plundering enemy ; but thofe cities fared much
worfe which were fituated on the fea-coafts ; becaufe
they were in continual danger of being plundered ei¬
ther by fea or land : for pirates at that time did not
lefs infeft all thofe feas than robbers did the land. And
this was one main caufe why moft of the ancient cities
of Greece were fituated at fome confiderable diftance
from the fiiore; but even in thefe, as all their fafi^ty
confifted in the refiftance they could make againft an
invader, their inhabitants were under a neceffity of go¬
ing cqnftantly armed, and being ever on their guard.
Another mifehief arifing fiom thefe continual pira¬
cies and robberies was, that they occafioned the far
greater part of the lands to lie uncultivated, fo that
the people only planted and fowed as much as was
barely neceffary for their prefent fupport; and where
there was fuch an univerfal negledl of agriculture,
there could be as little room for any difeoveries in o-
ther ufeful arts and trades. Hence, when other na¬
tions, as the Jews, Egyptians, Midianites, Phoenici¬
ans,. &c. had improved themfelves to a very high de¬
gree, the Greeks, feem t o have been utter ftrangers to ?
every ufeful art.
During this period of favage barbarity, the moft
renowned Grecian heroes, as Hercules, Thefeus, &c. ’
performed their exploits ; which, however exaggera¬
ted by poetic fidlion, no doubt had a foundation in
truth. Some indeed are of opinion that the Grecian
heroes are entirely fi&itious, and their exploits de¬
rived from thofe of the Hebrew worthies, fuch as Sam-
fon, Gideon, &c. Yet, confidering the extreme de¬
gree of barbarity, which at that time prevailed through¬
out Greece, it feems not at all improbable that fome
perfons of extraordinary ftrength and courage might
undertake the caufe of the oppreffed, and travel about
like the more modern knights-errant in queft of ad¬
ventures.
The firft expedition in which we find the, Greeks
united, was that againft Troy, the particulars of which
are recited under the article Troy. Their fuccefs
here (which happened about 1184 B. C.) coft them
very dear ; vaft numbers of their braveft warriors be¬
ing flain ; great numbers of the furvivors being caft
[ 125 ]
away
Gr R E r 126 1 G R E
away in their return ; and many of thofe who had the
good luck to get back again, being foon after mur¬
dered, or driven out of their country. It is probable,
however, that their having ftaid for fuch a long time
in Afia, might contribute to civilize the Greeks fome-
Vvhat fooner than what they othervvife would have
been ; and accordingly from this time, we find their
hiftory fomevvhat Id's obfeure, and as it were begin-
ing to emerge out of darknefs. The continual wars, in¬
deed, in which they were engaged among themfelves,
no doubt, for a long time, prevented them from ma¬
king any confiderable progrefs in thofe arts in which
they afterwards made fo great progrefs. Thefe wars,
which indeed never ceafed as long as the Greeks pre-
ferved their liberty, rendered them brave, and {killed
in the military art, above all other nations; but at the
fame time they effectually prevented them from making
permanent conquefts, and confined them within the
bounds of their own country; while the different flates
were one way or other fo equally balanced, that fcarce
one of them was able perfectly to fubdue another. The
Spartans, however, having, with great difficulty, re¬
duced the kingdom of Meffene, and added its terri¬
tories to their own, became the leading people in
Greece. Their fuperiority was long difputed by A-
thens ; but the Peloponnefian war at laft determined
that point in favour of the Spartans, when the city
of Athens was taken, and its walls demolifhed by Ly-
fander the Spartan general. See Attica, n° 164.
-—By the battle of LeuCfra, the Spartans loft that
fuperiority which they had maintained for 500 years,
ami which now devolved on the Thebans. After the
death of Epaminondas, the celebrated Theban gene¬
ral, however, as no perfon was found poffefled of his
abilities, the Thebans were again obliged to yield
the fuperiority to the Spartans. But by this time
the Greeks had become acquainted with the luxuries
and elegancies of life ; and all the rigour of their ori¬
ginal laws could not prevent them from valuing thefe
as highly as other people. This did not indeed abate
their valour, but it heightened their mutual animofi-
ties; at the fame time that, for the fake of a more ea-
fy and comfortable life, they became more difpofed to
fubmrt to a matler. The Pcrfians, wftiofe power they
had long dreaded, and who were unable to refill them
by force of arms, at laft found out (by the advice of
Alcibiades) the proper method of reducing the Gre¬
cian power; namely, by affifttng them by turns, and
fupplying one ftate with money to fight againft another,
till they fhould all be fo much reduced, that they
might become an eafy prey. Thus the Greeks were
weakened, though the Perfians fiid not reap any bene¬
fit from their weaknefs. Philip of Macedon entered
into the fame political views; and partly by intrigue,
partly by force, got himfelf declared Generalifli-
mo of Greece. His fuccefibr Alexander the Great
completed their fubjeftion; and by deftroying the ci¬
ty of Thebes, and exterminating its inhabitants, ftruck
fuch a terror throughout Greece, that he was as
fully obeyed by all the Hates as by any of the reft of
his fubje&s. During his abfence in Perfxa, however,
they attempted to fhake off the Macedonian- yoke, but
were quelled by his general Antipater. The news of
Alexander’s death was to them a matter of the utmoft
joy ; but their mutual animofitics prevented them
from joining in any Colid plan for the recovery of their Greece,
liberties, and hence they continued to be opprefled by v——
Alexander’s fucceffors, or other tyrants, till Aratus,
an Achaean, about 268 B. C. formed a defign of fet-
ting his country free from thefe oppreffors. He per-
fuaded a number of the fmall republics to enter into a
league for their own defence, which was called the
Acliean league; and notvvithftanding that the repu¬
blics, taken fmgly, had very little ftrength, they not
only maintained their independency, but foon became
formidable when united. This afiociation continued
to become daily more and more powerful; but received
a fevere check from Cleomenes, king of Sparta, which
obliged them to call in Antigonus to their affiftance.
This prince overcame Cleomenes at the battle of Sel-
lafia, and afterwards made himfelf mafter of Sparta.
Thus he became a more formidable enemy than the
one he had conquered, and the recovery of the Gre¬
cian liberties was incomplete.
Soon after this, the Greeks began to feel the weight
of a power more formidable than any which they had
yet experienced ; namely, that of the Romans. That
infidious and haughty republic firft intermeddled with
the Grecian affairs, under pretence of fetting them at
liberty from the oppreflion of Philip of Macedon.
This, by a proper union among tbemfelves, they might
have accomplifhed : but in this they ailed as though
they had been infatuated; receiving with the utmoft
joy the decree of the Roman conful, who declared
them free; without confidering, that he who had thus
given them liberty, might take it away at his pleafure.
This leflbn, however, they were foon taught, by the
total redu&ion of their country to a Roman province;
yet this can fcarce be called a misfortune, when we
look back to their hiftory, and confider their outra¬
ges upon one another: nor can we fympathife with
them for the lofs of that liberty which they only made
ufe of to fill their country with flaughter and blood-
fhed. After their conqueft by the Romans, they
made no united effort to recover their liberty. They
continued in quiet fubjeftion till the beginning of
the 15th century. About that time, they began
to fuffer under the tyranny of the Turks, and their
fufferings were completed by the taking of Conftanti-
nople in 1453. Since that time, they have groaned
under the yoke of a moft defpotic government; fo that
all traces of their former valour, ingenuity, and learn¬
ing, are now in a manner totally extinft.
Modern Greece comprehends Macedonia ; Albania,
now called Amaut; Epirus; Theffaly, now Jana; A-
chaia, now Livadia; the Peloponnefus, now Morea; to¬
gether with the iflands on its coaft, and in the Archi¬
pelago. The continent of Greece is feated betwixt
the 36th and 43d degrees of north latitude ; and be¬
tween the 19th and 27th degrees of longitude, eaft
of London. To the north it is bounded, by Bulga¬
ria and Servia, from which it is divided by a ridge
of mountains; to the fouth, by the Mediterranean fea;
to the eaft, by Romania and the Archipelago; and to
the weft, by the Adriatic, or gulph of Venice. Its
length is faid to be about 400 miles, and its utmoft
breadth about 350 miles. The air is extremely tem¬
perate and healthy: and the foil fruitful, though badly
cultivated ; yielding corn, wine, delicious fruits, and
abounding with cattle, fowls,■ and venifon. As to re¬
ligion.
'
G R E [ 127 ] G R E
Greece, liglon, Chriflianity was planted in Greece foon after remonies, the bridegroom and bride drink each two G-eere,
the death of our Saviour, and flourifhed there for many glades of wine ; then the glafs is given to the pried, Greelf-
ages in great purity ; but fince the Greeks became who merrily drinks off the red of the wine, and break-
fubjeA to the Turkilh yoke, they have funk into the ing the-glafs, fays, So may the bridegroom break the
molt deplorable ignorance, in confequenee of the fiavery virginity of the bride. As to the chara&er of the
and thraldom under which they groan, and their re- modern Greeks, they are faid to be very covetous, hy-
ligion is now greatly corrupted. It is indeed little pocritical, treacherous, great pederafts, and -at the
better than a heap of ridiculous ceremonies and abfur- fame time revengeful to the highed degree ; but very
dities. The head of the Greek church is the patriarch fuperftitious. They are fo much defpifed by the Turks,
of Conftantinople ; who is chofen by the neighbouring that thefe do not value even a Greek who turns Ma-
archbithops and metropolitans, and confirmed by the hometan. The Turks arc remarkable for their taei-
emperor or grand vilir. He is a perfon of great dig- turnity ; they never ufe any unneceilary words: but
nity, being the head and dire&cr of the eaftern church, the Greeks, on the contrary, are very talkative and
The other patriarchs are thofe of Jerufalem, Antioch, lively. The Turks generally pra&ife what their re-
and Alexandria. Mr Tournefort tells us, that the pa- ligion enjoins, but the Greeks do not ; and their mi-
triarchates are now generally fet to fale, and beftowed fery puts them upon a thoufand mean (hifts and fcan-
upon thofe who are the higheft bidders. The patriarchs, dalous practices, authorized by bad example, and
nunropolitans, archbifhops, and biihops, are always cho- perpetuated from father to fon. The Greek women
fen from among the Caloyers or Greek monks. Before have fine features and beautiful complexions: their
the patriarchs receive their patents and the caftan, which countenances Hill very much referable thofe of the an-
is a veft of linfey-woolfey, or fome other fluff, prefented cient Greek ilatues.
by the grand fignior to ambaffadors and other perfons GREEK, or Grecian, any thing belonging to
newly inverted with fome confiderable dignity, they are ancient Greece.
obliged to make large prefents to the vizir, &c. The The Gieek language, as preferved in the writings
income of the patriarch of Conftantinople is faid to of the celebrated authors of antiquity, as Homer, He-
amount to no lefs than one hundred and twenty thou- fiod, Demoftheries, Ariftotle, Plato, Xenophon, &c.
fand guilders, of which he pays the one half by way has a great variety of terms and exprefllons, fuitable
of annual tribute to the Ottoman Poite, adding fix to the genius and occaiions of a polite and learned
thoufand guilders befides as a prefent at the feait of people, who had a tafte for arts and fciences. In it,
Bairam. The next perfon to a bifhop among the proper names are fignificative; which is the reafon that
clergy is an archimandrite, who is the director of one the modern languages borrow fo many terms from it.
or more convents, which are called mandren ; then When any new invention, inftrument, machine, or the
come the abbot, the arch-prieft, the prieft, the dea- like, is difeovered, reenurfe is generally had to the
con, the under-deacon, the chanter, and the ledtu- Greek, fitr a name to it; the facility wlierewith words
rer. The fectilar clergy are fubjefted to no rules, and are there compounded, affording fuch as will be ex-
never rife higher than high-prieft. They are allowed prefiive of its ufe : fuch are, barometer, hygrometer,
to marry or.ee ; but it mull be with a virgin, and be- microfcope, telefcope, thermometer, &c. But of all
fore they are ordained. They have neither glebe nor fciences, medicine moft abounds with fuch terms ; as
tythes, but depend on the perquifites that arife from diaphoretic, diagnolis, diarrhoea, hsemonhage, hy-
their office ; and they feldom preach but in Lent, drophobia, phthifis, atrophy, &c. Befides the copi-
The Greeks have few nunneries; but a great many con- oufnefs and fignificancy of the Greek, wherein it ex-
vents of monks, who are all priefts, and, ftudents cels moft, if not all, other languages, it has alfo three
excepted, obliged to follow fome handicraft employ- numbers, viz. a lingular, dual, and plural: alfo a-
ment, and lead a very auftere life. The Greeks deny bundance of tenfes in its verbs, which makes a variety
the fupremacy of the pope, and abhor the worfhip in difeourfe, prevents a certain drynefs that always ac-
of images i but have a multitude of pidlures of faints companies too great an uniformity, and renders that
in their churches, whom they pray to as mediators, language peculiaily proper for all kinds of verfe. The
Their farts are very fevere. They believe alfo in the ufe of the participles, of the aorift and preterite, toge-
dodrine of tranfubftantiation, and that the Holy ther with the compound words already mentioned, give
Ghoft does not proceed from the Son. They admit it a peculiar force and brevity without taking any
not of purgatory, fays Mr Thevenot : but yet they thing from its perfpicuity.
allow a third place, where they fay the bleffed re- It is no eafy matter to affign the precife difference
main, in expectation of the day of judgment. At between the modern and ancient Greek; which con-
mafs they confecrate with leavened bread ; and com- fifts in the terminations of the nouns, pronouns, verbs,
municate under both kinds, as well laies as priefts, &c. not unlike what obtains between fome of the di-
and as well women and children as men. When they aleSs of the Italian or Spanifh. There are alfo in the
carry the facrament to the fick, they do net pro- modern Greek many new words, not to be met with.
{Irate themfelves before it, nor expofe it to be adored : in the ancient. Wc may therefore diftinguifh three
neither do they carry it in proceffion, or have any ages of the Greek tongue : the firft of which ends at
particular feaft in honour of it. Baptifm is perform- the time when Conrtantinople became the capital of
ed among them by plunging the whole body of the the Roman empire; the fecond lalled from that period
child thrice into water. Immediately after baptifm, to the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks; and the
they give it confirmation and the communion ; ami third from that time to this,
feven days after that, it undergoes the ceremony of Greek Bible. See Bible.
ablution. When a prieft is married, among other ce- Greek Church, is that part of the Chriftian churcK
6 which:
G R E [ 128 ] ORE
which is eftablifhed in Greece ; extending likewife to
fome other parts of Turky. See Greece.— It is thus
called in Europe, Alia, and Africa, in contradiftinftion
, from the Latin or Romifti church; as alfo the Eallern
church, in diftinftion from the Weftern.
The Romanifts, call the Greek church the Greeh
fchifm ; becaufe the Greeks do not allow the authority
of the pope, but depend wholly,, as to matters of reli¬
gion, on their own patriarchs. They have treated them
as fchifmatics ever fince the revolt, as they call it, of
the patriarch Photius.
Greek Monks and Nuns, of whatever order, conlider
St Bafil as their founder and common father, and
efteem it the higheft crime to deviate in the leaft from
his conftitutions. There are feveral beautiful convents
with churches, in which the monks perform divine
fervice day and night. Some of the monks are coeno¬
bites, or live together, wear the fame habit, eat at the
fame table, and perform the fame exercifes and employ¬
ments.
Greek Orders, in architecture, are the Doric, Ionic,
and Corinthian ; in contradiftinCtion to the two Latin
orders,, the Tufcan and Compolke. See Order.
GREEN, one of the origina,! prifmatic colours,
exhibited by the re fra ft ion of the rays of light. See
Chromatics and Colour.
Green, among painters and dyers. See Colour-
Making, n° 27. and Dyeing, n° 93—95.
Green-Cloth, a board or court of juitice held in the
compting-houfe of the king’s houfehold, compofed of
the Lord Steward and officers under him, who fit
daily. To this court is committed the charge and over-
fight of the king’s houfehold in matters of juftice and
government, with a power to correft all offenders, and
to maintain the peace of the verge, or jurifdiftion of
the court-royal 5 which is every way about 200 yards
from the laft gate of the palace where his majefly
refides.
It takes its name, hoard of green cloth, from a green
cloth fpread over the board where they fit.
Without a warrant firft obtained from this court,
none of the king’s fervants can be arrefted for debt.
Clerks of the Green Cloth were two officers of the
board of green cloth, who appointed the diet of the
king and his houfehold ; and kept all records, legers,
and papers relating thereto; made up bills, parcels, and
debentures for falaries, and provifions and neceffaries for
the officers of the buttery, pantry, cellar, &c. They
alfo waited upon foreign princes when entertained by
his majefty. But this has been lately abolifhed.
Green Finch, in ornithology, the Englifh name
of thegreenifh fringilia, with the wings and.tail varie¬
gated with yellow. See Fringilla.
GREEN-Houfe, or Confervatory, a houfe in a garden,
contrived for fheltering and preferving the moft curious
and tender exotic plants, which in our climate will not
bear to be expofed to the open air, efpecially during
the winter feafon. Thefe are generally large and beau¬
tiful ftruftures, equally ornamental and ufeful.
The length of grpenhoufes muft be proportioned to
the number of plants intended to be preferved in them,
and cannot therefore be reduced to rule: but their
depth fhould never be greater than their height in the
clear ; which, in fmall or middling houfes, may be 16
Or 18 feet, but in large ones from 20 to 24 feet; and
'N° 144.
the length of the windows ffiould reach from about one
foot and a half above the pavement, and within the
fame diilance of the cieling, which will admit or a
corniche round the building over the heads of the win¬
dows. Their breadth cannot be in proportion to their
length ; for if in the largeft buildings they are more
than feven or feven feet and a half broad, they will be
extremely heavy and inconvenient. The piers between
the windows muff be as narrow as may be to fupport
the building; for which reafon they ffiould either be of
ftone or of hard burnt bricks. If the piers are made
of ftone, they (hould be 30 inches wide in front, and
floped off behind to about 18 inches, by which means
there will be no corners to take off the rays of the fun.
If they are of brick, they will require to be at leaft
three feet in front, but they ffiould be in the fame manner
Hoped off behind. Over the greenhoufe may be rooms
for drying and preferving feeds, roots, &c. and behind
it a place for tools and other purpofes; and both thefe
behind, and the rooms above, will be of great ufe in
keeping off the frofts, fo that the wall between thefe
heed not be of more than two bricks and a half in
thicknefs.
The floor of the greenhoufe, which ftiould be laid
either with Bremen fquares, Purbeck ftone, or flat
tiles, muft be raifed two feet above the furface of the
adjoining ground, or if the fituation be damp, at leaft
three feet; and if the whole is arched with low brick
arches under the floor, they will be of great fervice
in preventing damps ; and under the floor, about two
feet from the front, it will be very advifable to make
a flue of ten inches wide and two feet deep; this
ffiould be carried the whole length of the houfe, and
then returned back along the hinder part, and there be
carried up into funnels adjoining to the tool-houfe, by
which the fmoke may be carried off. The fire-place
may be contrived at one end of the houfe, and the
door at which the fuel is put in, as alfo the affi-grate,
may be contrived to open into the tool-houfe, and the
fuel being laid in the fame place, the whole will be out
of fight. Bradley advifes, that the front of green-
houfes, in the colder parts of England, be built in a
fweep or femicircle, fo that one part or other of it may
receive the fun’s rays all day. The ufe of fires muft,
however, be very fparing in this place ; and it is not
one winter in three or four that will require them in
any part, only when the weather is very fevere, and the
froft cannot well be kept out any other way, this is an
expedient that is good to have in readinefs, as it may
fave a whole houfe of plants. Withinfide of the win¬
dows, in front of the greenhoufe, there ffiould be good
ftrong flutters, made with hinges, to fold back clofe
to the piers, that they may not obftruft the rays of
the fun. The back part of the houfe ffiould be either
laid over with ftucco or plaftered with mortar, and
whitewaffied, in order to prevent the frofty air from
penetrating through the walls. When the greenhoufe
is wainfeotted, the walls ffiould be plaftered with lime
and hair behind the wainfeot, to keep out the cold ;
and the wainfeot, as well as the cieling, and every
part within the houfe, fliould be painted white, for
the refleftion of the fun’s rays. There muft be a num-
bet of treffels with forms of wood upon them, to fup¬
port the pots of plants ; the talleft to be placed hind-
moft, the lovveft within four feet of the windows: and
4 the
G R E [
Green, the rows of plants fliould rife gradually, fo that the
“■’v"-’"' heads of the fecond row fhould be entirely above the
firft ; and behind them there fhoold be a fpace of at
leaft five feet, for the convenience of watering the
plants, and for a free circulation of air. It has been
obferved, that the placing of the euphorbiums, ce-
reufes, and other fucculent plants among orange-trees,
and other common greenhoufe-plants, is always deftruc-
tiveof them, by making them receive an improper fort
of effluvia, which plants of that kind imbibe very
freely. They (hould therefore be placed in two wings
built at each end of the greenhoufe ; which, if well
contrived, will be a great beauty as well as ufe to the
building. Thefe wings may be made capable of a
greater warmth alfo by more flues, and may be made
to contaia a hot-bed of tanners bark for the raifing
many of the tender plants, natives of warm climates.
Whilft the front of the greenhoufe is exa&ly fouth,
one of the wings may be made to face the foutfi-eaft
and the other the fouth-weft. By this difpofition the
heat of the fun is refle&ed from one part of the build¬
ing to the other all day, and the front of the main
greenhoufe is guarded from the cold winds. Thefe
two wings may be fo contrived as to maintain plants
of different degrees of hardinefs, which may be eafily
effe&ed by the fituation and extent of the fire-place,
and the manner of condufting the flues: the wing fa¬
cing the fouth-eaft is evidently the moft proper for the
warmeft ftove ; this may be divided in the middle by a
partition of glafs, with glafs-doors opening from one
divifion to the other. In each of thefe there fliould be
a fire-place, with flues carried up againft the back-wall,
through which the fmoke ftiould be made to pafs as
many times the length of the houfe as the height will
admit of the number of flues; for the longer the fmoke
is in palling, the more heat will be given to the houfe
with a lefs quantity of fuel. The other wing, facing
the fouth-we ft, Ihould be divided and furnilhed with
flues in the fame manner ; and thus different degrees
of heat may be obtained, according to the feafons and
the particular forts of plants that are to be preferved.
If there are no Iheds behind thefe wings, the walls
fhould not be lefs than three bricks thick ; and the
back part, having Hoping roofs, which are covered
with tiles or Hates, {hould be lined with reeds, &c.
under the covering. The floping glaffes of thefe
houfes ftiould be made to Hide and take off, fo that
they may be drawn down more or lefs in warm weather
to admit air to the plants ; and the upright glaffes in
front may be fo contrived as that every other may
open as doors upon hinges, and the alternate glaffes
may be divided into two: the upper part of each
fhould be fo contrived as to be drawn down likefaflies,
fo that either of them may be ufed to admit air in a
greater or lefs quantity as there may be occafion.
As to the management of the plants herein, Morti¬
mer recommends the opening of the mould about them
from time to time, and fprinkling a little frefti mould
in them, and a little warm dung on that; as alfo to
water them when the leaves begin to wither and curl,
and not oftener, which would make them fade and be
fickly ; and to take off fuch leaves as wither and grow
dry.
GREEN-Siclnefs (Chhrofis). See Index fubjoined to
Medicine.
Vol.VIII. Parti.
[29 ] G R E
GREEU-Silvery the name of an ancient cuftom within Greenland,
the manor of Writtel in the county of Effex in England; ‘ * 1
which is, that every tenant whofe fore-door opens to
Greenbury {hall pay an half-penny yearly to the lord,
by the name of green-fiher.
GnEEN-JVax, is ufed where eftates are delivered to
the flieriffs out of the exchequer, under the feal of
that court, made in green vfax, to be levied in the fe-
veral counties. This word is mentioned the 43d flat.
Ed. III. c. 9. and 7 Hen. IV. c. 4.
GREENLAND, a general name by which are^fl.1
denoted the moft eafterly parts of Artierica, ftretching Greenland
towards the north pole, and likewife fome iflands to defcribed.
the northward of the continent of Europe, lying in
very high latitudes.
This country is divided into Weft and Eaft Green¬
land.—Weft Greenland is now determined by our lateft
maps to be a part of the continent of America, though
upon what authority is not very clear. That part of
k which the Europeans have any knowledge of is
bounded on the weft by Baffin’s Bay, on the fouth by
Davis’s Staits, and on the eaft by the northern part of
the Atlantic Ocean. It is a very mountainous country,
and fome parts of it fo high that they may be difeerned
30 leagues off at fea. The inland mountains, hills,
and rocks, are covered with perpetual fnow; but the
low lands on the fea-fide are clothed with verdure in
the fummer feafon. The coaft abounds with inlets,
bays, and large rivers ; and is furrounded with a vaft
number of iflands of different dimenfions. In a great
many places, however, on the eaftern coaft efpecially,
the ffiore is inacceffible by reafon of the floating moun¬
tains of ice. The principal river, called Baal, falls in¬
to the fea in the 64th degree of latitude, where the firft
Danifh lodge was built in 1721 ; and has been naviga¬
ted above 40 miles up the country.
Weft Greenland was firft peopled by Europeans in
the eighth century. At that time a company of Ice¬
landers,'headed by one Ericke Raude, were by accident
driven on the coaft. On his return he reprefented the ^
country in fuch a favourable light, that fome families Peopled by
again followed him thither, where they foon became a a colony
thriving colony, and beftowed on their new habitation froln Ice*
the name of Greenland, or Greenland, on account of itslin<*'
verdant appearance. This colony was converted to
Chriftianity by a miffionary from Norway, fent thither
by the celebratedOlaf, the firft Norwegian monarch who
embraced the true religion. The Greenland fettlement
continued to increafe and thrive under his protedlion j
and in a little time the country was provided with many
towns, churches, convents, biffiops, &c. under the ju-
rifdidtion of the archbifflop of Drontheim. A confider-
able commerce was carried on between Greenland and
Norway; and a regular intercourfe maintained between
the two countries till the year 1406, when the laft bi-
fliop was fent over. From that time all correspondence ... ^rr
was cut off, and all knowledge of Greenland has been ^01Xn^
buried in oblivion. with it fud-
This ftrange and abrupt ceffation of all trade andden!y cut
intercourfe has been attributed to various caufes; butoff'
the moft probable is the following. The colony, from
its firft fettlement, had been haraffed by the natives, a
barbarous and favage people; agreeing in cuftoms,
garb, and appearance, with the Efqnimaux found a-
bout Hudfon’s Bay. This nation, called Scbrellings,
at
G R E [130
Greenland, at length prevailed againft the Iceland fettlers who in-
habited the weftern diftrift, and exterminated them in
. 4 the 14th century: infomucb, that when their brethern
pofeTtoTe0^ t^ic ea^ern diilria came to their affiftance, tliey
extermina- found nothing alive but fome cattle and flocks of flieep
ted. running wild about the country. Perhaps they them-
felves afterwards experienced the fame fate, and were
totally deftroypd by thefe Schrellings, whofe defend¬
ants (till inhabit the weftern parts of Qreenland, and
from tradition confirm this conjedture. They affirm
that the houfes and villages, whofe ruins ftill appear,
were inhabited by a nation of ftrangers, whom their
anceftors deftroyed. There are reafons, however, for
believing that there may be ftill fome defendants
of the ancient Iceland colony remaining in the eaftern
diftridt, though they cannot be vilited by land, on ac¬
count of the ftupendous mountains, perpetually cover¬
ed with fnow, which divide the two parts of Green¬
land ; while they have been rendered inacceffible by
fea, by the vaft quantity of ice driven from Spitzber-
gen, or Eaft Greenland. One would imagine that
there muft have been fome confiderable alteration in the
northern parts of the world fince the 15th century, fo
that the coaft of Greenland is now become almoft to¬
tally inacceffible, though formerly vifited with very
little difficulty. It is alfo natural to afk, By what
means the people of the eaftern colony furmounted
the above-mentioned obftacles when they went to the
affiftance of their weftern friends; how they returned
to their own country ; and in what manner hiftorians
learned the fuccefs of their expedition ? Concerning
5 all this we have very little fatisfadlory information.
Account of All that can be learned from the moft authentic re-
the colony. cords Js> that Greenland was divided into two diftridts,
called IVeJ? Bygd and Eaji Bygd: that the weftern di-
vifion contained four parilhes and roo villages : that
the eaftern diftridt was ftill more flourilhing, as being
nearer to Iceland, fooner fettled, and more frequented
by (hipping from Norway. There are alfo many ac¬
counts, though moft of them romantic and (lightly
attefted, which render it probable that part of the ea¬
ftern colony ftill fubfifts, who, at fome time or other,
may have given the imperfedt relation above mention¬
ed. This colony, in ancient times, certainly compre¬
hended twelve extenlive parilhes, one hundred and
ninety villages j a biftiop’s fee, and two monafteries.
The pref nt inhabitants of the weftern diftridt are en¬
tirely ignorant of this part, from which they are di¬
vided by rocks, mountains, and deferts, and ftill more
*effedtually by their apprehenfion : for they believe the
eaftern Greenlanders' to be a cruel, barbarous nation,
that deftroy and eat all ftrangers who fall into their
hands. About a century after all intercourfe between
Norway and Greenland had ceafed, feveral (hips were
fent fucceffively by the kings of Denmark in order to
g difeover the eaftern diftridl; but all of them mifear-
Attemots ried. Among thefe adventurers, Mogens Heinfon,
to redifeo- after having furmounted many difficulties and dangers,
ver the g0t fight of the land ; which, however, he could not
ccun ry. approach. At his return, he pretended that the (hip
was arretted in the middle of her courfe by certain
] G R E
rocks of loadftone at the bottom of the fea. The Greenland,
fame year, 1576, in which this attempt was made,  v—4
has been rendered remarkable by the voyage of Cap¬
tain Martin Frobilher, fent upon the fame errand by
Queen Elizabeth. He likewife deferied the land; but
could not reach it, and therefore returned to England;,
yet not before he had failed fixty leagues in the ftrait
which ftill retains his name, and landed on feveral if-
lands, where he had fome communication with the na*-
tives. He had likewife taken poffeflion of the country
in the name of Queen Elizabeth ; and brought away
fome pieces of heavy black done, from which the re¬
finers of London extra&ed a certain proportion of gold.
In the enfuing fpring he undertook a fecond voyage,
at the head of a fmall fquadron, equipped at the ex¬
pence of the public; entered the ftraits a fecond time;
difeovered upon an ifland a gold and filver mine; be*
(lowed names upon different bays, iffands, and head¬
lands; and brought away a lading of ore, together with
two natives, a male and a female, whom the Engliffi
kidnapped.
Such was the fuccefs of this voyage, that another
armament was fitted out under the aufpices of Admiral
Frobilher, confiding of 15 fail, including a confiderable
number of foldiers, miners, fmelters, carpenters, and
bakers, to remain all the winter near the mines in a
wooden fort, the different pieces of which they carried
out in the tranfports. They met with boifterous wea¬
ther, impenetrable fogs, and violent currents upon the
coaft of Greenland, which retarded their operations
until the feafon Was far advanced. Part of their wooden
fort was loft at fea ; and they had neither provifion
nor fuel fufficient for the winter. The admiral there¬
fore determined to return with as much ore as he could
procure : of this they obtained large quantities out of
a new mine, to which they gave the name of the Coun-
tefs of Suffex. They likewife built an houfe of (lone
and lime, provided with ovens ; and here, with a view
to conciliate the affedtion of the natives, they left a
quantity of final! morrice-bells, knives, beads, look¬
ing glades, leaden pidlures, and other toys, together
with feveral loaves of bread. They buried the timber
of the fort where it could be eafily found next year ;
and (owed corn, peafe, and other grain, by way of
experiment, to know what the country would produce;
Having taken thefe precautions, they failed from thence
in the beginning of September; and after a month’s
ftormy paffage, arrived in England:, but this noble de-
fign was never profecuted.
Chriftian IV. king of Denmark, being defirous of
difeovering the old Greenfand fettlement, fent three
(hips thither, under the command of Captain God(ke
Lindenow; who is faid to have reached the eaft coaft
of Greenland, where he traded with the favage inha¬
bitants, fuch as they are ftill found in the weftern dir
drift, but faw no figns of a civilized people. Had he
aftually landed in the eaftern divifion, he muft have
perceived fome remains of the ancient colony, even in
the ruins of their convents and villages. Lindenow
kidnapped two of the natives, who were conveyed to
Copenhagen ; and the fame cruel fraud (a) was prac-
tifed
(a) Nothing can be more inhuman and repugnant to the diftates of common juftice than this praftice of
tearing away poor creatures from their country, their families, and conneftidns: unlefs we fuppofe them alto¬
gether
G R E l 131 1 G R E
^Gfeenland. tifed by other two {hips which failed into Davis’s Straits,
*«—y—— difcovered divers fine harbours,- and de¬
lightful meadows covered with verdure. In fome places
they are faid to have found a confiderable quantity of
ore, every hundred pounds of which yielded twenty-fix
ounces of filver. The fame Admiral Lindenow made
another voyage to the coaft; of Greenland in the year
1606, directing his courfe to the weftward of Cape
Farewell. He coafted along the Straits of Davis; and
having made fome obfervations on the face of the
country, the harbours and iflands, returned to Den¬
mark. Carften Richards, being detached with two
fhips on the fame difcovery, defcried the high land on
the eaftern fide of Greenland; but was hindered by
the ice from approaching the {hore.
Other expeditions of the fame nature have been plan¬
ned and executed with the fame bad fuccefs, under the
aufpices of a Danifli company of merchants. Two
fhips returned from the weftern part of Greenland
loaded with a kind of yellow fand, fuppofed to con¬
tain a large proportion of gold. This being affayed
by the goldfmiths of Copenhagen, was condemned as
ufelefs, and thrown overboard : but from a fmall quan¬
tity of this fand, which was referved as a curiofity,
an expert chemift afterwards extracted a quantity of
pure gold. The captain, who brought home this ad¬
venture, was fo chagrined at his difappointment, that
he died of grief, without having left any directions
concerning the place where the fand had been difco-
vered. In the year 1654, Henry Moller, a rich Dane,
equipped a veffel urider the command of David de Nel-
les, who failed to the weft coaft of Greenland, from
which he carried off three women of the country. O-
ther efforts have been made, under the encouragement
of the Danifh king, for the difcovery and recovery of
the old Iceland colony in Greenland : but all of them
mifcarried, and people began to look upon fuch expe¬
ditions as wild and chimerical. At length the Green¬
land company at Bergen in Norway, tranfported a
colony to the weftern coaft, about the 64th degree
of latitude ; and thefe Norwegians failed in the year
1712, accompanied by the Reverend Hans Egede, to
whofe care, ability, and precilion, we owe the beft
and moft authentic account of modern Greenland.
This gentleman endeavoured to reach the eaftern di-
ftridt, by coafting fouthwards, and advanced as far as
the States Promontory : but the feafon of the year,
and continual ftorms, obliged him to return ; and as
he could not even find the Strait of Frobilher, he con¬
cluded that no fuch place ever exifted. In the year Greenland.
1724, a ftiip, being equipped by the company, failed » "
on this difcovery, with a view to land on the eaft fide
oppofite to Iceland; but the vaft (hoals of ice, which,
barricadoed that part of the coaft, rendered this fcheme
impracticable. His Danifh majefty, in the year 1728,
caufed horfes to be tranfported to Greenland, in hope
that the fettlers might by their.means travel over land
to the eaftern diftrift; but the icy mountains were
found impaffable. Finally, lieutenant Richards, in
a {hip which had wintered near the new Danifh colo¬
ny, attempted, in his return to Denmark, to land on
the eaftern Ihore ; but all his endeavours proved abor¬
tive.
Mr Egede is of opinion, that the only practicable
method of reaching that part of the country, will be
to coaft north-about in fmall veffels, between the great
flakes of ice and the fhore ; as the Greenlanders have
declared, that the currents continually rufhing from
the bays and inlets, and running fouth-weft wards along
the fhore, hinder the ice from adhering to the land ;
fo that there is always a channel open, through which
veffels of fmall burden might pafs, especially if lodges
were built at convenient diftances on the Ihoie, for the
convenience and direction of the adventurers. 7
That part of the country which is now vifited and Mr Egede’a
fettled by the Danes and Norwegians, lies between account of
the 64th and 68th degrees of north latitude ; and thus‘j16 coun''
far it is faid the climate is temperate. In the
fummer, which continues from the end of May to the
middle of September, the weather is warm and com¬
fortable, while the wind blows eafteily ; though even
at this time ttorms frequently happen, which rage with
incredible violence; and the fea-coaftsare infefted with
fogs that are equally difagreeable and unhealthy.
Near the fhore, and in the bays and inlets, the low
land is clothed with the moft charming verdure : but
the inland mountains are perpetually covered with ice
and fnow. To the northward of the 68th degree of
latitude the cold is prodigioufly intenfe ; and towards
the end of Auguft all the coaft is covered with ice,
which never thaws till April or May, and fometimes
not till the latter end of June., Nothing can exhibit a
more dreadful, and at the fame time a more dazzling,
appearance, than thofe prodigious maffes of ice that
furround the whole coaft in various forms, reflecting a
multitude of colours from the fun-beams, and calling
to mind the enchanted fcenes of romance. Such pro-
fpefts they yield in calm wejther; but when the wind
0^2 begins
gether-drftitute. of natural affeCtion ; and that this was not the cafe with thofe poor Greenlanders, fome of
whom were brought alive to Copenhagen, appears from the whole tenor of their conduft, upon their firft cap¬
ture, and during their confinement in Denmark. When firft captivated, they rent the air with their cries and
lamentations: they even leaped into the fea ; and, when taken on board, for fome time refufed all fuftenance.
Their eyes were continually turned towards their dear country, and their faces always bathed in tears. Even
the countenance of his Danifh majefty, and the caieffes of the court and people, could not alleviate their grief.
One of them was perceived to fhed tears always when he faw an infant in the mother’s arms ; a circumftance
from whence it was naturally concluded, that he had left his wife with a young child in Greenland. Two of
them went to fea in their little canoes in hope of reaching Greenland ; but one of them was retaken. Other
two made the fame attempt; but were driven by a ftorm on the coaft of Schonen, where they were apprehended
by the peafants, and reconveyed to Copenhagen. One of them afterwards died of a fever, caught in fifhing
pearl, during the winter, for the governor of Kolding. The reft lived feme years in Denmark ; but at length,
feeing no profped of being able to revifit their native country, they funk into a kind of melancholy diforder,
and expired.
G R E L 132 ] G R E
Greenland, begins to blow, and the waves to rife in vaft. billows,
™ v - the violent /hocks of thofe pieces of ice da/hing againit
one another fill the mind with horror.—Greenland is-
feldom vifited with thunder and lightning, but the^«-
rora Borealis is very frequent and bright. At the time
of new and full moon, the tide rifes and falls upon this
coaft about three fathoms; and it is remarkable, that
the fprings and fountains on /hore rife and fall with
the flux and reflux of the ocean.
The foil of Greenland varies like that of all other
mountainous countries. The hills are very barren,
being indeed frozen throughout the whole year; but
the valleys and low grounds, efpecially near the fea,
are rich and fruitful. The ancient Norwegian chro¬
nicles inform us, that Greenland formerly produced a
great number of cattle ; and that conliderable quantities
of butter and cheefe were exported to Norway; and, on
account of their peculiar excellency, fet a part for the
king’s ufe. The fame hiitories inform us, that fome
parts of the country yielded excellent wheat; and that
large oaks were found here, which carried acorns as
big as apples. Some of thefe oaks Hill remain in the
fouthern parts, and in many places the marks of
ploughed land are eafily perceived. At prefent,
however, the country is deftitute of corn and cattle,
though in many places it produces excellent pafture ;
and, if properly cultivated, would probably yield grain
alfo. Mr Egede lowed fome barley in a bay adjoin¬
ing to the Dani/h colony. It fprang up fo fall, that
by the latter end of July it wras in the full ear; but
being nipped by a night-froft, it never arrived at ma¬
turity. This feed was brought from Bergen, where
the fummer is of greater heat and duration than in
Greenland; but in all probability the corn which
grows in the northern parts of Noway would alfo
thrive here. Turnips and coleworts of an excellent
talte and flavour are alfo produced here. The fides of
the mountains near the bays are clothed with wild
thyme, which diffufes its fragrance to a great diftancC.
The herb tormentil is very common in this country,
and likewife many others not deferibed by the bota-
nifts. Among the fruits of Greenland we number
juniper-berries, blue-berries, bil-berries, and bramble-
berries.
Greenland is thought to contain many mines of me¬
tal, though none of them are wrought. To the fouth-
ward of the Danilh colony are fome appearances of a
mine of copper. Mr Egede once received a lump of
ore from one of the natives ; and here he found cala¬
mine of a yellow colour. He once fent a confiderable
quantity of fand of a yellow colour, intermixed with
ilreaks of Vermilion, to the Bergen company. They
probably found their account in this prefent; for they
defired him by a letter to procure as much of that
fand as poffible: but he was never able to find the
place where he faw the firft fpecimen. It was one of
the fmalleft among a great number of iflands; and the
mark he had fet up was blown down by a violent
ftprm. PolTibly this might be the fame mineral of
which Captain Frobifher brought fo much to England.
This country produces rock-cryftals both red and
white, and whole mountains of the a/beftos or incom-
buttible flax. Around the colony, which is known
by the name of Good Hope, they find a kind of baftard
marble of various colours, which the natives form into
bowls, lamps, pots, &c. All that has been faid of Greenland,
the fertility of Greenland, however, muft be under- «
ftood only of that part which lies beween the 60th
and 65th degrees of latitude. The moll northern parts
are totally deftitute of herbs and plants. The wretched
inhabitants cannot find grafs in fufficient quantities to
fluff into their fhoes to keep their feet warm, but are
obliged to buy it from thofe who inhabit the more
fouthern parts.
The animals which abound moft in Greenland are,
rein-deer, foxes, hares, dogs, and white bears. The
hares are of a white colour, and very fat; the foxes
are of different colours, white, greyi/h, and blui/h ;
and fmaller than thofe of Denmark and Norway. The
natives keep a great number of dogs, which are large,
white, or fpeckled, and rough, with ears /landing up¬
right, as is the cafe with all the dogs peculiar to cold
climates. They are timorous and ftupid ; and neither
bay nor bark, but fometimes howl difmally. In the
northern parts the natives yoke them in fledges;
which, though heavy laden, they will draw on the ice
at the rate of 70 miles in a flrort winter’s day. Thefe
poor animals are very ill rewarded for their fervice;
being left to provide for themfelves, except when their
mailers happen to catch a great number of feals. On
thefe occalions the dogs are regaled with the blood
and entrails ; at other times they fubfift, like wild
beads, upon mufcles and berries. Here alfo are found
great numbers of ravens, eagles of a prodigious fize,
falcons, and other birds of prey ; and likewife a kind
of linnet, which warbles very melbdioufly. Whales,
fword-filh, porpoifes, &c. abound on the coafts; alfo
holybut, turbot, cod, haddock, &c. The more dubious
animals alfo, called mermaids, fea-ferpents, and kra-
kens, faid to be found on the coaft of Norway, are faid
likewife to dw'dl in thefe feas. Mr Egede affures us,
that, in the year 1734, the fea-ferpent was feen off the
new Dani/hcolony, and raifed its head mall high above
the furface of the water. See Kraken, Mermaid,
and Sea-SeKPF.NT. ^
The people who now inhabit the wdlern coaft 0fyiiCCOunt 0f
Greenland, and who, without doubt, are the defeen-the inhabi-
dants of the ancient Scbrellings, who exterminated thetants.
fir/l Iceland colony, bear a near refemblance to the
Samoiedts andLaplanders in their perfons,complexions,
and way of life. They are /hoi t, brawny, and inclined
to corpulency ; with broad faces, flat nofes, thick lips,
black hair and eyes, and a yellowi/h tawney com¬
plexion. They are for the moft part vigorous and
healthy, but remarkably /hort-lived ; few of them
reaching the grand climadleric; and many dying in
their infancy, and in the prime of youth. They are
fubjeifl to a weaknefs in the eyes, occafioned by the
piercing winds and the glare of the fnow in the winter¬
time. The leprofy is known among them, but is not
contagious. Thofe that dwell in the northern parts
are miferably tormented with dyfenteries, rheums, and
pulmonary diforders, boils, and epilepfy. The fmall-
pox being imported among them from Copenhagen in
the year 1734, made terrible havoc among thefe poor
people, who are utterly deftitute of any knowledge of
the medicinal art, and depend entirely for afliltance
upon their angekuts or conjurers. In their difpofitions .
the Greenlanders are cold, phlegmatic, indolent, and
-flow of apprehenfion ; but. very quiet, orderly, and
good-
G R E [ i
'and. good-nitursd. They live peaceably together ; and
  have ev^iy thing in common, without ftrife, envying,
or animality. They are civil and hofpitable, but do-
venly to a degree almoft beyond the Hottentots thtm-
felves. They never walh themlelves with water ; but
lick their paws like the cat, and then rub their faces
with them They eat after their 'dogs without walk¬
ing their dilhes ; devour the lice which devour them ;
and even lick the fweat, which they fcrape off from
their faces with their knives. The women walh them-
felves with their own urine, which they imagine makes
their hair grow ; and in the winter-time go out immedi¬
ately after, to let the liquor freeze upon their Hein. They
will often eat their viftuals off the dirty ground, with¬
out any veflel to hold them in ; and devour rotten flelh
with the greatelt avidity. In times of fcarcity they will
fubfift on pieces of old Ikin, reeds, fea-weed, and a
root called tugloronet, drtlfed with train oil and fat.
The dung of rein-deer taken from the inteftines, the
entrails of partridges, and all forts of offals, are counted
dainties among thefe favages ; and of the fcrapings of
feals Ikins they, make delicate pan-cakes. At firft they
could not talte the Danifh provifions without abhor¬
rence ; but now they are become extremely fond of
bread and butter, though they Hill retain an averfion
to tobacco and fpirituous liquors ; in which particular
they differ from almoff all favages on the face of the
earth.
The Greenlanders commonly content themfclves
with one wife ; who is condemned, as among other fa-
vage nations, to do all the drudgery, and may be cor-
re£ted, or even divorced, by the hulband at pltafure.
Heroes, however, and extraordinary perfonages, are in¬
dulged with a plurality of wives. Their young women
are generally chafte and baftiful; but at fome of their
feafts, in the rnidft of their jollity, a man retires with
his neighbour’s wife behind a curtain made of flcins;
and all the guefts, thus coupled, retire in their turns.
The women think themfelves happy if an angekut or
prophet will thus honour them with his careffes. Thefe
people never marry tvithin the prohibited degrees of
confanguinity, nor is it counted decent in a couple to
marry who have been educated in the fame family.—
They have a number of ridiculous and fuperftitious
cuftoms; among which the two following are the moft
remarkable. While a woman is in labour, the goffips
hold a chamber-pot over her head, as a charm to haften
the delivery. When the child is a year old, the mo¬
ther licks and flabbers it all over, to render it, as ffie
imagines, more ftrong and hardy.
All the Greenlanders hitherto known fpeak the fame
101° ’ language, though different diale&s prevail in different
parts of the country. It abounds with double con-
fonants; and is fo guttural, that the pronunciation
of many words is not to be learned except by thofe
who have been accuftomed to it from their infancy.
The letters C, D, F, Q^, and X, are not known in
their alphabet. Like the North Americans, and in¬
habitants of Kamfchatka, they have a great number
of long polyfyllables. Their words, nouns as well as
verbs, are inflefted at the end by varying the termi¬
nations without the help of articles; but their lan¬
guage being found defective, they have adopted a good
many words from the Norwegian dialed!. Notwith-
ftanding the endeavours of the Daniffi miffionaries,
33 1 OR E
they have no great reafon to boaft of rhe-profelytes Greenland,
they have made of the natives of Greenland. Thefe * * J
favages pay great deference and refpedl to the Danes,
whom indeed they obey as their mafters, and hear
the truths of the Chriffian religion expounded with¬
out doubting the veracity of their teachers; but at
the fame time they liften with the moft mortifying in¬
difference, without being in the ler.ft; influenced by
what they have heard. They believe in the immor¬
tality of the foul, and the exiftence of a fpirit whom
they call Torngarfuk; but of whom they have form¬
ed the moft ridiculous notions. The Angekuts, who
are fuppofed to be bis immediate minifters, differ con¬
cerning the principles of his exiftence; fome affirming
that he is without form or ftrape ; others, that he has
the fliape of a bear ; others, that he has a large hu¬
man body with only one arm ; while others affirm that
he is no larger than a man’s finger, with many other
abfurdities of a fimilar kind. They have alfo a pecu¬
liar kind of mythology, by which they believe all the
elements to be full of fpirits, from among which every
one of their prophets is fupplied with a familiar which
they name Torngack, and who is always ready when
fummoned to his affiftance.
The Greenlanders are employed all the year round
either in fifliing or hunting. At fea they purfue the
whales, morfes, feals, fiffi for eating, and fea-fowl.
On fhore they hunt the rein-deer in different parts of
the country. They drive thefe animals, which feed
in large herds, into a narrow circle or defile, where
they are eafily ftain with arrows. Their bow is made
of fir-tree, wound about with the twifted finews of a-
nimals : the firing is compofed of the fame fluff, or
of feal Ikin ; the arrow is a good fathom in length,
pointed with a bearded iron, or a ftrarp bone ; but
thofe with which they kill birds are blunt, that they
may not tear the fleffi. Sea-fowls they kill with lan¬
ces, which they throw to a great diftance with fur-
prifing dexterity. Their manner of catching whales
is quite different from that pra&ifed by the Europe¬
ans. About 50 perfons, men and women, fet out in
one long boat, which is called a kone-boat, from hone a
“ woman,” becaufe it is rowed by females only. When
they find a whale, they ftrike him with harpoons, to
which are fattened with long lines fome feals fleins
blown up like bladders. Thefe, by floating on the
furface, not only difeover the back of the whale, but
hinder him from diving under water for any length of
time. They continue to purfue him until he lofes
ftrength, when they pierce him with fpears and lan¬
ces till he expires. On this occafion they are clad in
their fpring coats coniiftlng of one piece, with gloves,
boots, caps made of feal-fkin fo clofely laced and few-
ed that they keep out water. Thus accoutred, they
leap into the fea ; and begin to flice off the fat, even
under water, before the whale is dead.—They have
many different ways of killing feah; namely, by ftrik-
ing them with a fmall harpoon equipped alfo with am
air-bag ; by watching them when they come to breathe
at the air-holes in the ice, and linking them with
fpears ; by approaching them in the difguife of their
own fpecies, that is, covered with a feal-fkin, creep¬
ing upon the ice, and moving the head from Tide to
fide as the feals are accuftomed to do. By this ftra-
tagera the Greenlander moves towards the unfuf-
pt fting'
G R E r 134 ] G R E
Greenland. pe£Ung feal, and kills him with a fpear. The
* Greenlanders angle with lines made of whale-bone
cut very fmall, by means of which they fucceed
wonderfully. The Greenland canoe, like that ufed
in Nova Zembla and Hudfon’s bay, is about three
fathoms in length, pointed at both ends, and three
quarters of a yard in breadth. It is compofed of
thin rafts faftened together with the finews of ani¬
mals. It is covered with dreffed feal-lkins both be¬
low and above, in fuch a manner that only a circular
hole is left in the middle, large enough „to admit the
body of one man. Into this the Greenlander thrufts
himfelf up to the waift, and faftens the fkin fo tight
about him that no water can enter. Thus fecured,
and armed with a paddle broad at both ends, he will
venture out to fea in the moft ftormy weather to
catch feals and fea-fowl; and if he is overfet, he can
eafily raife himfelf by means of his paddle. A Green¬
lander in one of thefe canoes, which was brought
with him to Copenhagen, outftripped a pinnace of
16 oars, manned with choice , mariners.—The kone-
boat is made of the fame materials, but more durable;
and fo large, that it will contain 50 perfons with all
their tackle, baggage, and provifions. She is fitted
with a maft, which carries a triangular fail made of
the membranes and entrails of feals, and is mana¬
ged without the help of braces and bowlings. Thefe
kones are flat-bottomed, and fometimes 60 feet in
length. The men think it beneath them to take
charge of them ; and therefore they are left to the
conduft of the women, who indeed are obliged to do
all the drudgery, including even the building and re¬
pairing their houfes, while the men employ them-
felves wholly in preparing their hunting implements
and fifhing tackle.
This country is but thinly inhabited. In the win¬
ter time the people dwell in huts built of ftone or
turf: on the one fide are the windows, covered with
the flcins of feals or rein-deer. Several families live
^ in one of thefe houfes, poffeffing each a feparate apart¬
ment, before which is a hearth with a great lamp
placed on a trevit, over which hangs their kettle :
above is a rack or Ihelf on which their wet clothes are
dried. They burn train-oil in their lamps ; and inftead
of wick, they ufe a kind of mofs, which fully anfwers
the purpofe. Thefe fires are not only fufficient to
boil their viftuals; but likewife produce fuch a heat,
that the whole houfe is like a bagnio. The door is
very low, that as little cold air as poffible may be ad¬
mitted. The houfe within is lined with old Ikins,
and furrounded with benches for the conveniency of
ftrangers. In the fummer-time they dwell in tents
made of long poles fixed in a conical form, covered in
the infide with deers flcins, and on the outfide with
feals flcins, dreffed fo that the rain cannot pierce
them.
10 Eaft Greenland was for a long time confidered as a
tond.Green*Part t^ie cont*nent of Weft Greenland, but is now
difcovered to be an affemblage of iflands lying between
76° 46' and 8o0 30' of north latitude, and between
9° and 20° of eaft longitude. It was difcovered by
Sir Hugh Willoughby in the 1553J who called it
Greenland; fuppofing it to be a part of the weftern
continent. In 1595, it was again vifited by William
Barentz and John Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pre¬
tended to be the original difeoverers, and called the Greenland
country Spitsbergen, or Sharp Mountains, from the —y”-w
many ftiarp-pointed and rocky mountains with which
it abounds. They alleged that the coaft difcovered
by Sir Hugh Willoughby was fome other country ;
which accordingly the Hollanders delineated on their
maps and charts by the name of Willoughby Land;
whereas in fad no fuch land ever exifted ; and long
before the voyage of thefe Dutchmen, Stephen Bar-
rows, an Englifli Ihipmafter, had coafted along a defo¬
late country from N. Lat. 78°to 8o° 11', which was
undoubtedly Spitzbergen. The fea in the neighbour¬
hood of the iflands of Spitzbergen abounds very
much with whales, and is the common refort of the
whale-fifhing ftiips from different countries, and the
country itfelf is frequently vifited by thefe fliips; but till
the late voyage of the Hon. Capt. Phippfe, by order
of his Majefty, the fituation of it was erroneoufly laid
down. It was imagined that the land ftretched to the
northward as far as 82° of north latitude ; but Capt.
Phipps found the inoft northerly point of land, called
Seven IJlands, not to exceed 8o° 30' of latitude.
Towards the eaft he faw other lands lying at a dif-
tance, fo that Spitzbergen plainly appeared to be
furrounded by water on that fide, and not joined to
the continent of Alia, as former navigators had fup-
pofed. The north and weft coafts alfo he explored,
but^was prevented by the ice from failing fo far to the
northward as he wilhed. The coaft appeared neither
habitable nor acceffible. It is formed of high, barren,
black rocks, without the leaft marks of vegetation ;
in many places bare and pointed ; in others covered
with fnow, appearing even above the clouds. The
valleys between the high cliffs were filled with fnow
and ice. “ This profpeft,” fays Capt. Phipps, “ would
have fuggefted the idea of perpetual winter, had not
the mildnefs of the weather, the fmooth water, bright
fun-lhine, and conftant day-light, given a cheerfulnefs
and novelty to the whole of this romantic feene.”
The current ran along this coaft half a knot an hour,
north. The height of one mountain feen here was
found by geometrical menfuration to be at one time
15034- feet, at another ijoj-rfr feet'. By a baro¬
meter conftru&ed after De Luc’s method, the height
was found to be 15884 feet. On this occafion Capt.
Phipps has the following remarks. “ I cannot ac¬
count for the great difference between the geometri¬
cal meafure and the barometrical according to M. de
Luc’s calculation, which amounts to 84.7 feet. I
have no reafon to doubt the accuracy of Dr Irving’s
obfervations, which were made with great care. As
to the geometrical meafure, the agreement of fo many
triangles, each of which muft have difcovered even the
fmalleft error, is the moft fatisfaftory proof of its
correftnefs. Since my return I have tried both the
theodolite and barometer, to difeover whether there
was any fault in either ; and find them, upon trial, as
1 had always done before, very accurate.”
There is good anchorage in Schmeerenburgh har¬
bour, lying in N. Lat. 740 44' E. Long. 90 50' 45",
in 13 fathom, fandy bottom, not far from the Ihore,
and well ftieltered from all winds. Clofe to this har^
bcur is an ifland called Jmjkrdam IJland, where the
Dutch ufed former ly to boil their whale-oil; and the
remains of fome conveniency ereded by them for that
purpofe
G R E
Greenland, purpofe are ftill vlfible. The Dutch (hips ft ill refort
u » to this place for the latter feafon of the whale-fifhery.
•—The ftone about this place is chiefly a kind of
marble, which diffolves eafily in the marine acid. There
were no appearances of minerals of any kind, nor any
figns of ancient or modern volcanoes. No infe&s, or
any fpecies of reptiles, were feen, not even the com¬
mon earth-worm. There were no fprings or rivers ;
but great plenty of water was produced from the fnow
which melted on the mountains.
The moft remarkable views which thefe dreary
regions prefent are thofe called Icebergs. They are
large bodies of iee filling the valleys between the
high mountains. Their face ifowards the fea is near¬
ly perpendicular, and of a very lively light-green
colour. One was about 300 feet high, with a caf-
cade of water iffuing from it. The black mountains
on each fide, the white fnow, and greenilh coloured
ice, compofed a very beautiful and romantic pi&ure.
1 >35 1
G it E
fince this diminution the trade has increafed. See Greenock,
Whale-FisHEnr. Grt*nwich;
GREENOCK, a fea-port town of Scotland, and -
one of the ports of the city of Glafgow. It is diftant 22
miles from that city; and was formerly called the Bay of
St Laurence. The Frith of Clyde here expands into
a fine bafon four miles wide, and is landlocked on all
fides. Greenock is a burgh of barony, and the beft
built town on all the coaft. It is the chief refort of the
herring fifhery,-and otherwife a place of great trade and
very populous.—The harbour was made by Sir John
Shaw of GreenOck, whofe anceftor built the church ;
and the family had here a caftle.
GREENWICH, a town of the county of Kent,
in England, pleafantly fituated on the bank of the
Thames, about five miles eaft from London. Here
was formerly a royal palace, built by Humphry duke
of Gloucefter, enlarged by Henry VII. and completed
by Henry VIII. The latter often chofe this town
Large pieces frequently broke off from the icebergs, for his place of refidence ; as did alfo the queens Mary
and fell with great noife into the water. One piece and Elizabeth, who were born in it. The fame duke
3 obferved to have floated out into the bay, and
grounded in 24 fathoms ; it was 50 feet high above
the furface of the water, and of the fame beautiful
colour with the iceberg from which it had feparated.
Thefe iflands are totally uninhabited, though it
doth not appear but that human creatures could fub-
, fill on them, notwithftanding their vicinity to the pole.
Eight Englilh failors, who were accidentally left here
by a whale-filhing ftilp, furvived the winter, and were
brought home next feafon. The Dutch then attempt¬
ed to fettle a colony on Amfterdam ifland above-men¬
tioned ; but all the people periihed, not through the
feverity of the climate, but of the fcurvy, owing to
the want of thofe remedies which are now happily
difcdvered, and which are found to be fo effedlual in
preventing and curing that dreadful difeafe.—The late
account alfo of fix Ruffian failors who ftaid four years
in this inhofpitable country, affords a decifive proof,
that a colony might be fettled on Eaft Greenland,
provided the doing fo could anfwer any good purpofe.
Greenland Company. A joint ftock of 40,009 1.
was by ffatute to be raifed by fubfcribers, who
Humphry began a tower on the top of the ftcep hill in
the park, which was finiftied by Henry VII. but af¬
terwards demoliftied, and a royal obfervatory erefted
in its place by Charles II. furnifhed with mathemati¬
cal inftruments for aftronomical obfervations, and a
deep dry well for obferving the liars in the day-time.
The palace being afterwards much negle&ed, king
Charles II. (who had enlarged the park, walled it a-
bout and planted it), pulled it down, and began ano¬
ther, of which he lived to fee the firft wing magnifi¬
cently finiftied. But king William III. in 1694,
granted it, with nine acres of ground thereto belong¬
ing, to be converted into a royal hofpital for old and
difabled feamen, the widows and children of thofe who
loft their lives in the fervice, and for the encourage¬
ment of navigation. The wing, which coft king
Charles 36,000!. is now the firft wing of the hofpital
towards London. The front to the Thames confifts
of two ranges of ftone buildings, with the ranger’s
houfe in the centre of the area, but detached from any
part of the hofpital. Thefe buildings perfectly cor-
refpond with each otlfer, and have their tops crowned
were incorporated for 14 years from the firft of with a ftone balluftrade. The buildings which are fa-
Odtober 1693, and the company to ufe the trade of cing the area, correfpond with them, though in a finer
catching whales, &c. into and from Greenland, and and more elegant*ftyle ; and have domes at their ends,.
the Greenland feas ; they may make bye-laws for the
government of the perfons employed in their ftiips,
&c. Stat. 4 and 5 W. III. cap. 17. This company
was farther encouraged by parliament in 1696 ; but
partly by unfkilful management, and partly by real
Ioffes, it was under a neceffity of entirely breaking up,
before the expiration of the term affigned to it, ending
in 1707. But any perfon who will adventure to Green¬
land for whale-fiftiing, lhall have all privileges granted
to the Greenland company, by 1 Anne, cap. 16. and thus
the trade was again laid open. Any fubjedls may im-
.port whale-fins, oil, &c. of fiftt caught in the Green¬
land feas, without paying any cuftoms, &c. ftat. 10
which are 120 feet high, fupported on coupled co¬
lumns. Under one of thefe is the hall, which is finely
painted by Sir James Thornhill, and contains many
royal portraits; and under the other the chapel, which
by accident was deftroyed by fire. This fire broke out
in the hofpital on the fecond of January 1779, and
totally confirmed the dome at the S. E. quarter of
the building, with the chapel which was the moft ele¬
gant in the world, the great dining-hall, and eight
wards containing the lodgings of near 6co penfioners.
The dome was rebuilt about the year 1785 ; but the
reparation of the whole damage is not yet cdmpleted.
On the fides of the gate which opens to thefe build-
Geo. I. cap. 16. And (hips employed in the Green- ings from the park, are placed a large terreftrial and
land-filhery are to be of fuch burden, provided with celeftial globe, in which the liars are gilt; and in the
boats, fo many men, fiftting-lines, harping irons, &c. centre of the area is a ftatue of George II. About
and be licenfed to proceed ; and on their return (hall 2000 old difabled feamen are maintained' in this hofpi-
be paid 20s per ton bounty, for whale-fins, &c. im- tal. Befides private benefadlions, to the amount of
ported ; 6 Geo. II. cap. 33. The bounty was after- near L. 60,000 (which appear in tables hung up at
wards increafed 5 but has been lately diminilhed, and the entrance of the hall), the parliament, in the year
5 m**
G R E [ 136 1 G R E
1732, fettled upon it the earlof Derwentwater’u eftate,
to the value of L. 6000 per annum. All ftrangers who
fee it, pay twopence each; and this income is applied
to the fupport of the mathematical fchool for the fons
of failors. For the better fupport of which, every
feaman in the royal navy, and in the merchant fervice,
pays lixpence a month, ilopped out of their pay, and
delivered in at the lix-penny receiver’s office in Tower-
hill. On this account, a feaman, who can produce an
authentic certificate of his being difabled, and render¬
ed Unfit for fervice, by defending any fhip belonging to
his Majefty’s Britilh fubje&s, or in taking any ffiip
from the enemy, may be admitted into this hofpital,
and receive the fame benefit from it as if he had been
in his Majetty’s immediate fervice. Befides the feamen
and widows above-mentioned, about too boys, the
fons of feamen, are bred up for the fervice of the royal
navy; but there are no out-penfioners as at Chelfea.
Each of the mariners has a weekly allowance of feven
loaves, weighing 16 ounces each ; three pounds of
beef, two of mutton, a pint of peafe, a pound and a quar¬
ter of cheefe, two ounces of butter, fourteen quarts of
beer, and one fitilling a week tobacco-money: thetobac-
co-money of the boatfwains is two {hillings and fixpence
a-week each, that of their mates one (hilling and fix-
pence, and that of the other officers in proportion to
their rank : befide's which, each common penfioner re¬
ceives once in two years, a fuit of blue cloaths, a hat,
three pair of dockings, two pair of (hoes, five neck¬
cloths, three fhirts, and two night-caps. Out of all
that is given for fhowing the hall, only three-pence in
the {hilling is allowed to the perfon that (hows them ;
the rell makes an excellent fund for the yearly main¬
tenance of not lefs than 20 poor boys, who are the fons
of mariners that have been either {lain or difabled in
the fervice of their country. The park is well docked
with deer, and affords as much variety, in proportion
to its fize, as any in the kingdom ; but the views from
the Obfervatory and the One-tree hill are beautiful
beyond imagination, particularly the former. The
projedlion of thefe hills is fo bold, that you do not look
down Upon a gradually falling (lope or flat inclofures,
but at once upon the tops of branching trees, which
grow in knots and clumps out of deep hollows and im-
browned dells. The cattle which feed on the lawns,
which appear in breaks among them, feem moving in
a region of fairy land. A thoufand natural openings
among the branches of the trees break upon little pic-
turefque views of the fwelling turf, which, when illu¬
mined by the fun, have an effect pleafing beyond the
power of fancy to paint. This is the foreground of
the landfcape : a little farther, the eye falls on that
noble drufture the hofpital, in the mfdfl of an amphi¬
theatre of wood ; then the two reaches of the river
make that beautiful terpentine which forms the Ifle of
Dogs, and prefent the floating millions of the Thames.
To the left appears a fine tradt of country, leading to
the capital, which there finilhes the profpect. The pa-
rifli-church of Greenwich, rebuilt by the commiffioners
for erecting the 50 new churches, is a very handfome
ftrufture, dedicated to St Alphage, archbiihop of Can¬
terbury, who is faid to have been (lain by the Danes in
the year 1012 on the fpot where the church now
Hands. There is a college at the end of the town,
fronting the Thames, for the maintenance of 20 de¬
cayed old houfe-keepers, 12 out of Greenwich, and
N° 144-
eight who are to be alternately chofen from Snottiffiam Gregarious
and Caftle-Rjfing in Norfolk. This is called the duke ^ >1
of Norfolk’s College, though it was founded and endow- Gregory.
ed in 1613 by Henry earl of Northampton the dukq " v J
of Norfolk’s brother, and by him committed to the
care of the Mercers company. To this college be¬
longs a chapel, in which the earl’s body is laid; which,
as well as his monument, was removed hither a few
years ago from the chapel of Dover caftle. The pen-
fioners, befides meat, drink, and lodging, are allowed
one (hilling and fixpence a week, with a gown every
year, linen once in two years, and hats once in four
years. In 1560, Mr Lambard, author of the Peram¬
bulation of Kent, alfo built an hofpital, called queen
Elizabeth’scollege, faid to be the firft erefted by anEng-
lifli Proteftant. There are likewife two charity-fchools
in this pariffi. The river Thames is here very broad,
and the channel deep ; and at fome very high tides the
water is fait. This is the chief harbour for the king’s
yachts. The town contains about 1500 houfes; and a
market on Wednefday and Saturday was erefted here in
1 737 ; the direction of which is in the governors of the
royal hofpital, to which the profits arifing from it were
to be appropriated.
GREGARIOUS, among zoologifts, a term ap¬
plied to fuch animals as do not live folitary, but affoci-
ate in herds or flocks.
GREGORIAN calendar, that which (hows the
new and full moon, with the time of Eafter, and the
moveable feafts depending thereon, by means of epa6ts
difpofed through the feveral months of the Gregorian
year. See Chronology, n° 24.
Gregorian Telefcope. See Optics, (Index.)
Gregorian Tear. See Chronology, n° 24.
GREGORY the Great, was born at Rome, of a
patrician family. He difeovered fuch abilities in the
exercife of the fenatorial employments, that theemperor
Juftin the younger appointed him prefect of Rome.
Pope Pelafgius II. fent him nuncio to Conftantinople,
to demand fuccours againlt the Lombards. When he
thought of enjoying a folitary life, he was elefted pope
by the clergy, the fenate, and the people of Rome.
Befides his learning and diligence in inftrudting the
church, both by writing and preaching, he had a very
happy talent in winning over princes in favour of the
temporal as well as fpiritual intereft of religion. He
undertook the converfion of the Engliih, and fent over
fome monks of his order, under the direction of Au-
guffin their abbot. His morality with refpedl to the
chaftity of churchmen was very rigid, afferting that
a man who had ever known a woman ought not to be
admitted to the priefthood ; and he always caufed the
candidates for it to be examined upon that point. He
likewife vigoroufly exerted himfelf againft fuch as
were found guilty of calumny. However, he flatter¬
ed the emperor Phocas, while his hands were yet
reeking with the blood of Mauritius, and of his three
children, who had been butchered in his fight. He
likewife flattered Brunehaut, a very wicked queen of
France. He is accufed of deftroying the noble mo¬
numents of ancient Roman magnificence, that thofe
who vifited the city might not attend'more to the tri¬
umphal arches than to holy things ; and burnt a mul¬
titude of heathen books, Livy in particular. He
died in 604.
Gregory of Nazianzen, firnamed the Divine, was
one
From Me-
ttioirs of
the Grego-
Ties, prefix¬
ed t - the
of the
■Worh of
Dr Ja^
“Gregory, in
4 voJs.
G R E [ 137 ] G R E
one of the moft illuftrious ornaments of the Greek grammar fchool of Aberdeen, and went through the Gregory,
church in the fourth age. He was made biftiop of ufual courfe of academical ftudies in the Marifchal
Conftantinople in 379 ; but finding his election con- college.
tefted by Timotheus archbilhop of Alexandria, he At the age of 24 he publifhed his treatife, intitled
voluntarily refigned his dignity about 382, in the ge- Optica Promota, feu aldita radiorum rejlexorum et refrac-
neral council of Conftantinople. His works are ex- torum myjhria, geometricc enuckata ; cui fubneSitur appen-
tant, in two volumes, printed at Paris in 1609. His ditx fubtdifjimorum ajlronomue problemuton refolutionem ex-
ftyle is faid to be egual to that of the moft celebrated /Wrw, London 1663 : a work of great genius, in which
orators of ancient Greece. he gave the world an invention of his own, and one of
Gregory (Theodoras), furnamed Thaumaturgus the moft valuable of the modern difcoveries, the con-
on account of his miracles, was the fcholar of Origen; ftrudtion of the refledting telefcope. This difcovery
and was ele&ed biftiop of Neocsefarea, the place of immediately attrafted the attention of the mathema-
his birth, about the year 240, during his abfence. ticians, both of our own and of foreign countries, who
-He. afiifted at the council of Antioch, in 235, againft were foon convinced of its great importance to the fci-
Paulus Samofetanus; and died in 270. He had the ences of optics and aftronomy. The manner of
fatisfadlion of leaving only feventeen idolaters in his placing the two fpecula upon the fame axis appearing
diocefe, where there were but feventeen Chriftians to Sir Ifaac Newton to be attended with the difadvan-
when he was ordained. There is ftill extant of his, A tage of lofing the central rays of the larger fpeculum,
gratulatory oration to Origen, A canonical epiftle, he propofed an improvement on the inftrument, by gi-
and fome other works. ving an oblique pofition to the fmaller fpeculum, and
Gregory, biftiop of Nyfia, one of the fathers of placing the eye-glafs in the fide of the tube. But it
the church, and author of the Nicene creed, was born is worch remarking, that the Newtonian conftru&ion
in Cappadocia, about the year 331. He was choftn of that inftrument wasdong abandoned for the original
biftiop of Nyfla in 372, and baniftied by the empe- or Gregorian, which is at this day univerfally employ-
ror Valens for adhering to the council of Nice. He ed where the inftrument is of a moderate fize ; though
was neverthelefs afterwards employed by the bifliops Mr Herfchel has preferred the Newtonian form for the
in feveral important affairs, and died in 396. He conftrudlion of thofe immenfe telefcopes, which of late
wrote, Commentaries on the Scriptures ; Sermons on years he has fo fuccefsfully employed in obferving the
the myfteries; Moral difcourfes ; Dogmatical treatifes ; heavens.
Panegyrics on the faints fome letters on church-dif- The univerfity of Padua being at that time in high
cipline ; and other works. His ftyle is very allegorical reputation for mathematical ftudies, James Gregory
and affe&ed. went thither foon after the publication of his firfl
Gregory of Pours, or Georgius Florentius Grego- work ; and fixing his refidence there for fome years,
rius, one of the moft illuftrious biihops and celebra- he publiihed, in 1667, Fera Circuit et Hyperboles qua-
ted writers of the fixth century, was defcended from dratura; in wdiich he propounded another difcovery of
a noble family in Auvergne. He was educated by his his own, the invention of an infinitely converging fe-
uncle Gallus, biftiop of Clermont; and diftinguiftied ries for the areas of the circle and hyperbole. To this
liimfelf fo much by his learning and virtue, that in treatife, when republifhed in 1668, he added a new
573 he was chofen biftiop of Tours. He afterwards work, intitled. Geometries pars univerfalls, infermens
■went to Rome to vifit the tomb of the apoftles, where quantitalum curvarum tranfmutationi et menfures ; in which
he contracted a friendftiip with Gregory the Great, he is allowed to have ftiown, for the firft time, a me-
and died in 595. This author was extremely credu- thod for the tranfmutation of curves. Thefe works en-
lous with regard to miracles. He wrote, 1. The hi- gaged the notice, and procured Mr Gregory the cor-
ftory of France. 2. The lives of the faints ; and o- refpondence, of the greateft mathematicians of the age,
ther works. The beft edition is that publiftied by Fa- Newton, Huygens, Halley, and Wallis ; and their an¬
ther Rumart, 1699. being foon after chofen a fellow of the royal fo-
Gregory (James), one of the moft eminent mathe- ciety of London, contributed to enrich the Philofo-
maticians of the laft century, was a fon of the Rev. Mr phical TranfaCtions at that time by many excellent
John Gregory minifter .of Drumoak in the county of papers. Through this channel, in particular, he car-
Aberdeen, and was born at Aberdeen in 1638. His ried on a difpute with Mr Huygens, upon the occa-
mother was a daughter of Mr David Anderfon of fion of his treatife on the quadrature of the circle and
Finzaugh, a gentleman who poflefled a Angular turn hyperbole, to which that able mathematician had
for mathematical and mechanical knowledge. This flatted fome objedlions. Of this controverfy, it is un-
mathematical genius was hereditary in the family of neceffary to enter into particulars. It is fufficient to
the Anderfons, and from them feems to have been fay, that, in the opinion of Leibnitz, who allows Mr
tranfmitted to their defcendants of the name of Gre- Gregory the higheft merit for his genius and difcove-
gory. Alexander Anderfon, coufin german of the ries, Mr Huygens has pointed out, though not errors,
above-mentioned David, was profefiqr of mathematics fome confiderable deficiencies in the treatife above
at Paris in the beginning of the 17th century, and mentioned, and ftiown a much Ampler method of at-
publiftitd there in 1612, Supplemcntum Apollonii redivivi, taining the end in view.
fe’e. The mother of James Gregory inherited the ge- In 1668, Mr James Gregory publiftied at London
nius of her family ; and obferving in her fon., while yet another work, intitied, Exercitaticmes Geometric#, which
a child, a ftrong propeniity to mathematics, fhe in- contributed ftill to extend his reputation. About this
ftrudled him herfelf in the elements of that fcience. timf he was- eledled profefibr of mathematics in the
He received his education in the languages at the univerfity of St Andrew’s; an office which he held for
Vot. VIII. Part i. -R fix
" Memoirs
of hh oivn
Wei !• 31
G It E [ i
fix years. Daring his refidence there, he married, in
1669, Mary, the daughter of George Jamefon the ce¬
lebrated,painter, whom Mr Walpole has termed the
Vandyke of Scotland, and who was fellow-difciple
with that great artift in the fchool of Rubens at Ant¬
werp.
In 1674, he was called to Edinburgh, to fill the
chair of mathematics in that univerfity. This place
he had held for little more than a year, when, in Octo¬
ber 1675, being employed in fhowing the fatellites of
Jupiter through a telefcope to fome of his pupils, he
was fuddenly (truck with total blindnefs, and died a
few days after, at the early age of 37.
He was a man of an acute and penetrating gemus.
His temper feetns to have been warm, as appears from
the conduft of his difpute with Mr Huygens ; and,
confcious perhaps of his own merits as a difcoverer, he
feems to have been jealous of loling any portion of his
reputation by the improvements of others upon his
inventions.
Gregory (David), Savilian profeffor of aftronomy
at Oxford, whom Dr Smith has termed fultilijfimi inge¬
nii mathematicus, was the eldeft fon of Mr Gregory of
Kiimairdy, brother of the above mentioned Mr James
Gregory. He was born at Aberdeen in 1661, and
received the earlier parts of his education in that city.
He completed his ffudies at Edinburgh; and, being
poffeffed of the mathematical papers of his uncle, foon
diftinguifhed himfelf likewife as the heir of his genius.
In the 23d year of his age, he was elefted profeffor of
mathematics in the univerfity of Edinburgh; and pub-
lifhed, in the fame year, Exenitatio Geometrica de di-
menfioncJigurarum, five fpecimen methodi generalis dime tie n-
di quafvis figuras, Edinburgh, 1684, 410. He faw very
early the excellence of the Newtonian philofophy ; and
had the merit of being thefirft who introduced it into
the fchools by his public le&ures at Edinburgh. “ He
had (fays Mr Whifton #) already caufed feveral of his
fcholars to keep afts, as we call them, upon feveral
branches of the Newtonian philofophy; while we at
Cambridge, poor wretches, were ignominioufly ftudy-
fng the fi&itious hypothefes of the Cartefian.”
In 1691, on the report of Dr Bernard’s intention
of'refigning the Savilian prefefforlhip of aftronomy at
Oxford, David Gregory went to London ; and being
patronifed by Sir Ifaac Newton, arid warmly befriend¬
ed by Mr Flamltead the aftronomer royal, he obtained
the vacant profefforfhip, for which Dr Halley was a
competitor. This rivatfliip, however, inftead of ani-
fnofity, laid the foundation of friendfhip between thefe
eminent men ; and Halley foon after became the col¬
league of Gregory, by obtaining the profefforfhip of
geometry in the fame univerfity. Soon after his arri¬
val in London, Mr Gregory had been elected a fellow
of the royal fociety; and, previoufly to his election in-
38 ] G it E
to the Savilian profefforlhip, had the degree of doftor Gregory
of phyfic conferred on him by the univerfity of Ox- y~*"
ford (a).
In 1693, he publifiied in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions a refolution of the Florentine problem de Tejlu-
dine veliformi quadrilili; and he continued to commu¬
nicate to the public, from time to time, many ingeni¬
ous mathematical papers by the fame channel. In
1695, Pointed at Oxford Catoptric,2 et Diopirixee
Spheericee Elemenla ; a work which, as he informs us in
his preface, contains the fubftance of fome of his pub¬
lic leftures read, eleven years before, at Edinburgh.
This valuable treatife was republi(h,ed firft with addi¬
tions by Dr William Brown, with the recommenda¬
tion of Mr Jones and Dr Defaguliers ; and afterwards
by the latter of thefe gentlemen, with an appendix
containing an account of the Gregorian and Newto¬
nian telefcopes, together with Mr Hadley’s tables for
the conftruiSion of both thole inftruments. It is not
unworthy of remark, that, in the end of this treatife,
there is an obfervation which (hows, that what is gene¬
rally believed to be a difcovery of a much later date,
the conftrudtion of achromatic teiefcopes, which has
been carried to great perfe&ion by Mr Dolloiid and
Mr Ramfden, had fuggetted itfelf to the mind of Da¬
vid Gregory, from the refle&ion on the admirable
contrivance of nature in combining the different hu¬
mours of the eye. The paffage is as follows : “ Qyiod
fi ob difficultates phyiicas in fpeculis idoneis torno ela-
borandis et poliendis, etiamnum lentibus uti oporteat,
fortaffis media diverfse denfitatis ad lentem obje&ivam
componendam adhibere utile foret, ut a natura fadtum
obfervamus in Oculi fabrica, ubi criftallinus humor
(fere ejuldem cum vitro virtutis ad radios lucis refrin-
gendos) aqueo et vitreo (aquse quoad refradlionem
baud abfimilibus) conjungitur, ad imaginem quam
diftin&e fieri poterit, a natura nihil frudra moliente, in
oculi fundo depingendam.” Catopt. et Diopt. Sphaer.
Elem. Oxon. 1695, P- 9^-
In 1702 our author publifhed at Oxford, AJironomis
Phyfeca et Geometrica Elancnta ; a work which is ac¬
counted his matter-piece. It is founded on the New¬
tonian doftrines, and was efteemed by Sir Ifaac New¬
ton himfelf as a mod excellent explanation and de¬
fence of his philofophy. In the following year he
gave to the world an edition in folio of the works of
Euclid in Greek and Latin ; in profecution of a de-
fign of his predeceffor Dr Bernard, of printing the
works of all the ancient mathematicians. In this
work, although it contains all the treatifes attributed
to Euclid, Dr Gregory has been careful to point out
fuch as he found reafon, from internal evidence, to be¬
lieve to be the productions of fome inferior geometri¬
cian. In profecution of Dr Bernard’s plan, Dr Gre¬
gory engaged, foon after, with his colleague Halley,
(a) On obtaining the above profefforlhip, he was fueceeded in the mathematical chan* at Edinburgh by his
brother James, likewife an eminent mathematician ; who held that office for thirty-three years, and retiring in
1725 was fucceeded by the celebrated Maclaurin. A daughter of this profeffor James Gregory, a young lady
ef great beauty and accompliffiments, was the victim of an unfortunate attachment, which furnilhed the fubjeft
©f Mallet’s well-known ballad of William and Margaret.
Another brother, Charles, was created profeffor of mathematics at St Andrew’s by queen Anne in 1707.
This office he held with reputation and ability for thirty-two years; and, refigning in 1739, was fucceeded. by
bis fon, who eminently inherited the talents of his family, and died in 1.763,.
G R E C *39 I G R E
in the publication of the Conics of Apollonius; but
he had proceeded but a little way in this undertaking
when he died, in the 49th year of his age, at Maiden¬
head in Berkflnre, A. D. 1710. To the genius and
abilities of David Gregory, the moft celebrated ma¬
thematicians of. the age, Sir Ifaac Newton, Dr Hal¬
ley, and Dr Keill, have given ample teftimonies. Be-
fides thofe works publilhed in his lifetime, he left in
manufcript, A Short Treatife of the Nature and Arith¬
metic of Logarithms, which is printed at the end of Dr
Keill’s tranflation of Commandine’s Euclid ; and a
’Treatife of Practical Geometry, which was afterwards
tranilated, and publifhed in 1745, by Mr Maclaurin.
Dr David Gregory married, in 1695, Elifabeth, the
daughter of Mr Oliphant of Langtown in Scotland.
By this lady he had four fons, of whom, the eldeft,
David, was appointed regius profeffor of modern hittory
at Oxford by king George I. and died in i 767, in an
advanced age, after enjoying for many years the digni¬
ty of dean of Chrift church in that univerfity.
Gregory (Dr John), profeifor of medicine in the
univerfity of Edinburgh, was the fon of Dr James
Gregory profeflbr of medicine in King’s college Aber¬
deen, and grandfon of James the inventor of the Gre¬
gorian telefcope. His father was full married to Ca¬
tharine Forbes, daughter of Sir John Forbes of Mony-
mufk ; by whom he had fix children, moft of whom
died in infancy, fie married afterwards Anne Chal-
mei s, only daughter of the Rev. Mr George Chalmers
principal of King’s college, by whom he had two fons
and a daughter. John, theyoungeft of the three, wasborn
at Aberdeen, June 3. 1724. Lofing his father when
only in the 7th year of his age, the care of his educa¬
tion devolved on his grandfather Principal Chalmers,
and on his elder brother Dr James Gregory, who, up¬
on the refignation of their father a (hort time before
his death, had been appointed to fucceed him in the
profefTorfhip of medicine in King’s college. He like-
wife owed much in his infant years, and during the
whole courfe of his ftudies, to the care and attention
of his coufin, the celebrated Dr Reid, now of the uni¬
verfity of Glafgow. The rudiments of our author’s
claffical education he received at the grammar-fchool
of Aberdeen ; and, under the eye of his grandfather,
he completed, in King’s college, his ftudies in the La¬
tin and Greek languages, and in the fciences of ethics,
mathematics, and natural philofophy. His mafter in
philofophy and in mathematics was Mr Thomas Gor¬
don, the prefent philofophy prcfeflbr of King’s col¬
lege, who has ably filled an academical chair for above
half a century.
In 1742, Mr Gregory went to Edinburgh, where
the fchool of medicine was then rifing to that celebri¬
ty which has fince fo remarkably diftinguifhed it.
Here he attended the anatomical ledlures of the elder
Dr Monro, of Dr Sinclair on the theory of medicine,
and of Dr Rutherford on the pra&ice. He heard
likewife the preleftions of Dr Alfton on the materia
medica and botany, and of Dr Plummer on chemiftry.
The medical fociety of Edinburgh, inftituted for the
free difeuffion of all queftions relative to medicine and
philofophy had begun to meet in 1737. Of this fo¬
ciety we find Mr Gregory a member in 1742, at the
time when Dr Mark Akenfide, his fellow ftudent, and
intimate companion, was a member of the fame infti-
tution.
In the year 1745 our author went to Leyden, and
attended the ledftures of thofe celebrated profeffors
Gaubius, Albinus, and Van Royen. While at this,
place he had the honour of receiving from the King’s
college of Aberdeen, his alma mater, who regarded him
as a favourite fon, an unfolicited degree of do&or of
medicine ; and foon after, on his return thither from
Holland, he was ele&ed profeffor of philofophy in the
fame univerfity. In this capacity he read leftures du¬
ring the years 1747, 1748, and 1749, on mathema¬
tics, on experimental philofophy, and on moral philo¬
fophy'. In the end of 1749, however, he chofe to re-
fign his profefforlhip of philofophy, his views being
turned chiefly to the praftice of phyfic, with which he
apprehended the duties of this profefforfhip, occupying
a great portion of his time, too much interfered. Pre-
vioufly, however, to his fettling as a phyiieian at Aber¬
deen, he went for a few months to the Continent; a
tour of which the chief motive was probably amufe-
ment, though, to a mind like his, certainly not without
its profit in the enlargement of ideas, and an increafed
knowledge of mankind.
Some time after his return to Scotland, Dr Gregory
married, in 1752, Elifabeth daughter of William Lord
Forbes ; a young lady who, to the exterior endow¬
ments of great beauty and engaging manners, joined
a very fuperior underftanding, and an uncommon fhare
of wit. With her he received a handfome addition of
fortune; and during the whole period of their union,
which was but for the fpace of nine years, enjoyed the
higheft portion of domeftic happinefs. Of her charac¬
ter it is enough to fay, that her hufband, in that ad¬
mired little work, A Father's Legacy to his daughters, the
laft proof of his affedlion for,, them, declares, that,
“ while he endeavours to point out what they fhould
be, he draws but a very faint and imperfeft pidlure of
what their mother was.” The field of medical prac¬
tice at Aberdeen being at that time in a great meafure
pre-occupied by his elder brother Dr James Gregory,
and others of fome note in their profelfion, our author
determined to try his fortune in London. -Thither
accordingly he went in r 754; and being already known
by reputation as a man of genius, he found an eafy in-
trodu&ion to many perfons of diftinftion both in the
literary and polite world. The late George Lord
Lyttleton was his friend and patron. An attachment,
which was founded on a linking fimilarity of manners,
of taftes, and of difpofitions, grew up into a firm and
permanent friendlhip ; and to that nobleman, to whom
Dr Gregory was wont to communicate all his literary
produ&ions, the world is indebted for the publication
of the Comparative View of the State and Faculties of
Man, which made him firft known as an author. Dr
Gregory likewife enjoyed the friendlhip of . the late
Edward Montague, Efq; and of his lady, the celebra-
ten champion of the Fame of Shakefpeare againft the
cavils and calumnies of Voltahe. At her affemblies*
or converfazione, the refort of tafte and genius, our au¬
thor had an opportunity of cultivating an acquaintance
with many of the moft diltinguilhed literary charac¬
ters of the prefent times.
In 1754 Dr Gregory was chofen fellow of the roy-
R 2 al
ORE £ 14.0 1 ORE
Gregory, al fociety of London; and, daily advancing in the to this work, he fignified his intention of comprehend- Gregory.
v». ■ y public efteem, it is not to be doubted, that, had he ing in it the whole feries of difeafes of which he " "v
continued his refidence in that metropolis, his profef- treated in his le&ures on the Pradfice of Phyfic ; but
fional talents would have found their reward in a very this intention he did not live to accomplifh, having
extenlive praddice. But t}ie death of his brother, Dr brought down the work no further than to tire end of
James Gregory, in November 1755, oecafioning a va- the clafs of Febrile Difeafes.—In his academical lec-
cancy in the profeffovlhip of phyfic in King’s college, tures, Dr Gregory never attempted to miflead the ftu-
Aberdeen, which he was folicited to fill, he returned to dent by flattering views of the perfection of the fei-
his native country in the beginning of the following ence ; but was, on the contrary, anxious to point out
year, and took upon him the duties of that office to its defedts; wifely judging, that a thorough fenfe of
which he had been elected in his abfence. the imperfedtion of an art or fcience is the firft ftep
Here our author remained till the end of the year towards its improvement. In this view he was care-
1764, when, urged by a very laudable ambition, and
prefuming on the reputation he had acquired as af¬
fording a reafonable profpedt of fuccefs ir
ful to expofe the fallacioufnefs of the feveral fheories-
and hypothefes which have had the moft extenfive cur¬
rency, and perpetually inculcated the danger of fyfte-
tended field of pradtice, he changed his place of refi- matizing with limited experience, or an impeifedl
dence for Edinburgh. His friends in that metropolis knowledge of fadls. Yet in the work laft mentioned
had reprefented to him the fituation of the college of it will appear, from the order in which he has treated-
medicine as favourable to his views of filling a profef- of the feveral difeafes, that he did not entirely negledt
forial chair in that univerfity; which accordingly he the fyftematic arrangements of other authors. Thefe,
obtained in 1766, on the refignation of Dr Ruther- however, he warned his pupils, that he had not adopt-
ford profeffor of the pradfice of phyfic. In the fame ed from any convidfion of the redfitude of thofe theo-
year he had the honour of being appointed firitphyfician ries to which they referred, but only as affording that
to his majefty for Scotland on the death of Dr Whytt. degree of method, and regularity of plan, which-is
On his firft: eftablifhment in the univerfity of Edin- found to be the heft help to the ftudy of any fcience.
burgh, Dr Gregory gave ledfures on the pradfice of Confidering a rational theory of phyfic to be as yet a
phyfic during the years 1767, 1768, and 1769. Af- defideratum, it was his objedl to communicate to his
terwards, by agreement with Dr Cullen, profeflbr of pupils the greateft portion of pradlical knowledge, as
the theory of phyfic, thefe two eminent men gave al- the only bafis on which fuch a theory could ever be
ternate courfes of the theory and of the pradfice.—As reared. His method, in treating of the feveral difeafes,
a public fpeaker, Dr Gregory’s manner was fimple, was firft to mention thofe fymptoms which are un¬
natural, and animated. Withont the graces of ora- derftood among phylicians to charadterife or define a
tory, which the fubjedt he had to treat in a great de- difeafe ; proceeding from the general to the more par-
gree precluded, he exprelfed his ideas with uncommon ticular feries of fymptoms and their occafional varie-
perfpicuity, and in a ftyle happily attempdred between ties ; to point out accurately the diagnojlk fyrnptomp,
the formality of ftudied compofition and the eafe of or thofe by which one difeafe is effentially diftinguifh-
converfation. It was his cuftom to premeditate, for a ed from others that referable it, and to mark likewife
ffiort time before entering the college, the fubjedf of prognojilcs by which a phyfician is enabled to con-
his ledfure, confulting thofe authors to whom he had jedture of the probable evenf of a difeafe, whether fa-
©ccaiion, to refer, and marking in ffiort notes the ar- vourable or otherwife. He then proceeded to fpecify
rangement of his intended difeourfe : tRen fully ma- the various caufes, predifpofing, occafional, and proxi-
Iler of his fubjedt, and confident of his own powers, he mate ; accounting, as far as he thought could be done
trufted to his natural facility of expreffion to convey on juft principles, for the appearance of the feveral
thofe opinions which he had maturely deliberated. The fymptoms; and, finally, he pointed out the general
only ledtures which he committed fully to writing, plan of cure, the particular remedies to be employed.
were thofe introdudfory difeourfes which he read at the
beginning of his-annual courfe, and which are publiffi-
ed in thefe volumes under the title of LeQures on the
Duties and Qualifications of a Phyfician. Of thefe,
which were written with no view to publication, many
copies were taken by his pupils, and fome from the o-
riginal marmfeript, which he freely lent for their peru-
fal. On hearirig that a copy had been offered for fale
and the cautions- requifite in the adminiftration of
them. Thus defirous of eftabliffiirvg the fcience of
medicine upon the folid foundation of pradtice and
experience ; and knowing that many things afferted as
fadts by medical writers have been affumed on a very,
carelefs obfervation, while confirming a favourite theo¬
ry ; and that,, on the other hand, many real and im¬
portant fadts have, from the fame fpirit of fyftem*
bookfeller, it became neceffary to anticipate a been explained away and diferedited; he conftantly.
fraudulent, and perhaps a mutilated publication, by au- endeavoured, both by his precept and example, to jn-
thorifing an impreffion from a corredted copy, of which culcate to his pupils the neceffity of extreme caution
he gave the profits to a favourite pupil. Thefe lec- either in admitting or in denying medical fadts, or
tures were, firlt publifhed in i770».and afterwards in an what are commonly given as fueh. To the defire of
enlarged and more perfedt form in X772* enforcing this neceffary caution is owing that multi-
In the fame year, 1772, Dr Gregory publiffied
Elements of the Practice of Phyfic, for the ufe of Students ;
n work intended folely for his own pupils, and to be
tifed by himfelf as a text-book to be commented upon
tude of queries refpedting matters of fadt, as well as
matters of opinion, which occurs in the Elements of the
Prailice of Phyfic.
Dr Gregory, foon after the death of his wife, and*
in hia epurfe. of ledtpres. In an advertifement prefixed as he himfelf fays, “ for the amufement of his folitary
hours,”
G R E [ 141 ] G R E
Oegr.ry. hours,” employed himfeif in the compofition of that
*“ "■ 'v  admirable tracl, intitled,^ Father’s Legacy to his Daugh¬
ters , a work which, though certainly never intended
by its author for the public eye, it would have been
an unwarrantable diminution of his fame, and a capri¬
cious refufal of a general beneht to mankind, to have
limited to the foie purpofe for which it was originally
defigned. It was, therefore, with great propriety,
publilhed after the author’s death by his eldell fon.
This work is a moll; amiable difplay of the piety
and goodnefs of his heart, and his confummate know¬
ledge of human nature and of the world. It manifefts
fuch foltcitude for their welfare,as ftrongly recommends
the advice which he gives. He fpeaks of the female
fex in the moft honourable terms, and labours to ru-
creafe its ellimation, whiUt he plainly, yet genteelly
and tenderly, points out the errors into which young
ladies are prone to fall. It is particulaily obfervable,
in what high and honourable terms he Ipeaks of the
Holy Scriptures, of Chriltian worlhip, and faithful
minifters; how warmly he recommends to his daugh¬
ters the ferious and devout worlhip ot God in public
and private. He dwells largely on that temper and
behaviour,* which were particularly fuited to their edu¬
cation, rank, and circumftances ; and recommends that
gentlenefs, benevolence, and modelty, which adorn the
charafter of the ladies, and do particular honour to
their fex. His advices, with regard to love, courtlhip,
and marriage, are peculiarly wife, and interelling to
them. They Ihow what careful obfervation he had
made on female domeltic conduct, and on the different
effedls of poffeffing or wanting the virtues and qualities
which he recommends. i here is fomething peculiar¬
ly curious, animated, and ufeful, in his directions to
them, how to judge of, and manifelt an honourable
pafiion in, and towards the other fex, and in the very
accurate and ufeful diftinCtion which he makes be¬
tween true and falfe delicacy. Nothing can be moie
llriking and affedting, nothing more likely to give his
paternal advices their defired effeCt, than the refpedt-
ful and affectionate manner in which he mentions his
lady their mother, and the irreparable lofs which he
and they fuftained by her early death. In fhort, in
this tradt, the profeffor fhines with peculiar luftre as
a hufband and father, and it is admirably adapted to
promote domeflic happinefs.
Thefe letters to his daughters were evidently written
under the impreffion of an early death, which Dr Gre¬
gory had reafon to apprehend from a conflitution fub-
jedt to the gout, which had begun to fhow itfelf at ir¬
regular intervals even from the 18th year of his age.
His mother, from whom he inherited that difeafe, died
fuddenly in 1770, while fitting at table. Dr Gregory
had prognofticated for himfeif a limilar death; an
event of which, among his friends, he often talke'd,
but had no apprehenfion of the nearnefs of its ap¬
proach. In the beginning of the year 1773, in con-
verfation with his fon the prefent Dr James Gregory,
the latter remarking, that having for the three pre¬
ceding years had no return of a fit, he might make his
account with a pretty fevere attack at that feafon ; he
received the obfervation with fome degree of anger,
as he felt himfeif then in his ulual ftate of health.
The prtdidiion, however, was too true; for having
gone, to bed on the 9th of February 1773, with no
apparent diforder, he was found dead in the morning. Gregory,
His death had been inflantaneous, and probably in his
fleep ; for there was not the fmalleft difeompofure of . -' ,i
limb or of feature,—a perfedt Euthanajia.
Dr Gregory, in perfon, was confiderably above the
middle fize. His frame of body was compadied with
fymmetry, but not with elegance. His limbs were
not adfive; he ftooped fomewhat in his gait; and his
countenance, from a fullnefs of feature and a heavinefs
of eye, gave no external indication of fuperior power
of mind or abilities. It was otherwife when engaged
in converfation. His features then became animated,
and his eye moft expreffive. He had a warmth of
tone and of gefture which gave a pleafing intereft to
every thing which he uttered: But, united with this
animation, there was in him a gentlenefs and fimplici-
ty of manner, which, with little attention to the ex¬
terior and regulated forms of politenefs, was more en-
gaging than the moft finiihed addrefs. His converfation
flowed with eafe ; and, when in company with literary
men, without alfedting a difplay of knowledge, he was
liberal of the ftores of his mind. He poffefled a large
fhare of the focial and benevolent affedtions, which, in
the exercife of profefiion, manifefted themfelves in
many namelefs, but important, attentions to thofe un¬
der his care; attentions which, proceeding in him
from an extended principle of humanity, were not
fquared to the circumftances or rank of the patient,
but ever beftowTed moft liberally where they were
moft requilite. In the care of his pupils, he was not
fatished with a faithful difeharge of his public duties.
To many of thefe, ftrangps in the country, and far re¬
moved from all who had a natural intereft in their con¬
cerns, it was matter of no fmall importance to enjoy
the acquaintance and countenance of one fo univerfal-
ly refpedfted and efteemed. Through him they found
an eafy introdu&ion to an enlarged and elegant fo-
ciety ; and, what to them was (till more valuable, they
experienced in him a friend who was ever eafy of ac-
cefs, and ready to aflift them to the utmoft witjt his
counfel and patronage.—The fame fpirit of philan¬
thropy endeared him in a particular manner to his in¬
timate friends ; among whom may be ranked moft of
the Scottilh literati of Jiis time.—Some time after his
death, the profefforihip of the Theory of Medicine
was bellowed upon his eldeft fon the prefent Dr James
Gregory ; who has fince fucceeded to the Practical
Chair, lately filled by that other moll eminent pro-
feflpr Dr Cullen.
GRE-hqund. See Canis.—Among a litter of
gre-hound puppies, the bell are . always thofe which
are lighteft. Thefe will make the nimbleft dogs as
they grow up. The greyhound is bell for open coun¬
tries where there is little covert. In thefe places there
will fometimes be a courfe after a hare of two or thrde
miles or more, and both the dogs and the game in light
all the while. It is generally fuppofed that the gre-
hound bitch will beat the dog in running: but this
feems to be an error; for the dog is both longermade,
and coniiderably ftronger, than the bitch of the fame
kind. In the breeding thefe dogs the bitch is princi¬
pally to be regarded ; Tor. it is found by experience,
that the belt dog and a bad bitch will not get fo good
puppies as an indifferent dog with a good bitch. The
dog and bitch fhould be as nearly as may be of the
fams
ORE [ 142 ] OR E
fame age ; and for the breeding of fine and perfeft
dogs, they fiiould not be more than four years old.
An old bitch may be ufed with a young dog, but the
puppies of a young bitch and an old dog will never be
good for any thing.
The general food for a gre-hound ought to be
chippings or rafpings of bread, with foft bones and
griftles; and thofe chippings ought always to be foaked
in beef or mutton broth.
The proper exercife for a gre-hound is courfing him
three times a-week, and rewarding him with blood 5
which will animate him in the higheft degree, and
encourage him to profecute his game. But the hare
alfo (libuld ever have fair play. She fhould have the
law, as it is called ; that is, have leave to run about
twelve fcore yards before the dog is flipped at her,
that he may have fome difficulty in the courfe, and
not pick up the game too eafily. If he kills the hare,
he mufl never be fuffered to tear her ; but fhe muft be
taken from him, his mouth cleaned of the wool, and
the liver and lights given him by way of encourage¬
ment. Then he is to be led home, and his feet wafhed
with butter and beer, and about an hour after he is to
be fed.
When the dog is to be taken out to courfe, he
fhould have nothing in the morning but a toaft; and
butter, and then he is to be kennelled till taken out
to the field. The kennelling thefe dogs is of great
ufe, always giving them fpirit and nimblenefs when
they are let loofe : and the beft way of managing a
fine gre hound is, never to let him ftir out of the
kennel, except at the times of feeding, walking, or
courfing.
GRENADA, one of the Caribbee iflands, lying
in W. Long. 6t. 40. N. Lat. 12. o. It is the lall of
the Windward Caribbees ; and lies 30 leagues north
of new Andalufia, on the continent. According to
fome, it is 24 leagues in compafs; according to others,
only 22 ; and it is faid to be 30 miles in length, and
in fome places 15 in breadth. The chief port, formerly
called Louis, now St George’s, Hands on the weft fide of
the ifland, in the middle of a large bay, with a fandybot-
tom. 'It is pretended that 1000 barks, from 300 to 400
tons, may ride fecure from ftortps; and that ico fhips, of
1 goo tons each, may be moored in the harbour. A
large round bafon, which is parted from it by a bank
of fand, would contain a confiderable number of fhips,
if the bank was cut through : but by reafon of it the
large fhips are obliged to pafs within 80 paces of one
of the mountains lying at the mouth of the harbour;
the other mountain lying about half a mile diftant.
The ifland abounds with wild game and fifh; it produces
alfo very fine timber, but the cocoa-tree is obferved
not to thrive here fo well as in the other iflands. A
lake on a high mountain, about the middle of the ifland,
fupplies it with frefh-water ftreams. Several bays and
harbours lie round the ifland, fome of which might be
fortified to great advantage ; fo that it is very conve¬
nient for fhipping, not being fubjeA to hurricanes. The
foil is capable of producing tobacco, fugar, indigo,
peafe, and millet.
In 1638, M. Poincy, a Frenchman, attempted to
make a fettlement in Grenada ; but was driven off by
the Caribbeans, who reforted to this ifland in greater
•umbers than to the neighbouring ones, probably on
account of the game with which it abounded. In 1650, Grenada.
Monf. Parquet, governor of Martinico, carried over  
from that ifland 200 men, furnifhed with prefents to
reconcile the favages to .them; but with arms to fub-
due them, in cafe they fhotild prove intractable. The
favages are faid to have been frightened into fubmif-
fion by the nunaber of the Frenchmen: but, according
to fome French writers, the chief not only welcomed
the new-comers; but, in confid^ration of fome knives,
hatchets, feiffars, and other toys, yielded to Parquet
the fovereignty of the ifland, referving to themfelves
their own habitations. The Abbe Raynal informs us,
that thefe firft French colonifts, imagining they had
purchafed the ifland by thefe trifles, affumed the fove¬
reignty, and foon afted as tyrants. The Caribs, un¬
able to contend with them by force, took their ufual
method of murdering all thofe whom they found in a
defencelefs ftate. This produced a war; and the
French fettlers having received a reinforcement of 300
men from Martinico, forced the favages to retire to a
mountain ; from whence, after exhauiting all their ar¬
rows, they rolled down great logs of wood on their
enemies. Here they were joined by other favages
from the neighbouring iflands, and again attacked the
French, but were defeated anew ; and were at laft dri¬
ven to fuch defperation, that 40 of them, who had efca-
ped from the (laughter, jumped from a precipice into
the fea, where they all periihed, rather than fall into
the hands of their implacable enemies. From thence
the rock was called le morne des fmiteurs, or “ the hill
of the leapers;” which name it ftill retains. The
French then deftroyed the habitations and all the pro-
vifions of the favages; but frefh fupplies of Carib¬
beans arriving, the war was renewed with great vigour,
and great numbers of the French were killed. Upon
this they refolved totally to exterminate the natives :
and having accordingly attacked the favages unawares,
they inhumanly put to death the women and children,
as well as the men; burning all their boats and ca¬
noes, to cut off alfo communication between the few
furvivors and the neighbouring iflands. Notwith Hand¬
ing all thefe barbarous precautions, however, the Ca¬
ribbees proved the irreconcileable enemies of the French;
and their frequent infurreftions at laft obliged Par¬
quet to fell all his property in the ifland to the Count
de Cerillac in 1657. The new proprietor, who pur¬
chafed Parquet’s property for 30,000 crowns, fent
thither a perfon of brutal manners to govern the if¬
land. He behaved with fuch infupportable tyranny,
that moft of the colonifts retired to Martinico; and
the few who remained condemned him to death af¬
ter a formal trial. In the whole court of juftice that
tried this mifereant, there was only one man (called
Archangeli) who could write. A farrier was the per¬
fon who impeached: and he, inftead of the fignatures,
fealed with a horfe-fhoe ; and Archangeli, who per¬
formed the office of clerk, wrote round it thefe words
in French, “ Mark of Mr de la Brie, counfel for the
court.”
It was apprehended that the court of France would
not ratify a fentence paffed with fuch unufual formali¬
ties ; and therefore moft of the judges of the gover¬
nor’s crimes, and wrtneffes of his execution, difappear-
ed. Only thofe remained whofe obfeurity fereened
them from the purfuit of the laws. By an eftimate,
3 taken
G R E [ H3 1 G R E
Gtenada.* taken in 1700, there were at Grenada no more than
251 white people, 53 free favages or mulattoes, and
525 Haves. The ufeful animals were reduced to 64.
horfes and 569 head of horned cattle. The whole cul¬
ture conlifted of 3 plantations of fugar and 52 of indi¬
go.—The ifland had been fold in 1664 to the French
Weft India company for 100,000 livres.
This unfavourable ftate of the affairs of Grenada
was changed in 1714. The change was owing to the
flourifhiug condition of Martinico. The richeft of
the fhips from that ifland were fent to the Spanifti
coails, and in their way touched at Grenada to take
in refreshments. The trading privateers, who under¬
took this navigation, taught the people of that ifland
the value of their foil, which only required cultivation.
Some traders furnifiied the inhabitants with ftaves and
utenlils to ereft fugar plantations. An open account
was eftabliftred between the two colonies. Grenada
was clearing its debts gradually by its rich produce ;
and the balance was on the point of being clofed,
when the war in 1744. interrupted the communication
between the two iflands, and at the fame time flopped
the progrefs of the fugar-plantations. This lofs was
fupplied by the culture of coffee, which was purfued
during the hoftilities with all the a&ivity and eager-
nefs that induftry could infpire.—The peace of 1748
revived all the labours, and opened all the former four-
ces of wealth. In 1753 the population of Grenada
confifted of 1262 white people, 175 free negroes,
and 11,991 flaves. The cattle amounted to 2298
horfes or mules,' 2456 head of horned cattle, 3278
flreep, 902 goats, and 331 hogs. The cultivation
rofe to 83 fugar-plantations, 2,725,600 coffee-trees,
150,300 cocoa-trees, and 8co cotton-plants. The
provifions confifted of 5,740,45c trenches of caffada,
933,596 banana trees, and 143 fquares of potatoes
and yams. The colony made a rapid progrefs, in propor¬
tion to the excellence of its foil; but in the courfe of the
laft war but one the ifland was taken by the Britifli.
At this time one of the mountains at the fide of
■St George’s harbour was ftrongly fortified, and might
have made a good defence, but furrendered without
firing a gun ; and by the treaty concluded in 1763 the
ifland was ceded to Britain. On this ceffion, and the
management of the colony after that event, the Abbe
Raynal has the following remarks.—This long train
of evils [the ambition and mifmanagement of his coun¬
trymen] has thrown Grenada into the hands of the
Englifli, who are in poffefiion of this conqueft by the
treaty of 1763. But how long will they keep this
colony ? Or, will it never again be reftored to France?
—England has not made a fortunate beginning. In
the firft enthufiafm railed by an acquifition, of which
the higheft opinion had been previoufly formed, every
■one was eager to purchafe eilates there. They fold
for much more than their real value. This caprice,
by expelling old colonifts who were inured to the cli¬
mate, has fent about L. 1 >553,000 out of the mother-
country. This imprudence has been followed by ano¬
ther. The new proprietors, mifled, no doubt, by na¬
tional pride, have fubftituted new methods to thofe of
their predeceffors. They have attempted to alter the
mode of living among their flaves. The negroes, who
from their very ignorance are more attached to their
cuftoms than other men, have revolted. It hath been
found neceffary to fend out troops, and to flied blood. Grenada.
The whole colony was filled with fufpicions. The -
mailers who had laid themfelves under a neceffity of
ufing violent methods, were afraid of being burnt or
maffacred in their own plantations. The labours have
declined, or been totally interrupted. Tranquillity
has at length been reftored. The number of flaves
has been increafed as far as 40,000, and the produce
has been raifed to"the treble of what it was under the
French government. The plantations will ftill be im¬
proved by the neighbourhood of a dozen of iflands,
called the Grenadines or Grenadilloes, that are depend¬
ent on the colony. They are from three to eight
leagues in circumference, but do not afford a Angle
fpring of water. The air is wholefome. The ground,
covered only wich thin bulhes, has not been fcreened
from the fun. It exhales none of thofe noxious vapours
which are -fatal to the hulbaudman. Cariacou, the
only one of the Grenadines which the French have
occupied, was at firft frequented by turtle filhermen ;
who, in the leifure afforded them by fo eafy an occu¬
pation, employed themfelves in clearing the ground.
In procefs of time, their fmall number was incrcaftd
by the acceilion of fome of the inhabitants of Guada-
loupe; who, finding that their plantations were deftroy-
ed by a particular fort of ants, removed to Cariacou.
The ifland flourifhed from the liberty that was enjoyed
there. The inhabitants colledted about 1200 flaves,
by whofe labours they made themfelves a revenue of
near 20,000 a-year in cotton.—The other Grenadines
do not afford a profpedt of the fame advantages, though
the plantation of fugar is begun there. It has fuc-
ceeded remarkably well at Becouya, the largeft and
moft fertile of thefe iflands, which is no more than two
leagues diftant from St Vincent.”
In the year 1779 the conqueft of this ifland was
accomphflied by D’Eftaign the French admiral, who
had been prevented from attempting it before by his
enterprife again ft St Vincent. Immediately after his
conqueft of St Lucia, however, being reinforced by a
fquadron under M. de la Motte, he fet fail for Grenada
\vith a fleet of 26 fail of the line and 12 frigates, ha¬
ving on board 10,000 land forces. Here he arrived
on the fecond of July; and landed 3000 troops, chiefly
Jrifli, being part of the brigade compofed of natives
of Ireland in the fervice of France. Thefe were con¬
ducted by Count Dillon, who -difpofed them in fuch
a manner as to furround the hill that overlooks and
commands George’s Town, together with the fort
and harbour. To oppofe thefe, Lord McCartney, the
governor, had only about 150 regulars, and 300 or
400 armed inhabitants; but though all reiiftance was
evidently vain, he determined neverthelefs to make an
honourable and gallant defence. The preparations he
made were fuch as induced D’Eftaign himfelf to be pre-
fent at the attack ; and, even with his vaft fuperiority
of force, tire firft attack on the entrenchments proved
unfuccefsful. The fecond continued two hours; when
the garrifou were obliged to yield to the immenfe dif-
parity of numbers who affaulted them, after having
killed or wounded 300 of their antagonifts. Having
thus made themfelves matters of the intrenchments on
the hill, the French turned the cannon of them to¬
wards the fort which lay under it; on which the go¬
vernor demanded a capitulation. The terms, however,
wers-
G R E [ 144 ] G R E
were fo extraordinary and unprecedented, that both
the governor and inhabitants agreed in reje&ing them;
and determined rather to furrender without any con¬
ditions at all than upon thofe which appeared fo ex¬
travagant. On this occafion D’Eltaign is faid to have
behaved in a very haughty and fevere manner; indul¬
ging his foldiers alfo in the moft unwarrantable liber¬
ties, and in which they would have proceeded much
farther had they not been reflrained by the Irilh troops
in the French fervice.
In the mean time admiral Byron, who had been
convoying the homeward-bound Weft India fleet, ha-
flened to St Vincent, in hopes of recovering it; but
being informed, by the way, that a dcfcent had been
made at Grenada, he changed his courfe, hoping that
Lord M‘Cartney would be able to hold out till his ar¬
rival. On the fixth of July Jie came in fight of the
French fleet; and, without regarding D’Eftaign’s
fuperiority of fix (hips of the line and as many frigates,
determined if poffible to force him to a clofe engage¬
ment. The French commander, however, was not
fo confident of his own prowefs as to run the riik
of an enccimter of this kind ; and having already at-
ehieved his conqueft, had no other view than to pre-
ferve it. His defigns were facilitated by the good
condition of his fleet; which being more lately come
out of port than that of the Britilh, failed fafter, fo that
he was thus enabled to keep at what diftance he
pleafed. The engagement began about eight in the
■morning, when admiral Barrington with his own and
two other ihips got up to the van of the enemy, which
they attacked with the greateft fpirit. As the other
fhips of his divifion, however, were notable to get up to
Tiis afliftance, thefe three fhips were neceflarily obliged
to encounter a vaft fuperiority, and of confequence fuf-
■fered exceedingly. The battle was carried on from be-
•ginning to end in the fame unequal manner ; nor were
the Britifh commanders, though they ufed their utmoft
efforts for this purpofe, able to bring the French to a
clofe engagement. Thus captains Collingwood, Ed¬
wards, and Cornwallis, flood the fire of the whole
French fleet for fome.time. Captain Fan (haw of the
Monmouth, a 64 gun (hip, threw himfelf fingly in the
way of the enemy’s van ; and admiral Rowley and
■captain Butchart fought at the fame difadvantage : fo
that fitiding it impofiible to continue the engagement
with any probability of fuccefs, a general ceffation of
firing took place about noon. It recommenced in the
fame manner about two in the afternoon ; and lafted,
with different interruptions, till the evening. During
this a&ion fome of the Britifh fhips had forced
their way into St George’s harbour, not imagining
that the enemy were already in poffeffion of the ifiand.
They were foon undeceived, however, by perceiving
the French colours flying afhore, and the guns and
batteries firing at them. This difeovery put an end
to the defign which had brought on the engagement;
and as it was now high time to think of providing for
the fafety of the Britifh tranfports, which were in dan¬
ger from the number of the enemy’s frigates, the en¬
gagement was finally difcontinued. During this aftion
.fome of admiral Byron’s (hips had fuffered extremely.
The Lion of 64 guns, captain Cornwallis, was found
incapable of rejoining the fleet which were plying to
windward ; and was therefore obliged to bear away
a° 144.
alone before the wind. Two other fhips lay far aftern
in a very diftreffed fituation ; but no attempt was made
to capture them, nor did the French admiral (how the
leaft inclination to renew the engagement.
Grenada was reftored to Great Britain by the late
treaty of peace.—George’s town, or St George’s, is
the refidence of the governor ; and the prefent gover¬
nor, general. Matthew, made a prefent to the citi¬
zens of a clock and bells laft fpring (1790). The gar-
rifon confided at that time of artillery, two regiments
of Europeans, and one of blacks. As there are feve-
ral fmall iflands fubjeft to the laws enadled in Gre¬
nada, they each eledl a perfon to reprefent them in the
general affembly, which is always held in St George’s.
As none of the Grenadines have a harbour fit for large
veffels, the produce of them is conveyed in fmall veffels
to St George’s, from whence it is exported to the dif¬
ferent places of Europe, Africa, America, &c. From
the number of veffels that arrive there yearly from dif¬
ferent places, and from its being the feat of the legif-
lature, it has become fo populous, that two news pa¬
pers are publifhed in it. On occafibh of the late pro-
fpeft of a war with Spain, an aft was paffed here in
February 1790, obliging every gentleman to give in
upon oath the value of his eftate, and the number of
blacks upon it, in order that the general affembly might
afcertain the number of flaves each fhould fend to work
ujion the fortifications on Richmond-hill, near St
George’s.
GRENADINES, or Grenadillos. See the pre¬
ceding article.—It is there mentioned that the Grena¬
dines do not afford a fingle drop of frefh w’ater. A fmall
fpring however has been lately difcovered in the prin¬
cipal ifland Cariacou, by digging; but being of great
value, it is kept locked by the proprietor Mr Mayes.
The capital of that ifland is called Hilfborough, in
which there is a fmall church.
GREN \ILLE, a n^me given by the French wri¬
ters to a preparation of copper, which the Chinefe ufe
as a red colour in fome of their fineft china, particu¬
larly for that colour which is called oil-red, or red in
oil. The china-ware coloured with this is very dear.
The manner in which they procure the preparation is
thus: they have in China no fuch thing as filver-coin-
ed money, but they ufe in commerce bars or maffes of
filver; thefe they pay and receive in large bargains ;
and among a nation fo full of fraud as the Chinefe,
it is no wonder that thefe are too often adulterated
with too great an alloy of copper. They pafs, how¬
ever, in this ftate in the common payments. There
are fome occafions, however, fuch as the paying the
taxes and contributions, on which they muft have their
filver pure and fine : on this occafion they have recourfe
to certain people, whofe foie bufxnefs it is to refine the
filver, and feparate it from the copper and the lead it
contains. This they do in furnaces made for the pUr-
pefe, and with very convenient veffels. While the
copper is in fufion, they take a fmall brufh, and dip
the end of it into water ; then ftriking the handle of
the brufh, they fprinkle the water by degrees upon the
melted copper; a fort of pellicle forms itfelf by this
means on the furface of the matter, which they take
off while hot with pincers of iron, and immediately
throwing it into a large veffel of cold water, it forms
that red powder which is called grenaille; they re-
G R E [ "45 1 . G R E ..
iOrenoble, peat the operation every time they in this manner fe- tranfatled queen Elizabeth’s mercantile affairs fo con- Grevillt!.
Urefham. paiate the copper; and this furnifhes them with as ftantly, that he was called the royal merchant; and v*-—'
u-.y-.— much of the grenaille as they have occafion for in their his houfe was fometimes appointed for the reception
china works. foreign princes upon their firft arrival at London.
GRENOBLE, a large, populous, and ancient town GREVILLE (Fulke), lord Brook, of Beauchamp’s
of Dauphiny in France, with a bifhop’s fee. It con- Court in Warwickfhire, a poet and mifcellaneous wri-
tains a great number of handfome ftvu6tures, particu¬
larly the churches and convents. The leather and
gloves that are made here are highly efteemed. It is
feated on the river Ifere, over which there are two
bridges to pafs into that part called Perrkre, a large
ftreet on the other fide of the river. E. Long. 5. 49.
N- Lat. 45. 12.
GRESHAM (Sir Thomas), an opulent merchant
of London, defcended from an ancient and honourable
family of Norfolk, was born in 1519. He was, as
his father had been before him, appointed king’s agent
at Antwerp, for taking up money of the merchants ;
ter, was born in the year 1554, and defcended from
the noble families of Beauchamps of Powick and Wil¬
loughby tie Brook. In company with his coufin Sir
Philip Sidney, he began his education at a fchool in
Shrewfbury : thence he went to Oxford, where he
remained for fome time a gentleman commoner, and
then removed to Trinity-College in Cambridge. Ha¬
ving left the univerfity; he vifited foreign, courts, and
thus added to his knowledge of the ancient languages
a perfedl knowledge of the modern. On his return
to England he was introduced to queen Elizabeth by
his uncle Robert Greville, at that time in her ma-
and in 15 51, he removed to that city with his family, jelly’s fervice ; and by means of Sir Henry Sidney,
This employment was fufpendcd om the acceffion of lord prefident of Wales, was nominated to fome lucra-
queen Mary: but on proper reprefentations, was re- tive employments in that principality,
ftored to him again. Queen Elizabeth conferred the In the year 1581, when the French commifiioners
honour of knighthood upon him, and made him her who came to treat about the queen’s-marriage with
agent in foreign parts. It was at this time he thought the duke of Anjou were fumptuoufly entertained with
proper to provide himfelf with a manfion-houfe in the tilts and tournaments, Mr Greville, who was one of
city, fuitable to his ftation and dignity ; with which the challengers, fo fignalized himfelf, as to “ win the
intention he built a large houfe on the weft fide of reputation of a mod valiant knight,” He continued
Bilhopfgate-ftreet, afterwards known by the name of a conftant attendant at court, and a favourite with the
Grejham-college. His father had propofed building a queen to the end of her reign ; during which he ob-
boufe or exchange for the merchants to meet in, in- tained the office of treafurer of marine caufes, alfo a
flead of walking in the open ftreet; but this defign grant of the manor of Wedgnock, and likewife the
remained for the fon to accomplilh. Sir Thomas honour of knighthood. In this reign he was feveral
went beyond his father: he offered, if the citizens times eledled member for the county of Warwick;
would provide a proper piece of ground, to build a and from the journals of the houfe feems to have been
~ • *   . ...L ' L / ’   ^ J ~ „ —  ~ f 1 H ^ ^ „ r. I, f- ...4.1.-   *
houfe at his own expence ; which being accepted, he
fulfilled his promife after the plan of the exchange at
Antwerp. When the new edifice, was opened, the
queen (Jan. 29. >570) came and dined with the
founder ; and Caufcd a herald with a trumpet to pro¬
claim it by the name of the Royal Exchange. In pur-
a man of bufinefs, as his name frequently appears in
committees.
On the accefiion .of king James I. he was inftalled
knight of the Bath; and foon after obtained a grant
of the ruinous caftles of Warwick, which he repaired
at a confiderable expence, and where he probably re-
i.iciuu 11 uy tuc uauit- vt u a uwv. j auu uv; piwuciuty ic-
■fuance alfo of a pvomife to endow a college for the fided during the former part of this reign : but in the, ,
profeffion of the feven liberal fcienoes, he made a tefta- year 1614, the twelfth of James I. he was* made un-
mentary difpofition of his houfe in London for that der-treafurer, and chancellor of the exchequer, -
purpofe ; leaving one moiety of the royal exchange to
the corporation of London, and the other to the mer¬
cers company, for.the falariesof feven le&urers in
divinity, law, pbyfic, aftronomy, geometry, mufic, and
rhetoric, at 501. each per annum. He left feveral
•other ccnfiderable benefadlions, and died in 1579. As
to the college, it has been pulled down within tbefe 14
or 1 j years, in confequence of an application to par¬
liament from the city, and the excife-office eredted in
:its ;place. The h dlures are read, or rather hurried
through, in a chamber over the Royal Exchange.—
e of
the privy council, and gentleman of the bed-cham¬
ber ; and in the 1620, was raifed to the dignity of a
baron by the title of lord Brook of Beauchamp’s Count.
He was alfo privy-counfellor to King Charles I. in
the beginning of whofe' reign he founded a hiftory-
le&ure in Cambridge.
Having thus attained the age of 74, through a life
of continued profperity, univerfally admired as a gentle¬
man and a fcholar, he fell by the hand of an affallin,
one of his own domeftics, who immediately dabbed
himfelf with the fame weapon with which he had mur-
Thofe who have drawn Sir Thomas’s charafter ob- dcred his matter. This fellow’s name was Haywood .
ferve, that he had the happinefs of a mind every way and the caufe is faid to have been a fevere reprimand
fuited to his fortune, generous and benign ; ready to c'~ k'’”  n:- —-/l~ f— --*•
perform any good adtions, and encourage them in
other,®. He was a great friend and patron of our ce¬
lebrated martyrologift John Fox. He was well ac¬
quainted with the ancient and feveral modern lan-
for his prefumption in upbraiding his mailer for not
providing for him after his death. It feems he had
been witnefs to lord Brook’s will, and knew the con¬
tents. Some fay he ftabbed him with a knife in the
back, others with a fword. This affair happened at
guages 5 he had a very com prehen five knowledge of Brook-houfe in Holborne.—Lord Brook was buried
all affairs relating to commerce, whether foreign or with great pomp in St Mary’s church at Warwick,
-domeftic; and his fuccefs was not lefs, being in his in his own vault, over which he had eredled a monu-
time efteemed the bigheft commoner in England. He ment of black and white marble, ordering at his death
Von. VIII. Part I S thq
G R E [ 146 ] G R E
Grevius the following infcription to be engraved upon the
H tomb: “ Fulke Greville, fervant to queen Elizabeth,
Grcwia. eounfeHor to king James, and friend to Sir Philip Sid
“ v ' ney. Trophaum Peccati.” Fie wrote feveral works
both in verfe and profe ; among which are, j. Two
tragedies, Alaham and Muftapha. 2. A Treatife of
Human Learning, &c. in verfe, folio. 3. The Life-
of Sir Philip Sidney. 4. An Inquifition upon Fame
and Honour, in 86 ftanzas. 6. Cac'dia, a collection of
109 fongs. 7. His Remains, confiding of political
and philofophical poems.
GREVIUS. See Gravius.
GREW (Nehemiah), a learned Englifii writer, in
the 17th century, had a eonfiderable practice as a phy-
fician in London, and fucceeded Mr Oldenburgh in
the office of fecretary to the royal fociety. In this
capacity, purfuant to an order of council, he drew up
a catalogue of the natural and artificial rarities be¬
longing to the fociety, under the title of Mufaum Re-
galis Societatis, &c. i68t. He alfo wrote, befides fe¬
veral pieces in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, i. The
Comparative Anatomy of the Stomach and Guts, fo¬
lio. 2. The Anatomy of Plants, folio. 3. Traftatus
de falls tiathartlci natura et vfu. 4. Cefmologia Sacra,
or a Di/courfe of the Univerfe as it is the Creature
and Kingdom of God, folio. He died fuddenly in
1721.
GREWIA, in botany: A genus of the polyandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 37th order,
Columnifera. The calyx is pentaphyllous ; there are
five petals, each with a neftariferous fcale at the bafe;
the berry is quadrilocular.
Species. 1. The occidentalis, with oval crenated
leaves, has long been preferved in many curious gar¬
dens both in England and Holland. It is a native of
the Cape of Good Hope, and grows to the height of
to or 12 feet. The.ftem and branches greatly re¬
ferable thofe of the fmall leaved elm, the bark being
fmooth, and of the fame colour with that when young.
The leaves are alfo very like thofe of the elm, and fall
off in autumn. The flowers are produced fingly along
the young branches from the wings of the leaves, and
are of a bright purple colour. 2. The Africana, with
oval fpear-fhaped ferrated leaves, is a native of Sene¬
gal in Africa, from whence its feeds were brought by
Mr Adanfon. In this country it rifes with a (hrubby
ffalk five or fix feet high, fending out many lateral
branches, with a brown hairy bark, and garnifhed
with fpear-fhaped ferrated leaves; but the plants have
not flowered in Britain.
Cvlture and ufes. The firft fort, though a native of
a warm climate, will bear the open air in this coun¬
try ; only requiring to be flickered in a green-houfe
during the winter-time. It may be propagated by
cuttings or layers planted in pots filled with foft loamy
earth. The fecond fort is tender, and muff be kept
conftantly in a warm bark-ftove. In fummer, they
require a large fliare of the free air to be admitted to
them, and fhould have water three or four times a-
week in warm weather ; but in the winter they mu ft
be fparingly watered.—The negroes of Senegal highly
value a deco&ion of the bark of this laft fpecies, and
ufe it as a never-failing remedy againft venereal com¬
plaints.
GREY, or Gray colour. See Gray. Grey.
Grey (Lady Jane), a moft illuflrious and unfor- —v~-
tunate lady, defcended of the blood-royal of England
by both parents, was the eldeft daughter of Henry
Grey marquis of Dorfet and Frances the daughter of
Charles Brandon lord Suffolk, by Mary the dowager
of Louis XII. king of France, who was the youngeft
daughter, of Henry VII. king of England. She was
born in the year 1537, at Broadgate, her father’s feat
in Leicefterfhire. She difcovered an early propenfity
to all kinds of good literature ; and having a fine
genius, improved under the tuition of Mr Elmer, fhe
made a moft furprifing progrefs in the languages, arts,
and fciences. She underftood perfe&ly both kinds of
philofophy, and could exprefs herfelf very properly at
leak in the Latin and Greek tongues; and we are in¬
formed by Sir Thomas Chaloner (in Strype’s Memo¬
rials, Vol. III. p. 93.), that flic was well verfed in
Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian; “and
(he adds) ftie played well on inftrumental mufic,
writ a curious hand, and was excellent at the needle.”
Chaloner alfo tells us, that ftie accompanied her mu-
fical inftruments with a voice exquifitely fweet in itfelf,
affifted by all the graces that art could bellow.
In the year 1553, the dukes of Suffolk and Nor-
thumbeiland, who were now, after the fall of Somer-
fet, arrived at the height of power, began, on the
decline of the king’s health, to think how to prevent
that reverfe of fortune which, as things then ftood,
they forefaw muft happen upon Edward’s death. To
obtain this end, no other remedy was judged fufficient
but a change in the fucceffion of the crown, and
transferring it into their own families, by rendering
Lady Jane queen. Thofe moft excellent and amiable
qualities which had rendered her dear to all who had
the happinefs to know her, joined to her near affinity
to the king, fubjefted her to become the chief tool of
an ambition fo notorioufly not her own. Upon this
very account ftie was married to lord Guilford Dud¬
ley, fourth fon of the duke of Northumberland, with¬
out difcovering to her the real defign of the match j
which was celebrated with great pomp in the latter
end of May, fo much to the king’s fatisfasffion, that
he contributed bounteoufly to the expence of it from
the royal wardrobe. The young king Edward VI.
died in July following; and our fair fcholar, with in¬
finite reluftance, overpowered by the folicitations of
her ambitious friends, allowed herfelf to be proclaim¬
ed queen of England, on the ftrength of a deed of
fettleroent extorted from that prince by her father-in-
law the duke of Northumberland, which fet afide the
fucceffion of queen Mary, queen Elizabeth, and Mary
queen of Scots. Her regal pageantry continued but
a few days. Queen Mary’s undoubted right prevail¬
ed ; and the Unfortunate Lady Jane Grey and her
hufband were committed to the Tower, and on the
13th of November arraigned and found guilty of high
treafon. On the 12th of February following they
were both beheaded on Tower-hill. Her magnanimi¬
ty in this dreadful cataftrophe was aftoniftiing. Im¬
mediately before her execution, ftie addreffed herftlf
to the weeping multitude with amazing compofnre
and coherency: ftie acknowledged the juftice of the
law, and died in charity with that wretched world
which, ftie had fo much reafon to execrate. Thus
did
Cx R I [ I
Grey did the pious Mary begin her reign with the murder
I! of an innocent young creature of 18 ; who for fim-
Gribaldus. pfoity 0f manners, purity of heart, and extenfive
v learning, was hardly ever equalled in any age or coun¬
try. But, alas! Jane was an obftinate heretic.—A few
days before her execution, Fleckenham, the queen’s
chaplain, with a pious intention to refcue her poor
foul from eternal mifery, paid her frequent vifits in
the Tower, and ufed every argument in his power to
convert her to the Popifh religion : but he found her
fo much his fuperior in argument, that he gave up
the contelt; refigning her body to the block, and her
foul to the devil.
Her writings are, i. Four Latin Epiilles; three to
Bullenger, and one to her lifter lady Catharine. The
laft was written, the night before her execution, in a
blank leaf of a Greek Teftament. Printed in a book
intitled Epljlola Helvetica Reformatorlbus, vel ad eos
fcripta, &c. Tiguri, 1742, 8vo. 2. Her Conference
with Fleckenham. (Ballard). 3. A letter to Dr
Harding, her father’s chaplain. Printed in the Phoe¬
nix, vol. ii. p. 28. 4. A Prayer for her own ufe during
her confinement. In Fox’s afts and monuments.
5. Four Latin verfes ; written in prifon with a pin.
They are as follows :
Non aliena putes, homini quas obtingere poffunt:
Sors hodierna mihi, tunc erit ilia tibi.
• Jane Dudley.
Deo juvante, nil rocet livor mains:
lit non j uvat.te, nil juvat labor gravis.
I’oft tenebras fpero lucem,
(>. Her Speech on the Scaffold. (Ballard). It be¬
gan thus: “ My Lords, and you good Chriftian peo¬
ple who come to fee me die ; I am under a law, and
by that law, as a never-erring judge, 1 am condemned
to die : not for any thing I have offended the queen’s
tnajefty ; for I will wafh my hands guiltlefs thereof,
and deliver to my God a foul as pure from fuch tref-
pafs as innocence from injuftice ; but only for that I
confented to the thing I was enforced unto, con-
ftraint making the law believe I did that which I
never underftood,” &c.—Hollinfhed, Sir Richard Ba¬
ker, Bale, and Fox, tell us that fhe wrote feveral
other things, but do not mention where they are to be
found.
Grey-Hound. See Gus-Hound.
GRIAS, in botany: A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thole of which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is tetrapetalous ;
the calyx quadrifid ; the ftigma feffile and cruciform ;
the fruit is a plum with an eight-furrowed kernel.
There is but one fpecies, the cauliflora or anchovy-
pear, a native of Jamaica. The leaves are nearly oval,
and about three feet long. It has a ftraight ftem, upon
the upper part of which come forth the flowers. The
fruit is large, and contains a ftone with eight furrows.
Thefe fruits are eaten by the inhabitants.
GRIBALDUS (Matthew), a learned civilian of
Padua, left Italy in the 16th century, in order to
make a public profelfion of the Proteftant religion.
After having been for fome time profeflbr of the civil
law at.Tubingen, he was obliged to make his efcape
to avoid the punilhment he would have incurred had he
been convidled of differing from Calvin with refpedt to
47 1 G R I
the doftrine of the Trinity : but he was feized at Gribner
Berne, where he would have met with very fevere _ll
treatment had he not pretended to renounce his opi- Griff‘’n‘
nions ; but as he relapfed again, he would certainly ~v"'
have been put to death, had he not died of the plague
in 1664. He wrote De methodo ac ratloneJludendi in
juri civili ; and feveral other works which are efteemed.
GRIBNER (Michael Henry), a learned civilian of
Germany, was born at Leipfic in 1682. After writing
fome time in the journal of Leipfic, he was made pro-
feffor of law at Wittemberg: whence he paffed to
Drefden, and was at laft recalled to Leipfic to fucceed
M. Mencke. He died in 17.34. Befides feveral aca¬
demical differtations, he wrote, 1. Principia procejftisju-
diciarli; -2. Principia jurifprudentia naturalis, a fmall
work much efteemed ; 3. Opufcula juris publici et pri<-
vati.
GRIEF, or Sorrow. The influence of this paf-
fion on the body is very great. Its effefts refemble in
feveral inftances thofe of fear, with, however, fome va¬
riations, owing perhaps to its being in general of
longer duration. Grief diminilhes the bodily ftrength
in general, and particularly the force of the heart and
circulation ; as appears by the frequent fighs and deep
refpirations which attend it, which feem to be necel-
fary exertions, in order to promote the paffage of the
blood through the lungs. It diminilhes perfpiration,
obftrufts the menftrual difcharge, produces palenefs of
the Ikin, and oedematous complaints, and fcirrhus of
the glandular parts. It aggravates the fcurvy, and the
malignity of putrid and contagious diftempers, and ren¬
ders people more apt to receive the infedfion of them.
When it comes on fuddenly, and in a great degree, it
caufes a palpitation of the heart, and renders the pulfe
irregular. Blindnefs, gangrene, and fudden death,
have followed the excels of this fenfation. Its effects
of changing the colour of the hair are well known. O-
piates, if not given in large dofes, are good cordials in
this cafe.
GRIELUM, in botany : A genus of the pentagy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is quinquefid ; there are five petals ; the
filaments perfifting ; and there are five monofpermous
feed-cafes.
GRIERSON (Conftantia), born of poor parents in
the county of Kilkenny in Ireland, was one of the molt
learned women on record, though (he died at the age of
27, in 1733. She was an excellent Greek and Latin
fcholar ; and underftood hiftory, divinity, philofophy,
and mathematics. She proved her Hull in Latin by
her dedication of the Dublin edition of Tacitus to lord
Carteret, and by that of Terence to his fon ; to whom
fhe alfo addreffed a Greek epigram. She wrote many
elegant Englilh poems, fevtral of which were-inferted
by Mrs Barber among her own. When lord Carteret
was lord lieutenant of Ireland, he obtained a patent for
Mr Grierfon to be the king’s printer ; and to reward
the uncommon merit of his wife, caufed her life to be
included in it.
GRIFFON.(Gryphus, in the natural hi¬
ftory of the ancients, the name of an imaginary bird of
prey, of the eagle kind. They reprefented it with
four legs, wings, and a beak; the upper part repre-
fenting an eagle, and the lower a lion : they fuppofed
It to watch over gold mines, hidden treafures, &c.
S 2 The
GUI [ 148 1 G R I
Oriflea, The animal was confecrated to the fun ; and the an-
.Grinia d;. c;eBt painters reprefented the chariot of the fun as
■ """ drawn by griffons. M. Spanheim obferves the fame of
thof*--of Jupiter and Nemefis.
The griffon in Scripture is that fpecies of the eagle
called in Latin ojjifraga, the “ ofprey and fiS) of
the verb tns, paras, “ to break.”
The griffon is frequently feen on ancient medals;
and is ilill borne in coat-armour. Guillim blazons it
rampant; alleging, that any very fierce animal may
be fo blazoned as well as the lion. Sylvefter, Mor¬
gan, and others, ufe the terms fegrelant inftead of ram¬
pant.
This is alfo an ornament of archite&ure in conftant
ufe among the Greeks, and was copied from them, with
the other elegancies of architedtural enrichments, by the
Romans. See Sphynx.
GR1FLEA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the o&andria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 17th order,
Calycanthenae. The calyx is quadrifid ; and there are
four petals, one from each incifure of it. The fila
ments are very long, afcending or turning upwards ;
the capfule is globofe, fuperior, unilocular, and poly-
fpermous.
GRIMALDI (Francifco), an eminent painter, ge¬
nerally known by the appellation of Bolognefe, was born
at Bologna in 1606, where he became a difciple of
Annibal Caracci, and proved an honour to that illu-
ftrious mafter. From the fchool of Annibal he went
to complete his ftudies at Rome, and improved himfelf
daily, by copying the works of thofe artifis in which he
obferved the greateft excellence, until his fuperior ta¬
lents recommended him to the favour of Innocent X.
who afforded him immediate opportunities of exerting
his genius in the gallery of his palace at Monte Ca-
vallo, and alfo in the Vatican. The merit of his per¬
formances very foon engaged the attention and applaufe
of -the public, and increafed the number of his ad¬
mirers and friends; among whom were the prince
Pamphilio, and many of the principal nobility of Rome.
His reputation reached cardinal Mazarine at Paris, who
fent for him, fettled a large penfion on him, and em¬
ployed him for three years in embellifhing his palace
and the Louvre, by the order of Louis XIII. The
troubles of the ftatd, and the clamours raifed againft
the cardinal, whofe party he warmly efpoufed, put him
fo much in danger, that his friends advifed him to re¬
tire among the Jefuits. He did fo, and was of ufe to
them ; for he painted them a decoration for the expo-
fition of the facrament during the holy days, according
to the cuftom of Rome. This piece was mightily relifh-
ed at Paris : the king honoured it with two vifits, and
commanded him to paint fuch another for his chapel
at the Louvre. Grimaldi after that returned to Italy;
and at his arrival at Rome found his great patron
Innocent X. dead : but his two fucceffors Alexan¬
der VII. and Clement IX. honoured him equally with
their friendihip, and found him variety of employment.
Grimaldi was amiable in his manners, as well as fkilful
in his profefiion : he was generous without profufion,
refpeftful to the great without meannefs, and chari¬
table to the poor. The following inftance of his bene¬
volence may ferve to charafterife the man. A Sicilian
gentleman, who had retired from Mefiina with his
daughter during the troubles of that country, was re- Grimaldi
duced to the mifery of wanting bread. As he lived I!
over-againft him, Grimaldi was foon informed of it; GrinUcti‘-
and in the dulk of the evening, knocking at the Sici- ''' * 'f-
ban’s door, without making himfelf known, toffed in
money and retired. The thing happening more than
once, raifed the Sicilian’s curiofity to know his bene-
fattor ; who finding him out, by hiding himfelf behind
the door, fell down on his knees to thank the hand
that had relieved him. Grimaldi remained confufed, of¬
fered him his houfe, and continued his friend till his
death. He died of a dropfy at Rome in 1680, and left
a confiderable fortune among fix children. The genius
of Grimaldi direfted him chiefly to landfcape, which
he executed moll happily. His colouring is ftrong ;
his touch light and delicate ; his fituations are uncom¬
monly pleafing ; and the leafing of his trees is ad¬
mirable. . Sometimes, indeed, his colouring appears
rather too green: but thofe landfcapes, which he
painted in the manner of the Caracci, may ferve as mo¬
dels for all thofe who admire the llyle of that fchool;
and he defigned his figures in an elegant tafte. The
piftures of this mailer are very unfrequent, efpecially
thofe of his bell time ; and whenever they are to be
purchafed, they afford large prices. Of his children
above mentioned, the youngeft, named Alexander, pro¬
ved a good painter, in the fame ftyle and talle with his
father, though very far inferior to him: fume of the
pittures of Alexander, however, are either artfully, or
injudicioufly, aferibed to Francifco.
GRIMSBY, a large fea-port town of Lincolnlhire
in England, 169 miles from London ; and faid to be
the fecond, if not the firlt, corporation in England. It
had anciently three convents and a callle. It is go¬
verned by a mayor, high-lleward, recorder, twelve
aldermen, twelve common council men, two bailiffs,
two coroners, a town clerk, and three ferjeants at mace.
The mayor holds a court here on Tuefday, and the
bailiffs on Friday. Here are feveral ftreets of good
houfes, and a church that looks like a cathedral. It
was a place of great trade before its harbour was choak-
ed up ; yet the road before it is a good llation for
Ihips that wait for a wind to get out to fea. Its
chief trade is in coals and fait brought by the Humber.
GRINDING, or Trituration, the adl of break¬
ing or comminuting a folid body, and reducing it into
powder. See Pulverisation and Levigation.
The painters colours are grinded on a marble or
porphyry, either with oil or gum-water.
Grinding is alfo ufed fi r rubbing or wearing off
the irregular parts of the furface of a body, and redu¬
cing it to the deftined figure, whether that be flat,
concave, or the like.
The grinding and polifliing of glafs is a confiderable
art; for which fee Glass Grinding. For the grinding
of optical glaffes, fee Optics, the Mechanical Part.
GRINSTED, East and West ; two towns near
Salilbury In Wiltlhire.
Grinsted, EaJ, a town 29 miles from London,
feated on a hill, near the borders of Surry, near Afli-
down foreit. It has a handfome church, which was
rebuilt after being burnt down 1683. On November
12, 1785, the beautiful tower having lately fallen to
decay, fell down, and part lighting on the church very
confiderably damaged it. An hofpital in the reign of
-6 king
GUI [ M9 ] G R I
wGriiifled ting James I. for 31 poor people of this town was with the devil, and that they are filled with the ma¬
ll built and endowed with 3301. a-year. It is a bo- lignant influence of that evil fpirit, when they fee
ffCrilgris. j-pugh by prefcription, governed by a bailiff and his them diftort their features and mufcles, make horrid
- v brethren ; has fent burgeffes to parliament ever fince grimaces, and at laft imitate all the appearance of epi-
the firft of Edward II. who are elected by about 35 leptics.
burgage holders; had a charter for a monthly market GRISONS, a people fituated among the Alps, and
from Henry V11. and is generally the place for the allies of the Swifs. 1'heir country is bounded on the
affizes. The returning officer here is the bailiff, who north by the counties of Surgans and Bludenz, the
is chofen by a jury of burgageholders. Its market is on canton of Claris, and the principality of Lichtenflein ;
Thurfday, and its fairs, which are well frequented, are on the fouth by the canton’s Italian bailiwics, the
July 13 and December 11 ; which laft is a great one county of Chavenne, and the Valteline ; on the call
for Welfh runts, that are brought up here by the by the territories of Venice and Milan ; and on the
Kentifh and Suffex farmers and for fats hogs and o- weft by fome of the Italian bailiwics, and the canton
ther cattle. of Uri. It is divided into three leagues, viz. the
Gsinsted, IVeJ}, in Suffex, a town above 10 miles Grlfon or grey league, the league of the houfe of God, and
to the fouth-weft of Eaft-Grinfled. that of the ten jurifdlSions ; which unite and form one
GRIPES, in medicine, a fort of cholic or painful republic. The two firft lie towards the fouth, and the
diforder of the lower belly, occafioned by fome fliarp third towards the north. The length of the whole is
pungent matters vellicating the parts, or by wind pent above yo miles, and the breadth about 60. The inhabi-
up in the inteflines. See /nr/ex fubjoined to Mhdi- tants are faid. to have had the name of Gri/s/jr from the
cine. grey coats they wore in former times. This country,
GRIPSWALD, a ftrong and confiderable town of lying among the Alps, is very mountainous ; but the
Pomerania in Germany ; formerly imperial; but now mountains yield good pafture for cattle, Iheep, and
fubjeft to the Swedes, with a good harbour and uni- goats, with fome rye and barley : in the valleys there
veriity. E. Long. 13. 53. N. Lat. 54. 12. is plenty of grain, pulfe, fruits, and wane. This coun-
GRISGRIS, a fupertlition greatly in vogue among try alfo abounds with hogs and wild-fowl ; but there is
the negroes in the interior parts of Africa. The grif- a fcarcity' of fifh and fait, and their horfes are moltly
gris, according to Le Maire, are certam Arabic cha- purchafed of foreigners. The principal rivers are 'the
rafters mixed with magical figures drawn by the Ma- Rhine, the Inn, and the Adda. Here are alfo feveral
rabuts or priefls upon paper. Labat affirms, that they lakes, mod of which lie on the tops of the hills. The
are nothing elfe than fcraps of the alcoran in Ara- language of the Grifons is either a corrupt Italian or
bic ; but this is denied by Barbot, who brought over the German. Each of the leagues is fubdivided into
one of thefe grifgiis to Europe, and fliowed it to a kveral Rffer communities, which are fo many demo¬
number of perfons deeply (killed in oriental learning, cracies; every male above 16 having a (hare in the go-
Npne of thefe could find the lead trace of any charac- vernment of the community, and a vote in the eleftion
ter they underftood. Yet, after all, this might be °f magiftrates. Deputies from the feveral communi-
ewing to the badnefs of the hand writing ; and the t'es conftitute the general diet of the Grifon leagues,
words are probably of the Mandingo language, though which meets annually, and alternately at the capital of
the charafters are an attempt to imitate the Arabic, each league ; but they can conclude nothing without
The pooreft negro never goes to war without his grif- the confent of their conftituents. This country was
gris, as a charm againft wounds ; and if it proves in- anciently a part of Rhetia. After the extinftion of
effeftual, the prieft transfers the blame on the immo- the Roman empire in the weft, it was fome time fub-
rality of his conduft. Thefe priefts invent grifgris a- jeft to its own dukes, or thofe of Swabia. Then the
gainft all kinds of dangers, and in favour of all defires bi(hop of Coire, and other petty princes, dependent on
and appetites; by virtue of which the poffeflbrs may the emperors of Germany, became mafters of great
obtain or avoid whatever they like or diflike. They Part of it : at laft, by the extinftion of fome, pur-
defend them from ftorms, enemies, difeafes, pains, and chafe, voluntary grants, and force, it got rid of all its
misfortunes ; and preferve health, long life, wealth, lords, and erefted itfelf into three diftinft republics,
honour, and merit, according to the Marabuts. No each of which, as we obferved already, is fubdivided
clergy in the world are more honoured and revered by into a certain number of communities, which are a fort
the people than thefe impoftors are by the negroes; of republics, exercifing every branch of fovereignty,
nor are any people in the world more impoveriflied by except that of making peace or war, fending embaffies,
their priefts than thefe negroes are, a grifgris being concluding alliances, and enafting laws relating to the
frequently fold at three (laves and four or five oxen, whole country, which belong to the provincial diets of
The grifgris intended for the head is made in the feveral leagues. The communities may be compa-
form of a crofs, reaching from the forehead to the re^ to the cities of Holland, and the diets of the feve-
neck behind, and from ear to ear; nor are the arms ral leagues to the provincial dates. The particular diets
and (houlders neglefted. Sometimes they are plant- are compofed of a deputy from each community ; and
ed in their bonnets in the form of horns ; at other both in them and the communities every thing is deter-
*• times, they are made like ferpents, lizards, or fome mined by a majority of votes. In the communities,
other animals, cutout of a kind of pafteboard, &c. every male above 16 has a vote. Befides the annual
There are not wanting Europeans, and otherwife in- provincial diets for choofing the chiefs and other offi-
telligent feamen and merchants, who are in fome degree cers> ar|d deliberating on the affairs of the refpeftivc
infefted with this weaknefs of the country, and believe leagues, there are general diets for what concerns all
that the negro forcerers have an adfual communication the three leagues or whole body. In both thefe, the
rtpre- -
G R I [ ijo - ] G R I
rcprefentatives can do nothing of, diemfclvei, but are
tied down to the inftruclions of their principals.
There is a general feal for all the three leagues; and
each particular league has a feparate fcal. Befides the
Hated times of meeting, extraordinary diets are fome-’
times fummoned, when either the domeftic affairs of
the (late or any foreign miniller require it. In the ge¬
neral diets, the Grey League has 28 votes ; that of
the Houfe of God, 23 ; and that of the Ten Jurifdic-
tions, 15. Thefe leagues, at different times, have en¬
tered into clofe alliances with -the neighbouring can¬
tons and their affociates. The bailiwics belonging in
common to the three leagues are thofe of the Valte-
line, Chieavene, Bormio, Meyenfeld* Malans, and
Jennins ; the officers of which are nominated fucceffive-
ly by the feveral communities every two years. The
yearly revenue arifing to the Grifons from their baili-
wics is faid to amount to about 13.300 florins. The
public revenues altogether are but fmall, though there
are many private perfons in the country that are rich.
However, in cafe of any extraordinary emergency,
they tax themfelves in proportion to the neceflity of the
fervice and the people’s abilities. They have no re¬
gular troops, but a well-difciplined militia ; and upon
occafion, .it is faid, can bring a body of 30,000 fight¬
ing men into the field : but their chief fecurity arifes
from the narrow paffes and high mountains by which
they are furrounded.
Of the jurifprudence, religion, ‘See. of the Gri¬
fons, the following account is given by Mr Coxe in his
travels in Switzerland. Throughout the three leagues
the Roman law prevails, modified by the municipal
cufloms. The courts of juftice in each community
are compofed of the chief magiftrate, who prefides,
and a certain number of jurymen, chofen by the
people: they have no regular falaries, but receive for
their attendance a fmall fum, arifing in fome commu¬
nities from the expences of the procefs, which are-de¬
frayed by the criminals; in others from a (hare of the
fines. They enjoy the power of pardoning or dimi-
nifhing the penalty* and of receiving a compofition in
money. This mode of proceeding fuppofes what is as
abfurd in theory as it is contrary to experience, that
judges will incline to mercy when it is their inttreff to
convidl; or will impartially inflidt punifliment, even
when injurious to their own private advantage.—The
prifoners are examined in private ; frequently tortured
for the purpofe of forcing confefiion, when the judges
either divide the fines, or remit the punifhment for a
compdfition. In fome diftridts a criminal trial is a
kind of feftival to the judges, for whom a good repaft
is provided at the expence of the prifoner if convidted;
and thus the following allufion, in Garth’s Difpenfary,
applied with more wit than truth to our courts of juf¬
tice, is literally fulfilled
‘ And wretches hang, that jurymen may t/ine.’
Capital punifhments, however, are extremely rare; a
circumftance arifing not from a want of feverity in the
penal ftatutes, or from a propenfity to mercy in the
judges: but becaufe the latter draw more advantages
from fining than executing an offender. In a word,
to ufe the exprefiion of Burnet, which is as true at
prefent as it was in his time, “ Many crimes go un-
punifhed, if the perfons who commit them have either
great credit or much money.” It is remarkable, that
4
torture is more frequently applied, and far fmaller de¬
linquencies, in thefe independent republics, than in the
fubjedt provinces. The inflidtion of it depends entirely
upon tiie arbitrary will of the judges ; a majority of
whom may order it for an offence w hich is not capi¬
tal, nor even punifliable by corporal penalties. Thus
it is not uncommon, in thofe communities where fines
are divided among the judges, to torture women of
loofe" condudt, for the purpofe of compelling them to
confefs with whom they have been connedted 5 for as
fuch offences are punilhable by fines, the more perfons
are convidled, the larger (hare of money is diftributed
among the judges for the trouble of their attendance.
Even in the diilridls where the fines are paid to the
community, torture is often no lefs wantonly infiidled,
becaufe, when the prifoner is not found guilty, the
expences of the procefs fall upon the public, and the
judges receive little emolument. Even in the civil
courts moft caufes are decided by bribing the judges;
and appeals in thofe communities, wherein they are
admitted, fcarcely ferve any other end than to enlarge
the fphere of corruption; Goire, and a few other
places, are excepted from this general refledlion.
The religion of the Grifons is divided into catholic
and reformed. The dodtrines of the reformation were
firft preached about the yea; 1324, and received at
Fkefch a fraall village in the Ten Jurifdidfions upon
the confines of Sargans; from thence they were ex¬
tended to Mayenfeld and Malantz, and foon after¬
wards through the whole valley of Pretigau. The new
opinions fpread with fuch celerity, that before the end
of the 16th century they were embraced by the w-hole
league of the Ten Jurifdidiions (excepting part of the
community of Alvenew), the greateft part of the Houfe
of God, and a few communities in the Grey League.
The difference of religion nearly excited a civil war
between the two feels, as well at the firft introduddiou
of the reformation as at the beginning of the troubles
in the Valteline. In the latter inftance, the two parties
rofe in arms ; but the Catholics being overpowered by
the Proteftants, matters were amicably adjufted. Since
that period all religious concerns have been regulated
with perfedt cordiality. According to the general
confent of the three leagues, each community being
abfolute within its little territory, has the power of
appointing its own particular worffip, and the inha-
. bitants are free to follow either the Catholic or Re¬
formed perfuafion. In the adminillration of civil af¬
fairs religion has no interference: the deputies of the ge¬
neral diet may be members of either communion, as
chofen by the communities which they reprefent. By
this moderate and tolerating principle, all religious dif-
fenfions have been fupprefl'ed as much as poflible; and
the moft perfedl amity (ubfxfts between the two fedts. -
In fpiritual concerns, the Catholics for the moft part
are under the jurifdidtion of the bifhop of Coire. For
the affairs of the Reformed churches, each league is
divided into a certain number of diftridls, the minifters
whereof affemble twice every year: thefe affemblies
are called colloquia. Each colloquium’has its prefident,
and each league a fuperintendant calied a dean. The.
fupreme authority in fpiriafal concerns is veiled in the
fynod, which is compofed of the three deans, and the
clergy of each league ; the fynod alfembles every year
alternately in each of the three leagues. Candidates
Grifoll*.
G R O f i
for holy orders are examined before the fynod. The
neceflary qualifications for admiffion into the church
ought to be the knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and
Latin ; but this rule is not ftridhly adhered to .; many
being ordained without the leaft acquaintance with ei¬
ther of thofe languages. Formerly Latin was foiely
ufed, as well in the debates of the fynod as for the
purpofe of examining the candidates ; but at prefent
that tongue grows more and more into difufe, and
German is employed in its dead.
The number of reformed pariflies in the whole three
leagues amounts to 135, in the following, proportion:
— In the Grey League 46, in that of God’s Houfe
53, and in the League of Tenjurifdi&ions 36. The mi-
nifters of thefe churches enjoy but very fmall falaries.
The richeft benefices do not perhaps yield more than
L. 20, or at molt 'Ll. 2$ per annum, and the pooreft
fometimes fcarcely L. 6. This fcanty income is at¬
tended with many inconveniences. It obliges the
clergy who have families to follow Tome branch of
traffic, to the negledt of their ecclefiaftical lludies, and
to ihe degradation of the profeffional character. Ano¬
ther inconvenience is fuperadded to the narrownefs of
their income. In moll communities the minifters,
though confirmed by the fynod, are chofen by the
people of the parifh, and are foiely dependent on their
bounty. For thefe reafons, the candidates for holy
orders are generally extremely ignorant. They can¬
not fupport that bxpence which is requifite to purfue
their (Indies; they are not animated with the expec¬
tation of a decent competence ; and, from the depen¬
dent mode of their election, are not encouraged to de-
ferve their promotion by a confiftent dignity of cha-
radter.
GRIST, in country affairs, denotes corn ground,
or ready for grinding.
GRIT (argillaceous), agenus of argillaceous earths.
Its texture is more or lefs porous, equable, and rough
to the touch. It does not give fire with Heel, nor
effervefee with acids. When frelh broken and breathed
upon, it exhales an earthy fmell. Mr Kirwan men¬
tions two kinds; one from Hollington near Utoxeter,
of a yellowilh or whitilh grey, and about the fpecific
gravity of 2288. Another, from Kneperlly in Staf-
fordffiire, is of the fpecific gravity of 2568; and fo un-
fufibl'e as to be ufed for fire (tones. According to
Fabroni the grit-ftone is of greater or lefs hardnefs,
moftly of a grey, and fometimes of a yellowiffi colour,
eompofed of a filiceous and micaceous fand, but rarely
of a fparry kind ; with greater or fmaller particles
clofely compared by an argillaceous cement. It gives
fome (parks with fteel, is indiffoluble for the moil part
in acids, and vitrifiable in a (Irong fire. It is ufed
for milHtones and whetftones; and fometimes for filter¬
ing (tones and for building.
GROAT, an Engliffi money of account, equal to
.four pence. Other nations, as the Dutch, Polanders,
Saxons, Bohemians, French, &c. have likewife their
groats, groots, groches, gros, &c. In the Saxon
times, no filver coin bigger than a penny was (truck
in England, nor after the conqueft, till Edward III.
who, about the year 1351, coined groffes, i. e. groats,
or great pieces, which went for 4d. a-piece : and fo
the matter flood till the reign of Henry VIII. who, in
i £C4, firll coined (hillings.
51 1 G R O
Groat*, in count! y affairs, oats after the Jiff’s are Groats
off, or great oat-meal. (I
GROCERS, anciently were fuch perfons as en- 6ron‘ngen-
groffed all merchandize that was vendible ; but now ■*
they are incorporated, and make one of the companies
of the city of London, which deals in fugar, foreign
fruits, fpices, &c.
GROENLAND, or Spitzbergen. See Green¬
land.
GROGRAM, a kimi of fluff made of (ilk and
mohair.
GROIN, that part of the belly next the thigh 
In the Philofophical Tranfadlions we have an account
of a remarkable cafe, where a peg of wood was ex¬
tracted from the groin of a young woman of 21, after
it had remained 16 years in the ftomach and inteftines,
having been accidentally fwallowed when (he was about
five years of age. Fide Vol. LXVII. p. 459.
Groin, among buildefs, is the angular curve made
by the interfe&ion of two femi-cyllnders or arches;
and is either regular or irregular.—A regular groin is
when the interfe&ing arches, whether femicircular or
femielipticai, are of the fame diameters and heights.
An irregular groin is where one of the arches is (emi-
circular and the other femielipticai.
GROMWELL, in botany. See Lithosper-
MUM.
GRONINGEN, the mod northerly of the Seven
United Provinces, is bounded on the north by the
German ocean; on the fouth, by the county of Drenthe;
on the eaft, by the biffiopric of Munfler, and the prin¬
cipality of Eaft-Friefeland; and on the weft by the
province of Friefeland, from which it is parted by the
river Lawers. Its greateft length from fouth-eaft to
north-well is about 47 miles; but its breadth is very-
unequal, the greateft being about 33 miles. Here
are rich paliures, large herds of great and fmall cattle,
plenty of fea and river fifh, and of turf, with ffme fo-
refts and corn-land. There are feveral rivers in the
province, of which the principal is the Hunfe ; and
a great number of canals and dykes. The dates
confift of the deputies of the town of Groningen, and
the Ommeland, or circumjacent country ; and hold
their affemblies always in the town of Groningen.
The province had anciently governors, under the title
of burgraves; but their power being limited, the
people enjbyed great privileges. Afterwards it became
fubjedl to the biffiop of Utrecht; but (hook off his
yoke at laft, and recovered its liberty. In 1536 it
fubmitted to Charles V. and in 1579 acceded to the
union of Utrecht. The colleges are much the fame
here as in the other provinces, viz. the provincial dates,
council of ftate, provincial tribunal, and chamber of
accounts. Six deputies are fent from hence to the
ftates-general. Of the ettabliffied clergy there are
160 minifters, which form feven claffes, whole annual
fynod is held, by turns, at Groningen and Appin-
gedam.
Groningen, the capital of the province of that name,
is fituated about 12 miles from the neared (hore of the
German ocean, at the conflux of feveral rivulets, which
form the Hunfe and Fivel. Ships of confiderable bur*
den can come up to the city, in confequence of which
it enjoys a pretty good trade. It was formerly very
ftrong, but its. fortifications are now much negiedled.
The
G R O
c
O-fonovIiv The unl^erfity here was founded in 1613;, and is well
II endowed out of the revenues of the ancient monafte.
^ Gruove. ].jeSi tov/nj which was formerly one of the
Hanfe, and lias hill great privileges, is large and po¬
pulous, being the feat of the high colleges, and con¬
taining three fpacious market-places, and 27 ftreeta,
in which are many fine houfes, befides churches and o«
ther public ftrudlures. By the river Fivel and the
Terns, it has a communication with Weftphalia. In
1672 it made fuch a gallant refiftance againfl the bi-
{hop of Munher, that he is faid to have loti 10,09,0
men before it, Rodolphus Agricola and Vefelius, two
of the moh learned men of the age in which they lived,
were born here. Under the jurifdi&ion of this city is
a confiderable diftrift, called the Qorccht. E. Tong,
6. 2 v N. Lat. 53.10.
GRONOVI A, in botany : A genus of the mono.
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants 5 and in the natural method ranking under the
34th order, Cvcurbitacea. There are five petals and
ilamina inferted into a campanulated calyx ; the berry
rs dry, monofpermoua, and inferior.
GR0N0V1US (John Frederic), a Very learned
critic, was born at Hamburgh in 1613; and having
travelled through. Germany, Italy, and France, was
made profeflbr of polite learning at Deventer, and af-
ter wards at Leyden, where he died in 1671. He
published, 1. Diatribe In Statii, &c. 2- Defcjbertiis.
3. Corrt& editions of Seneca, Statius, T. Livy, Pliny’s
Natural Hiftory, Tacitus, Aldus Gellius, Phffidrus’s
Fables, &c. with notes; and other works.
Gronovius (James), fon of the preceding, and a
very learned man', was educated firth at Leyden, then
went over to England, where he vifited the univerfities,
coufulted the curious MSS. and formed an acquain-
tance with feveral learned men. He was chofen by
the grand duke to be profeflbr at Pifa, with a confi-
.derable flipend. He returned into Holland, after he
had refided two years in Tufcany, and confulted the
MSS. in the Medicean library, In 1679, he was in-
vited by the curators of the univerfity to a profeflbr.
fliip 5 and his inaugural diflertation was fa highly
approved of, that the curators added 400 florins to
his flipened, and this augmentation continued to his
death in 1716. He refufed feveral honourable and
advantageous offers, His principal works are, Tke
treafure of Greek antiquities, in 13 vols, folio ; and a
great number of diflertations, and editions of ancient
authors- He was compared to Schioppus for the vi.
rule nee cf his ftyle ; and the feverity with which he
treated other great men who differed from him, ex-
pofed him to juft cenfurc.
GROOM, a name particularly applied to feveral
fupevior officers belonging to the king’s houfehold, as
groom of the chamber, groom of the dole, See Stole,
and Was.pr.obe,
Groom is more particularly vtfed for a fervant ap.
pointed to attend on horfes in the (table.—The word
is formed from the FkmHb grom, " a boy,”
GROOVE, among miners, is the (haft or pit funk
into the earth, fometirnes in the vein, and fometimes
m°t.
Groove, among joiners, the channel made by their
plough in the edge of a moulding, (tyle, or rail, to put
'their pannels in, in wainfeotting,
.N° 144-
2 ] G R o
GROSS, a foreign money, in divers countries, an- Croft
fwering to our groat. ^
Gross is ufed among us for the quantity of twelve Grot‘ust>
dozen. ' —v—
Gross weight, is the weight of merchandizes and
goods, with their duft and drofs, as alfo of the bag,
caik, cheft, &c, wherein they are contained; out
of which grofs weight, allowance is to be made of
tare and tret.
GROSS, or Grossus, in our ancient law writers,
denote a thing abfolute, and not depending on another.
Thus, villain in grofs, villanus in grojfo, was a fervant,
who did not belong to the land, but immediately to the
perfon of the lord ; or a fervile perfon not appendant
or annexed to the land or manor, and to go along with
the tenures as appurtenant to it; but like other per-
fonal goods and chattels of his lord, at his lord’s plea-
furc and difpofal.
Gross, advoivfon m. See Advowson.
Gross-bean, in zoology, a name by which we
commonly call the wcoothravjles, called alfo at other
times the hawfnch. This is the iqxia coccothraufes
in the Linnsean fyftem.
Gross-beak, in ornithology ; a fpecies of Loxja.
GROSSULARIA. See Ruses.
GrROTESQUE, or Grotesk, in feulpture and
painting, fomething whimfical, extravagant, and mon-
ftrous; confiding either of things that are merely
imaginary, and have no cxiftence in nature ; or of
things fo diftorted, as to raife furprife and ridicule.
The name arifes hence, that figures of this kind were
anciently much ufed to adorn the grottos wherein the
tombs of eminent perfons or families were inclofed.
Such was that of Gvid, whofe grotto was difeovered
near Rome about one hundred years ago.
GROTIUS (Hugo), or more properly Hugo ps
G&oot, one of the greateft men in Europe, was born at
Delft in 1583- He made fo rapid a progrefs in his flu-
dies, that at the age of 11 he had attained a great know-
ledge in philofophy, divinity, and civil law ; and a
yet greater proficiency in polite literature, as appeared
by the commentary he had made at that age on Mar-
tianus Capella, In accompanied the Dutch
ambaffador into France, and was honoured with feveral
marks of efteem by Henry TV. He took his degree
of doctor of laws in that kingdom ; and at his return
to his native country, devoted himfelf to the bar, and
pleaded before he was 17 years of age. He was not
24 when he was appointed attorney-general In 1613
he fettled in Rotterdam, and was nominated fyndic of
that city ; but did not accept of the •office, till a pro-
mife was made him that he fhould not be removed
from it, This prudent precaution he took from his
forefeeing, that the quarrels of the divines on the doc¬
trine of grace, which had already given rife to many
fa&ions in the (late, would occafion revolutions in the
chief cities, The fame year he was fent into England,
on account of the divifions that reigned between the
traders of the two nations, on the right of fifhing in
the northern feas; but he could obtain no fatisfa&ion.
He was afterwards fent to England, as it L thought,
to perfuade the king and the principal divines to
favour the Arminians; and he had feveral con¬
ferences with King James on that fubjeft. On bis
return to Holland, his attachment to Barnevelt in¬
volved
G R O C 153 1 G R O
volved him in great trouble; for he was feized, and den in a mountain or rock. The word is Italian, Grott#,
fentenced to perpetual imprifonment in 1619, and to grotta, formed., according to Menage, &c. from the
forfeit all his goods and chattels. But after having been Latin crypta. Du Cange obferves, that grotto, was ufed
treated with great rigour for above a year and a half in the fame fenfe in the corrupt Latin,
in his confinement, he was delivered by the advice and The ancient anchorites retired into dens and grot-
artifice of his wife, who having obferved that his keepers tos, to apply themfelvea the more attentively to medi-
had often fatigued themfelves with fearching and exa- tation.
mining a great trunk-full of foul linen which ufed to Okey-hole, Elden-hole, Peake’s hole, and Pool’s
be wafhed at Gorkum, but now let it pafs without open- hole, are famous among the natural caverns or grottos
ing it, fhe advifed him to bore holes in it to prevent his of our country.
being ftifled, and then to get into it. He complied The entrance to Okey-hole, on the fouth fide of
with this advice, and was carried to a friend’s houfe Mendip-hills, is in the fall of thofe hills, which is be-
in Gorkum ; where drefiing himfelf like a mafon, and fet all about with rocks, and has near it a precipitate
taking a rule and trowel, he paffed through the market- defcent of near twelve fathoms deep, at the bottom of
place, and ftepping into a boat went to Valvet in which there continually iffues from the rocks a confi-
Brabant. Here he made himfelf known to fome Ar- derable current of water. The naked rocks above the
minians, and hired a carriage to Antwerp. At firft; entrance ihow themfelves about 30 fathoms high, and
there was a defign of profecuting his wife, who ftaid the whole afcent of the hill above is about a mile, and
in the prifon ; and fome judges were ©f opinion that is very fteep. As you pafs into this vault, you go at
the ought to be kept there in her hufband’s ftead: how- firft upon a level, but advancing farther, the .way is
ever, file was releafed by a plurality of voices, and uni- found to be rocky and uneven, fometimes afcending, and
verfally applauded for her behaviour. Pie now retired fometimes defcending. The loof of this cavern, in the
into France, where he met with a gracious recep- higheft part, is about eight fathoms from the ground,
tion from that court, and Louis XIII. fettled a pen- but in many particular places it is fo low, that a man
fion upon him. Having refided there eleven years, muft ftoop to get along. The breadth is not lefs vari-
he returned to Holland, on his receiving a very kind ous than the height, for in fome places it is five or fix
letter from Frederic Henry prince of Orange : but fathoms wide, and in others not more than one or two.
his enemies renewing their perfecution, he went to It extends itfelf in length about two hundred yards.
Hamburgh; where, in 1634, Queen Chriftina of People talk much of certain ftones in it, refembling
Sweden made him her counfellor, and fent him am- men and women, and other things; but there is little
baffador into France. After having difcharged the du- matter of curiofity in thefe, being only fliapelefs lumps
ties of this office above eleven years, he returned, in of a common fpar. At the fartheft part of the cavern
order to give an account to Queen Chriftina of his there is h good ftream of water, large enough to drive
embafiy ; when he took Holland in his way, and re- a mill, which pafles all along one fide of the cavern,
ceived many honours at Amfterdam. He was intro- and at length Aides down about fix or eight fathoms
duced to her Swedifh majefty at Stockholm ; and among the rocks, and then preffing through the clefts
there begged that {he would grant his difmiffion, in of them, difcharges itfelf into the valley. The river
order that he might return to Holland. This he ob- within the cavern is well ftored with eels, and has fome
tained with difficulty ; and the queen gave him many trouts in it; and thefe cannot have come from with-
marks of her efteem, though he had many enemies out, there being fo great a fall near the entrance. In
at this court. As he was returning, the fhip in dry fummers, a great number of frogs are feen all along
which he embarked was caft away on the coaft of Po- this cavern, even to the fartheft part of it; and on the
merania ; and being now fick, he continued his jour- roof of it, at certain places,hang vaft numbers of bats,as
ney by land ; but was forced to ftop at Roftock, where they do in altnoft all caverns, the entrance of which is
he died, on the 28th of Auguft 1645'. ^'s body either level, or but (lightly afcending or defcending;
was carried to Delft, to be interred in the fepulchre and even in the more perpendicular ones they are fome-
of his anceftors. Notwithftanding the embaffies in times found, provided they are not too narrow, and are
which he was employed, he compofed a great num- fufficiently high. The cattle that feed in the paftures
her of excellent works ; the principal of which are, through which this river runs, have been known to die
1. A treatife .De yare belli et pads, which is efteem- fuddenly fometimes after a flood; this is probably
ed a mafter-piece. 2. A treatife on the truth of the owing to the waters having been impregnated, either
Chriftian religion. 3. Commentaries on the holy naturally or accidentally, with lead ore.
feriptures. 4. The hiftory a’tid annals of Holland. Elden hole is a huge profound perpendicular chafm,
5. A great number of letters. All which are written three miles from Buxton, ranked among the natural
in Latin. ^ wonders of the Peak. Its depth is unknown, and is
GROTSCAW, a town of Turky in Europe, in pretended to be unfathomable. Cotton tells us r e
the province of Servia, where a battle was fought be- founded 884 yards ; yet the plumemt {till drew. But
tween the Germans and Turks, in the year 1739, in he might eafily be deceived, unlefs his plummet was
which the Germans were forced to retreat with lofs. very heavy; the weight of a rope of that length might
E. Long. 21.0. N. Lat. 45 o. well make the landing of the plummet fcarce percei-
GRO fSKAW, a ftrong town of Germany, capital vable.
«f a province of the fame name in Silefia. It is very Peak’s-hole, and Pool’s-hole, called alfo the Devil's
agreeably feated in a fruitful plain. E.Long. 17. 35. A—fe, are two remarkable horizontal fprings under
N. Lat. 50. 42. mountains; the one near Caftleton, the other juft by
GROTTO, or Grotta, a large deep cavern or Buxton. They feem to have owed their origin to the
Vot. VIII. Part I. T fprings
G R O [ 154 ] G R O
Grotto, fprlngs which have their current through them ; when
‘ v the water had forced its way through the horizontal
fiflures of the ftrata, and had carried the loofe earth
away with it, the loofe ftones muft fall down of courfe:
and where the ftrata had few or no fiflures, they re¬
mained entire ; and fo formed thefe very irregular
arches, which are now fo much wondered at. The
water which pafles through Pool’s hole is impregnated
with particles of lime-ftone, and has incrufted the
whole cavern in fuch a manner that it appears as one
folid rock.
In grottos are frequently found cryftals of the rock,
ftalaftites, and other natural conglaciations, and thofe
often of an amazing beauty. M. Homberg conjec¬
tures, from feveral circumftances, that the marble pil¬
lars in the grotto of Antiparos vegetate or grow.
That author looks on this grotto as a garden, whereof
the pieces of marble are the plants; and endeavours to
Ihow, that they could only be produced by fome ve¬
getative principle. See Antiparos..
At Foligno in Italy is another grotto, confiding of
pillars and orders of architecture of marble, with their
ornaments, See. fcarcely inferior to thofe of art; but
they all grow downwards: fo that if this too be a gar¬
den, the plants are turned upfide down.
Grotto del Cam, a little cavern near Pozzuoli, four
leagues from Naples, the fteams whereof are of a
mephitical or noxious quality ; whence alfo it is call¬
ed bocca ’venenofa, the poifonous mouth. See Mephitis.
“ Two miles from Naples (fays Dr Mead), juft by the
La go de Ag nano, isa celebrated mofeta, commonly called
la Grotta del Cant, and equally deftruclive to all within
the reach of its vapours. It is a fmall grotto about
eight feet high, twelve long, and fix broad ; from the
ground arifes a thin, fubtile, warm fume, vifible enough
to a difeerning eye, which does not fpring up in little
parcels here and there, but in one continued ftream,
covering the whole furface of the bottom of the cave ;
having this remarkable difference from common va¬
pours, that it does not like fmoke difperfe itfelf into
the air, but quickly after its rife falls back again, and
returns to the earth ; the colour of the fides of the
grotto being the meafure of its afeent: for fo far it is
of a darkilh-green, but higher only common eaith.
And as I myfelf found no inconveniency by Handing in
it, fo no animal, if its head be above this mark, is the
leaft injured. But when, as the manner is, a dog, or
any other creature, is forcibly kept below it; or, by
reafon of its fmallnefs, cannot hold its head above it, it
prefently lofes all motion, falls down as dead, or in a
fwoon ; the limbs convulfed and trembling, till at laft
no more figns of life appear than a very weak and al-
moft infenfiMe beating of the heart and arteries; which,
if the animal be left a little longer, quickly ceafes too,
and then the cafe is irrecoverable ; but if it be fnatched
cv, and laid in the open air, it foon comes to life again,
and fooner if thrown into the adjacent lake.” The
fumes of the grotto, the fame author argues, are no
real poifon, but a6l chiefly by their gravity ; elfe the
ereatures could not recover fo foon, or if they did,
fome fymptoms, as faintnefs, &c. would be the confe-
quence of it. He adds, “that in creatures killed there¬
with, when differed, no marks of infe&ion appear;
and that the attack proceeds from a want of air, by
which the circulation tends to an entire ftoppage ; and Grotm.
this fo much the more, as the animal infpires a fluid of '—■v—^
a quite different nature from the air, and fo in no re-
fpeft fit to fupply its place. Taking the animal out,
while yet alive, and throwing it into the neighbouring
lake, it recovers : this is owing to the coldnefs of the
water, which promotes the contra&ion of the fibres,
and fo aflifts the retarded circulation ; the fmall portion
of air which remains in the veficulae, after every expf*
ration, may be fufficient to drive out the noxious fluid.
After the fame manner, cold water adls in a deliquium
animi: the lake of Agnano has no greater virtue in it
than others.”
The fteam arifing in this grotto was for a long
time reckoned to be of a poifonous nature, and thought
to fuffocate the animals which breathed it. Dr Hales
imagined that it deftroyed the elafticity of the air,
caufed the veficles of the lungs to collapfe, and thus
occafioned fudden death.—It is now, however, found
that this fteam is nothing elfe than fixed air, which
from time immemorial hath iffued out of the earth in
that place in very great quantity, the caufes of which
cannot yet be inveftigated from any of the modern
difeoveries concerning that fpecies of air. It proves
pernicious when breathed in too great quantity, by
rarefying the blood too much ; and hence the beft
method of recovering perfons apparently killed by fixed
air, is to apply a great degree of cold all over their
bodies, in order to condenfe the blood as much as
poflible. This is the reafon why the dogs recover
when thrown into the lake Agnano, as above mention¬
ed. See the articles Blood and Damps.
Grotta del Serpi, is a fubterraneous cavern near
the village of Saffa, eight miles from the city of Brac-
cano in Italy, deferibed by Kircher thus: “ The jrofta
delfetpi is big enough to hold two perfons. It is per¬
forated with feveral fiftular apertures, fomewhat in
manner of a fieve ; out of which, at the beginning of
the fpring feafon, iffues a numerous brood of young
fnakes of divers colours, but all free from any particu¬
lar poifonous quality. In this cave they expofe their
lepers, paralytics, arthritics, and elephantiac patients,
quite naked ; where, the warmth of the fubterraneous
fteams refolving them into a fweat, and the ferpents
clinging varioufly all around, licking and fucking
them, they become fo thoroughly freed of all their
vitious humours, that, upon repeating the operation
for fome time, they become perfeftly rtftored.”
This cave Kircher vifited himfelf; and found it
warm, and every way agreeable to the deferiptiom
given of it. He faw the holes, and heard a mur¬
muring luffing noife in them. Though he miffed
feeing the ferpents, it not being the feafon of their
creeping out; yet he faw a great number of their
exuviae, or floughs,' and an elm growing hard by
laden with them.
The difeovery of this cave was by the cure of a Mufeum
leper going from Rome te fome baths near this place. Worm.
Lofing his way, and being benighted, he happened
upon this cave. Finding it very warm, he pulled off
his clothes; and being weary and fleepy, had the good
fortune not to feel the ferpents about him till they had
wrought his cure.
Millp Grotto, Crypta. Ladea, a mile diftant from
the
G R G [ 155 1 G R O
Srotto, the ancient village of Bethlehem, is faid to have been of the garden are ufelefs; fo that every garden is de- Grove.
Gr^I!L. t^us ^enom’natec^ on occafion of the bleffed Virgin, ietfive which has not fhade. ~—v~~“
' who let fall fome drops of milk in giving fuck to Je- Groves are of two forts, v'vz.. either open or clofe.
fus in this grotto. And hence it has been commonly Open groves are fuch as have large fliady trees, which
fuppofed, that the earth of this cavern has the virtue Hand at fuch diftances, as that their branches ap-
of reftoring milk to women that are grown dry, and proach fo near to each other as to prevent the rays
even of curing fevers. Accordingly, they are always of the fun from penetrating through them,
digging in it, and the earth is fold at a good rate to Clofe groves have frequently large trees Handing in
fuch as have faith enough to give credit to the fable, them ; but the ground under thefe are filled with
An altar has been built on the place, and a church juft flirubs or underwood : fo that the walks which are in
by it. _ them are private, and fcreened from winds; by which
Grotto is alfo ufed for a little artificial edifice means they are rendered agreeable for walking, at
made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grotto, thofe times when the air is either too hot or too cold
The outfides of thefe grottos are ufually adorned with in the more expofed parts of the garden. Thefe are
ruftic architefture, and their infide with fhell-work, often contrived fo as to bound the open groves, and
follils, &c. finiftied likewife with jets d’eaus or foun- frequently to hide the walls or other inclofures of
tains, &c. the garden: and when they are properly laid out,
A cement for artificial grottos may be made thus : with dry walks winding through them, and on the
Take two parts of white rofin, melt it clear, and add fides of thefe fweet-fmelling {hrubs and flowers irregu-
to it four parts of bees wax ; when melted together, larly planted, they have a charming effedft.
add two or three parts of the powder of the ftone you Grove (Henry), a learned and ingenious Prefby-
defign to cement, or fo much as will give the cement terian divine, was born at Taunton in Somerfetfhire, in
the colour of the ftone; to this add one part of 1683. Having obtained a fufficient ftock of claffical li-
flower of fulphur : incorporate all together over a terature, he went through a courfe of academical learn-
gentle fire, and afterwards knead them with your ing, under the reverend Mr Warren of Taunton, who
hands in warm water. With this cement the ftones, had a flourifliing academy. He then removed to Lon-
fhells, &c. after being well dried before the fire, may don, and ftudied fome time under the reverend Mr
be cemented. Rowe, to whom he was nearly related. Here he
Artificial red coral branches, for the embelliftiment contrafted a friendihip with feveral perfons of merit,
of grottos, may be made in the following manner : and particularly with Dr Watts, which continued till
Take clear rofin, diflblve it in a brafs-pan ; to every his death, though they were of different opinions in
ounce of which add two drams of the fineft vermilion: feveral points warmly controverted among divines. Af-
when you have ftirred them well together, and have ter two years fpent under Mr Rowe, he returned into
chofen your twigs and branches, peeled and dried, take the country, and began to preach with great reputa-
a pencil and paint the branches all over whilft the tion; when an exaft judgment, a lively imagination,
compofition is warm ; afterwards fliape them in imita- and a rational and amiable reprefentation of Chriftia-
tion of natural coral. This done, hold the branches nity, delivered in a fweet and well governed voice,
over a gentle coal-fire, till all is fmooth and even as if rendered him generally admired ; and the fpirit of de-
poliflied. In the fame manner white coral may be votion which prevailed in his fermons procured him
prepared with white lead, and black coral with lamp- the efteem and friendfhip of Mrs Singer, afterwards
black. Mrs Row, which ihe expreffed in a fine ode on death,
A grotto may be built with little expence, of glafs, addreffed to Mr Grove. Soon after his beginning to
cinders, pebbles, pieces of large flint, ftiells, mofs, preach, he married; and on the death of Mr Warren,
ftones, counterfeit coral, pieces of chalk, &c. all was chofen to fucceed him in the academy at Taunton,
bound or cemented together with the above defcribed This obliging him to refide there, he preached for
cement. . 18 years to two fmall congregations in the neigh-
GROVE, in gardening, a fmall wood impervious bourhood; and though his falary from both was lefs
to the rays of the fun.. than twenty pounds a-year, and he had a growing
Groves have been in all ages held in great venera- family, he went through it cheerfully. In 1708, he
tion. The profeucha, and high-places of the Jews, publiftred a piece, intitled, The Regulation of Diverfions,
whither they reforted for the purpofes of devotion, drawn up for the ufe of his pupils. About the fame
were probably fituated in groves : See Jofltuah xxiv. 26. time, he entered into a private difpute by letter with
The profeuchae in Alexandria, mentioned by Philo, Dr Samuel Clarke: but they not being able to con-
had groves about them, becaufe he complains that the vince each other, the debate was dropped with expref-
Alexandrians, in a tumult againft the Jews, cut down fions of great mutual efteem. He next wrote feveral
the trees of their profeuchae. papers printed in the Speftator, vi%. Numbers 588.
The ancient Romans had a fort of groves near feve- 601. 626. 635. The laft was republiftied, by the di-
ral of their temples, which were confecrated to fome region of Dr Gibfon biflrop of London, in the Evi-
god, and called luci, by Antiphrafis, a non lucendo, as dences of the Chriftian Religion, by Jofeph Addifon,
being fliady and dark. The veneration which the an- Efq. 101725, Mr James, his partner in the aca-
cient druids had for groves is well known. demy, dying, he fucceeded him in his paftoral charge
Modern groves are not only great ornaments to at Fulwood, near Taunton, and engaged his nephetv
gardens; but are alfo the greateft relief againft the to undertake the other parts of Mr James’s work as
violent heats of the fun, affording fliade to walk under tutor; and in this fituation Mr Grove continued till
in the hotteft parts of the day, when the other parts his death, which happened in 1738. His great con¬
i’ 2 cern
G R O [ 1 G R O
Ground cern with his pupils, was to infpire and cherifh in ter of a mile broad. They abound in trees, particu- Groufe-,
prefented truth and virtue in a moft engaging light; feet in length, pointed like a fpear; they had likewife
and though his income, both as a tutor and a minifter, fomething fhaped like a paddle, about four feet long:
was infufficient to fupport his family, without break- Their canoes were of different fizes, carrying from
ing into his paternal ellate, he knew not how to refufe three to fix or feven people, and fome of them hoifted
the call of charity. Befides the above pieces, he wrote, a fail.
i. An Effay towards a Demouftration of the Soul’s GROUSE, or Growse. See Tetrao.
Immortality. 2. An Effay on the Terms of Chriftian GROUTHEAD, or Greathed {Robert), alearn-
Communion. 3. The Evidence of our Saviour’s Re- ed and famous bifhop of Lineoln, was born »fc Stow in
furre£tion confidered. 4. Some Thoughts concerning Lincolnthire, ©r (according to others) at Stradbrook
the Proof of a Future State from Reafon. 5 A Dif- in Suffolk, in the latter part of the twelfth century,
courfe concerning the Nature and Defign of the Lord’s His parents were fo poor, that when a boy he was re-
Supper. 6. Wildom th^iiril fpring of A&ion in the duced to do the meaneft offices, and even to beg his
Deity. 7. A Difcourfe on Saving Faith, 8. Mifcel- bread ; till the mayor of Lincoln, ftruck with his ap*
lanies in profe and verfe. 9. Many Sermons, &c. Af- pearance and the quicknefs of his anfwers to certain
ter his deceafe, his pofthumous works were publifhed queftions, took him into his family, and put him to
by fubfcription, in four volumes oftavo, with the fchool. Here his ardent love of learning, and admi-
names of near 700 fubferibers, among whom were rable capacity for acquiring it, foon appeared, and
fome of the belt judges of merit in the eltablilhed procured him many patrons, by whofe affiftance hi
church. was enabled to profecute his Rudies, firit at Cambridge,
GROUND, in painting, the furface upon which afterwards at Oxford, and at laft at Paris. In thefe
the figures and other obje&s are reprefented. three famous feats of learning, he fpent many years in
The ground is properly underftood of fuch parts of the moft indefatigable purfuit of knowledge, and be-
the piece, as have nothing painted on them, but re- came one of the heft and moft univerfal fcholars of the
tain the original colour upon which the other colours age. He was a great mafter not only of the French
are applied to make the reprefentations. and Latin, but alfo of the Greek and Hebrew lan-
A building is faid to ferve as a ground to a figure guages, which was a very rare accompliftment in thofe
when the figure is painted on the building. times. We are affured by Roger Bacon, who was inti-
The ground behind a picture in miniature, is com- mately acquainted with him, that he fpent much of his
monly blue or crimfon, imitating a curtain of fattin time for almoft forty years in the itudy of geometry,
or velvet. aftronomy, optics, and other branches of mathematical
Ground, in etching, denotes a gummous compofi- learning, in all which he very much excelled. Theo-
tion fmeared over the furface of the metal to be etched, logy was his favourite ftudy, in which he read leftures
to prevent the aquafortis from eating, except in fuch at Oxford with great applaufe. In the mean time, he
places where this ground is cut through with the point obtained feveral preferments in the church, and was at
of a needle. See the article Etching. length ele&ed and confecrated biffiop of Lincoln, A.
Grovnd-Angling, fiffiing under water without a float, D. 1235. In this ftation he foon became very fa-
only with a plumb of lead, or a bullet, placed about mous, by the purity of his manners, the popularity of
nine inches from the hook; which is better, becaufe his preaching, the vigour of his difcipline, and the
it will roll on the ground. This method of fifhing boldnefs with which he reproved the vices and oppofed
is moft proper in cold weather, when the fiffi fwim the arbitrary mandates of the court of Rome ; of this
very low. laft it may be proper to give one example. Pope In-
The morning and evening are the chief ftafons for nocent IV. had granted to one of his own nephews
the ground line in fifhing for trout ; but if the day named Frederick, who was but a child, a provifion to-
prove cloudy, or the water muddy, you may fifh at the firft canon’s place in the church of Lincoln that
ground all day. fhould become vacant; and fent a bull to the arch-
' Ground-Taclle, a (hip’s anchors, cables, &c. and bifhop of Canterbury, and Innocent, then papal legate
in general whatever is necefiary to make her ride fafe in England, commanding them to fee the provifion
at anchor. made effectual; which they tranfmitted to the bifhop
GRouND-Ivy, in botany. See Glechoma. of Lincoln. But that brave and virtuous prelate
Ground-Pine, in botany. See Teucrium. boldly refufed to obey this unreafonable mandate, and
GROUNDSEL. See Sr necio. fent an anfwer to the papal bull containing the follow-
GROUP, in painting and fculpture, is an affem- ing fevere reproaches agaiaft his holinefs for abufing
Wage of two or more figures of men, beads, fruits, or his power : “ If we except the fins of Lucifer and
the like, which have fome apparent relation to each Antichrift, there neither is nor can be a greater crime,
other. See Painting.—The word is formed of the nor any thing more contrary to the doftrine of the
Italian groppo, a knot. gofpel, or more odious and abominable in the fight of
The Groups, a clufter of iflands lately difcovered Jefus Chrift, than to ruin and deftroy the fouls of men.
In the South Sea. They lie in about S. Lat. 18. 12. by depriving them of the fpiriuial aid and miniftry of
and W. Long. 142.42. They are long narrow flips their paftors. This crime is committed by thofe who
of land, ranging in all directions, fome of them ten command the benefices intended for the fupport of able
miles or upwards in length, but not more than a quar- paftors, to be beftowed on thofe who are incapable of
per.
II them a prevailing love or trutn, virtue, noerty, ana larly tnole ot the cocoa-nut. I hey are inhabited by
. GrouP8- genuJne religion, without violent attachments or pre- well-made people, of a brown complexion. Moft of —"""V*"
• ' indices in favour of any party of Chriftians. He re- them carried in their hands a (lender pole about 14
G R O l 157 J G R O
Grouthead, performing the duties of the pa floral office. It is im-
, Growth' poffible therefore that the holy apoflolic fee, which
* ' received its authority from the Lord Jefus Chrift, for
edification, and not for deftru&ion, can be guilty of
fuch a crime, or any thing approaching to fuch a
crime, fo hateful to God and fo hurtful to men. For
this would be a moft manifeft corruption and abufe of
its authority, which would forfeit all its glory, and
plunge it into the pains of hell.’, Upon hearing ijiis
letter, his holinefs became frantic with rage, poured
forth a torrent of abufe againft the good bifhop, and
threatened to make him an obje& of terror and alto-
r.ifhment to the whole world. “ How dare (faid he)
this old, deaf, doating fool, difobey my commands ?
Is not his mafter the king of England my fubje<5£, or
rather my flave i Cannot he caft him into prifon, and
erufir him in a moment ?” But the cardinals by degrees
brought the pope to think more calmly, and to take
no notice of this letter. “ Let us not (faid they)
raife a tumult in the church without neceffity, and
precipitate that revolt and reparation from us, which
we know muft one day take place.” Remarkable
words, when we refleft when and by whom they were
fpoken ! The bifhop did not long furvive this noble
ftand againft the grofs corruptions and tyranny of the
church of Rome : for he fell fick at his caftle of Bug-
den that fame year; and when he became feniible that
his death was drawing near, he called his clergy into
his apartment, and made a long difeourfe to them, to
prove that the reigning pope Innocent IV. was Anti-
chrift. With this exertion his ftrength and fpirits
were fo much exhaufted, that he expired foou after,
Oftober 9. 1253. A contemporary hiftorian, who
was perfe&ly well acquainted with him, hath drawn
his charafler in the following manner. “ He was a
free and bold reprimander of the pope and the king; an
admonifher of the prelates ; a corre<ftor of the monks;
an inftruftor of the clergy ; a fupporter of the ftu-
dious; a cenfurer of the incontinent; a fcourge and
terror to the court of Rome ; a diligent fearcher of
the feriptures 5 and a frequent preacher to the people.
At his table he was hofpitable, polite, and cheerful.
In the church he was contrite, devout, and folemn ;
and in performing all the duties of his office he was
venerable, aftive, and indefatigable. The illuftrious
Roger Bacon, who was moft capable, and had the beft
opportunities of forming a true judgment of the ex¬
tent of his learning, by perufing his works, and by
frequently converfing with him, hath given this ho¬
nourable teftimony in his favour. “ Robert Grouthead
bilhop of Lincoln, and his friend friar Adam de Ma-
rifeo, are the two moft learned men in the world, and
excel all the reft of mankind both in divine and human
knowledge.” This moft excellent and learned prelate
was a very voluminous writer, and compofed a prodi¬
gious number of treatifes on a great variety of fub-
je&s in philofophy and divinity, a catalogue of which
is given by Bale.
GROWTH, the gradual increafe of bulk and ftature
that takes place in animals or vegetables, to a certain
period.—The increafe of bulk in fuch bodies as have
no life, owing to fermentations excited in their fub-
ftance, or to other canfes, is called Expansion, Swel¬
ling, &c.
The growth of animals, nay even of the human fpe-
cies, is fubjedl to great variations. A remarkable in- Growth
ftance in the laft was obferved in France in the year —
1729. At this time the Academy of Sciences exa¬
mined a boy who was then only feven years old, and
who meafured four feet eight inches and four lines
high without his fhoes. His mother obferved the figns
of puberty on him at two years old, which continued
to inertafe very quick, and foon arrived at the ufual
ftandard. At four years old he was able to lift and .
tofs the common bundles of hay in ftables into the
horfes racks ; and at fix years old could lift as much
as a fturdy fellow of twenty. But though he thus in-
creafed in bodily ftrength, his underttanding was no
greater than is ufual with children of his age, and
their playthings were alfo his favourite amufements.
Another boy, a native of the hamlet of Bou?an-
quet, in the diocefe of Alais, though of a ftrong con-
ftitution, appeared to be knit and ftiff in his joints till
he was about four years and a half old. During this
time nothing farther was remarkable of him than an
extraordinary appetite, which was fatisfied no other-
wife than by giving him plenty of the common ali¬
ments of the inhabitants of the country, confifting
of rye-bread, chefnuts, bacon, and water; but his
limbs foon becoming fupple and pliable, and his body
beginning to expand itfelf, he grew up in fo extraor¬
dinary a manner, that at the age of five years he mea¬
fured four feet three inches; feme months after, he
was four feet eleven inches; and at fix, five feet, and
bulky in proportion. Hfs growth was fo rapid, that
one might fancy he faw him grow: every month, his
cloaths required to be made longer and wider; and
what was ftill very extraordinary in his growth, it
was not preceded by any ficknefs, nor accompanied
with any pain in the groin or elfewhere. At the
age of five years his voice changed, his beard be¬
gan to appear, and at fix he had as much as a man of
thirty ; in fhort, all the unquertionable marks of pu¬
berty were vifible in him. It was not doubted in the
country but this child was, at five years old, or five
and a half, in a condition of begetting other children ;
which induced the reftor of the parifh to recommend
to his mother that (he would keep him from too fami¬
liar a converfation with children of the other fex.
Though his wit was riper than is commonly obfervable
at the age of five or fix years, yet its progrefs was not
in proportion to that of his body. His air and man¬
ner ftill retained fomething childifii, though by his
bulk and ftature he refembled a complete man, which
at firft light produced a very Angular contrail. His
voice was ftrong and manly, and his great ftrength
rendered him already fit for the labours of the country.
At the age of five years, he could carry to a good di-
ftance three meafures of rye, weighing 84 pounds j
when turned of fix, he could lift up eafily on his (boul¬
ders and carry loads of 150 pounds weight a good
way off; and thefe exercifes were exhibited by him as
often as the curious engaged him thereto by fome
liberality. Such beginnings made people think that
he would foon (hoot up into a giant. A mountebank
was already foliciting his parents for him, and flatter¬
ing them with hopes of putting him in a way of
making a great fortune. But all thefe hopes fud-
denly vanifhed. His legs became crooked, his body
(hrunk, his ftrength diminilhed, his voice grew Cen-
5 fibly
G R U L 158 ] G R Y
Grub fibly weaker, and he at lalt funk into a total imbe-
r II cillity.
, . In the Paris Memoirs alfo there is an account of a
girl who had her menfes at three months of age.
When four years old, die was four feet fix inches in
height, and had her limbs well proportioned to that
height, her breads large and plump, and the parts
of generation like thofe of a girl of eighteen ; fo that
there is no doubt but that die was marriageable at that
time, and capable of being a mother of children.
Thefe things are more Angular and marvellous in the
northern than in the fouthern climates, where the fe¬
males come fooner to maturity. In fome places of
the Eaft Indies, the girls have children at nine years
of age.
Many other inftances of extraordinary growth might
be brought, but the particulars are not remarkably
different from thofe already related.—It is at firft fight
aftonifhing that children of fuch early and prodigious
growth do not become giants: but when we confider,
that the figns of puberty appear fo much fooner than
they ought, it feems evident that the whole is only a
more than ufually rapid expanfion of the parts, as in
hot climates; and accordingly it is obferved, that fuch
children, inflead of becoming giants, always decay
and die apparently of old age, long before the natu¬
ral term of human life.
GRUB, in zoology, the Englifh name of the hex-
apode worms, produced from the eggs of beetles, and
which at length are transformed into winged infers of
the fame fpecies with their parents.
GRUBBING, in agriculture, the digging or pull¬
ing up of the flubs and roots of trees.
When the roots are large, this is a very trouble-
fome and laborious talk; but Mr Mortimer hath
fhown how it may be accomplifhed in fuch a manner
as to fave great expence by a very Ample and eafy
method. He propofes a flrong iron hook to be made
about two feet four inches long, with a large iron¬
ring fattened to the upper part of it. This hook
mufl be put into a hole in the fide of the root, to
which it mufl be fattened ; and a lever being put into
the ring, three men, by means of this lever, may
wring out the root, and twift the fap-roots afunder.
Stubs of trees may alfo be taken up with the fame
hook, in which work it will fave a great deal of la¬
bour, though not fo much as in the other ; becaufe
the flubs mutt be firft cleft with wedges, before the
hook can enter the fides of them, to wrench them out
by pieces.
GRUBENHAGEN.a town and cattle of the duchy
of Brunfwic, in Lower Saxony, remarkable for its
mines of filver, copper, iron, and lead. E. Long. 9.
36. N.Lat. 51. 45.
GRUINALES (fromgrus, “ a crane”), the name
of the fourteenth order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a
Natural Method, confifting of geranium, and a few
other genera which the author confiders as allied to
it in their habit and external ftrufture.
GRUME, in medicine, denotes a concreted clot of
blood, milk, or other fubftance. Hence grumous
blood is that which approaches to the nature of grume,
and by its vifcidity and flagnating in the capillary
vtffels produces feveral diforders.
GRUPPO, or Turned Shake, a mufical grace, de¬
fined by Playford to confift in the alternate prolation Grut
of two tones in juxtapofition to each other, with a II I
clofe on the note immediately beneath the lower of Gr>lil13, j
them. See Shake. ’ " f
GRUS, in antiquity, a dance performed yearly by
the young Athenians around the temple of Apollo,
on the day of the Delia. The motions and figures of
this dance were very intricate, and varioufly interwo¬
ven.; fome of them being intended to exprefs the wind¬
ings of the labyrinth wherein the minotaur was killed *
by Thefeus.
Crus, in aftronomy, a fouthern conflellation, not
vifible in our latitude. The number of liars in this
conftellation, according to Mr Sharp’s Catalogue,
is 13.
Grus, in ornithology. See Ardea.
GRUTER (James), a learned philologer, and one
of the moll laborious writers of his time, was born at
Antwerp in 1560. He was but a child when his fa¬
ther and mother, being perfecuted for the Proteftant
religion by the duchefs Parma, governefs of the Nether¬
lands, carried him into England. He imbibed the ele¬
ments of learning from his mother, who was one of the
moll learned women of the age, and befides French, I-
talian, and Englilh, was a complete miftrefs of Latin,
and well (killed in Greek. He fpent fome years in the
univerfity of Cambridge ; after which he went to that
of Leyden to ftudy the civil law ; but at laft applied
himfelf w’holly to polite literature. After travelling
much, he became profeflbr in the univerfity of Heidel-
burgh ; near which city he died, in 1627. He wrote
many works ; the molt confiderable of which are, 1. A
large colleftion of ancient infcriptions. 2. Thefaurus
criticus. 3. Delicia poetarum Gallorum, Italorum, &
Belgarum, £ffc.
GRUYERS, a town of Swifferland, in the canton
of Friburgh, with a pretty good cattle. It is famous
for its cheefe, which is all its riches. E. Long. 7. 23.
N. Lat. 46. 35.
GRY, a meafure containing one tenth of a line.
A line is one-tenth of a digit, and a digit one-tenth
of a foot, and a philofophical foot one-third of a pen¬
dulum, whofe diadromes, or vibrations, in the latitude
of 45 degrees, are each equal to one-fecond of time, or
one-fixtieth of a minute.
GRYLLUS, in zoology, the name of the cricket
and locuft kinds, which, together with the grafshoppers,
make only one genus of infefts, belonging to the order
of hemiptera. The general charafters of the genus
are thefe : The head is infle&ed, armed with jaws, and
fumiflied with palpi: The antennae in fome of the fpe¬
cies are fetaceous, in others filiform: The wings are
deflefted towards and wrapped round the fides of the
body; the under ones are folded up, fo as to be con¬
cealed under the elytra. All the feet are armed with
two nails; and the hind ones are formed for leaping.
The genus is fubdivided into five different fe&ions, or
families, as follows:
I. The Acrid/e, Truxalides of Fabricius, or Crick¬
et family properly fo called ; of which the charac¬
ters are : Their head is of a conical form, and longer
than the thorax ; and their antennae are enfiform, or
fword-fiiaped. Of this family there are eight fpecies,
none of them found in Britain.
II. The Bullae, ox Aerydia of Fabricius: Thefe
are
G R Y [ 159 ] G R Y
; Gryllus, are diftinguifhed by a kind of creft or elevation on the up the ground, the poor infedl was inadvertently fqaee-
thorax ; their antennas are fhorter than the thorax, zed to death. Out of one fo bruifed a multitude of eggs
and filiform ; and their palpi are equal.—The gryllus were taken, which were long and narrow, of a yellow
bulla-bipun&atus is of a dark-brown colour; fome- c-lour, and covered with a very tough fkin. More
times befprinkled with fpots of a lighter hue. But the gentle means were then ufed, and ^proved fuccefsful :
chief and moft obvious diftin&ion of this fpecies is the “ a pliant ftalk of grafs, gently infinuated into the
form of its thorax, which is prolonged, covering the caverns, will probe their windings to the bottom, and
whole body, and decreafes to the extremity of the ab- quickly bring out the inhabitant; and thus the humane
domen. This prolongation of the thorax ftands inftead inquirer may gratify his curiofity without injuring the
of elytra, of which this infeft is deftitute. It has on- objedl of it. It is remarkable, that though thefe in¬
ly wings under this projection of the thorax. Lin- fefts are furnilhed with long legs behind, and brawny
naeus mentions a fpot in the thorax ; which, however, thighs for leaping, like grafshoppers ; yet when driven
is often wanting. This fpecies is every where to be from their holes they ihow no adivity, but crawl along
met with, in the fields, in woods, &c. There are 10 in a Ihiftlefs manner, fo as eafily to be taken : and
or 11 other fpecies, inhabitants of Europe and Ame- again, tho'provided with a curious apparatus of wings,
rica. yet they never exert them when there feems to be
HI. The third family, called AcHETiE, are diftin- the greateft oecafibn. The males only make that fhrill-
guifhed by two briftles, fituated above the extremity of ing noife perhaps out of rivalry and emulation, as is
their abdomen ; by having three ftemmata ; and by the the'eafe with many animals which exert fome fprightly
tarfi being compofed of three articulations. This fa- note during their breeding time : it is railed by a briik
mily is in many places called Cricket, on account of the friction of one wing againft the other. They are foli-
found which the infed makes. There are 28 fpecies tary beings, living fingly male or female, each as it may
enumerated in the new edition of the Syjlema Natura ; happen ; but there muft be a time when the fexes have
of which the molt remarkable are, fome intercourfe, and then the wings may be ufeful
1. The gryllus domejlicus, or the domejlicus and cam- perhaps during the hours of night. When the males
pejlris, the domeftic and the field gryllus being one and meet they will fight fiercely, as our author found by
the fame fpecies ; only that the former is paler and has fome which he put into the crevices of a dry Hone wall,
more of the yellow caft, and the latter more of a brown, where he wanted to have made them fettle. For tho’
The antennse are as flender as a thread, and nearly they feemed diftrefied by being taken out of their
equal to the body in length. The head is large, and knowledge, yet the firft that got poffeffion of the
round, with two large eyes, and three fmaller ones of chinks would feize on any that were obtruded upon
a light yellow colour, placed higher on the edge of them with a vaft row of ferrated fangs. With their
the depreflion, from the centre of which originate the ftrongjaws, toothed like the fhears of a lobfter’s claws,
antennas: The thorax is broad and fhort. In the they perforate and round their curious regular cells, ha*
males, the elytra are longer than the body, veined, as ving no fore-claws to dig, like the mole-cricket. When
it were rumpled on the upper part, croffed one over taken in the hand, they never offered to defend them-
the other, and enfolding part of the abdomen, with a felves, though armed with fuch formidable weapons,
proje&ing angle on the fides : They have alfo at their Of fuch herbs as grow before the mouths of their bur-
bafe a pale coloured band. In the females, the elytra rows they eat indiferiminately ; and on a little plat-
leave one-third of the abdomen uncovered, and fcarcely form, which they make jull by, they drop their dung;
crcfs each other ; and they are all over of one colour, and never, in the day time, feem to ftir more than two
veined and not rumpled ; nor do they wrap round fo or three inches from home. Sitting in the entrance of
much of the abdomen underneath. The female, more- their caverns they chirp all night as well as day from
over, carries at the extremity of its body a hard fpine, the middle of the month of May to the middle of July:
almoft as long as the abdomen, thicker at the end, in hot weather, when they are moll vigorous, they
compofed of two fheaths, which encompafs two lami- make the hills echo; and in the ftiller hours of dark-
nae : This implement ferves the infeA to fink and de- nefs, may be heard to a confiderable dillance. In the
pofit its eggs in the ground. Both the male and fe- beginning of the feafon their notes are more faint and
male have two pointed foft appendices at the extremity inward; but become louder as the fummer advances,
of the abdomen. Their hinder feet are much larger and fo die away again by degrees.—Sounds do not
and longer than the reft, and ferve them for leaping. always give us pleafure according to their fweetnefs
Towards funfet is the time the field gryllus, or cric- and melody ; nor do harlh founds always difpleafe.
let as it often called, likes beft to appear out of its We are more apt to be captivated or diigufted with
fubterraneous habitation. In White’s Natural Hifiory the alfociations which they promote, than with the
f La. 46. of Selbourne f, a very pleafing account is given of notes themfelves. Thus the Ihrilling of the field-cricket,
the manners and economy of thefe infe&s; which, how- though fharp and ftridulous, yet marvelloufly delights
ever, are fo fhy and cautious, he obferves, that it is fome hearers, filling their minds with a train of fum-
no eafy matter to get a fight of them; for, feeling a mer ideas of every thing that is rural, verdurous, and
perfon’s footfteps as he advances, they flop fhort in joyous. About the tenth of March the crickets appear
the midft of their fong, and retire backward nimbly at the mouths of their cells, which they then open and
into their burrows, where they lurk till all fufpicion of bore, and fhape very elegantly. All that ever I have
danger is over. At firft it was attempted to dig them feen at that feafon were in their pupa ftate, and had on-
out with a fpade, but without any great fuccefs; for ly the rudiments of wings, lying under a fkin or coat,
either the bottom of the hole was inacceflible from its which muft be caft before the infeA can arrive at its
terminating under a great flone ; or elfe, in breaking perfed ftate; from whence I. fhould fuppofe that the
• old..
G R Y [ 160 1 G R Y
old ones of laft year do not always furvive the winter.
In Auguft their holes begin to be obliterated, and the
infefts are feen no more till fpring.—Not many fura-
inera ago I endeavouted to tranfplant a colony to the
terrace in my garden, 6y boring deep holes in the {lo¬
ping turf. The new inhabitants {laid feme time, and
fed and fung ; but wandered away by degrees, and
were heard at a farther diftance every morning; fo that
it appears that on this emergency they made ufe of
their wings 'in attempting to return to the fpot from
which they were taken.—One of thefe crickets, when
confined in a paper cage and fet in the fun, and fnp-
plied with plants moiftened with water, will feed and
thrive, and become fo merry and loud as" to be irkfome
in the fame room where a perfon is fitting : if the pknts
are not wetted, it will die.”
The domejllc gryllus, or hcarth-cricket, as it is call¬
ed, does not require it to be fought after abroad for
examination, nor is {by like the other fort: it refides
altogether within our dwellings, intruding itfelf up¬
on our notice whether we will or no. It delights
in new built houfes ; being, like the fpider, pleafed
with the moifture of the walls; and befides, the foftneia
of the mortar enables them to burrow and mine be¬
tween the joints of the bricks or {tones, and to open
communications from one room to another. They are
particularly fond of kitchens and bakers ovens, on ac¬
count of their perpetual warmth. “ Tender infedls
that live abroad either enjoy only the fhort period of
one fummer, or elfe doze away the cold uncomfortable
months in profound {lumbers; but thefe (our author
obferves), refiding as it were in a torrid zone, are al¬
ways alert and merry : a good Chriftmas fire is to them,
like the heats of the dog-days. Though they are fre¬
quently heard by day, yet is their natural time of mo¬
tion only in the night. As foon as it grows dufie, the
chirping increafes, and they come running forth, and
are from the fize of a flea to that of their full ftature.
As one {hould fuppofe, from the burning atmofphere
which they inhabit, they are a thirfty race, and {how a
great propenfity for liquids, being found frequently
drowned in pans of water, milk, broth, or the like.
Whatever is moifl: they affedt; and therefore often
gnaw holes in wet woollen {lockings and aprons that
are hung to the fire. Thefe crickets are not only very
thirfty, but very voracious; for they will eat the feum-
mings of pots ; yeaft, fait, and crumbs of bread; and
any kitchen offal or fweepings. In the fummer we
have obferved them to fly, when it became duflt, out
of the windows, and over the neighbouring roofs. This
feat of adlivity accounts for the fudden manner in
which they often leave their haunts, as it does for the
method by which they come to houfes where they
were not known before. It is remarkable, that many
forts of infedls feem never to ufe their wings but when
they have a mind to ftiift their quarters and fettle new
colonies. When in the air they move “ volatu undofo,”
in waves or curves, like wood-peckers, opening and
{hutting their wings at every ftroke, and fo are always
rifing or finking.—When they increafe to a great de¬
gree, as they did once in the houfe where I am now
writing, they become noifome pefts, flying into the
candles, and dafliing into people’s faces ; but may be
blafted by gunpowder difeharged into their crevices and
crannies. In families, at fuch times, they are, like
N° 144.
Pharaoh’s plague of frogs,—‘ in their bedchambers,
and upon their beds, and in their ovens, and in their
kneading-troughs.’ Their flirilling noife is occafioned
by a brilk attrition of their wings. Cats catch hearth-
crickets, and playing with them as they do with mice,
devour them. Crickets may be deftroyed, like wafps,
by phials half filled with beer, or any liquid, and fet in
their haunts ; for being always eager to drink, they will
crowd in till the bottles are full.” A popular preju¬
dice, however, frequently prevents their being driven
away and deftroyed : the common people imagine that
their prefence brings a kind of luck to the houfe while
they are in it, and think it would be hazardous to de-
ftroy them.
2. Gryllus gryllutalpa, or mole cricket, is pf a very
unpleafant form. Its head, in proportion to the fize
of its body, is fmall and oblong, with four long thick
palpi, and two long antennae as {lender as threads. Be¬
hind the antennae are fituated the eyes, and between
thofe two eyes are feen three {lemmata or lefier eyes,
amounting to five in all, fet in one line tranfverfely.
The thorax forms a kind of cuirafs, oblong, almoft cy¬
lindrical, which appears as it were velvetty. The ely¬
tra, which are Ihort, reach but to the middle of the
abdomen, are croffed one over the other, and have
large black or brown nervous fibres. The wings ter¬
minate in a point, longer not only than the elytra, but
even than the abdomen. This latter is foft, and ends
in two points or appendices of fome length. But what
conftitutes the chief Angularity of this infedl are its
fore-feet, that are very large and flat, with broad legs,
ending outwardly in four large ferrated claws, and in¬
wardly in two only ; between which claws is fituated,
and often concealed, the tarfus. The whole animal is
of a brown duiky colour. It haunts moift meadows,
and frequents the fides of ponds and banks of flreams,
performing all its funftions in a fwampy wet foil. With
a pair of fore-feet curioufly adapted to the purpofe, it
burrows and works under ground like the mole, raifing
a ridge as it proceeds, but feldom throwing up hil¬
locks. As mole crickets often infeft gardens by the
fides of canals, they are unwelcome guefts to the gar¬
dener, raifing up ridges in their fubterraneous progrefs,
and rendering the walks unfightly. If they take to the
kitchen quarters, they occafion great damage among
the plants and roots, by deftroying whole beds of cab¬
bages, young legumes, and flowers. "When dug out
they feem very flow and helplefs, and make no ufe of
their wings by day ; but at night they come abroad,
and make long excurfions. In fine weather, about the
middle of April, and juft at the clofe of day, they be¬
gin to folace themfelves with a low, dull, jarring ,note,
continued for a long time without interruption, and
not unlike the chattering of the fern-owl, or goat-
fucker, but more inward. About the beginning of
May they lay their eggs, as Mr White informs us, who
was once an eye-witnefs : “ for a gardener at an houfe
where he was on a viiit, happening to be mowing, on
the 6th of that month, by the fide of a canal, his
feythe ftruck too deep, pared off a large piece of turf,
and laid open to view a curious feene of domettic eco¬
nomy :
“ — — — — ingentem lato dedit ore feneftram «
“ Apparet domus intus, et atria longa patefeunt :
“ Apparent — — — penetralia.”
Gi'yllu*.
There
G R Y [ 161 ] G R Y
^JryUas. Ther*e were many caverns and winding paffages lead- to the fir!l, forms a kind of X. Moreover, between Grylluf,
^,~^r— ing to a kind of chamber, neatly fmoothed and round- the claws that terminate the feet there are fmall fpun- * v
ed, and about the fize of a moderate fnuff-box. With- ges, but larger in this fpecies than the reft. This
in this fecret nurfery were depofited near too eggs fpecies is to .be met with every where in the country,
of a dirty yellow colour, and enveloped in a tough flcin, The larvae or caterpillars very much refemble the per-
but too lately excluded to contain any rudiments of fe£t infedls, and commonly dwell under ground.” Of
young, being full of a vifcous fubftance. The eggs this tribe, x 18 other fpecies are enumerated in the 5>-
lay but {hallow, and within the influence of the fun, Jlema Natura, natives of different parts of the globe ;
juft under a little heap of frefh-mowed mould, like that befides a confiderable number noted as unafcertained
which is raifed by ants.—When mole-crickets fly, they with regard to their being diftinft fpecies or only fyno-
move “ curfu undofo,” rifing and falling in curves, like nymes or varieties of fome of the others,
the other fpecies mentioned before. In different parts All the Grylli, except the firft family which feed
of this kingdom people call them fen-crickets, churr- upon other infefts, live upon plants; the acheta chiefly
’worms, and eve'churrs, all very appofite names.” upon the roots, the letligonia and locujhe upon the leaves.
IV. The Tettiooni/e, Grasshoppers, or Lo- The diftindion of Z,oca/?j into families (IV. V.), as
cujis armed at the tail: The females of this family are above charafterifed, is extremely proper; and the differ-
diflinguifhed hy a tubular dart at the extremity of their enceof organifation upon which it is founded has been
•abdomen : in both fexes the antennae are fetaceous, and obferved to be adapted to the mode and the places in
lobger than the abdomen ; and the tarli compofed of which the infedls lay their eggs. But by taking the wings
four articulations. Of thefe infe&s there are 69 fpe- into confideration, there might have been formed three
cies enumerated in the Syflema Naturee. They leap by tribes or divifions, inftead of two, upon the fame natu-
the help of their hinder legs, which are ftrong and ral foundation. Thus, according to the obfervations
much longer than the fore ones. Their walk is heavy, of the Abbe Pouet f, thofe which have their abdomen! 'Joum. He
but-they fly tolerably well. Their females depofit their furnifhed with the tube or dart above mentioned, .lay
eggs in the ground, by means of the appendices their eggs in. a ftiff fort of earth which that inftrument^p1^ I7,
which they carry in their tail, which confift of two la- perforates. During the operation, the dart opens ; p.i^.
' minse, and penetrate the ground. They lay a great and, being hollow and grooved on each fide within, the
number of eggs at a time ; and thofe eggs, united in a egg Aides down along the grooves, and is depofited- in
thin membrane, form a kind of group. The little larvae the hole. Of thofe which have the tail fimple, z. c.
that fpring from them are wholly like the perfeft in- which have no dart, fome have long wings, and fome
feds, excepting in fize, and their having neither wings very ftiort. The long-winged fort lay their eggs on
nor elytra, but only a kind of knobs, four in number, the bare ground, 'and have no ufe for a perforating in-
which contain both, but undifplayed. The unfolding ftrument; but they cover them with a glutinous fub-
of them only takes place at the time of the metamor- ftance, which fixes them to the foil, and prevents their
phofis, when the infetft has attained its full growth. In being injured either by wind or wetnefs. Thofe,
thefe infefts, when examined internally, befides the again, which have ftiort wings depofit their eggs in the
gullet, we difeover a fmall ftomach ; and behind that, fand : and to make the holes for this purpofe, they
a very large one, wrinkled and furrowed within-fide. have the power of elongating and retracing their abdo-
Lower down, there is ftill a third : fo that it is thought, minal rings, and can turn their body as on a pivot; in
and with fome probability, that all the animals of this which operation long wings would have been a material
genus chew the cud, as they fo much refemble rumi- impediment.
nant animals in their internal conformation. The annals of moft of the warm countries are filled
V. Locust.® [the Grylli o{ Fabricius), or Locujls with accounts of the devaftations produced by lo-
■tmarmed at the tail. This family is diftinguiftied by cufts, who fometimes make their appearance in clouds
having the tail purple, without the fetse of the Acheta, of vaft extent, They feldom vifit Europe in fuch
or the tube of the Tettigonia ; their antennas are fill- fwarms as formerly ; yet in the warmer parts of it arc
form, and half (horter than the abdomen ; they have ftill formidable.—Thofe which have at uncertain inter-
three (lemmata^ and three joints to the tarfi. To part vals vifited Europe in our memory, are fuppofed to
of this defeription, however, there is an exception in have come from Africa : they are a large fpecies about
the gryllus locufta-groffus, the antennae of which are three inches long. The head and horns are of a
of a cylindrical form. According to Mr Barbutt, brownifti colour; it is blue about the mouth, as alfo
“ few fpecies vary fo much in fize and colours. Some on the infide of the larger legs. The fhield which co-
of thefe infe&s are twice as long as others; the anten- vers the back is greenifli; and the upper fide of the
nas in moft are filiform, but in this particular fpecies body brown, fpotted black, and the under fide purple,
cylindrical, compofed of about 24 articulations, and The upper wings are brown, with fmall dufley fpots,
but one fourth of the length of the body. As to co- and one larger fpot at the tips. The under wings are
lour, the fmall individuals are nearly quite red fpotted more tranfparent, and of a light brown tin&ured°with
with black, with the under part of the body only of a green, but there is a dark cloud of fpots near the tips,
greenifh yellow-. The larger fubjedts are all over of a —Thefe infeas are bred in the warm parts of Afia and
greenifti hue, the under part being of a deeper yellow; Africa, from whence they have often taken their flight
only the infide of the hinder thighs is red. But what into Europe, where they committed terrible devafta-
charaaerifes this fpecks is, the form of the thorax, tions. They multiply fafter than any other animal in
which has, above, a longitudinal elevation, attended the creation, and are truly terrible in the countries
1>y one on each fide, the middle whereof drawing nigh where they breed. Some of them were feen In different
Vox.. VIII. Part I. U parts
G R Y r 162 1 G R Y
parts of Britain in the year 1748, and great mif-
chiefs were apprehended : but happpy for us, the cold-
nefs of our clim'ate, and the humidity of our foil, are
very unfavourable to their produftion ; fo that, as
they are only animals of a year’s continuance, they all
perifh without leaving a young generation to fucceed
them.
When the locufts take the field, it is faid they have
a leader at their head, whofe flight they obferve, and
pay a ftritt regard to all his motions. They appear at
a diftance like a black cloud, which, as it approaches,
gathers upon the horizon, and almoll hides the light of
day. It often happens, that the hufbandman fees this
imminent calamity pafs away without doing him any
mrfchief; and the whole fwarm proceeds onw'ard to
fettle upon fome lefs fortunate country. J n thofe pla¬
ces, however, where they alight, they deftroy every
green thing, dripping the trees of their leaves, as well
as devouring the corn and grafs. In the tropical cli¬
mates they are not fo pernicious as in the more fouthem
parts of Europe In the fir't, the power of vegeta¬
tion is fo ftrong, that an interval of three or four days
repairs the damage ; but in Europe this cannot be done
till next year. Befides, in their long flights to this
part of the world, they are famifhed by-the length of
their journey, and are therefore more voracious where-
«ver they happen to fettle. But as much damage is
occafioned by what they deftroy, as by what they de¬
vour, Their bite is thought to contaminate the plant,
and either to deftroy or greatly to weaken its vegeta¬
tion. To ufe the expreffion of the hufbandmen, they
burn wherever they touch, and leave the marks of their
devaftation for three or four years enfuing. When dead,
they infeft the air in fuch a manner that the ftench is
infupportable.—Orolius tells us, that in the year of the
world 3800, Africa was irifefted with a multitude of
locufts. After having eaten up every thing that was
green, they flew off and were drowned in the fea ;
where they caufed fuch a ftench as could not have
been equalled by the putrefying carcafes of 100,00c
men.
In the year 1650, a cloud of locufts was feen to en¬
ter Rulfia in three different places; and from thence
they fpread themfelves over Poland and Lithuania in
fuch aftonilhing multitudes, that the air was darkened
and the earth covered with their numbers. In fome
places they were feen lying dead, heaped upon each
other to the depth of four feet; in others, they covered
the furface like a black cloth ; the trees bent with their
weight1, and the damage which the country fuftained ex¬
ceeded computation.
In Batbary, their numbers are formidable ; and Dr
Shaw was a witnefs of their devailations there in 1 724.
Their firft appearance was in the latter end of March,
when the wind had been foutheriy for fotne time. In
the beginning of April, their numbers were fo vaftly
increafed, that, in the heat of the day, they formed
themfelves into large fwarms that appeared like clouds,
and darkened the fun. In the middle of May they be¬
gan to difappear, retiring into the -plains to depofit
their eggs. In June the young brood began to make
their appearance, forming many compadl bodies of fe-
veral hundred yards fquare ; which afterwards march¬
ing forward, climbed the trees, walls, and houfes, eat¬
ing every thing that was green in their way. The in¬
habitants, to flop their progrefs, laid trenches all over
their fields and gardens, which they filled with watey.
Some placed large quantities of heath, ftubble,* and
fuch like combuftible matter, in rows, and fet them on
fire on the approach of the locufts. But all this wa*s
to no purpofe ; for the trenches were quickly filled up,
and the fires put out by the great numbers of fwarms
that fucceeded each other. A day or two after one of
thefe was in motion, others that were juft hatched came
to glean after them, gnawing off the young branches,
and the very bark of the trees. Having lived near a
month in this manner, they arrived at their full growth,
and threw off their worm-like ftate, by catting their
Ikins. To prepare themfelves for this change, they
fixed their hinder part to fome bufh or twig, or cor¬
ner, of a ftone, when immediately, by an undulating
motion ufed on this occafion, their heads would firft
appear, and foon after the reft of their bodies. The
whole transformation was performed in feven or eight
minutes time, after which they remained for a little
while in a languishing condition 5 but as foon as the
fun and air had hardened their wings, and dried up
the moifture that remained after calling off their for¬
mer floughs, they returned to their former greedinefs,
with an addition both of ftrength and agility. But they
did not long continue in this ftate before they were en¬
tirely difperfed. After laying their eggs, they d;retted
their courfe northward, and probably periftted in the
fea. — In that country, however, the amazing fertility
of the foil and warmnefs of the climate generally ren¬
der the depredations of thefe infedts of little confe-
quence ; befides that many cireumftances concur to di-
minifh their number. Though naturally herbivorous,
they often fight with each other, and the vidlor de¬
vours the vanquifhed. They are the prey, too, of fer-
pents, lizards, frogs, and the carnivorous birds. They
have been found in the ftomachs of the eagle and diffe¬
rent kinds of owls. They are alfo ufed as food by the
Moors ; who go to hunt them, fry them in oil or but¬
ter, and fell them publicly at Tunis and other places.
In 1754, 175J, 1756, and 1757, great devafta-
tions were committed in Spain by a fpecies of locufts,
of which we have the following defeription by Don
Guillermo Bowles, publiftied in Dillon’s Travels thro’
that couutry. “ The locufts are continually feen in
the fouthern parts of Spain, particularly in the paftures
and remote uncultivated diftridts of Eftramaduia, but
in general are not taken notice of, if not very nume¬
rous, as they commonly feed upon wild herbs, without
preying upon gardens and cultivated lands, or making
their way into houfes. *The peafants look at them
with indifference while they are ftifiring about in the
field, neglefting any meafure to deftroy them till the
danger is immediate and the favourable moment to re¬
medy the evil is e’apfed. Their yearly number is not
very confiderable, as the males are far more numerous
than the females. If an equal proportion were allowed
only for ten years, their numbers would be fo great as
to deftroy the whole vegetative fyftem. Beafts and
birds would ftarve for want of fubfiftence, and even
mankind would become a prey to their ravenous appe¬
tites. In 1754, their increafe was fo great from the
multitude of females, that all La Mancha and Portugal
were covered with them and totally ravaged. The hor¬
rors of famine were fpread even farther, and affailed
GryHus.
G R Y ' [ 163 ] G R Y
tiie fruitful provinces of Andalufia, Murcia, and Va- the four years they comtnitted fuch havoc in Edrema- Giyl'u'.
lencia. dura, the love-apple, orof Linnaeus, '
“ The amours of thefe-creatures areobje&soffurprife was the only plant that efcaped their rapacious tooth,
and aftonhhment, and their union is fuch that it is diffi- and claimed a refpeft to its root, leaves, flowers, and
cult to feparate them. When this feparation is volun- fruit. Naturalitfs may fearch for their motives, which
tary, after having lafted fome hours, they are fo ex- I am at a lofs to difcover ; the more as I faw millions
hauded, that the male retires immediately to'the water of them light on a field near Almaden, and devour the
ibr refrefhthent, where, lofing the ufe of his limbs, he woollen and linen garments of the peafants, which were
foon perilhes, and becomes an eafy prey to the filh ; lying to dry on the ground. The curate of the village,
having given life to his offspring at the expence of a man of veracity, at vvhofe houfe I was, affured me,
his own. The female, difembarralTcd, tho’ not with- that a tremendous body of them entered the church,
out violent druggies, fpends the remainder of her days and devoured the filk garments that adorned the images
iji fome folitary place, bufy in forming a^ retreat under of the faints, not fparing even the varnifh on the altars,
ground, where the can fecure her eggs, of which fire The better to difcover the nature of fuch a phenome-
gtnerally lays about 40, fcreem’ng them by her faga- non, I examined the flomach of the locuft, but only
city from the intemperature of the air, as well as the found one thin and foft membrane, with which, and
more immediate danger of the plough or the fpade, one the liquor it contains, it deflroys and diffolves all
fatal blow of which would dellroy all the hopes of a ri- kind of fubftances, equally with the moft cauftic and
fing generation. * venomous plants; extrafling from them a fufiicient and
“ The manner of her building this cell is equally falutary nourifltment.
furprifing. In the hinder part of her body, nature “ Out of curiofity to know the nature of fo for-
has provided her with a round fmooth inftrument, eight midable a creature, J was urged to examine all its parts
lines in length, which at its head is as big as a writing with the utmoft exaflnefs : its head is of the fize of a
quill, tiiminiihing to a hard fliarp point, hollow within pea, though longer, its forehead pointing downwards
like the tooth of a viper, but only to be feen with a lens, like thp handfome Andalufian horfe, its mouth large
At the root of this vehicle there is a cavity, with a and open, its eyes black and rolling, added to a timid
kind of bladder, containing a glutinous matter, of the afpefl not unlike a hare. With fuch a dalla^dly coun¬
fame colour, but without the confiftency or tenacity of tenance who would imagine this creature to be the
that of the filk-worm, as I found by an experiment, fcourge of mankind ! In its two jaws it has four inci-
made for the purpofe, by an infufion in vinegar, for five teeth, whofe lharp points traverfe each other like
feveral days, without any effedt. The orifice of the fciffars, their mechanifm being fuch as to gripe or to
bladder correfponds exaftly with the inllrument which cut. Thus armed, what can refift a legion of fuch
ferves to ejefl the glutinous matter. It is hid under enemies: After devouring the vegetable kingdom, were
the fkin of the belly, and its interior furface is united they, in proportion to their llrength and numbers, to
to the moveable parts of the belly, and can partake of become carnivorous like wafps, they would be able to
its motions, forming the moft admirable contexture for deftroy whole flocks of ftieep, even to the dogs and
every part of its operations, as (he can difpofe of this ftrepherds \ juft as we are told of ants ih America, that
ingredient at pleafure, and ejedl the fluid, which has will overcome the fierceft ferpents.
three very efiential properties: firft, being indiflbluble “ The locuft fpends the months of April, May, and
in water, it prevents its young from being drowned ; June, in the place of its birth : at the end of June its
next, it refifts the heat of the.fun, othervvife the ftruc- wings have a fine rofe colour, and its body is itrong.
ture would give way and deftroy its inhabitants; laftly. Being then in their prime, they affembie lor the laft
it is proof againft the froft of winter, fo as to preferve time, and burn with a defire to propagate their fpecies:
a neceffary warmth within. For greater fecurity, this this is obferved by their motions, which are unequal in
retreat is always contrived in a folitary place : for tho’ the two fexes. The male is reftlefs and folicitous, the
a million of locufts were to light upon a cultivated female is coy, and eager after food, flying the ap-
field, not one would depofit her eggs there ; but proaches of the male, fo that the morning is fpent in
wherever they meet a barren and lontfome fituation, the courtfhip of the one and the retreat of the other,
there they are fure to repair and lay their eggs. About ten o’clock, when the warmth of the fun has
“ Thefe locufts feem to devour, not fo much from a cleared their wings from the dampnefs of the night, the
ravenous appetite, as from a rage of deftroying every females feem uneafy at the forwardntfs of the males,
thing that comes in their way. It is not furprifing, whocontinuing their purfuit, they rife together 500 feet
that they fliould be fond of the moft juicy plants and high, forming a black cloud that darkens the rays of the
fruits, fuch as melons, and all manner of garden fruits fun. The clear atmofphere of Spain becomes gloomy,
and herbs, and feed alfo upon aromatic plants, fuch as and the fineft fummer day of Eftremadura more difmai
lavender, thyme, rofemary, Sic. which are fo common than the winter of Holland. The rufthng of fo many
in Spain, that they ferve to heat ovens: but it is very millions of yvings in the air, feems like the trees of
lingular, that they equally eat muftard feed, onions, a foreft agitated by the wind. The firft direftion of
and garlic; nay even l-emlock, and the moft rank and this formidable column is always againft the wind
poifonous plants, fuch as the thorn apple and deadly ,which if not too ftrong, the column will extend about
night-lhade. They will even prey upon crowfoot, a couple of leagues. The locuils then make a halt
whofe caul! icity burns the very hides of beafts; and when the moft dreadful havoc begins; their fen fe of
fuch is their univerfal tafte, that they do not prefer the fmell being fo delicate, they can find at that diftance
innocent mallow to the bitter furze, or rue to worm- a corn field or a garden, and after demolilhing it, rife
wood, confuming all alike, without prediledlion or fa- again in purfuit of another: this may be faid to be
vour, wdth this remarkable , circumftance, that during done in aa inftant. Each feems to have, as it were
U 2 four
G R Y [ i
Gryllus four arms and two feet: the males climb'up the plants,
•I as failors do the fhrouds of a {hip, and nip off the ten-
Gryphius. (Jere[t buds, which fall to the females below,
s. ' ,, b'lany old people affured me, when fo much mif-
eliief was done in 1754, it was the third time in their
remembrance, and that they always are found in the
pallure grounds of Eftramadura, from whence they
ipread into the other provinces of Spain. They are
certainly indigenous, being of a different (hape from
thofe of the North or the Levant, as is evident in
comparing them with fuch in the cabinets of natural
hiftory. The loculi of Spain is the only one that has
rofe-coloured wings: befides, it is impoffible they can
come from any other part. From the north it is clear
they do not, by the obfervation of fo many ages; from
the fouth they cannot, without croffing the fea, which
is hardly polfible by the Ihortnefs of their flight: and
like birds of paffage, they would be known. 1 once faw
a cloud of them pafs over Malaga, and move towards
the . fea, and go over it, for about a quarter of a
League, to the great joy of the inhabitants, who con¬
cluded they would foon be drowned ; but, to their dif-
appointment, they fuddenly veered about towards the
coaft, and pitched upon an uncultivated fpace furround-
ed with vineyards, which they foon after quitted.
When once they appear, let- the number demolifhed be
ever fo great, the proportion remaining is Hill too con-
fiderable: therefore, the only way to put an end to
fuch a calamity, is to attack them beforehand, and de-
flroy their eggs, by which means they might be totally
extirpated.” See Plate CCXXI.
GRYNiEUS (Simon), fon to a peafant of Suabia,
born in 1493, was Greek profeffor at Heidelberg, in
1523. He took a tour into England, and received great
civility from the lord chancellor Sir Thomas More, to
whom Erafmus had recommended him. He was a learn¬
ed and laborious man, and did great fervice to the com¬
monwealth of letters. He was the firft. who publifhed
the Almageft of Ptolemy in Greek. He alfo publilh-
«d a Greek Euclid, and Plato’s works, with fome com¬
mentaries of Proclus.
GRYPHIUS (Sebaftian), a celebrated printer of
Lyons in France, was a German, and born at Suabia
near Auglburg in 1494. reft°red the art of print¬
ing at Lyons, which was before exceedingly corrupt¬
ed ; and the great number of books printed by him are
valued by the connoiffeurs. He printed many books in
Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, with new and very beau¬
tiful types; and his editions are no lefs accurate than
beautiful. The reafon is, that he was a very learned
man, and perfedtly verfed in the languages of fuch
books as he undertook to print. Thus a certain epi-
grammatiil has obferved, that Robert Stephens was a
very good corredlor, Colinasus a very good printer, but
that Gryphius was both an able printer and corredlor.
This is the epigram :
“ Inttr tot norunt hbros qui cudere, ires funt
“ I/ift’nes : languct cater a tut ha fatna
“ Cajligat Stepbanus, fculpit Colinaus, utrumqu!
“ Gryphius edo&a mente manuqtie facit."
He died 1556-, in his 63d year: and his trade was car¬
ried on honourably in the fame city by his fon, Antho¬
ny Gryphius. One of the moft beautiful books of Se-
baftian Gryphius is a Latin Bible: it was printed 1550,
64 T G U A
with the large ft types that had then been feen, in 2 vols Gryphlte*
folio. II-
GRYPHITES, in natural hiftory, in Englilh GuadaluPe:
crow’s stont, an oblong foflile {hell, very narrow at '
the head, and becoming gradually wider to the extre¬
mity, where it ends in a circular limb ; the head or
beak of this is very hooked or bent inward.
They are frequently found in our gravel or clay-pits
in many counties. There are three or four dillindt
fpecies of them ; fome are extremely rounded and
convex on the back, others lefs fo ; and the plates of
which they are compofed, are in fome fmaller and
thinner, in others thicker and larger, in fpecimens of
the fame bign’efs.
GUADALAJARA, or Goadalaxara, a town
of Spain, in New Caftile, and diftridl of Alcala, feat-
ed on the river Herares. W. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat.
40. 36.
Guadalajara, a confiderable town of North A-
merica, and capital of a rich and fertile province of the
fame name, with a bifhop’s fee. W. Long. 114. 59.
N. Lat. 20. 20.
GUADAL AVIAR, a river of Spain, which rifes
on the confines of Arragon and New Caftile, and, run¬
ning by Turvel in Arragon, croffes the kingdom of
Valencia, paffes by the town of the fame name, and
foon after falls into the Mediterranean fea, a little be¬
low Valencia.
GUADALQUIVER, one of the moft famous li¬
vers of Spain, rifes in Andalufia, near the confines of
Granada, and running quite through Andalulia, by
the towns of Baiza, Andaxar, Cordova, Seville, and
St Lucar, falls at laft into the Bay of Cadiz.
GUADALUPE, ahandfome town in Spain, in E-
ftramadura, with a celebrated convent, Whofe (Irudture
is magnificent, and is immenfely rich. It is feated
on a rivulet of the fame name. E. Long. 3. 50*
N. Lat. 39. 15.
Guadalupe, one of the Caribbee iflands, belong¬
ing to the French, the middle of which is feated in ,
about N. Lat. 16. 30. W. Long. 61. 20.
This ifland, which is of an irregular figure, may ba
about 80 leagues in circumference. It is divided into
two parts by a fmall arm of the fea, which is not
above two leagues long, and from 15 to 40 fathoms .
broad. This canal, known by the name of the Salt t
River, is navigable, but will only carry veffeia of 50
tons burden.
That part of the ifland which gives its name to the,
whole colony is, towards the centre, full of craggy
rocks, where the cold is fo intenfe, that nothing will
grow upon them but femr and fome ufelefs Ihrubs co¬
vered with mofs. On the top. of thefe rocks, a moun¬
tain called la Souphriere, or the Brimjlona Mountain, ri¬
fes to an immenfe height. It exhales, through various
openings, a thick black fmoke, intermixed with fpaiks
that are vilible by night. From all thefe hills flow
numberlefs fprings, which fertilize the plains below,
and moderate the burning heat of the climate by a re-
frefhing ftream, fo celebrated, that the galleons which *
formerly ufed to touch at the Windward Iflands, had .
orders to renew their provifion with this pure and falu-
brious water. Such is that part of the ifiand properly
called Guadalupe- That which, is commonly called
Grand
G U A [ i
Guadalupe. Grand Ttrre, has not been fo much favoured by nature.
^”“Y—“■ It is indeed lefs rugged ; but it wants fprings and ri¬
vers. The foil is not fo fertile, or the climate fo whole-
fome or fo pleafant:
No European nation had yet taken poileflion of this
ifland, when 550 Frenchmen, led on by two gentlemen
named Loiine and Dupleps, arrived there from Dieppe
on the 28th of June 1635. They had been very im¬
prudent in their preparations. 1 heir proviiions were
fo ill chofen, that they were fpoiled in the paffage, and
they had (hipped fo few, that they were exhuufted in
two months. They were fupplied with more from the
mother-country. St Chriftopher’s, whether from fcar-
eity or defign, refufed to fpare them any ; aiid the firlt
attempts in hufoandry they made in the country, could
not as yet afford any thing. No refource was left for the
colony but from the favages ; but the fuperfluities of a
people, who cultivate but little, and therefore had ne¬
ver laid up any (lores, could not be very confiderable.
The new comers, not contest with what the favages
might freely and voluntarily bring, came to a refolution
to plunder them ; and hoflilities commenced on the
16th of January 1636.
The Caribs, not thinking themfelves in a condition
openly to refill an enemy who had fo much the advan¬
tage from the fuperiority of their arms, deftroyed their
own provifions and plantations, and retired to Grand-
Terre, or to the-neighbouring iflands. From thence
the moll defperate came over to the illand from which
they had been- driven, and concealed themfelves in the
thicked parts of the forells. In' the day time, they
(hot with their poifoned arrows, or knocked down
with their clubs, all the Frenchmen who were fcatter-
ed about for hunting or filhing. In the night, they
burned the houfes and deftroyed the plantations of their
unjull fpoilers.
A dreadful famine was the confequence of this kind
of war. The colonills were reduced to graze in the
fields, to eat their own excrements, and to dig up dead
bodies for their fubfiftence. Many who had been (laves
at Algiers, held in abhorrence the hands that had bro¬
ken their fetters ; and all of them curfed their exift-
ence. It was in this manner that they atoned for the
ciitne of their invafion, till the government of Aubert
brought a peace with the-favages at the end of the year
1640. The remembrance, however, of hardlhips en¬
dured in an invaded illand, proved a powerful incite¬
ment to the cultivation of all articles of immediate ne-
cdlity ; which afterwards induced an attention to tbofe
ofiuxury confumed in the mother-country. The few
inhabitants who had efcaped the calamities they had
drawn upon themfelves, were foon joined by -fome dif-
contented colon ills from St Chriftopher’s, by Europe¬
ans fond of novelty, by failors tired of navigation, and
by fome fea-captains,. who prudently chofe to commit
to the care of a grateful foil the treafurcs they had faved
from the dangers of the fea. But dill the profperity
of Guadalupe was (lopped or impeded by obftacles an’-
fing from its (ituation.
The facility with which the pirates from the neigh¬
bouring iflands could carry off their cattle, their (laves,
their very crops, frequently brought them into a .defpe¬
rate fituation. Intelline broils, arifing from jealoufies of
authority, often difturbed the quiet of the planters.
The adventurers who went over to the windward iilands.
65 T G U A
difdaining a land that was fitter for agriculture than Guadalupe--
for naval expeditions, were eafily drawn to Martinico
by' the convenient roads it abounds with. The pro-
teclion of thofe intrepid pirates brought to that i(land:
all the traders who flattered themfelves that they might
buy up the fpoils of the enemy at a low price, and all
the planters who thought they might fafely give them*
felves up to peaceful labours. This quick population
could not fail of introducing the civil and military go¬
vernment of the Caribbee iflands into Martinico. From
that time the French miniftry attended more ferioufly
to this than to the other colonies, which were not fo
immediately under their direflion; and hearing chiefly
of this ifland, they turned all their encouragementa
that way.
It was in confequence of this preference, that in
1700 the number of inhabitants in Gaudalupe amount¬
ed only to 3825 white people, 325 favages, free ne¬
groes, mulattoes, and 6725 (laves, many of whom
were Caribs. Her cultures were reduced to 60 fmall
plantations of fogar, 66 of indigo, a little cocoa, and
a confiderable quantity of cotton. The cattle amount¬
ed to 1620 horfes, and mules, and 3699 head of horned
cattle. This was the fruit of 60 years labour. But
her future progrefs was as rapid as her fijft attempts
had been flow.
At the end of the year 1755, the colony was peo¬
pled with 9643 whites, 41,140 (laves of all ages and
of both fexes. Here faleable commodities were the
produce of 334 fugar-plantations, 15 .plots of indigo,
46',840 ftems of cocoa, 11,700 of tobacco, 2,257,725
of coffee, 1 2,748,447 of cotton. For her provifions
(lie had 29 fquares of rice or maize, and 1219 of
potatoes or yams, 2,028 520 banana trees, and
32,577,95° trenches of caffava. The cattle of Gua¬
dalupe confided of 4946' horfes, 2924 mules, 125
affes, 13,716 head of horned cattle, 11,162 (heep or
goats, 2444 hogs. Such was the (late of Guadalupe
when it was conquered by the Britifli in the month of
April 1 759.
France lamented this lofs ; hut the colony had rea-
fon to comfort themfelves for this difgrace. During
a fiege of three months, .they had fecn their planta¬
tions deftroyed, the buildings that ferved to carry on
their works burnt down, andTome of their (laves car¬
ried off. Had the enemy been forced to retreat after
all thefe devaftations,-the ifland was ruined. Depri¬
ved of all affiftance from the mother-country, which
was not able to fend her any fuccours j and expelling
nothing from the Dutch (who, on account of their
neutrality, came into her roads),becaufe (he had nothing
to offer them in exchange; (he could never have fuhlifted
till the enfuing harveft.
The conquerors delivered them from thefe appre-
henfions. The Britilh, indeed, are no merchants in
their colonies. The proprietors of lands, who moftly
refide in Europe, fend to their reprefentatives whatever
they want, and draw-the whole produce-of the edate
by the return of their (hip. An agent fettled in. fome
fea-port of Great Britain is intruded with the fur-
nifliing the plantation and receiving the produce.
This was impracticable at Guadalupe ; and the con¬
querors in this refpedl were obliged to adopt the ca-
(lom of the conquered. The Britifli, informed of the
advantage the French made of their trade with'the
colonies^..
G U A r 166 1 G U A
■Guadalupe-, colonies, haftened, in imitation of them, to fend their
^Guahana. ^jpg to conquered ifland ; and fo multiplied their
expeditions, that they overftocked the market, and
funk the price of all European commodities. The co-
lonifts bought them at a very low price ; and, in con-
fequence of this plenty, obtained long delays for the
payment.
To this credit, which was neceffary, was foon ad¬
ded another ariling from fpeculation, which enabled the
colony to fulfil its engagements. A great number of
negroes were carried thither, to haften the growth and
enhance the value of the plantations. It has been faid
in various memorials, all copied from each other, that
the Engliih had flocked Guadalupe with 30,000 du¬
ring the four years and three months that they remain¬
ed mafters of the ifland. The regiflers of the cuflom-
houfes, which may be depended on, as there could be
no inducement for an impofition, attefl that the num¬
ber was no more than 18,721. This was fufficient to
give the nation well-grounded hopes of reaping great
advantages from their new conqueit. But their hopes
were fruflrated; and the colony, with its dependencies,
was reftored to its former poffeffors by the treaty of
peace in July 1763.
By the furvey taken in 1767, this ifland, including
the flnaller iflands, Defeada, St Bartholomew, Mari-
gal&nte, and the Saints, dependent upon it, contains
11,863 white people of all ages and of both ftxes,
752 free blacks and mulattoes, 72,761 flaves; which
makes in all a population of 85,376 fouls. The
cattle confifts of 5060 horfes, 4854 mules, 111 afles,
17,378 head of horned cattle, 14,895 flieep or goats,
and 2669 hogs. The provifion is 30,476,218 trenches
of caflava, 2,819,262 banana trees, 2118 fquares of
land planted with yams and potatoes. The planta¬
tions-contain 72 arnotto trees, 327 of caffia, 13,292
of cocoa, 5,881,176 of coffee, 12,156,769 of cotton,
21,474 fqaares of land planted with fug^r-canes. The
woods occupy 22,097 fquares of land. There are 20,247
in meadows, and 6405 are uncultivated or forfaken.
Only 1582 plantations grow cotton, coffee, and provi-
flons. Sugar is made but in 401. Thefe fugar works
employ 140 water-mills, 263 turned by oxen, and 11
wind mills.
The produce of .Guadalupe, including what is pour¬
ed in from the fmall iflands under her dominion, ought
to be very confiderable.. But in 1768 it yielded to
the mother-country no more than 140,418 quintals of
fine fugar, 23,603 quintals of raw fugar, 34,205
quintals of coffee, 11,955 quintals of cotton, 456
quintals of cocoa, 1884 quintals of ginger, 2529
quintals of logwood, 24 chefts of fweetmeats, 165
chefls of liquors, 34 calks of rum, and 1202 undref-
fed fkins. All thefe commodities were fold in the
colony only for 310,792b 18s. 3d. and the merchan-
dife it has received from France hascoft but 197,919b
18s. 6d.
GUADIANA, a large river of Spain, having its
fource in New Caftile, and, pafiing crofs the high
mountains, falls down to the lakes called Ojos of
Guudiuna; from whence it runs to Calatrava, Medelin,
Merida, and Badajox in Eflremadura of Spam ; and
after having run for fome time in Alentejo in Portugal,
it paffes on to feparate the kingdom of Algarve from
Andalufla, and falls into the bay or gulph of Cadiz Guadix,
between Caftro Marino and Agramonte. GiMjacun.
GUADIX, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of v
Granada, with a bifhop’s fee. It was taken from the
Moors in 1253, w^° afterwards retook it, but the
Spaniards again got poffeflion of it in 1489. It is
feated in a fertile country, in W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat.
37- ?•
GUAJACUM, Lignum Vitje, ok Pod wood: A
genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the de-
candria clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 14th order, Gruinales. The calyx
is quinquefid and unequal; the petals five, and inferted
into the calyx; the capfule is angulated, and trilocu-
lar or quinquelocular.
Species. 1. The officinale, or common lignum viten
ufed in medicine, is a native of the Weft India Iflanda
and the warmer parts of America. There it becomes
a large tree, having a hard, brittle, browniflr bark, not
very thick. The wood is firm, fblid, ponderous, very
refinous, of a blackifli yellow colour in the middle, and
of a hot aromatic tafte. The fmaller branches have an
afh-coloured bark, and are garni(hed with leaves divided
by pairs of a bright green colour. The flowers are
produced in cluftersat the end of the branches, and are
compofed of oval concave petals of a fine blue colour.
2. The fan&um, with many pairs of obtufe lolaes, hath
many fmall lobes placed along, the mid rib by pairs of
a darker green colour than thofe of the foregoing fort*
The flowers are produced in loofe bunches towards
the end of the branches, and are of a fine blue colour,
with petals fringed on the edges- This fpecies is alfo
a native of the Weft India iflands, where it is called
lajlard lignum vitx. 3.The Afrum, with many blunt-
pointed leaves, is a native of the Cape of Good Hope:
The plants retain their leaves all the year, but have never
yet flowered in this country.
Culiure. The firft fpecies can only be propagated
by feeds, which muft be procured from the countries
where it naturally grows. They muft be fown frefli
in pots, and plunged into a good hot-bed, where
they will come up in fix or eight weeks. While young,
they may be kept in a hot-bed of tan-bark under a
frame during the fummer; but in autumn they muft
be removed into the bark-ftove, where they ftiould con-
ftantly remain. The fecond fort may be propagated
the fame way ; but the third is to be propagated by
layers, and will live all the winter in a good green-
houfe.
Ufes. The wood of the firft fpecies is of very cqn-
fidtrable ufe both in medicine and in the mechanical
arts. It is fo compaft and heavy as to fink in water. The
outer part is often of a pale yellowifli colour ; but the
heart is blacker, or of a deep brown. Sometimes it is
marbled with different colours. It is fo hard as to
break the tools which are employed in felling it; and
is therefore feldom ufed as firewood, but is of great
ufe to the fugar planters for making wheels and cog*
to the fugar-mill. It is alfo frequently wrought into
bowls, mortars, and other utenfils. It is brought over
hither in large pieces of four or five hundred weight
each ; and from its hardnefs and beauty is in great
demand for various articles of turnery ware.
The wood, gum, bark, fruit, and even the flowers
- of
I
G U A [ >67 ] G U A
(Cuajicum- of this tree, have been found to poffefs medicinal vir-
"V—lues ; but it is only the three firft, and more particu¬
larly the wood and refin, which arenow in. general ufe
in Europe. The wood has little or no fmell, except
•when heated, or while rafping, and then a flight aroma¬
tic one is perceived. When chewed, it impreffes a
mild acrimony, biting the palate and fauces. Its
pungency refides in its refmous matter, which it gives
it out in fome degree to water by boiling, but fpirit
extracts it wholly.
Of the hark there are two kinds; one fmooth, the
other unequal on the furface : they are both of them
weaker than the wood; though, while in a recent
flate, they are flrongly cathartic.
The gum, or rather gummy rtfin, is obtained by
wounding the bark in different parts of the body of
the tree, or by what has been called jagging. It exfudes
copioufly from the wounds, though gradually ; and
when a quantity is found accumulated upon the feveral
wounded trees, hardened by expofure to the fun, it is
gathered and packed in fmall kegs for exportation.
This refin is of a friable texture, of a deep greenilh
colour, and fometimes of a reddifh hue ; it has a pun¬
gent acrid tafte but little or no fmell, unlefs heated.
The tree alfo yields a fpontaneous exfudation from the
bark, which is called the native gum, and is brought
to us in fmall irregular pieces, of a bright femipellucid
appearance, and differs from the former in being much
purer.
In the choice of the wood, that which is the frefhefl,
moft ponderous, and of the darkeft colour, is the belt;
the largefl pieces are to be preferred too; and the beft
method is to rafp them as wanted, for the finer parts
are apt to exhale when the rafpings or chips are kept
a while.
In choofing the refin, prefer thofe pieces which
have flips of the bark adhering to them, and that eafily
feparate therefrom by a quick blow. The refin is
fometimes fophifticated by the negroes with the gum
of the rnanchineal tree; but this is eafily detefted by
diffolving a little in fpirit of n ine or rum. The true
gum imparts a whitifh or milky tinge, but the manchi-
neal gives a greenifh call. Mouch advifes a few drops
of fpirit. nitridulc. to be added to the fpirituous folution,
and then to be diluted with water, by which the gum
is to be precipitated in a blue powder ; but the adul¬
teration will appear floating in white ftriae, &c. ,
Guaiacum was firft introduced into Europe as a re¬
medy for the venereal difeafe ; and appears to have
been ufed in Spain fo early as 1508. The great fucctfs
attending its adminiitralion before the proper ufe of
mercury was known, brought it into fuch repute, that
it is faid to have been fold for feven old crowns a-pound.
It did not, however, continue to maintain its reputa¬
tion; but was found generally to fail where the difeafe
was deep rooted, and was at length fuperfeded by
mercury, to which it now only ferves occafionally as an
adjuvant in the decvftum ligmrjim, of which guaiacum is
the chief ingredient.
The general virtues of guaiacum are thofe of a warm
ftimulating medicine ; ftrengthening the ftomach and
other vifeera, and remarkably promoting the urinary
and cuticular difeharges : hence, in cutaneous defeda.
tions, and other diforders proceeding from obftruftions
e£ the excretory glands, aniwhere Iluggifh ferous hu¬
mours abound, they are eminently ufeful; rheumatic Gnajacurti,
and other pains have often been relieved 'by them. Gual(i(,r-
They are alfo laxative. The refin is the moft aftive of
thefe drugs, and the efficacy of the others depends upon
the quantity ofthis part contained in them. The refin is
extracted from the wood in part by watery liquors, >
but much more perfe&ly by fpitituous ones. The ’
watery extract of this wood, kept in the fhops, proves
not only lefs in quantity, but confiderably weaker than
one made with fpirit. This laft extract is of the fame •
quality with the native refin, and differs from that
brought to us only in being purer. The gum or ex-
tra6ts are given from a few grains to a fcruple or half
a dram, which lafl dole proves for the moll part con¬
fiderably purgative. The officinal preparations of
guaiacum are, an extraft of the wood, a folution of
the gum in re&ified fpirit of wine and a folution in
volatile fpirit, and an empyreumatic oil diflilled from
the wood. The refin diffolved in rum, or combined’
with water, by means of mucilage or the yolk of egg.,
or in form of the volatile tin&ure or elixir, is much
employed in gout and chronic rheumatifm. The tinc¬
ture or elixir has been given to the extent of half an
ounce twice a-day, and is fometimes ufefully combined
with laudanum.
GUALEOR, Gualior, or Goivalier, a large town
of Indollan in Afia, and capital of a province of the
fame name, with an ancient and celebrated fortrefs of
great ftrength. It is fituated in the very heart of Hin-
doftan Proper, being about 80 miles to the fouth of
Agra, the ancient capital of the empire, and 130 from
the neareft part of the Ganges. From Calcutta it is,
by the neareft rout, upwards of 800 miles, and 910
by the ordinary one ; and about 280 from the Britila.
frontiers. Its latitude is 26. 14. and longitude 78. 26.
from Greenwich.
In the ancient divifion of the empire it is clafled in
the Soubah of Agra, and is often mentioned in hiftory.
In the year ioc8, and during the two following cen¬
turies, it was thrice reduced by famine. If is pro¬
bable that it mull in all ages have been deemed a mili¬
tary poft of utmoft ’confequence, both from its fu na¬
tion in refpedft to the capital, and from the peculiari¬
ty of its file, which was generally deemed impregnable.
With refpedt to its relative pofition, it mull be confi-
dered that it Hands on the principal road leading from
Agra to Malwa, Guzerat, and the Decan ; and that
too near the place where it enters the hilly trafl which
advances from Bundelcund, Malwa, and Agimere, to
a parallel with the river Jumnah, throughout the
greatell part of its courfe. And from all thefe cir-
cumftances of general and particular fituation, together
with its natural and acquired advantages as a fortrefs,
the pofieffion of it was deemed as neceffary to the ru-
ling emperors of Hindollan as Dover callle might have
been to the Saxon and Norman kings of England.
Its palace was ufed as a Hate prifon as early as 1317,
and continued to be fuch until.the downfal of the em¬
pire.—On the final difmemberment of the empire,.
Gualeor appears to have fallen to the lot of a rajah of
the Jat tribe ; who affumed the government of the di-
ftrid. in which it is immediately fuuated, under the
title of Rana of Gohud or Gohd. Since that period
it has changed makers more than once ; the Mahrat-
tas, whofe dominions extend to the neighbourhood of
GUA r 168 ] GUA
Osalfor. Jt, having fometimes pofTefied it, and at other times of it, but was fearful of undertaking an enterprize of
'r~~~ the Rana: but the means of transfer were always ei- fuch moment with his own troops. At length he in-
ther famine or treachery, nothing like a fiege paving formed major Popham of it, who fent a party of the
■ever been attempted. robbers to condud fome of his own fpies to the
Gualeor was in' the poffeflibn of Madajee Scindia, a fpot. They accordingly climbed up in the night,
Mahratta chief, in 1779, at the clofe of which year and found that the guards generally went to lleep
the council-general of Bengal concluded an alliance after their rounds. Popham now ordered ladders
with the Rana; ip ponfequence of which, four batta- to be made; but with fo much fecrecy, that until
lions of fepoys of 500 men each, and fome pieces of the night of furprife only myfelf and a few others
-artillery, were fent to his afiiftance, his diftrid being knew it. ^On the 3d of Augufl, in the evening, a
over-run by the Mahrattas, and himfelf almoft Unit up party was ordered to be in readinefs to march under
in his fort of Gohud. The grand objed of his alliance . the command of captain William Bruce 5 and Popham
was to penetrate into Scindia’s country, and finally to put himfelf at the head of two battalions, which were
.draw Scindia himfelf from the wdlern fide of India, immediately to follow the ftorming party. To prevent
where he was attending the motions of general God- as much as pofiible any noife in approaching or afcend-
dard, who was then employed in the redudion of Gu- ing the rock, a kind of flioes of woollen cloth were
7.erat; it being Mr Haftings’s idea, that when Scindia made for the fepoys, and fluffed with cotton. At
found his own dominions in danger, he would detach eleven o’clock the whole detachment marched from
Ihrnfelf from the confederacy, of which he was the the camp at Reypour, eight miles from Gualeor, thro’
principal member, and thus leave matters open for an unfrequented paths, and reached it at a little before
accommodation with the court of Poonah. It fell out day-break. Juft as captain Bruce arrived at the foot
.exadly as Mr Haftings predided. Major William of the rock, he faw the lights which accompanied the
Popham was appointed to the command of the little rounds moving along the rampart, and heard the fen-
army fent to the Rana’s affxftance ; and was very fuc- tinels cough (the mode of fignifying that all is well in
cefsful, as well in clearing his country of the enemy, an Indian camp or garrifon), which might have damp-
as in driving them out of one of their own moft valu- ed the fpirit of many men, but ferved only to infpire
able diftrids, and keeping pofTeffion of it: and Mr Ha- him with more confidence, as the moment for adion,
flings, who juftly concluded that the capture of Gua- that is, the interval between the palling the rounds,
leor, if pradicable, would not only open the way into was now afeertained. Accordingly, when the lights
Scindia’s country, but would alfo add to the reputa- were gone, the wooden ladders were placed againft
tion of our arms in a degree much beyond tjie rifle and the rock, and one of the robbers firft mounted, and
expence of the undertaking, repeatedly exprefted his returned with an account that the guard was retired to
opinion to major Popham, together with a wifti that fleep. Lieutenant Cameron, our engineer, next mount-
it might be attempted; and founding his hopes of ed, and tied a rope-ladder to the battlements of the
fuccefs on the confidence that the garrifon would pro- wall; this kind of ladder being the only one adapted
bably have in the’ natural ftrength of the place. It to the purpofe of fealing the wall in a bftdy (the
,tvas accordingly undertaken; and the following account wooden ones only ferving to afeend from crag to crag
of the place,, and the manner of our getting poflefiion of the rock, and to afiiit in fixing the rope-ladders),
of it, was written by captain Jonathan Scott, at that When all was ready, captain Bruce, with 20 fepoys,
time Pe.'fian interpreter to major Popham, to his bro- grenadiers, afeended without being difebvered, and
ther major John Scott. fquatted down under the parapet ; but before a rein-
“ The fortrefs of Gualeor Hands on a vaft rock of forcement arrived, three of the party had fo little re-
about four miles in length, but narrow, and of unequal colleftion as to fire on fome of the garrifon who hap-
breadth, and nearly flat at the top. The fides are fo pened to be lying afleep near them. This had nearly
.ileep as to appear almoft perpendicular in every part; ruined the whole plan ; the garrifon were of courfe
for where it was not naturally fo, it has been feraped alarmed, and ran in great numbers towards the place ;
-away ; and tfie height from the plain below is from but, ignorant of the ftrength of the affailants (as the
200 to 300 feet. The rampart conforms to the edge men fired on had been killed outright), they fuffered
of the precipice all round ; and the only entrance to themfelves to be Hopped by the warm fire kept up by
it is by Heps running up the fide of the rock, defended the fmall party of the grenadiers, until major Popham
on the fide next the country by a wall and baftions, himfelf, with a confiderable reinforcement, came to
and farther guarded by feven ftone gateways, at certain their aid. The garrifon then retreated to the inner
dillances from each other. The area within is full of buildings, and difeharged a few rockets, but foon af-
noble buildings, refervoirs of water, wells, and culti- terwards retreated precipitately. through the gate;
vated land; fo that it is really a little diftridl in it- whilft the principal officers, thus deferted, aflembled
ftlf. At the north-weft foot of the mountain is the together in one houfe, and hung out a flag. Major
town, pretty large, and well built; the houfes all of Popham fent an officer to give them aflurance of-quar-
ftone. To have befieged this place would be vain, for ter and protetftion ; and thus, in the fpace of two
nothing but a furprife or blockade could have car- hours, this important and aftonifliing fortrefs was ccm-
ried it. pletely in our pofleffion. We had only 20 men wound-
“ A tribe of banditti from the diftridt of the Rana had ed and 1 killed. On the fide of the enemy, Bapogee
.been accullomed to rob about this town, and once in . the governor was killed, and moft of the principal of-
the dead of night had climbed up the rock and got in- ficers wounded.”
.to the fort. This intelligence they had communicated Thus fell the ftrongeft fortrefs in Hindoftan, garri-
£0 the Rana, who often thought of availing himfelf foned by a chofen body of 1200 men, on Auguft 4.
JN0 1.45.
G U A [ 169 j G U A
I *Guam- T780; and which, before the capture of it by the
“ w“ v BritHh, wras pronounced by the princes of Hindoftan,
as far as their knowledge in the military art extended,
to be impregnable. In 1783 Madajee Scindia befieged
this fortrefs, then pofiefled by the Rana of Gohud,
with an army of 70,000 men, and effe&ed the reduc¬
tion by the treachery of one of the Rana’s officers,
who foi tned the plan of admiffion of a party of Scindia’s
troops ; thefe were immediately fupported by another
party, who attacked an oppofue quarter, and got ad-
| miffion alfo.
GUAM, the largeft of the Ladrone iflands in the
South Sea, being about 40 leagues in circumference.
It is the only one among the innumerable iflands that
lie fcattered in the immenfe South Sea which has a
town built in the European ftyle, with a regular fort,
a church, and civilized inhabitants. The air is excel¬
lent, the water good, the garden fluffs and fruits are
exquifite, the flocks of buffaloes innumerable, as are
thofe of goats and hogs, and all kinds of poultry
abound in an aftonifhing degree. There is no port in
which w'orn-cut failors can be more fpeedily reftored,
or find better or more plentiful refrefhments, than in
I this.
But Guam did not formerly enjoy this flate of
abundance. When it was firft difcovei'ed by Magel¬
lan in 1521, with the other eight principal iflands
that lie north of it, which, with a multitude of fmaller
'ones, form together that archipelago known by the
name of the Ladrones, they were all crowded with in¬
habitants, but afforded no refrefhments to navigators
■except fifh, bananas, cocoa nuts, and bread fruit; and
even thefe could not be procured but by force, amidfl
fhowers of the arrows and lances of the natives. The
Spaniards carried thither from America the firft flock
of cattle, of fowls, of plants, and feeds, and fruits, as
well as garden fluffs, which are all now found in fuch
abundance.
The Ladrone iflands, and Guam in particular, were
covered with inhabitants when they were difeover-
ed. It is faid that Guam alone contained upon its
coafts more than 20,000 people. Thefe men were fe¬
rocious favages and bold thieves, as all the iflanders in
the fouth feae are, undoubtedly becaufe they were un¬
acquainted with the rights of property; but they were
fo favage, fo incapable of Cupporting the yoke of ci¬
vilisation, that the Spaniards, who undertook to bring
them under the regulations of law and order, have
feen their numbers almoft annihilated within the fpace
of two centuries. Under the government of their
miffionaries, thefe fierce iflanders, after having long
defended, by cruel wars, the right of living like wild
beafts under the guidance of inftindl, being at laft ob¬
liged to yield to the fuperiority of the Spanifh arms,
gave themfelves up to defpair: they took the refolu-
tion of adminiflring potions to their women, in order
to procure abortions, and to render them fterile, that
they might not bring into the world, and leave behind
them, beings that were not free, according to the
ideas that they had of liberty, A refolution fo vio¬
lent, and fo contrary to the views and intentions of
nature, was perfifted in with fo much obftinacy in the
nine Ladrone iflands, that their population, which at
the time of the difcovery confifted of more than <3o,000
fouls, does not now exceed 800 or 900 in the whole
Vol.VIII. Part I.
extent of the archipelago. About 20 or 30 years Guam.
ago, the fcattered fragments of the original natives Y”’"
were colledled and eftabliflred in the ifland of Guam,
where they now begin to recover by the wife precau¬
tions, and prudent, though tardy, exertions of a go¬
vernment more adapted to the climate of thefe iflands
and to the genius of their inhabitants.
The principal fettlement, which the Spaniards call
the town of Agana, is fituated about four leagues
north-eaft of the landing-place, on the fea-fhore, and
at the foot of fome hills not very high, in a beautiful
well-watered country. Befides this, there are 21
fmaller fettlements of Indians.round the ifland, all 011
the fea-fliore, compofed of five or fix families, who
cultivate fruits and grain, and employ themfelves in
fifhing.
The centre of the ifland is ftill uncleared. The
trees are not very tall, but they are fit for the building
of houfes and of boats. The forefts are in general
very thick. The Spaniards at firft cleared certain
portions of land to turn them into favannahs for the
feeding of cattle. The formation of favannahs confifts
in multiplying within the forefts fmall cleared fpots
feparated only by thickets and rows of trees, and
kept clean from flirubs of every kind. The Spaniards
fow thefe fpots with grafs feeds, and other indigenous
plants that are fit for pafturage. Thefe meadows, be¬
ing effe&ually fhaded on every- quarter, preferve their
freftinefs, and afford the flocks and herds a ftielter
from the fun and the great heat of noon. The cattle
that were formerly brought to the favannabs of Guam
from America have multiplied aftonifliingly : they are
become wild, and muft be (hot when wanted, or taken
by ftratagem.
The woods are likewife full of goats, of hogs, and
fowls, which were all originally brought thither by the
Spaniards, and are now wild. The flelh of all thefe
animals is excellent. In the favannahs, and even in
the heart of the forefta, there is a vaft multitude of
pigeons, of parroquets, of thrufhes, and of blackbirds.
Among the indigenous trees of the country, the
moft remarkable are, the cocoa-nut tree and the bread¬
fruit tree. The woods are alfo filled with guavas, ba¬
nanas, or plantanes of many varieties, citrons, lemons,
and oranges, both fweet and bittej, and the fmall
dwarf thorny china-orange with red fruit. The
caper-bufh abounds in all the Ladrone iflands ; and as
it is conftantly in flower, as well as the citron and
orange fhrubs, with many other of the indigenous
plants, they perfume the air with the moft agreeable
fmells, and delight the eye with the.richeft colours.
The rivers of Guam, which are either rivulets or
torrents,, abound in fifti of an excellent quality s the
Indians, however, eat none of them, but prefer the
inhabitants of the fea. The turtle, which grow here
as large as thofe in the ifland of Afcenfion, are not
eaten either by the Indians or Spaniards-
The cultivated crops lately introduced are, the rice,
the piaize, the indigo, the. cotton, the cocoa, the fu-
gar-cane, which have all fucceeded. That of the
maize, efpecially, is of aftonifhing fertility : it is com¬
mon to find in the fields where this grain is cultivated
plants of twelve feet high, bearing eight or ten fpikes
from nine to ten inches in length, fet round with well-
filled feeds. The gardens are ftored with mangoes
X gad
G U A L 170 ] QUA
Gwamanga and pine-apples. 'The former is one of the fineft fruits
il imaginable : it was brought from Manilla, and may be
Guaranty. eaten ;n great quantity without any bad confequences.
’ —Horfes have been brought to Guam from Manilla,
and affes and mules from Acapulco. The Indians
have been taught to tame and domellicate the ox, and
to employ him in the draught.
This ifland, the land of which rifea gradually from
the fea-lhore towards the centre by a gentle acclivity,
is not very mountainous. The inhabitants fay, that
its foil is equally rich and fertile over the whole ifland,
except in the northern part, which forms a peninfula
almoft deftitute of water. But in the reft, you can¬
not go a league without meeting a rivulet. Upon
penetrating a littje way into the interior part of the
country, to the eaft and the fouth of Agana, many
fprings of fine water are found, forming, at little dif-
tances, bafons of pure water, which, being ftiaded
by thick trees, preferve a moft agreeable coolnefs in
fpite of the heat of the climate.
The indigenous inhabitants are fuch as they w'ere
defcribed by Magellan ; of fmall ftature, fufficiently
ugly, black, and in general dirty, though they are
continually in the water. The women are for the
moft part handfome, wxll made, and of a reddifh co¬
lour. Both fexes have long hair. This fcanty people
have become by civilization gentle, honeft, and hofpi-
table. They have, however, at the fame time acqui¬
red a vice that was unknown to their favage anceftors.
The men are a little addifted to drunkennefs, for they
drink freely of the wine of the cocoa-nut. They love
mafic and dancing much, but labour little. They are
paffionately fond of cock-fighting. On Sundays and
holidays they gather together in crowds after the fer-
vice, at the door of the church; where each Indian
brings his cock to match him with that of his neigh¬
bour, and each bets upon his own.—The million of
Guam is now in the hands of the Auguftine friars, who
have fupplanted the Jefuits. E. Long. 139. 25. N.
Lat. 30. 26.
GUAMANG A, a confiderable town of South A-
merica, and capital of a province of the fame name
in Peru, and in the audience of Lima, with a biftiop’s
lee. It is remarkable for its fwcetmeats, manufactures,
and mines of gold, fflver, loadftone, and quickfilver.
W. Long. 7. 50. S. Lat. 13. o.
GUANUCO, a rich and handfome tovm of South
America, and capital of a diftrift of the fame name in
1 he audience of Lima. W. Long. 72. 55. S. Lat.
9- 55-
GUANZAVELCA, a town of South America,
in Peru, and in the audience of Lima. It abounds
in mines of quickfilver. W. Long. 71. 59. S. Lat.
12. 40.
GUARANTEE, or Warrantee, in law, a term
relative to warrant or warranter, properly fignifying
him whom the warranter undertakes to indemnify or
fecure from damage.
Guarantee is more frequently ufed for a warran¬
ter, or a perfon who undertakes and obliges himfelf
to fee a fecond perfon perform what he has ftipulated
to the tjiird. See Warranty.
GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the engage¬
ment of mediatorial or neutral ftates, whereby they
plight their faith that certain treaties {hall be invio- Guard. ]
lably obferved, or that they will make war againft the v -J
aggreffor.
GUARD, in a general fenfe, fignifies the defence
or prefervation of any thing; the atl of obferving what
pafles, in order to prevent furprife ; or the care, pre¬
caution, and attention, we make ufe of to prevent any
thing from happening contrary to our intentions or
inclinations.
Guard, in the military art, is a duty performed
by a body of men, to fecure an army or place from
being furprifed by an enemy. In garrifon the guards
are relieved every day : hence it comes that every fol-
dier mounts guard once every three or four days in
time of peace, and much oftener in time of war. See
Honours.
Advanced Guard, is a party of either horfe or
foot, that marches before a more confiderable body,
to give notice of any approaching danger. Thefe
guards are either made ftronger or weaker, according
to fituation, the danger to be apprehended from the
enemy, or the nature of the country.
Van Guard. See Advanced Guard.
Artillery Guard, is a detachment from the army
to fecure the artillery when in the field. Their corps
de garde is in the front .of the artillery park, and their
Gentries difperftd round the fame. This is generally
a 48-hours guard ; and upon a march, this guard
marches in the front and rear of the artillery, and
muft be Jure to leave nothing behind : if a gun or
waggon breaks down, the officer that commands
the guard is to leave a fufficient number of men
to affift the gunners and matrofles in getting it up
again.
Artillery Ohiarter-GuARD, is frequently a non com-
miffioned officer’s guard from the royal regiment of
artillery, whofe corps de garde is always in the front
of their incampment.
Artillery Rear-GuARD, confifts in a corporal and fix
men, polled in the rear of the park.
Corps de Garde, are foldiers entrufted with the
guard of a poll, under the command of one or more
officers. This word alfo fignifies the place where the
guard mounts.
Grand Guard; three or four fquadrons of horfe,
commanded by a field-officer, polled at about a mile
or a mile and a half from the camp, on the right and
left wings, towards the enemy, for the better fecurity
of the camp.
Forage Guard, a detachment fent out to fecure
the foragers, and who are polled at all places, where ei¬
ther the enemy’s party may come to difturb the fo¬
ragers, or where they may be fpread too near the
enemy, fo as to be in danger of being taken. This
guard confifts both of horfe and foot, and muft re¬
main on their polls till the foragers are all come off
the ground.
Main Guard, is that from which all other guards
are detached. Thofe who are for mounting guard
a {Terrible at their refpe&ive captain’s quarters, and
march from thence to the parade in good order;
where, after the whole guard is drawn up, the fmall
guards are detached to their refpe&ive polls : then
the fubaltgrns throw lots for their guards, who are ail
under
G U A [ 171 3 G U A
a«»rd. unler the command of the captain of the main guard.
 This guard mounts in garrifon at different hours, ac¬
cording as the governor pieafes.
Piquet Guard, a good number of horfe and foot,
always in readinefs in cafe of an alarm : the horfes
are generally faddled all the time, and the riders
booted.
The foot drawr up at the head of the battalion,
frequently at the beating of the tat-too; but after¬
wards return to their tents, where they hold them-
felves in readinefs to march upoa any hidden alarm.
This guard is to make refiftance in cafe of an attack,
until the army can get ready.
Baggage Guard, is always an officer’s guard, who
has the care of the baggage on a march. The wag-
. gons fhould be numbered by companies, and follow
one another regularly : vigilance and attention in the
paflage of hollow ways, woods, and thickets, muft be
itriitly obferved by this guard.
Quarter Guard, is a fmall guard commanded by a
fubaltern officer, polled in the front of each battalion,
at 222 feet before the front of the regiment.
Rear Guard, that part of the army which brings
up the rear on a march, generally compofed of all the
old grand guards of the camp. The rear-guard of
a party is frequently eight or ten horfe, about 500
paces behind the party. Hence the advance-guard
going out upon a party, form the rear-guard in their
retreat.
Rear Guard, is alfo a corporal’s guard placed in
the rear of a regiment, to keep good order in that part
of the camp.
Standard Guard, a fmall guard under a corporal,
out of each regiment of horfe, who mount on foot in
the front of each regiment, at the ditlance of 20 feet
from the flreets, oppolite the main ftreet.
Trench Guard, only mounts in the time of a fiege,
and fometimes confifts of three, four, or fix battalions,
according to the importance of the fiege. This guard
mull oppofe the befieged when they fally out, protedl
the workmen, &c.
Provojl Guard, is always an officer’s guard that
attends the provoll jn his rounds, either to prevent de¬
fection, marauding, rioting, &c. See Provost.
Guard, in fencing, implies a pollure proper to de¬
fend the body from the fword of the antagonill.
Ordinary Guards, fuch as are fixed during the cam¬
paign, and relieved daily.
Extraordinary Guards, or detachments, which are
only commanded on particular occafions; either for the
further fecurity of the camp, to cover the foragers, or
for convoys, efcorts, or expeditions.
Guards, alfo imply the troops kept to guard the
king’s perfon, and confill both of horfe and foot.
Hor/e Guards, in England, are gentlemen chofen
for their bravery, to be en’trailed with the guard of
1 he king’s perfon ; and were divided into four troops,
called the iji, 2d, ^d, and 4th troop of horfe guards.
The firfi: troop was raifed in the year 1660, and the
command given to lord Gerard ; the fecond in 1661,
and the command given to Sir Philip Howard; the
third in 16^3, and the command given to earl Fever-
fliam ; the fourth in 1792, and the command given to
earl Newburgh. Each troop had one colonel, two
lieutenant colonels, one gornet and major, one guidon
and major, folif-exempts and captains, f our brigadiers GsarJ,
and lieutenants, one adjutant, four fub-brigadiers and v—
cornets, and 60 private men. But the four troops are
now turned into two regiments of life-guards.
Horfe-Grenadier Guards, are divided into two troops,
called the ijland id troops of horfe-grenadier guards. The
firft troop was raifed in 1693, and the command giveiv
to lieutenant-general Cholmondeley; the fecond in
1702, and the command given to lord Forbes. Each
troop has one colonel, lieutenant-colonel, one gui¬
don or major, three exempts and captains, three
lieutenants, one adjutant, three cornets, and 60 pri¬
vate men.
Teamen of the Guard, firft raifed by Henry VII.
in the year 1485. They are a kind of pompous foot-
guards to the king’s perfon ; and are generally called
by a nickname the Beef Eaters. They were anciently
250 men of the firft rank under gentry; and of larger
ftature than ordinary, each being required to be fix
feet high. At prefent there are but too in conftant
duty, and 70 more not on duty; and when any one
of the top dies, his place is fupplied out of the 70.
They go dreffed after the manner of king Henry VII 1’s
time. Their firft commander or captain was the carl
of Oxford, and their pay is 2s. 6d. per day.
Foot Guards, are regiments of foot appointed for
the guard of his majefty and his palace. There are
three regiments of them, called the \fi, 2d, and yl
regiments of foot-guards. They were raifed in the year
1660 ; and the command of the firft given to colonel
Ruffiel, that of the fecond to general Monk, and the
third to the earl of Linlithgow. The firft regiment
is at prefent commanded by one colonel, one lieutenant-
colonel, three majors, 23 captains, one captain-lieu¬
tenant, 31 lieutenants, and 24 enfigns; and contains
three battalions. The fecond regiment has one co¬
lonel, one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, 14 captains,
one captain-lieutenant, 18 lieutenants, 16 enfigns; and
contains only two battalions. The third regiment is
the fame as the fecond.
The French Guards are divided into thofe within,
and thofe without, the palace.—The firft are the
gardes du corps, or body-guards ; which confift of four
companies, the firft. of which companies was anciently
Scots. See Scots Guards, infra.
The guards without are the Gens d'Annes, light hprfe,
mufqueteers, and two other regiments, the one of which
is French and the other Swifs.
New arrangements, however, have taken place in
this department as well as others fince the late revolu¬
tion.
Scots Guards ; a celebrated band, which formed the
firft company of the ancient gardes du corps of France.
It happened from the ancient intercourfe between
France and Scotland, that the natives of the latter king¬
dom had often ditlinguiftied themfelves in the fervice of
the former. On this foundation the company of.Scots
guardes, and the company of Scots gendarmes, were in-
llituted.—Both of them owed their inftitution to
Charles VII. of France, by whom the firft ftanding
army in Europe was fonqed, anno 1454; and their
fates cannot but be ipterefting to Scotfmen. See
Gendarmes.
Valour, honour,- and fidelity, muft have been very
confpicuous features of the national character of the
X ? Scots,
G 0 A r *72 ] G U A
Guard. Scots, when fo great and civilized a people as the France. Attempts were made to re-eftablith them Guard,
French could be induced to choofe a body of them, on their ancient foundation ; but no negociation for Guardian,
foreigners as they were, for guarding the perfons of this purpofe was effectual. The troops of France * J
their fovereigns.—Of the particular occafion and rea- grew jealous of the honours paid them : the death
fons of this prediledlion, we have a recital by Louis XII. of Francis II. and the return of Mary to Scotland, *
a fucceeding monarch. After fetting forth the fervices at a time when they had much to hope, were unfor- ' »•*
which the Scots had performed for Charles VII. in tunate circumftances to them: the changeofreli-
expelling the Englifh out of France, and reducing the gibn in Scotland, was an additional' blow : and the
kingdom to his obedience, he adds—“ Since which acceffion of James VI. to the throne of England, dif-
H\Jl. of redu&ion, and for the fervice of the Scots upon that united altogether the interefts of France and Scotland,
Louis XII. occafion, and for the great loyalty and virtue which he The Scots guards of France had therefore, latterly, no
by Claud foun(} Jn them, he fele&ed zoo of them for the guard connexion with Scotland but the name.
Iter of re-" °f his perfon, of whom he made an hundred men at GujRD-Boat, a boat appointed to-row- the rounds
quells to arms, and an hundred life-guards: And the hundred amongft; the (hips of war which are laid up. in any
that prince, men at arms are the hundred lances of our ancient or- harbour, &c. to otferve that their officers-keep a-good'
dinances; and the life guard men are thofe of our looking-out, calling to the guard-boat as fhe paffes, and
guard, who Hill are near and about our perfon.”—As not fuffering her crew to come on board, without ha-
to their fidelity in this honourable ftation ; the hifto- ving previoufly communicated the watch-word' of the
rian, fpeaking of Scotland, fays, “ The French have night.
fo ancient a friendlhip and alliance with the Scots, that GvART>-Ship, a veffel of war appointed to fuper-
of 400 men appointed for the king’s life-guard, there intend the marine affairs in a harbour or river, and to-
are an hundred of the faid nation who are the neared fee that the fhips which are not commiffioned have
to his perfon, and in the night keep the keys of the their proper watchward kept duly, by fending her
apartment where he deeps. There are, moreover, an guard-boats around them every night. She is alfo to
hundred complete lances and two hundred' yeomen of receive feamen who are impreffed in the time of war.
the faid nation, befides feveral that are difperfed thro’ GUARDIAN, in law, a perfon who has the charge
the companies : And for fo long a time as they have of any thing ; but more commonly it fignifies one who
ferved in France, never hath there been one of them has the cudody and education of fuch pexfons as have
found that hath committed or done any fault againd not fufficient diferetion to take care of themfelves and
the kings or their date; and they make ufe of them as their own affairs, as children and ideots.
6f their own fubjefts.” Their buffnefs is to take the profits, of the minor’s
The ancient rights and privileges of the Scottifli lands to his ufe, and to account for the fame: they
life-guards were very honourable ; efpecially of the ought to fell all moveables within a reafonable time,
twenty-four fird. The author of the Ancient Alii- and to convert them into land or money, except the
ance fays, “ On high holidays, at the ceremony of minor is near of age, and may want fuch things him-
the royal touch, the ere&ion of knights of the king’s felf; and they are to pay intered for the money in
order, the reception of extraordinary ambaffadors, and their hands, that might have been fo placed out ; in
the public entries of cities, there mud be fix of their which cafe it will be prefumed that the guardians made
number next to the king’s perfon, three on each fide; ufe of it themfelves. They are to fudain the lands of
and the body of the king mud be carried by thefe the heir, without making dedru&ion of any thing
only, wherefoever ceremony requires. They have the thereon, and to keep it fafely for him : if they corn-
keeping of the keys of the king’s lodging at night, the mit wade on the lands, it is a forfeiture of the guardi-
keeping of the choir of the chapel, the keeping the anfhip, 3 Edw. I. And where perfons, as guardians,
boats where the king paffes the rivers ; and they have hold over any land, without the confent of the perfon
the honour of bearing the white filk fringe in their who is next intitled, they Ihall be adjudged trefpaf-
arms, which in France is the coronne coleur. The keys fers, and diall be accountable ; 6 Ann. cap. xviii.
of all the cities where the king makes his entry are Guardian, or Warden, of the Cinque ports, is an of-
given to their captain in waiting or out of waiting, ficer who has the jurifdidtion of the cinque-ports, w-ith
We has the privilege, in waiting or out of waiting, at all the power that the admiral of England has in other
ceremonies, fuch as coronations, marriages, and fu- places.
nerals of the kings, and at the baptifm and marriage Camden relates, that the Romans, after they had
of their children, to take duty upon him. The coro- fettled themfelves and their empire in our ifland, ap-
nation-robe belongs to him: and this company, by the pointed a magiftrate, or governor, over the eaft parts,
death or change of a captain, never changes its rank, where the Cinque-ports lie, with the title of edmes Uto-
a& do the three others.” ris Saxoniciper Britanniam; having another, who bore
This company’s firft commander, who is recorded the like title, on the oppofite fide of the fea. Their
as a perfon of great valour and military accomplifh- bufinefs was to ftrengthen the fea-coaft with munition,
ments, was Robert Patillock, a native of Dundee; againft the outrages and robberies of the barbarians; and
and the band, ever ardent to diftinguifh itfelf, Conti- that dntiquary takes our warden of the Cinque-ports
nued in great reputation till the year 1578. From to have been erefted in imitation thereof. The war-’
that period, the Scots guards were lefs attended to, denlhip is a place of value, fuppofed worth L. 7000
and their privileges came to be invaded. In the year per annum.
1612, they remonftrated to Louis XIII. on the fub- Guardian of the Spiritualities, the perfon to whom
jeft of the injuftice they had fuffered, and fet before the fpiritual jurifdi&ion of any diocefe is committed,
him the fervices they had rendered to the crown of during the time the fee is vacant. A guardian of the
¥
G U A [ 173 ] G U A
'Guarea fpmtualities may likewife be either {uch In law, as the merica, in New Spain; and capital of a government Gautimala
archbilhop is of any diocefe within'his province; or of the fame name, with a biflrop’s fee, and an univer- H
‘ Pa-'ma a’ by delegation, as he whom the archbifhop or vicar*- fity. It carries on a great trade, efpecially in choco- GudSeonv
general for the time appoints. Any fuch guardian late. W. Long. 91. 30. N. Lat. 14. o. v
* has power to hold courts, grant licences, difpenfations, Gautimala (the Volcano of), is a mountain, which
* probates of wills, &c. throws out fire and fmoke. St Jago de Gautimala
GUAREA,in botany : A genus of the monogynia was almoft. ruined by it in 1541. It was. afterwards
order, belonging to the oftandria clafs of plants. The rebuilt at a good diftance from this dreadful mountain,
calyx is quadrifid ; the petals four; the nedlarium cy-. A few years ago, however, it was again deftroyed,
lindric, having the antherae in its mouth; the capfule with circumftances more terrible perhaps than any
is quadrilocular and quadrivalvular ; the feeds folitary. mentioned in hiftory.
GUARINI (Battifia), a celebrated Italian poet, GUAVA, in botany. See Psidium.
born at Ferrara, in 1538. He was great-grandfon to GUAXACA, a province of North- America, in
Guarino of Verona, and was fecretary to Alphdnfo New Spain, which is very fertile in wheat, Indian
Duke of Ferrara, who intruded him with feveral im- corn, cochineal, and caffia. It is bounded by the
portant commiffions. After the death of that prince, gulph of Mexico on the north, and by the fouth feaon
he was fucceffively fecretary to Vircenzio de Gonza- the fouth. It contains mines of gold, filver, and crydal.
ga, to Ferdinand de Medicis grand duke of Tufca- Guaxaca is the capital town.
ny, and to Francis Maiia de Feltri duke of Urbino. Guaxaca, a town of North America-, in1 the Au*
But the only advantages he reaped under thefe various dience of Mexico; and capital of a province of the
maders, were great encomiums on his wit and compofi- fame name, with a bifhop’s fee. It is without walls,
tions. He was well acquainted with polite literature ; and does not contain above 2GO0 inhabitants ; but it
and acquired immortal reputation by his Italian poems, is rich, and they make very fine fweet-meats and cho-
efpecrally by his Pajlor Fido, the mod known and ad- colate. It has feveral rich convents, both for men and
mired of all his works, and of which there have been women. W. Long. too. N. Lat. 17. 45.
innumerable editions and tranflations. He died in GUAYRA, a didritt of the province of La Pla-
i'6\2. ta, in South America, having Braiil on the ead, and
GUARDI A, or Guard a, a town of Portugal, in Paraguay on the wed.
the province of Beira, with a bifhop’s fee. It con- GUBEN, a handfome town of Germany, in Low-
tains about 2300 inhabitants, is fortided both by art er Lufatia, featedon the river hJeifie, and belonging to
and nature, and has a dately cathedral. W. Long. 5. the houfe of Sax-Merfenburg. E. 14. 59. N. Lat.
17. N. Lat. 40. 20. 51. 55.
Guardi a-Jllfere%, a town of Italy, in the kingdom GUBER, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland. It
of Naples, and in the Contado-di-Molife, with a.hi- is furrounded with high mountains; and the tillages,
{hop’s fee. E. Long. 15. 53. N. Lat. 51. 50. which are many, are inhabited by people who are em-
GUARGALA, or Guerguela, a town of A- ployed in taking care of their cattle and Iheep.' There
frica, and capital of a fmall kingdom of the fame name, are alfo abundance of artificers, and linen-weavers,
in Biledulgerid, to the fouth of Mount Atlas. E. Long, who fend their commodities to Tombuto. The whole
9. 55. N. Lat. 28. o. country is overflowed every year by the inundations of
GUARIBA, in natural hifiory, the name of a fpe- the Niger, and at that time the inhabitants fow their
cies of monkey found in the Wed Indies. See Simia. rice. There is one town which contains almod 6000
GUASTALLA, a drong town of Italy, in the families, among whom are many merchants,
duchy of Mantua, with the title of a duchy, remark- GUBIO, a town of Italy, in the territory of the
able for a battle between the French and Imperialids church, and in the'duchy of Urbino, with a bifliop’s
in 1734. It was ceded to the duke of Parma in fee. E. Long. 12. 41. N. Lat. 43. 18.
1748, by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle. It is feated GUDGEON, in ichthyology; afpeciesofcypri-
near the river Po, in E. Long. 10. 33. N. Lat. 44. 55. nus. See Cyprinus.
GUATIMALA, the Audirn'cr of, in North A- This fidi, though fmall, is of.fo pleafant a tade,
merica, and in New Spain, is above 750 miles in that it is very little inferior to fmelt. They fpawn
length, and 450 in breadth. It abounds in chocolate, twice in the fummer-feafon; and their feeding is much
which they make ufe of indead of money. It has 12 like the barbels in ifefeams and on gravel, flighting all
pi evinces under it: and the native Americans, under banner of flies: but they are eafily taken with a fmall
the dominions of Spain, profefs Chridianity ; but it red worm, filhing near the ground; and being a leather-
is mixed with a great many of their own fuperditions. mouthed filh, will not eafily get off the hook when
There is a great chain of high mountains, which run druck.—The gudgeon may be filhed for with float,
acrofs it from E. to W. and it isfubjeft to earthquakes the hook being on the ground; or by hand, with a
and dorms. It is however very fertile; and produces, running line on the ground, without cork or float,
befides chocolate, great quantities of cochineal and But although the fmall red worm above mentioned is
cotton- the bed bait for this fiih, yetwafps, gentles, and cad-
Guatimala, a province of North America, in baits will do very well. You may alfo filh for gudgeons
New Spain, and in the Audience of the fame name ; with two or three hooks at once, and find very pica-
bounded on the W. by Soconjufco, on the N. by Ve- fant fport, where they rife any thing large. When
rapaz and Honduras, on the E. by Nicaragua, and you angle for them, dir up the fand or gravel with a
on the S. by the fouth fea. _ St Jago de Guatimala is long pole ; this will make them gather to that place,
the capital of the whole audience. bite fader, and with more eagernefs.
Guatimala, a large and rich town of North A- Sea-GuDCEQN, Rod-f/h, or Blaih Goby. See Gobius.
GUE,'
G U E [ 1-7.
GTJEBRES, or Gabres. See Gabres.
GUELPHS, or Guelfs, a celebrated faftion in
Italy, antagonifts of the Gibelins. See Gibelins.
The guelphs and Gibelins filled Italy with blood
and carnage for many years. The Guelphs flood for
the Pope, againft the emperor. Their rife is referred
by fame to the time of Conrad III. in the twelfth
century ; by others, to that of Frederic I.; and by o-
thers, to that of his fuccefibr Frederic II. in the thir¬
teenth century.
The name of Guelph commonly faid to have been
formed from Welfe, or Welfo, on the following occafion:
the emperor Conrad III. having taken the duchy of
Bavaria from Welfe VI. brother of Henry duke of
Bavaria, Welfe, aflifted by the forces of Roger king
of Sicily, made war on Conrad, and thus gave birth
to the faction of the Guelfs.
Others derive the name Guelfs from the German
Wolff, on account of the grievous evils committed by
that cruel faftion : others ■ deduce the denomination
from that of a German called who lived at Pi-
ftoye ; adding, that his brother, named Gibel, gave
his name to the Gibelins. See the article G'belins.
GUELDERLAND, one of the united provinces,
bounded on the W. by Utrecht and Holland, on the
E. by the biihopriek of Munfter and the duchy of
Gleves, on the N. by the Zuyder fea and Overyffel,
and on the S. it is feparated from Brabant by the
Maes. Its greateft extent from N. to S. is about 47
miles, and from W. to E. near as much ; but its figure
■is very irregular. The air here is much healthier and
clearer than in the maritime provinces, the land lying
higher. Excepting fome part of what is called the
Veluwe, the foil is fruitful. It is watered by the Rhine,
and its three branches, the Wahal, the Yffel, and the
Leek, befides leffer ftreams. In 1079, it was railed to a
county by the emperor Henry IV. and in 133910 a
duchy by the emperor Louis of Bavaria. It had
dukes of its own till 1528, when it was yielded up to
the emperor Charles V. In 1579, it acceded to the
union of Utrecht. It is divided into three diftridtr,
each of which has its ftates and diets. Thofe for the
whole province are held twice a-year at the capital
towns. The province fends 19 deputies to the ftates-
general. Here are computed 285 Calvinift minifters,
14 Roman Catholic congregations, 4 of the Lutheran
perfuafion, befides 3 others of Romonftrants and Ana-
baptifts. The places of moil note are Nimeguen,
Zutphen, Arnheim, Harderwyk, Loo, See.
GUELDRES, a ftrong town of the Netherlands,
in the duchy of the fame name. It was ceded to the
king of Pruflia by the peace of Utrecht, and is feated
among marfhes. E. Long. 6. 21. N. Lat. 51. 30.
GUERCINO. See Barbieri.
GUERICKE, or Guericke, (Otho), the moil
celebrated mathematician of his time, was born in
1602. He was the inventor of the air pump ; and
author of feveral works in natural philofophy, the
chief of which is Expermenta Magdeburgka. He
died in 1686.
GUERNSEY, an ifland in the Engliih channel,
on the coaft of Normandy, fubjedl to Britain ^ but (as
well as the adjacent iflands) governed by its own laws.
See Jersey. It extends from eaft to weft in the form
of a harp, and is thirteen miles and a half from the
4. ] GUI
fouth-weft to north-eaft, and twelve and a half, where
broadeft, from eaft to weft. The air is very healthy,
and the foil naturally more rich and fertile than that
of Jerfey ; but the inhabitants negledl the cultivation
of the land for the fake of commerce : they are, how¬
ever, fufficiently fupplied with corn and cattle, both
for their own ufe and that of their Ihips. The ifland
is well fortified by nature with a ridge of rocks, one
of which abounds with emery, ufed by lapidaries in the
poliihing of ftones, and by various other artificers.
Here is a better harbour than any in Jerfey, which
occafions its being more refdrted toby merchants; and
on the fouth-fide the fhore bends in the form of a cref-
cent, enclofing a bay capable of receiving very large
fliips. The ifland is full of gardens and orchards ;
whence cyder is fo plentiful, that the common people
ufe it inftead of fmall beer, but the more wealthy drink
French wine.
GUETTARDA, in botany: A genus of thehep-
tandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or¬
der, Tncocca. The male calyx is cylindrical; the co¬
rolla cleft into feven parts, and funnel-ftiaped. The
female calyx cylindrical; the corolla cleft into feven
parts ; one piftil, and the fruit a dry plum.
GUIANA, a large country of South America, is
bounded on the eaft and north by the Atlantic ocean,
and the river Oroonoko; on the fouth, by the river
of the Amazons ; and on the weft, by the provinces
of Grenada and New-Andalulia, in Terra-Firma, from
which it is feparated both on the weft and north by
the river Oroonoko. It extends above 1 200 miles
from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft, that is, from
the mouth of the river Oroonoko to the mouth of the
river of Amazons, and near 600 in the contrary di-
rediion.
Moft geographers divide it into two parts, calling
the country along the coaft Carrilbeano Proper, and
the interior country Guiana Proper: the laft is alfo
ftyled El Dorado by the Spaniards, on account of the
immenfe quantity of gold it is fuppofed to contain.
The Portuguefe, French, and Dutch, have all
fettlements along the coaft. What lies fouth of Cape
North belongs to the firft of thefe nations; the coaft
between Cape North and Cape Orange is polfefled by
the natives; French Guiana, Old Cayenne, or Equi-
nodtial France, extends from Cape Orange, about
240 miles along the coaft, to the river Marani; where
the Dutch territory begins, and extends to the mouth
of the Oroonoko.
Along the coaft, the land is low, marfliy, and fub-
je£i to inundations in the rainy feafon, from a multi¬
tude of rivers which defeend from the inland moun¬
tains. Hence it is, that the atmofphere is fufFocating,
hot, moift, and unhealthful, efpecially where the
woods have not been cleared away. Indeed, the Eu¬
ropeans are forced to live in the moft difagreeable ii-
tuations, and fix their colonies at the mouths of the
rivers, amic\ft (linking matfhes, and the putrid ooze
of fait moraffes, for the conveniency of exportation
and importation.
“ Dutch Guiana (according to an account lately
publifhed by a gentleman who refided feveral years at
Surinam as a phyfician) was firft difeovered by Co¬
lumbus in 1498. It lies between the 70 of north
and
GUI [ i
and the J5 of fouth latitude, and between the 533 and
6o° of longitude weft from London. It is bounded
on the north and call, by the Atlantic ; on the weft,
by the rivers Oroonoko and Negroe ; and on the foutb,
by the river of Amazons.
“ It is now divided between the Spaniards, Dutch,
French, and Portuguefe ; but, except its fea-coaft,
and lands adjacent to its rivers, it has hitherto re¬
mained unknown to all but its original natives ; and
even of thefe, it is only the Dutch territories that
foreigners have any knowledge of; for thofe of the
Spaniards, French, and Portuguefe, are inaccefiible
to them.
“ This country, on account of the diverfity and fer¬
tility of its foil, and of its vicinity to the equator,
which paftes through it, affords almoft all the pro¬
ductions of the different American countries between
the tropics, befides a variety peculiar to itfelf.”
Dutch Guiana was formerly the property of the
Englifti, who made fettlements at Surinam, where a
kind of corrupt Englifti is ftill fpoken by the negroes.
The Dutch took it in the reign of Charles the Second;
and it was ceded to them by a treaty in 1674, in ex¬
change for what they had poffeffed in the province
now called New York.
The land for 50 miles up the country from the fea-
coaft is flat ; and, during the rainy feafons, covered
two feet high with water. This renders it inconcei¬
vably fertile, the earth, for 12 inches deep, being a
ftratum of perfeft manure : an attempt was once made
to carry fome of it to Barbadoes ; but the wood-ants
fo much injured the veffel, that it was never repeated.
The exceffive richnefs of the foil is a difadvantage,
for the canes are too luxuriant to make good fugar ;
and therefore, during the firll and ftcOnd crop, are
converted into rum.
There are fome trees on this part; but they are
fmall and low, confifting chiefly of a fmall fpccies of
palm, intermixed with a leaf near 30 feet long and
three feet wide, which grows in clufters, called a
Troxlie; and, at the edges of running-water, with
mangroves.
Farther inward the country rifes; and the foil,
though ftill fertile, is lefs durable. It is covered with
forefts of valuable timber, that are always green ; and
there are fome fandy hills, though no mountains; in
the French territories, however, there are mountains,
according to the report of the Indians, for they have
never been vifited by any other people.
In this country the heat is feldom difagreeable:
the trade-winds by day, the land breezes in the even¬
ing, and the invariable length of the nights, with
gentle dews, refrefh the air, and render it temperate
and falubrious. There are two wet feafons and two
dry, of three months each, in every year ; and, du¬
ring more than a month in each wet feafon, the rain
is inceffant. The dry feafons commence fix weeks
before the equinoxes, and continue fix weeks after.
The wet feafons are more wholefome than the dry,
becaufe the rains keep the waters that cover the low
lands, next the fea, frelh and in motion ; but during
the dry i'eafon it ftagnates, and, as it waftes, becomes
putrid, lending up very unwholefome exhalations.
Bloffoms, green and ripe fruit, are. to he found upon
the fame tree in every part of the year. There arc
75 1 G u r.
fome fine white and red agates in Guiana, which re¬
main untouched ; and mines of gold and filver, which
the Dutch will not fuffer to be wrought.
The inhabitants of Guiana are either natives, who
are of a reddifti brown ; or negroes and Europeans ; or
a mixed progeny of thefe in various combinations.
The natives are divided into different tribes, more or
lefs enlightened and poliihed, as they are more or lefs
remote from the fettlements of the Europeans. They
allow polygamy, and have no divifion of lands. The
men go to war, hunt, and fifti; and the women look
after domeftic concerns, fpin, weave in their faftrion,
and manage the planting ofcaffava and manive, the only
things which in this country are cultivated by the
natives. Their arms are bows and arrows ; (harp poi-
foned arrows, blown through a reed, which they ufe
in hunting ; and clubs made of a heavy wood called
Iron-wood. They eat the dead bodies of thofe that
are flaiu in war ; and fell for (laves thofe they take
prifoners ; their wars being chiefly undertaken to fur-
nifli the European plantations. All the different
tribes go naked. On particular occaiions they wear
caps of feathers ; but, as pold is wholly unknown, they
cover no part but that which diftinguifhes the fex.
They are cheerful, humane, and friendly ; but timid,
except when heated by liquor, and drunkennefs is a
very common vice among them.
Their houfes confift of four (lakes fet up in a qua¬
drangular form, with crofs poles, bound together by
flit nibbees, and covered with the large leaves called
trollies. Their life is ambulatory ; and their houfe,
which is put up and taken down in a few hours, is
all they have to carry with them. When they remove
from place to place, which, as they inhabit the banks
of rivers, they do by water in fmall canoes, a few
veffds of clay made by the women, a flat ftone on
which they bake their bread, and a rough ftone on
which they grate the roojs of the caffava, a hammock
and a hatchet, are all their furniture and utenfils ;
moil of them, however, have a bit of looking-glafs
framed in paper, and a comb.
Their poifoned arrows arc made, of fplinters of a
hard heavy wood, called cacario ; they are- about 12
inches long, and fomewhat thicker than a coarfe knit¬
ting needle : one end is formed into a (harp point;
round the other is wound fome cotton, to make it (it
the bore of the reed through which it is to be blown.
They will blow thefe arrows 40 yards with abfolute
certainty of hitting the mark, and with force enough
to draw blood, which is certain and immediate death.
Agarnft this poifon no antidote is known. The In¬
dians hever ufe thefe poifoned arrows in war, but in
hunting only, and chiefly againft the monkies; the
flefh of an animal thus killed may be fafely eaten, and
even the poifon itfelf fwallowed with impunity.
GUIAQUIL, a town,.bay; and harbour of South-
America, in Peru, and capital of an audience of the
fame name. W. Long, 76-. 55. S. Lat. 2. o.
G.UIARA, a fea-port town of South America,,
and on the Caracca coaft. The Englifti attempted
to take it in 1739 and *74-3 5 hut they were repulfed
both times. W. I.ong. 66. 5. N. Lat. 10. 35.
GUICCIARDINI (Francifco), a celebrated hi.
dorian, born at Florence in 1482. He profeffed the
civil law with reputation, and was employed in feve-
4 ^ ‘ rah
G U rl [ !7<5 ] GUI
OuJeehr-
ral embafiies. Leo X. gave him the government of the holy places they were alfo to afilft them in cafe Guierne,
Modena and Reggio, and Clement VII. that of Ro- they .fell.fick, and to perform the iaft offices to them GuiUncKiot.
mngna and Bologna. Guicciardini was alfo lieute- in cafe they died. —-y-w
nant-general of the pope’s army, and diftinguilhed GUILNNE, the.largeft province of France, bound-
himfelf by his bravery on feveral occafionsj but Paul ed on the north by Saintogne, Angoumois, and Li¬
lli. having taken from him the government of Bo- mofm ; on the eaft by Limofin, Auvergne, and Lan-
jogna, he retired to Florence, where he was made guedoc.j on the fouth by the Pyrenees, Lower Na-
counfellor of ftate, and was of great fervice to the varre, and Bearn ; and on the weft by the ocean,
houfe of Medicis, He at length retired into the It is about 325 miles in.length, and ,2QO in breadth,
country to write his hiftory of Italy, which he com- It is divided into the Upper and Lower. The Upper
pofed in Italian, and which comprehends what paf- comprehends Cluerci, Rouergue, Armagnac, the terri-
fed from the year 149410 1^32. This hiftory is tory of Comminges, and the county of Bigorre. The
greatly efteemed ; and was continued by John Baptift Lower contains Bourddois, Perigord, Agenois, Con-
Adriani, his friend. He died in 1540. domois, Bazadots, the Lander, Proper Gafcony, and
Guicciardini (Lewis)., his nephew, eompofed a the diftrid; of Labour, The principal rivers are, the
hiftory..of the Low Countries, and memoirs of the Garonne, the Adour, the Tarn, the Aveiren, and the
pffairs of Europe, from 1530 to 1560, .He-wrote Lot. Bourdeaux is the capital town,
with great fpirit againft the perfecution of the duke GUILANUINA, the nickar tree: A genusof
d’Alva, foi-.which he imprifoned him, Died in 15the monogynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs
GUIDES* fn military language, are ufually the of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
country people in the neighbourhood of an encamp- the 33d qt&zy, Lomenlacee. The calyx is monophyl-
ment 5 who give the army intelligence concerning the lous and falver-ihapedj the petals, inferted into the
country, the roads by which they are to march, and neck of the calyx, nearly equal. The feed-veflel a le*
the probable route of the enemy. gumen,
GUIDI (Alexander), an eminent Italian poet, Speeks- I. The bonduc, or yellow nickar. 2. The
born at pavia in 1650- Having a dtfire to fee Rome, bonducella, or gray nickar. Tliefe are climbing plants,
he there attrafted the notice of queen Chriftina qf natives of the Weft Indies, where they rife to the height
Sweden, who retained him at her court 5 he befide of twelve or fourteen feet: the flowers come out at
obtained a confiderable benefice from pope Inno- the wings of the ftalks; and are compofed of five con¬
cent XL and a penfion from the duke of Parma, cave yellow petals. They are fueceeded by pods
For a good office he did the,ftate of Milan with prince about three inches long and two broad, daftly armed
Eugene, he was enrolled among the nobles and de* with flender fpinea, opening with 'two valves, each
curiong of that town j and died in 1712. Nature had inclofing two hard feeds about the fize of childrens
been kinder to bis intdleftg than to hia exterior form.} marbles, of a yeilowifh colour. 3. The moringa, or
bis body was fmall and crooked, his head was large, morunga nickar, is a native of the. iftand of Ceylon,
• and he was blind of his right eye. A colledion of and fome places on the Malabar coaft. It rifes to the
bis works was publifbed at Verona in 17.24, height of 25 or 30 feet, having flowers produced in
GUIDO Aretin, Bee Aretin, joafe bunches from the fide of the branches, and com-
Gumo (Reni), an illuftrious Italian painter, born pofed of an unequal number of petals,
at Bologna in 1595- In his early age he was the Culture and Ufet, Thefe plants being natives of
difcip!e;of Denis Calvert, a Elemifti mafter of good warm climates, require to be kept through the winter
reputation 1 but afterwards entered himfelf in the in a ftove in this country. They are propagated by
fchopl of the Caracci, He firft Imitated Ludo- feeds 5 but thofe of the firft fort are fo hard, that
vico Cajacci} but fixed at laft in a peculiar ftyle of unJefs they are foaked two or three days in water be-
bis own, that fecured him the applaufe of his own fore they are put into the ground, or placed under
dime and the admiration of pofterity, He was much the pots in the tan-bed to (often their covers, they
honoured, and lived in fplendor.: but an unhappy at- will remain for years without vegetating.—The roots
tachment to gaming ruined his cireumftanqes 5 the of the third fort are feraped .when young, and ufed
reflexion of which brought on . 9 languilhing diforder, by the inhabitants of Ceylon and Malabar as thofe of
that put an end to hie life in 11542, There are feve- horfe-radiftt are in Europe, The wood dytg a beauti-
ral defigns pf this great mafter in print, etched by ful .blue colour, It is the ilgmm nephriticum, at nepbri-
bimfelf tic wood, of the difpenfatories { and is brought over in
GUIDON, a fort of flag or ftandard borne by the large, compaif!, ponderous pieces, without knots, of a .
king’s life-guard s being broad at one extreme, and al- whitffh or pale yellow colour on the ontfide, and dark
moil pointed at the other, and flit or divided into coloured or reddilh within : the bark ia ufually rejed-
two. The guidon i@ the enfign or flag of a troop of ed. This wood imparts to water or redified fptrit a
horfe-guardg, Bee Guard. deep tindure > appearing, v/ben placed between the
Guioox alfo denotes the officer who bears the gui- eye and the light, of a gulden colour 1 in -other fitua-
don, The guidon is that in the horfe-guards which tions blue s pieces of another wood arc fometimes mix-
the enfign is in the foot, The guidon of a troop of ed with it, which give only a yellow colour to water.
; horfe takes place next below the cornet. The nephritic wood has fcarce any fmell, and very lit-
Guidons, gvirfom, or fchofo gui donum, was a com* tie tafte. It Hands recommended in difficulty of urine,
pany of priefts eftabliflied by Charlemagne, at Rome, .nephritic complaints, and all diforders of the kidneya
.to condud and .guide pilgrims to Jerufakm, to vifft and urinary paffages.} and is faid to have this peculiar
_ adxaa*
GUI '[ 177 ] GUI
Guild advantage, that it does not, like the wanner diuretics,
t II heat or offend the parts. Praftitioners, however, have
■Guildford. not foun(j thefe virtues warranted by experience.
GUILD, (from the Saxonguildan, to “ pay”), fig-
nifies a fraternity or company, becaufe every one was
gildare, i. e. to pay fomething towards the charge
and fupport of the company. As to the original
of thefe guilds or companies: It was a law among the
Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years of age
Ihould find fureties to keep the peace, or be commit¬
ted : upon which certain neighbours, confifting of ten
families, enter into an affociation, and became bound
for each other, either to produce him who committed
an offence, or to make fatisfattion to the injured par¬
ty : that they might the better do this, they raifed a
fum of money among themfelves, which they put into
a common flock ; and when one of their pledges had
committed an offence, and was fled, then the other nine
made fatisfa&ion out of this flock, by payment of mo¬
ney, according to the offence. Becaufe this affociation
confifted of ten families, it was called a decennary: and
from hence came out later kinds of fraternities. But
as to the precife time when thefe guilds had their ori¬
gin in England, there is nothing of certainty to be
found ; fince they were in ufe long before any formal
licence was granted to them for fuch meetings. It
feems to have been about the clofe of the eleventh cen¬
tury, fays Anderfon, in his Hiftory of Commerce, vol. i.
p. 70, that merchant-guilds, "or fraternities, which
were afterwards ftyled corporations, came firft into ge¬
neral ufe in many parts of Europe. Mr Madox, in his
Firma Burgi, chap. i. § 9. thinks, they were hardly
known to our Saxon progenitors, and that they might
be probably brought into England by the Normans ;
although they do not feem to' have been very nume¬
rous in thofe days. The French and Normans might
probably borrow them from the free cities of Italy,
where trade and manufactures were much earlier pro¬
pagated, and where pofiibly fuch communities were firft
in ufe. Thefe guilds are now companies joined to¬
gether, with laws and orders made by themlelves, by
the licence of the prince.
Guild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is ftill
ufed for a company of merchants, who are freemen of
the'borough. See Borough.
Every royal borough has a dean of guild, who is
the next magiftrate below the bailiff. He judges of
controverfies among men concerning trade ; dilutes
between inhabitants touching buildings, lights, water-
courfes, and other nuifances ; calls courts, at which
his brethren of the guild are bound to attend j ma¬
nages the common flock of the guild; and amerces and
colle&s fines.
Guild, Gild, or Geld, is alfo ufed among our anci¬
ent writers, for a compenfation or muldx for a fault
committed.
Guild-Hall, or Gild-Hall, the great court of judi¬
cature for the city of London. In it are kept the
mayor’s court, the fheriff’s court, the court of huft-
ings, court of confcience, court of common council,
chamberlain’s court, &c. Here alfo the judges fit
upon nifi prius, &c.
GUILDFORD, or Guldeford, a borough-town
of Surry, fituated on the river Wye, thirty-one miles
fouth-weft of London. Near it are the ruinous walls
Vol.VIII. Parti.
of an old caftle, this having been in the Saxon times Guildford
a royal villa, where many of our kings ufed to pafs the Gu|Jiea
feftivals. Here is a corporation confifting of a mayor,. uinea‘,
recorder, alderman, &c. which fent members to parlia¬
ment ever fince parliament had a being. The great
road from London to Chichefter and Portfmouth lies
through this town, which has always been famous for
good inns, the cleaneft of linen, and other excellent
accommodations ; and the aflizes are often held here.
Its manufactory formerly was cloth, of which there are
ftill fome fmall remains. Here is a fchooi founded by
king Edward VI. alfo an almfhoufe endowed with
lands worth 3001. a-year, of which tool, to be em¬
ployed in fetting the poor at work, and the other 2001.
for the maintenance of a matter, x 2 brethren, and 8
fifters, who are to have 2 s. 6d. a-week. There are,
befides, two charity fchools for 30 boys and 20 girls.
There were three churches in this town, but one of
them fell down in April 1740. There is a fine circu¬
lar courfe for horfe-matches, which begin when the
Newmarket races are ended. King William III. found¬
ed a plate of too guineas to be run for here every May,
and ufed to honour the race with his prefence, as did
once king George I. The river Wey is made navigable
to the town, and by it a great quantity of timber is
carried to London, not only from this neighbourhood,
but from Suffex and Hampfhire woods, above 30 miles
off, from whence it is brought hither in the fummer by
land carriage. This navigation is alfo of great fupport
to Farnham market, corn bought there being brought
to the mills on this river within feven miles diftance,
and, after being ground and dreffed, is fent down in
barges to London. The road from hence to Farnham
is very remarkable, for it runs along upon the ridge of
a high chalky hill, called St Catharine's, no wider than
the road itfelf, from whence there is an extenfive pro-
fpeft, viz. to the N. and N. W. over Bagfliot-Heath,
and the other way into Suffex, and almoft to the
South Downs. The town fends two members to par¬
liament ; and gives title of earl to the North family.
GUILLEMOT, in ornithology. See Colymbus.
GUILLIM, (John), of Welfh extraction, was bom
in Herefordfhire, about the year 1565. Having
completed his education at Brazen-nofe college, Ox¬
ford, he became a member of the college of arms in
London; and was made rouge croix purfuivant, in
which poll he died in 1621. He publifhed, in 1610,
a celebrated work, intitled the Difplay of Heraldry,
folio, which has gone through many editions. To the
fifth, which came out in 1679, was added A treatife
of honour civil and military, by captain John Loggan.
GUINEA, a large traCl of country lying on the
weft fide of the continent of Africa, extends along the
coaft three or four thoufand miles, beginning at the
river Senegal, fituated about the 17th degree of north
latitude (being the neareft part of Guinea as well to
Europe as to North America). From that river to the
river Gambia, and in a foutherly courfe.to Cape Sierra
Leona, is comprehended a coaft of about 700 miles ;
being the fame traCt for which Queen Elizabeth grant¬
ed charters to the firft traders to that coaft. From
Sierra Leona, the land of Guinea takes a turn to the
eaAward, extending that courfe about 1500 miles, in¬
cluding thofe feveral divifions known by the names of the
Grain Coaf, the Ivory Coajl, the Gold Coajl, and the
Y Slave
GUI [ 178 ] GUI
Guinea. Slave Coafi, with the large kingdom of Benin. From
Y——' thence the land runs fouthward along the coaft about
1200 miles, which contains the kingdoms of CoflgT?
and Angola; where the trade for (laves ends. From
which to the fouthermoft cape of Africa, called the
Cape of Good Hope, the country is fettled by Cafl'res
and Hottentots, who have never been concerned in
the making or felling Oaves.
1. Of the parts which are above mentioned, the firft
is that fituated on the great river Senegal, which is
faid to be navigable more than 1000 miles, and is by
travellers defcribed to be very agreeable and fruitful.
Mr Brue, principal faffor for the French African
company, who lived 16 years in that country, after
defcribing its fruitfulnefs and plenty near the fea,
* Afllefs adds *, “ The farther you go from the fea, the coun-
ColleSi. try on the river feems the more fruitful and well im-
vol. a. proved, abounding with Indian corn, pulfe, fruit, &c.
* Here are vaft. meadows, which feed large herds of
great and fmall cattle, and poultry numerous: the
villages that lie thick on the river, (how the country
is well peopled.” The fame author, in the account of
a voyage he made up the river Gambia, the mouth of
which lies about 300 miles fouth of the Senegal, and
is navigable about 600 miles up the country, fays,
“ that he was furprized to fee the land fo well culti¬
vated ; fcarce a fpot lay unimproved; the low lands
divided by fmall canals were all fowed with rice, &c.
the higher ground planted with millet, Indian corn,
and peafe of different forts; their beef excellent;
poultry plenty and very cheap, as well as all other
neceffaries of life.” Mr Moor, who was fent from
England about the year 1735, in the fervice of the
African company, and refided at James Fort on the
river Gambia, or in other factories on that river, about
five years, confirms the above account of the fruitful-
refs of the country. Captain Smith, who was fent in
the year 1726 by the African company to furvey their
fettlements throughout the whole coaft of Guinea,
f Voyage to faysf, “ the country about the Gambia is pleafant and
Guinea, fruitful; provifions of all kinds being plenty and ex-
ceeding cheap.” The country on and between the
two above mentioned rivers is large and extenfive, in¬
habited principally by thofe three Negro nations known
by the name of "Jalofs, Fulls, and Mandingos. The
Jalofs poffefs the middle of the country. The Fulis
principal fettlement is on both fides of the Senegal:
great numbers of thefe people are alfo mixed with the
Mandingos; which laft are moftly fettled on both
fides the Gambia. The government of the Jalofs is
reprefented as under a better regulation than can be
expefted from the common opinion we entertain of
the negroes. We are told in Aftley’s Colleftion,
<< That the king has under him feveral minifters of
ftate, who affift him in the exercife of juftice. The
grand Jerafo is the chief juftice through all the
king’s dominions, and goes in circuit from time to
time to hear complaints and determine controverfies.
The king’s treafurer exercifes the fame employment,
and has under him alkairs, who are governors of towns
or villages. That the kondi, or viceroy, goes the cir¬
cuit with the chief juftice, both to hear caufes and in-
fpeft into the behaviour of the alkadi, or chief ma-
giftrate of every village in their feveral diftrifts.” Vaf-
conqelas, an author mentioned in the Colle&ion, fays,
“ the ancienteft are preferred to be the prince’s conn- Guinea,
felldrs, who keep always about his perfon ; and the
men of moft judgment and experience are the judges.”
The Fulis are fettled on both fides of the river Sene¬
gal : their country, which is very fruitful and popu¬
lous, extends near 400 miles from eaft to weft. They
are generally of a deep tawny complexion, appearing
to bear fome affinity to the Moors, whofe country
thev join on the north: they are good farmers, and
make great harveft of corn, cotton, tobacco, &c. and
breed great numbers of cattle of all kinds. But the
moft particular account we have of thefe people is
from Moore, who fays*, “ Some of thefe Fuli blacks, * Travels*
who dwell on both fides the river Gambia, are in fub- into difant
jeftion to the Mandingos, amongft whom they dwell, llurfts. A
having been probably driven out of their country by p, jyij’
war or famine. They have chiefs of their own, who
rule with much moderation. Few of them will drink
brandy, or any thing ftronger than water and fugar,
being ftridl Mahometans. Their form of government
goes on eafy, becaufe the people are of a good quiet
difpofition, and fo well inftrufted in what is right, that
a man who does ill is the abomination of all, and none
will fupport him againft the chief. In thefe countries
the natives are not covetous of land, defiring no more
than what they ufe; and as they do not plough with
horfes and cattle, they can ufe but very little ; there¬
fore the kings are willing to give the Fulis leave tt>
live in their country, and cultivate their lands. If any
of their people are known to be made (laves, all the
Fulis will join to redeem them ; they alfo fupport the
old, the blind, and lame, amongft themfelves; and as
far as their abilities go, they fupply the neceffities of
the Mandingos, great numbers of whom they have
maintained in famine.” The author, from his own
obfervations, fays, “ They were rarely angry, and
that he never heard them abufe one another.”
The Mandingos are faid by Mr Brue before men¬
tioned, “ to be the moft numerous nation on the
Gambia, befides which, numbers of them are difperfcd
over all thefe countries'; being the moft rigid Maho¬
metans amongft the negroes, they drink neither wine
nor brandy, and are politer than the other negroes.
The chief of the trade goes through their hands.
Many are induftrious and laborious, keeping their
ground well cultivated, and breeding a good (lock of
cattle f. Every town has' an alkadi, or governor, ^ Aflley's
who has great power ; for moft of them having two Colha.
common fields of clear ground, one for com, and thep. *96*
other for rice, the alkadi appoints the labour of all
the people. The men work the corn ground, and
the women and girls the rice ground; and as they all
equally labour, fo he equally divides the corn amongft
them ; and in cafe any are in want, the others fupply
them. This alkadi decides all quarrels, and has the
firft voice in all conferences in town affairs.” Some
of thefe Mandingos, who are fettled at Galem, far up
the river Senegal, can read and write Arabic tolerably
and are a good hofpitable people, who carry on a
trade with the inland nations. “ They are extremely
populous in thofe parts, their women being fruitful,,
and they not fuffering any perfon amongft them, but
fuch as are guilty of crimes, to be made (laves.” We-
are told from Jobfon, “ That the Mahometan Ne¬
groes fay their prayers thrice a day. Each village
GUI [ i
has a prieft who calls them to their duty. It is fur-
- prizing (fays the author), as well as commendable, to
fee the modefty, attention, and reverence they obferve
during their worfhip. He alked fome of their priefts
the purport of their prayers and ceremonies; their
anfwer always was, “ that they adored God by pro-
ftrating themfelves before him ; that by humbling
themfelves, they acknowleged their own inlignificancy,
and farther intreated him to forgive their faults, and
to grant them all good and neceffary things, as well
as deliverance from evil.” Jobfon takes notice of fe-
veral good qualities in thefe negro priefts, particular¬
ly their great fobriety. They gain their livelihood by
keeping fchool for the education of the children. The
boys are taught to read and write. They not only
teach fchool, but rove about the country, teaching
and inftru&ing, for which the whole country is open
to them ; and they have a free courfe through all
places, though the kings may be at war with one an¬
other.
The three fore-mentioned nations praftife feveral
trades, as fmiths, potters, faddlers, and weavers. Their
fmiths particularly work neatly in gold and filver, and
make knives, hatchets,reaping hooks, fpades, and lhares
to cut iron, &c. Their potters make neat tobacco
pipes, and pots to boil their food. Some authors fay
that weaving is their principal trade : this is done by
the women and girls, who fpin and weave very fine
cotton doth, which they dye blue or black. Moore
fays, the Jalofs particularly make great quantities of
the cotton cloth ; their pieces are generally 27 yards
long, and about nine inches broad, their looms being
very narrow ; thefe they few neatly together, fo as to
fupply the ufe of broad cloth.
It was in thefe parts of Guinea that M. Adanfon,
correfpondent of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Paris, was employed from the year 1749 to the year
1753, wholly in making natural and philofophical ob-
fervations on the country about the rivers Senegal and
Gambia. Speaking of the great heats in Senegal, he
, faysj, “ it is to them that they are partly indebted for
c. the fertility of their lands ; which is fo great, that,
with little labour and care, there is no fruit nor grain
but grows in great plenty.”
Of the foil on the Gambia, he fays, “ it is rich and
deep, and amazingly fertile ; it produces fpontaneouf-
ly, and ahnoft without cultivation, all the neceflaries
of life, grain, fruit, herbs, and roots. Everything
matures to perfie&ion, and is excellent in its kind.”
One thing which always furprized him, was the pro¬
digious rapidity with which the fap of trees repairs
any lofs they may happen to fuftain in that country;
“ And I was never (fays he) more aftoniihed. than
when landing four days after the loeufts had devoured
all the fruits and leaves, and even the buds of the trees,
to find the trees covered with new leaves, and they
did not feem to me to have fuffered much.” “ It was
then (fays the fame author) the fiftr feafon; you
might fee them in ftioals approaching towards land.
Some of thofe ftioals were 50 fathoms fquare, and the
fifti crowded together in fuch a manner, as to roll up¬
on one another, without being able to fwira. As foon
as the negroes perceive them coming towards land,
they jump into the water with a bafket in one hand,
and fwim with the .other. They need only to plunge
79 ] GUI
and to lift up their balket, and they are fure to return Guinea,
loaded with filh.” Speaking of the appearance of the —nr'"*"*
country, and of the difpofition of the people, he fays,
“ which way foever I turned mine eyes on this plea-
fant fpot, I beheld a perfect image of pure nature ;
an agreeable folitude, bounded on every fide by charm¬
ing landfcapes; the rural fituation of cottages in the
midft of trees; the eafe and indolence of the negroes,
reclined under the ftiade of their fpreading foliage ;
the fimplicity of their drefs and manners ; the whole
revived in my mind the idea of our firft parents, and I
feemed to contemplate the world in its primitive ftate.
They are, generally fpeaking, very good-natured, foci-
able, and obliging. I was not a little pleafed with this
my firft reception ; it convinced me, that there ought
to be a confiderable abatement made in the accounts I
had read and heard every where of the favage charac¬
ter of the Africans. I obferved, both in the negroes and
moors great humanity and fociablenefs, which gave me
ftrong hopes that I fhould be very fafe amongft them,
and meet with the fuccefs I defired in my inquiries af¬
ter the curioiities of the country.” He was agreeably
amufed with the converfation of the negroes, their
fables, dialogues, and witty ftories with which they
entertain each other alternately, according to their
cuftom. Speaking of the remarks which the natives
made to him with relation to the ftars and planets,
he fays, “ it is amazing, that fuch a rude and illiterate
people ftrould reafon fo pertinently in regard to thofe
heavenly bodies ; there is no manner of doubt, but that
with proper inftruments, and a good will, they would
become excellent aftronomers.”
2. That part of Guinea known by the name of the
Grain and Ivory Coajl extends about 500 miles. The
foil is faid to be in general fertile, producing abund¬
ance of rice and roots ; indigo and cotton thrive with¬
out cultivation, and tobacco would be excellent if
carefully manufaftured; they have filh in plenty;
their flocks greatly increafe; and their trees are loaded
with fruit. They make a cotton cloth, which, fells
well on the coaft. In a word, the country is rich, and
the commerce advantageous, and might be greatly aug¬
mented by fuch as would cultivate the friendfliip of the
natives. Thefe are reprefented by fome writers as a
rude, treacherous people ; whilft feveral other authors
of credit give them a very different character, de-
fcribing them as fenfible, courteous, and the faireft
traders on the coaft of Guinea. In the Colle&ion, they
are faid f to be averfe to drinking to excefs, and fuch | Vol. ii.
as do are feverely puniftied by the king’s order, p. 560.
On inquiry why there is fuch a difagreement in the
chara&er given of thefe people, it appears, that though
they are naturally inclined to be kind to.ftrangers,
with whom they are fond of trading, yet the frequent
injuries done them by Europeans have occafioned their
being fufpicious and ftiy: the fame caufe has been
the occafion of the ill treatment they have fometimes
given to innocent ftrangers, who have attempted to
trade with them. As the Europeans have no fettle-
ment on this part of Guinea, the trade is carried on by
fignals from the fhips, on the appearance of which the
natives ufually come on board in their canoes, bring¬
ing their gold-duft, ivory, &c. which has given oppor¬
tunity to fome villanous Europeans to carry them off
with their effe&s, or retain them on board till a ran-
Y 2 fom
GUI t 180 ] GUI
$ Defcript't
of Guinea,
P-44P.
f Ibid.
?• 441-
§ Smith't
Voy.tge h
fom is paid. It is noted by forne, that fince the Eu¬
ropean voyagers have carried away feveral of thefe
people, their miftruft is fo great, that it is very difficult
to prevail on them to come on board. Smith remarks,
“ As we paft along this coaft, we very often lay be¬
fore a town, and fired a gun for the natives to come
off; but no foul came near us: at length we learnt by
fome ffiips that were trading down the coaft, that the
natives came feldom on board an Englifh (hip, for fear
of being detained or carried off: yet at laft fome ven¬
tured on board ; but if thefe chanced to fpy any arms,
they would all immediately take to their canoes, and
make the beft of their way home. They had then in
their poffeffion one Benjamin Crofs, the mate of an
Englifh veffel, who was detained by them to make re-
prifals for fome of their men, who had formerly been
carried away by fome Englifh veffel.” In the Collec¬
tion we are tpld, “ This villanous cuftom is too often
praftifed, chiefly by the Briftol and Liverpool fliips,
and is a great detriment to the flave trade on the wind-
mward coaft.” John Snock, mentioned in Bofman J,
when on the coaft, wrote, “ We caft anchor, but not
one negro coming onboard, I went on fhore; and after
having ftaid a while on the ftrand, fome negroes came
to me; and being defirous to be informed why they
did not come on board, I was anfwered, that about
two months before, the Englifh had been there with
two large veffels, and had ravaged the country, de-
ftroyed all their canoes, plundered their houfes, and car¬
ried off fome of their people, upon which the remain¬
der fled to the inland country, where moft of them
were at that time ; fo that there being not much to be
done by us, we were obliged to return on board. When
I inquired after their wars with other countries, they
told me they were not often troubled with them ; but
if any difference happened, they chofe rather to end
the difpute amicably than to come to arms.f ” He
found the inhabitants civil and good-natured. Speak¬
ing of the king of Rio Seftro, lower down the coaft,
he fays, “ He was a very agreeable, obliging man ;
and all his fubje&s are civil, as well as very labori¬
ous in agriculture and the purfuits of trade.” Mar-
ehais^: fays, “ That though the country is very po¬
pulous, yet none of the natives (except criminals) are
fold for flaves.” Vaillant never heard of any fettle-
ment being made by the Europeans on this part of
Guinea; and Smith remarksjj, “ That thefe coafts,
which are divided into feveral little kingdoms, and
have feldom any wars, is the reafon the flave trade is
not fo good here as on the Gold and Slave Coaft,
where the Europeans have feveral forts and factories.”
A plain evidence this, that it is the intercourfe with
the Europeans, and their fettlements on the coaft,
which gives life to the flave trade.
3. Next adjoining to the Ivory Coaft are thofe called
the Gold Coajl and the Slave Coqft; authors are not
agreed about their bounds, but their extent together
along the coaft may be about 500 miles. And as
the policy, produce, and economy of thefe two king¬
doms of Guinea are much the fame, they fhall be de-
feribed together.
Here- the Europeans have the greateft number of
forts andfa&ories; from whence, by means of the ne¬
gro fadtors, a trade is carried on above 700 miles back
in the inland country; whereby great numbers of flaves
are procured, as well by means of the wars which arife Guineai
amongft the negroes, or are fomented by the Eu- —
ropeans, as thofe brought from the back country.
Here we find the natives more reconciled to the
European manners and trade; but, at the fame time,
much more inured to war, and ready to affift the Euro¬
pean traders in procuring loadings for the great num¬
ber of veffels which come yearly on thofe coafts for
flaves. This part of Guinea is agreed by hiftorians to
be, in general, extraordinary fruitful and agreeable ;
producing (according to the difference of the foil)
vaft quantities of rice and other grain, plenty of fruit
and roots, palm wine and oil, and filh in great abun¬
dance, with much tame and wild cattle. Bofman,
principal fa&or for the Dutch at D’Elmina, fpeaking
of the country of Axim, which is fituated towards the
beginning of the Gold Coaft, fays, “ The negro in¬
habitants are generally very rich, driving a great trade
with the Europeans for gold : That they are induftri-
oufly employed either in trade, fifhing, or agriculture ;
but chiefly in the culture of rice, which grows here
in an incredible abundance, and is tranfported hence
all over the Gold Coaft : the inhabitants, in lieu, re¬
turning full fraught with millet, jamms, potatoes, and
palm oil.” The fame author, fpeaking of the country
of Ante, fays, “ This country, as well as the Gold
Coaft, abounds with hills, enriched with extraordinary
high and beautiful trees ; its valleys, betwixt the hills,
are wide and extenfive, producing in great abundance
very good rice, millet, jamms, potatoes, and other
fruits, all good in their kind.” He adds, “ In fliort,
it is a land that yields its manurers as plentiful a crop
as they can wifh, with great quantities of palm wine
and oil, befides being well furniftied with all forts of
tame as well as wild beafts; but that the laft fatal wars
had reduced it to a miferable condition, and ftripped it
of moft of its inhabitants.” The adjoining country,
of Fetu, he fays, “ was formerly fo powerful and po¬
pulous, that it ftruck terror into all the neighbouring
nations; but it is at prefent fo drained by continual
wars, that it is entirely ruined ; there does not remain
inhabitants fufficient to till the country, though it is
fo fruitful and pleafant that it may be compared to the
country of Ante juft before deferibed; frequently (fays
our author), when walking through it before the laft
war, I have feen it abound with fine well built and po¬
pulous towns, agreeably enriched with vaft quantities
of corn, cattle, palm wine, and oil. The inhabitants all
applying themfelves without any diftinftion to agricul¬
ture ; fome fow corn, others prefs oil, anddraw winefrom
palm trees, with both which it is plentifully ftored.”
Smith gives much the fame account of the before
mentioned parts of the Gold Coaft ; and adds, “ the
country about D’Elmina and Cape Coaft is much the
fame for beauty and goodnefs, but more populous ; and
the nearer we come towards the Slave Coaft, the more
delightful and rich all the countries are, producing all
forts of trees, fruits, roots, and herbs, that grow with¬
in the torrid zone.” Barbot alfo remarks *, with re- • Barhit’s
fpeft to the countries of Ante and Adorn, “ That the Defcription
foil is very good and fruitful in corn and other pro- °f ^ulne^i
duce; which it affords in fuch plenty, that befides what p‘I'54‘
ferves for their own ufe, they always export great
quantities for fale : they have a competent number of
cattle, both tame and wild, and the rivers abundantly
ftored
GUI [ iS
Guinea, ftored with fi(h; fo that nothing is wanting for the fup-
port of life* and to make it eafy.” In the CoIle£tion
it is faid “ That the inland people on that part of the
coaft. employ themfelves in tillage and trade, and fup-
ply the market with corn, fruit, and palm wine; the
country producing fuch vaft plenty of Indian corn,
that abundance is daily exported, as well by Euro-
ropeans as blacks reforting thither from other parts.”
Thefe inland people are faid to live in great union
and friendihip, being generally well tempered, civil,
and traftable; not apt to fhed human blood, except
when much provoked ; and ready to aflift one ano¬
ther. In the Colle&ion it is faid, “ That the fifh-
ing bufinefs is elteemed on the Gold Coaft next to tra¬
ding ; that thofe who profefs it are more numerous
than thofe of other employments. That the greateft
number of thefe are at Kommendo, Mina, and Kor-
mantin ; from each of which places, there go out every
morning (Tuefday excepted, which is the Fetifh day,
or day of reft) five, fix, and fometimes eight hundred
canoes, from 13 to 14 feet long, which fpread them-
felves two leagues at fea, each filherman carrying in his
canoe a fword, with bread, water, and a little fire on
a large ftone to roaft fiih. Thus they labour till noon,
when the fea breeze blowing frelh, they return on the
fhore, generally laden with fifh ; a quantity of which
the inland inhabitants come down to buy, which they
fell again at the country markets.”
Smith fays, “ The country about Acra, where the
Enghfti and Dutch have each a ftrong fort, is very de¬
lightful, and the natives courteous and civil to ftran-
gers.” He adds, “ That this place feldom fails of an
extraordinary good trade from the inland country, e-
fpecially for flaves, whereof feveral are fuppofed to
come from very remote parts, becaufe it is not un¬
common to find a Malayan or two amongft a parcel of
other flaves: The Malaya people are generally natives
of Malacca, in the Eaft Indies, fituated feveral thoufand
miles from the Gold Coaft.” They differ very much
from the Guinea negroes, being of a tawny com¬
plexion, with long black hair.
Mott parts of the flave coafts are reprefented as e-
qually fertile and pleafant with the gold coaft. The
kingdom of Whidah has been particularly noted by
travellers. Smith and Bofman agree, “ That it is one
of the moft delightful countries in the world. The
great number and variety of tall, beautiful, and fhady
trees, which feem planted in groves; the verdant fields
every where cultivated, and no otherwife divided than
by thofe groves, and in fame places a fmall foot-path,
together with a great number of villages, contribute
to afford the moft delightful profpeft; the whole coun¬
try being a fine, eafy, and almoft imperceptible afcent
for the fpace of 40 or 50 miles from the fea. That the
farther you go from the fea, the more beautiful and po¬
pulous the country appears. That the natives were kind
and obliging, and fo induftrious, that no place which was
thought fertile could efcape being planted, even within
the hedges which inclofe their villages. And that the
next day after they had reaped, they fowed again.”
Snelgrave alfo fays, “ The country appears full of
towns and villages; and being a rich foil, and well
cultivated, looks like an entire garden.” In the Col-
kftion, the hufbandry of the negroes is defcribed to
be carried on with great regularity. “ The rainy fea-
!i ] GUI
fon approaching, they go into the fields and woods, Guinea,
to fix on a proper place for fowing ; and as here is no
property in ground, the king’s licence being obtained,
the people go out in troops, and firft clear the ground
from bullies and weeds, which they burn. The field
thus cleared, they dig it up a foot deep, and fo let it
remain for eight or ten days, till the reft of their
neighbours have difpofed their ground in the fame
manner. They then confult about fowing, and for
that end affemble at the king’s court the next fetilh
day. The king’s grain muft be fown firft. They
then go again to the field, and give the ground a fe- .
cond digging, and fow their feed.. Whilft “ the king
or governor’s land is fowing, he fends out wine and
fleih, ready dreffed, enough to ferve the labourers.
Afterwards, theyi'n'like manner fow the ground al¬
lotted for their neighbours as diligently as that of the
king’s, by whom they are alfo feafted ; and fp con¬
tinue to work in a body for the public benefit till
every man’s ground is tilled and fowed. None but
the king, and a few great men, are exempted from
this labour. Their grain foon fprouts out of the
ground. When it is about a man’s height, and be¬
gins to ear, they raife a wooden houfe in the centre
of the field, covered with ftraw, in which they fet
their children to watch their corn, and fright away
the birds.”
Bofman fpeaks in commendation of the civility,
kindnefs, and great induftry of the natives of Whi¬
dah. This is confirmed by Smith, who fays, “ The
natives here feem to be the moft gentleman-like ne¬
groes in Guinea, abounding with good manners and
ceremony to each other. The inferior pay the utmoit
deference and refpeft to the fuperior, as do wives to
their hulbands, and children to their parents. All
here are naturally induftrious, and find conftant em¬
ployment ; the men in agriculture, and the women in
fpinning and weaving cotton. The men, whofe chief
talent lies in hulbandry, ate unacquainted with arms ;
otherwife, being a numerous people, they could have
made a better defence again ft the king of Dahome,
who fubdued them without much trouble.” Accord¬
ing to the Colle&ion, there are, throughout the gold
coaft, regular markets in all villages, furnilhed with
provifions and merchandife, held every day in the week
except Tuefday, whence they fupply not only the in¬
habitants, but the European ftiips. The negro wo¬
men are very expert in buying and felling, and ex¬
tremely induftrious; for they will repair daily to mar¬
ket from a confiderable dillance, loaded like pack-
horfes, with a child perhaps at their back, and a heavy-
burden on their heads. After felling their wares,
they buy fifti and other neceffaries, and return home
loaded as they came. There is a market held at Sabi
every fourth day, alfo a weekly one in the province
of Apologua, which is fo reforted to, that there are
ufually 5 or 6000 merchants. Their markets are fo
well regulated and governed, that feldom any diforder
happens; each fpecies of merchandife and merchants
have a feparate place allotted them by themfdves.
The buyers may. baggie as much as they will, but it
muft be without noife or fraud. To keep order, the
king appoints a judge; who, with four officers well
armed, infpe&s the markets, hear all complaints, and
in a fummary way decides all differences ; he has
power
GUI r 182 1 G u
Guinea, power to feize, and fell as flaves, all who are catch-
ed in Healing or difturbing the peace. In thefe mar¬
kets are to be fold men, women, children, oxen, Iheep,
goats, and fowls of all kinds ; European cloths, linen
and woollen ; printed calicoes, filk, grocery ware,
china, gold-duft, iron in bars, &c. in a word, moft
forts of European goods, as well as the produce of
Africa and Alia. They have other markets, refem-
bling our fairs, once or twice a year, to which all the
country repair; for they take care to order the day fo
in different governments as not to interfere with each
other.”
* SmM, With refpedff to-government, Smith fays*, “ that
£•193. the gold coaft and Have coaft are divided into diffe¬
rent diftri&s, fome of which are governed by their
chiefs or kings : the others, being more of the na¬
ture of a commonwealth, are governed by fome of
the principal men, called Caboceros; who, Bofman
fays, are properly denominated civilfathers, whofe pro¬
vince is to take care of the welfare of the city or vil¬
lage, and to appeafe tumults.” But this order of go¬
vernment has been much broken fince the coming of
the Europeans. Both Bofman and Barbot mention
murder and adultery to be feverely punilhed on the
coaft, frequently by death 5 and robbery by a line pro¬
portionable to the goods ftolen.
The income of fome of the kings is large. Bofman
fays, “ that the king of Whidah’s revenues and duties
on things bought and fold are confiderable; he having
the tithe of all things fold in the market, or imported
into the country.” Both the above mentioned authors
fay, the tax on flaves (hipped off in this king’s domi¬
nions, in fome years, amounts to near L. 20,000.
Bofman tells us, the Whidah negroes have a faint
idea of a true God, afcribing to him the attributes of
almighty power and omniprefence : but God, they
fay, is too high to condefcend to think of mankind;
wherefore he commits the government of the world to
thofe inferior deities which they worfhip.” Some au¬
thors fay, the wifeft of thefe negroes are fenfible of
their miftake in this opinion ; but dare not forfake
their own religion, for fear of the populace riling and
killing them. This is confirmed by Smith, who fays,
“ that all the natives of this coaft believe there is one
true God, the author of them and all things; that
they have fome apprehenfion of a future ftate; and
that almoft every village has a grove, or public place
of worlhip, to which the principal inhabitants, on a
fet day, refort to make their offerings.”
In the Collection it is remarked as an excellency in
the Guinea government, “ that however poor they
may be in general, yet there are no beggars to be found
amongft them; which is owing to the care of their
chief men, whofe province it is to take care of the wel¬
fare of the city or village, it being part of their of¬
fice to fee that fuch people may earn their bread by
their labour ; fome are fet to blow the fmith’s bel¬
lows, others to prefs palm oil, or . grind colours for
their mats, and fell provifion in the markets. The
young men are lifted to ferve as foldiers, fo that they
fuffer no common beggar.” Bofman afcribes a fur-
* % r ther reafon for this good order*, viz. “ that when a
p. 119. * negro finds he cannot fubfift, he binds himfelf fora
certain fum of money, and the mafter to whom he is
bound is obliged to find him neceffaries; that the ma¬
fter fets hint a fort of talk, which is not in the lead Guinea,
flavilh, being chiefly to defend his mafter on ocoa- —v—“
fions, or in fowing time to work as much as himfelf
pleafes.”
Adjoining to the kingdom of Whidah are feveral
fmall governments, as Coto, great and fmall Popo,
Ardrah, &c. all fituated on the flave coaft, where the
chief trade for flaves is carried on. Thefe are govern¬
ed by their refpeftive kings, and follow much the fame
cuftoms with thofe of Whidah, except that their prin¬
cipal living is on plunder and the flave trade.
4. Next adjoining to the Slave Coaft, is the king¬
dom of Benin, which, though it extends but about
170 miles on the fea, yet fpteads fo far inland as to be
efteemed the moft potent kingdom in Guinea. By
accounts, the foil and produce appear to be in a great
meafure like thofe before defcribed, and the natives
are reprefented as a reafonable good-natured people.
Artus fays*, “ they are a lincere, inoffenfive people,.
and do no injuftice either to one another or to ft ran- voUit *
gers.” Smith confirms this account, and fays, “ thatp. 228.
the inhabitants are generally very good-natured, and
exceeding courteous and civil. When the Europeans
make them prefents, which in their coming thither to
trade they always do, they endeavour to return them
doubly.” Bolman tells us, “ that his countrymen
the Dutch, who were often obliged to truft them till
they returned the next year, were fure to be honeftly
paid their whole debts.”
There is in Benin a confiderablc order in govern¬
ment ; theft, murder, and adultery, being feverely
punilhed. Smith fays, “ their towns are governed
by officers appointed by the king, who have power
to decide in civil cafes, and to raiie the public taxes ;
but in criminal cafes, they muft fend to the king’s
court, which is held at the town of Oedo or Great
Benin. This town, which covers a large extent of
ground, is about 60 miles from the fea.” Barbot
tells us, “ that it contains 30 ftreets, 20 fathom wide,
and almoft two miles long, commonly extending in a
ftraight line from one gate to another; that the gates are
guarded by foldiers ; that in thefe ttreets markets are
held every day, for cattle, ivory, cotton, and many forts
of European goods. This large town is divided into fe¬
veral wards or diftricts, each governed by its refpec-
tive king of a ftreet, as they call them, to admimfter
juftice, and to keep good order. The inhabitants
are very civil and good natured, condefcending to what
the Europeans require of them in a civil way.” The
fame author confirms what has been laid by others of
their juftice in the payment of their debts ; and adds,
“ that they, above all other Guineans, are very ho-
neft and juft in their dealings; and they have fuch an
averfion for theft, that by the law of the country it is
punllhed wftth death.” We are told by the fame au¬
thor, “ that the king of Benin is able upon occalion
to maintain an army of 100,000 men ; but that, for
the moft part, he does not keep 30,000. See the article
Benin.
5. The laft divifion of Guinea from which flaves
are imported, are the kingdoms of Congo and Ango¬
la: thefe lie to the fouth of Benin, extending with
the intermediate land about 1200 miles on the coaft.
Great numbers of the natives of both thefe kingdoms
profefs the Chriftian religion, which was long fince
5 in*
GUI (*83] GUI
Guinea, introduced by the Portuguefe, who made early fettle-
——y—merits in that country. See Congo and Angola.
In the Colledtion it is faid, that both in Congo and
Angola, the foil is in general fruitful, producing great
plenty of grain, Indian corn, and fuch quantities of
rice, that it hardly bears any price, with fruits, roots,
and palm oil in plenty. The natives are generally a
quiet people, who difcover a good underftanding,
and behave in a friendly manner to ftrangers, being of
a mild converfation, affable, and eafily overcome with
reafon. In the government of Congo, the king ap¬
points a judge in every particular divifion, to bear and
determine difputes and civil caufes; the judges im-
prifon and releafe, or impofe lines, according to the
rule of cuftom; but in weighty matters, every one
may appeal to the king, before whom all criminal
caufes are brought, in which he giveth fentence ; but
feldom condemneth to death. The town of Leango
hands in the midit of four lordfhips, which abound in
corn, fruit, &c. Here they make great quantities of
cloth of divers kinds, very fine and curious; the in¬
habitants are feldom idle ; they even make needle-work
caps as they walk in the flreets. The Have trade is
here principally managed by the Portuguefe, who carry
it far up into the inland countries. They are faid to
fend off from thefe parts 15,000 flaves each year. At
Angola, about the 1 oth degree of fouth latitude, ends
the trade for flaves.
As all thefe countries lie between the tropics, the air
is excefilvely hot, efpecially from the beginning of Sep¬
tember to the end of March; which, with the coolnefa
of the nights, the frequent thick, flinking, fulphu-
reous miffs, and the periodical rains, when the flat
country is overflowed, makes it very unhealthy, efpe¬
cially to Europeans. The natives, however, are little
afferffed with the unwholefome air. According to Bar-
bot, they keep much within doors in tempeftuous
times; and when expofed to the weather, their flcins
being fuppled and pores clofed by daily anointing
with palm oil, the weather can make but little im-
preffion on them. They generally, therefore, enjoy a
good ftate of health, and are able to procure to them-
felves a comfortable fubfiftence, with much lefscare and
toil than is neceffary in our more northern climate ;
which lad advantage arifes not only from the warmth
of the climate, but alfo from the overflowing of the
rivers, whereby the land is regularly moiftened and
rendered extremely fertile ; and being in many places
improved by culture, abounds with grain and fruits,
cattle, poultry, &c. The earth yields all the year a
frefh fupply of food r Few cloaths are requilite, and
little art neceffary in making them, or in the conftruc-
tion of their houfes, which are very fimple, principally
calculated to defend them from the tempettuous fea-
fons and wild beads; a few dry reeds covered with
matts ferve for their beds. The other furniture, ex¬
cept what belongs to cookery, gives the women but
little trouble ; the moveables of the greateft among
them amounting only to a few earthen pots, fome
wooden utenfils, ai)d gourds or calabafhes ; from thefe
laft, which*-grow almoft naturally over their huts, to
which they afford an agreeable fliade, they are abun¬
dantly flocked w'ith good clean veffels for moft houfe-
hold ufes, being of different fixes,, from half a pint to
• fevera! gallons-
The diftempers the Europeans are fubje£t to on Guinea,
this coaft, are fevers, fluxes, and colics, which are .
occafioned by indifferent water and bad air; their
fettlements lying near the coaft, where the fogs and
fleams arifing from the ooze and falt-marfhes, and the
flinking fiftr the natives dry on the beach, corrupt the
air, and render it fatal to the foreigners. The moft
temperate men find it difficult to prefl?rve their health j
but a great many haften their death by their intempe¬
rance, or negligence, expofing themfelves to the cold
air in the evening, after a very hot day. This fudden
change, from one extreme to the other, has often very
bad effefts in hot climates.
Of mountains in Guinea, the moft remarkable are
thofe of Sierra Leon. The principal capes are thofe
of Cape Blanco, Cape Verd, Cape Leon, Cape St
Ann’s, Cape Palmas, and Cape Three-Points, Cape
Formofa, Cape Monte, Cape St John, Cape Lopas,
Cape Lede, and Cape Negro. The chief bays are
the Cyprian or Cintra Bay, and the Bite of Guinea.
Of the rivers, the moft confiderable are thofe of Co-
anzo and Ambrifi, the Zaara, the Lunde, the Came¬
ron, the Formofa, the Volta, the Sierra Leon, and
the Sherbro. All thefe run from call to weft (except
the Volta, which runs from north to fouth), and fall
into the Atlantic.
Befides gold, ivory, and flaves, Guinea affords indi¬
go, wax, gum-fenega, gum-tragacanth, and a variety
of other gums and drugs.
The moft ancient account we have of the country Hiftory of
of the negroes, particularly that part fituated on and the Guinea
between the two great rivers of Senegal and Gambia, tra<*e*
is from the writings of two ancient authors, one an
Arabian, and the other a Moor. The firft wrote in
Arabic’about the 12th century. His works, printed
in that language at Rome, were afterwards tranflated
into Latin, and printed at Paris under the patronage
of the famous Thuanus chancellor of France, with the
title of Geographica Nubienjis, containing an account of
all the nations lying on the Senegal and Gambia. The
other was written by John Leo, a Moor, born at Grana¬
da in Spain, before the Moors were totally expelled from
that kingdom. He refided in Africg ; but being on
a voyage from Tripoli to Tunis, was taken by fome
Italian corfairs, who finding him pofleffed of feveral
Arabian books, befides his own inanuferipts, appre¬
hended him to be a man of learning, and as fuch pre-
fented him to Pope Leo X. This pope encouraging
him, he embraced the Romifh religion, and his de-
feription of Africa was publifhed in Italian. From
thefe writings we gather, that after the Mahometan
religion had extended to the kingdom of Morocco,
fome of the promoters of it croffing the fandy defarts
of Numidia, which feparate that country from4Gui-
nea, found it inhabited by men, who, though under
no regular government, and deftitute of that know¬
ledge the Arabians were favoured with, lived in con¬
tent and peace. The firft author particularly remarks,
“ that they never made war, or travelled abroad, but
employed themfelves in tending their herds, or labour¬
ing in the ground.” J. Leo fays, p. 65. “ That
they lived in common, having no property in land, no
tyrant nor fuperior lord, but fupported themfelves in
an equal ftate, upon the natural produce of the coun¬
try, which afforded plenty of roots, game, and honey.
That
GUI [ 184 1 GUI
Guinea. That ambition or avarice never drove them into foreign
'* » countries to fubdue or cheat their neighbours. Thus
they lived without toil or fuperfluities.” “ The an¬
cient inhabitants of Morocco, who wore coats of mail,
and ufed fwords and fpears headed with iron, coming
amongft thefe harmlefs and naked people, foon brought
diem under fubje&ion, and divided that part of Guinea
which lies on the rivers Senegal and Gambia into 15
parts ; thofe were the 15 kingdoms of the negroes,
over which the Moors prefided, and the common peo¬
ple were negroes. Thefe Moors taught the negroes
the Mahometan religion, and arts of life ; particularly
the ufe of iron, before unknown to them. About
the 14th century, a native negro, called Heli Ifchia,
expelled the Moorilh conquerors ; but though the ne¬
groes threw off the yoke of a foreign nation, they only
changed a Libyan for a negro mafter. Heli Ifchia
himfelf becoming king, led the negroes on to foreign
wars, and eftablifhed himfelf in power over a very large
extent of country.” Since Leo’s time, the Euro¬
peans have had very little knowledge of thofe parts of
Africa, nor do they know what became of his great
empire. It is highly probable that it broke into pieces,
and that the natives again refumed many of their an¬
cient cuftoms; for in the account publilhed by Moore,
in his travels on the river Gambia, we find a mixture
of the Moorifh and Mahometan cuftoms, joined with
the original fimplicity of the negroes. It appears by
accounts of ancient voyages, collefted by Hackluit,
Purchas, and others, that it was about 50 years before
the difcovery of America, that the Portuguefe at¬
tempted to fail round Cape Bojador, which lies be¬
tween their country and Guinea : this, after divers
repulfes occafioned by the violent currents, they
effected ; when landing on the weftern coafts of
Africa, they foon began to make incurfions into the
country, and to feize and carry off the native in¬
habitants. As early as the year 1434, Alonzo Gon¬
zales, the firft who is recorded fo have met with
the natives, being on that coaft, purfued and attack¬
ed a number of them, when fome were wounded, as
was alfo one of the Portuguefe ; which the author re¬
cords as the firft blood fpilt by Chriftians in thofe
parts. Six years after, the fame Gonzales again at¬
tacked the natives, and took 12 prifoners, with whom
he returned to his veffels : he afterwards put a woman
on fhore, in order to induce the natives to redeem the
prifoners ; but the next day 150 of the inhabitants ap¬
peared on horfes and camels, provoking the Portu¬
guefe to land ; which they not daring to venture, the
natives difcharged a volley of flones at them, and went
off. After this, the Portuguefe itill continued to fend
veffels on the coaft of Africa : particularly we read of
their falling on a village, whence the inhabitants fled,
and, being purfued, 25 were taken; “ he that ran
beft (fays the author), taking the moft. In their
way home they killed fome of the natives, and took
55 more prifoners. Afterwards Dinifanes Dagrama,
with two other veffels, landed on the ifland Arguin,
where they took 54 Moors; then running along the
coaft 80 leagues farther, they at feveral times took 50
flaves ; but here feven of the Portuguefe were killed.
Then being joined by feveral other veffels, Dinifai.’es
propofed to deflroy the ifland, to revenge the lofs of the
feven Portuguefe ; of which the Moors being apprifed,
N°145-
fled, f® that no more than 12 were found, whereof Guinea,
only four could be taken, the reft being killed, as alfo '■"i
one of the Portuguefe.” Many more captures of this
kind on the coaft of Barbary and Guinea are recorded
to have been made in thofe early times by the Portu¬
guefe ; who, in the year 1481, erefted their firft fort
at D’Elmina on that coaft, from whence they foon open¬
ed a trade for (laves with the inland parts of Guinea.
From the foregoing accounts, it is undoubted, that
the praftice of making flaves of the negroes owes its
origin to the early incurfions of the Portuguefe on the
coaft of Africa, folely from an inordinate defire of gain.
This is clearly evidenced from their own hiftorians,
particularly Cada Mofto, about the year 1455, who
writes*, “ That before the trade was fettled for pur- , ColleBim
chafing flaves from the Moors at Arguin, fometimes Vol i.
four, and fometimes more Portuguefe veffels, were ufed p. 576.
to come to that gulph, well armed; and landing by
night, would furprife fome fiftiermens villages : that
they even entered into the country, and carried off
Arabs of both fexes, whom they fold in Portugal.”
And alfo, “ That the Portuguefe and Spaniards, fet¬
tled on four of the Canary iflands, would go to the
other ifland by night, and feize fome of the natives of
both fexes, whom they fent to be fold in Spain.”
After the fettlement of America, thofe devaftations,
and the captivating themiferable Africans, greatly in-
creafed.
Anderfon, in his Hiftory of Trade and Commerce,
p. 336, fpeaking of what paffed in the year 1508,
writes, “ That the Spaniards had by this time found
that the miferable Indian natives, whom they had
made to work in their mines and fields, were not fo
robuft and proper for thofe purpofes as negroes brought
from Africa: wherefore they, about that time, began
to import negroes for that end into Hifpaniola, from
the Portuguefe fettlements on the Guinea coafts ; and
alfo afterwards for their fugar-works.”
It was about the year 1551, towards the latter end
of the reign of Edward VI. when fome London mer¬
chants fent out the firft Englifti (hip oil a trading voy¬
age to the coaft of Guinea. This was foon followed by
feveral others to the fame parts; but the Englifli not
having then any plantations in the Weft Indies, and
confequently no occafion for negroes, fuch (hips tra¬
ded only for gold, elephants teeth, and Guinea pepper.
This trade was carried on at the hazard of lofing their
(hips and cargoes, if they had fallen into the hands of
the Portuguefe, who claimed an exclufive right of
trade, on account of the feveral fettlements they had
made there. In I5'53, we find captain Thomas Wind¬
ham trading along the coaft with 140 men, in three
(hips, and failing as far as Benin, which lies about
3000 miles down the coaft, to take in a load of pep¬
per. Next year John Lock traded along the coaft of
Guinea, as far as D’Elmina, when he brought away
confiderable quantities of gold and ivory. He fpeaks
well of the natives, and fays, “ That whoever will deal
with them muft behave civilly, for they will not traffic
if ill ufed.” In 1555, William Towerfon traded in a
peaceable manner with the natives, who made (com¬
plaint to him of the Portuguefe, who were then fettled
in their caftle at D’Elmina; faying, “ They were bad
men ; who made them flaves if they could take them,
putting irons on their legs.”
This
[• ColleSiion,
vol. i.
p. >48.
GUI [ 185 ] GUI
Thi'a bad example of tbe Portuguefe was foon fob take feme negroes; but the natives Sying from them, ^ ^
lowed by fome evil difpofed Engliihmen: for the fame they returned to their (hips, and proceeded farther
captain Towerfon relates*, “ That-in the courfe of down the coaft. Here they (laid certain days, fend-
his voyage, he perceived the natives near D’Elmina un- ing their men afhore, in order (as the author fays) to
willing to come to him, and that he was at lail attack* burn and fpoil their towns and take the inhabitants,
ed by them; which he underftood was done in revenge The land they' obferved to be well cultivated, there
for the wrong done them the year before by one cap- being plenty of grain and fruit of feveral forts, and
tain Gainfh, who had taken away the negro captain’s the towns prettily laid out. On the 25th, being in-
fon and three others, \fith their gold, &c. This formed by the Portuguefe of a town of negroes called
caufed them to join the Portuguefe, notwithllanding Bymba, where there w-as not only a quantity of gold,
their hatred of them, againft the Englifh.” The next but 140 inhabitants, they refolved to attack it, ha-
year captain Towerfon brought thefe men back again; ving the Portuguefe for their guide; but by mifma-
v. hereupon the negroes (bowed him much kindnefs. nagement they took but ten negroes, having feven of
Quickly after this, another inftance of the fame kind their own men killed and 27 wounded. They then
occurred in the cafe of captain George Fenner, who went farther down the coaft; when having procured a
being on the coaft with three veflels, was alio attacked number of negroes, they proceeded to the Weft In-
by the negroes, who wounded feveral of his people, dies, where they fold them to the Spaniards.” And
and violently carried three of his men to their town, in the fame Naval Chronicle, at p. 76, it isfaid, “ That
The captain fent a meflenger, offering any thing they in the year 1567, Francis Drake, before performing
defired for the ranfom of his men : but they refufed to his voyage round the world, went with Sir John Haw-
deliver them; letting him know, “ That three weeks kins in his expedition to the coaft of Guinea, where
before, an Englifti (hip, which came in the road, had taking in a cargo of (laves, they determined to (leer
carried off three of their people ; and that till they for the Caribbee illands.” How queen Elizabeth fuf-
were brought again, they would not reftore his men, fered fo grievous an infringement of the rights of man-
even though they flrould give their three (hips to re- kind to be perpetrated by her fubje&s, and how (he
leafe them.” It was probably the evil conduit of was perfuaded, about the 30th year of her reign, to
thefe and fome other Englilhmen which was the occa- grant patents for carrying on a trade from the north
fion of what is mentioned in Hill’s Naval Hiftory, v:%. part of the river Senegal to xoo leagues beyond Sierra
“ That when captain Hawkins returned from his firft Leona, which gave rife to the African Company f, t See Com-
voyage to Africa, queen Elizabeth fent for him, when is hard to account for, any otherwife than that
(he expreffed her concern, left any of the African ne- arofe from the mifreprefentation made to her of the1^’ ’
groes (hould be carried off without their free confent; fituation of the negroes, and of the advantages it was
which (he declared would be deteftable, and would call pretended they would reap from being made acquaint-
down the vengeance of heaven upon the undertakers.” ed with the Chriftian religion. This was the cafe of
Hawkins made great promifes, which neverthelefs he Louis XIII. of France : who, Labat, in his account
did not perform ; for his next voyage to the coaft of the ides of America, tells us, “ was extremdy un¬
appears to have been principally calculated to procure eafy at a law by which the negroes of his colonies were
negro (laves, in order to fell them to the Spaniards in to be made (laves; but it being ftrongly urged to him
the Weft Indies; which occafioned the fame author to as the readied; means of their converfion to Chriftiani-
ufe thefe remarkable words; “ Here began the horrid ty, he acquiefced therewith.” Neverthelefs, fome of
pratlice of forcing the Africans into flavery : an in- the Chriftian powers did not fo eafily give way in this
juftice and barbarity, which, fo fure as there is ven- matter: for we find*, “That cardinal Cibo, one o!'
geance in heaven for the word of crimes, will fome the pope’s principal minifters of ftate, wrote a letter
time be the deftrudlion of all who aft or who encou- on behalf of the college of cardinals, or great council
rage it.” This captain Hawkins, afterwards Sir John at Rome, to the miffionaries in Congo, complaining
Hawkins, feems to have been the firft Englifhman who that the pernicious and abominable abufe of felling
gave public- countenance to this wicked traffic: for (laves was yet continued; requiring them to remedy
Anderfon, before mentioned, at p. 401, fays, “That the fame if poffible; but this the miffionaries faw
in the year 1562, captain Hawkins, affifted by fub- little hopes of accomplifliing, by reafon that the
feription of fundry gentlemen, now fitted out three trade of the country lay wholly in (laves and ivory.”
(hips; and having learnt that negroes were a very good It has been urged in juftification of this trade, that
commodity in Hifpaniola, lie (ailed "To the coaft of by purchafing the captives taken in battle, th^y fave
Guinea, took in negroes, and failed with them for the lives of fo many human creatures, who otherwife
Hifpaniola, where he fold them, and his Englifti com- would be facrificed to the implacable revenge of the
modities, and loaded his three veffels with hides, fugar, viftors. But this pretence has been refuted by an ap-
ginger, &c. with which he returned home anno 1563, peal to reafon and faft. For if the negroes appre-
making a profperous voyage.” As it proved a lucra- bended they (hould be cruelly put to death if they
tive biifinefs, the trade was continued both by Haw- were not fent away ; why, it is aiked, do they mani¬
kins and others, as appears fiom the Naval Chronicle, fell fuch reluftance and dread as they generally do, at
p. 55 ; where it is faid, “ That On the \ 8th of Ofto- being brought from their native country Smith, in
ber 1564, captain John Hawkins, with two (hips of his Account, p. 28. fays, “The Gambians abhor
700 and 140 tons, failed for Africa ; that on the 8th flavery, and will attempt any thing, though ever fo
of December they anchored to the South of Cape defperate, to avoid it.” And Thomas Philips, in his
Verd, where the captain manned the beat, and fent 80 account of a voyage he performed to the coaft of
men in armour into the country, to fee if they could Guinea, writes, “ They (the negroes) are fo loth to
Vol.VIII. Parti. Z leave
& V I
r m ]
€f U *
leave their own country, that they have often leaped mina, which was formerly very powerful and populoas,
' out of the canoe, boat, or ftiip, into the fea, and kept was in. his time fo much drained of its inhabitants by *
under water till they were drowned, to avoid being the inteftine wars fomented amongft. the negroes by
taken up.” But had the faft even been otherwife, the Dutch, that there did not remain-inhabitants
the above plea is urged with an extreme bad grace, enough to till the country.”
when it is notorious that the very wars faid to be pro- It has alfo been advanced a
an argument in favour
duftive of fuch cruelty were fomented by the infamous of keeping the negroes in bondage, that there are flaves
arts of the Europeans. From the foregoing accounts, in Guinea, and that thofe amongft us might be fo in.
as well as other authentic publications of this kind, it their own country. Not tf> dwell upon the incon-
appears, that it was the unwarrantable luft of gain liftency of our giving any countenance to flavery, her
which firft ftimulated the Portuguefe, and afterwards caufe the Africans, whom we efteem a barbarous and
ether Europeans, to engage in this horrid traffic. By favage people, allow of it, and perhaps the more from
the moft unqueftionable relations of thofe early times, our example ; the very circumftance ftated, when in^
the natives were an inoffenfive people, who, when civilly quired into, muft afford caufe of blufhing, rather than
ufed, traded amicably with the Europeans. It is re¬
corded of thofe of Benin, the largeft kingdo
Guinea, that they were a gentle, loving, people; and
ferve as a palliation of fuch iniquitous condudt: for it
will appear, that the flavery endured in Guinea is by -
no means fo grievous as that in the colonies. Captain
Reynold fays, “They found more fmcere proofs of Moore, fpeaking of the natives living on the river Gam-,
love and good will from the natives, than they could bia, fays, “ That fome of the negroes have many houfe
find from the Spaniards and Portugufe, even though flaves, which are their greateft glory ; , that thofe flaves.
they had relieved them from the greateft mifery.” live fo well and eafy, that it is fometimes a hard mat*
And from the fame relations there is no reafon to ter to know the flaves from their matters or miftreffes.
think otherwife, but that they generally lived in peace And that though in fome parts of Africa they fell,
amongft themfelves ; there occurring no accounts of their flaves born in the family, yet on the river Gam-
any wars at that early period, nor of any fale of cap¬
tives taken in battle.
In faft, it was long after the Portuguefe had made
a praflice of violently forcing the natives of Africa
bia they think it a very wicked thing.” The author,
adds, “ He never heard of but one that ever fold a
family Have, except for fuch crimes as they would
have been fold for if they had been free.” And i
d flavery, that we read of the different negro nations Aftley’s Colledrion, fpeaking qf the cuftoms of the
making war upon each other, and felling their cap- negroes in that large extent of country further down,
tives. And probably this was not the cafe, till thofe the coaft, particulaily denominated the Coqft of Guineat
bordering on the coaft, who had been ufed to fupply it is faid, “ They have not many flaves on the coaft £ .
the veffels with neceffaries, had become corrupted by  L    1 —
their intercoiirfe with the Europeans, and were excited
by drunkennefs and avarice to join them in carrying
none but the king or nobles are permitted to buy or
fell any ; fo that they are allowed only what are ne*.
_ ceffary for their families, or tilling the ground.” The
on thofe wicked fchemes, by which thofe unnatural fame author adds, “That they generally, ufe their.
wars were perpetrated; the inhabitants kept u
tinual alarms; the country laid wafte ; and, as Moore
expreffes it, “ infinite numbers fold into flavery.” But
that the Europeans are the principal caufe of thefe de-
vaftations, is particularly evidenced by one whofe con-
neftion with the trade would rather induce him to
reprefent it in the faireft colours, v/z. Captain Smith,
the perfon fent in the year 1726 by the African com¬
pany to furvey their fettlements; who, from the in-
flaves well, and feldom correct them.”
From the foregoing accounts of the natural difpofi*.
tion of the negroes, and the fruitfulnefs of moft parts
of Guinea, which are confirmed by authors of candour,
who have written from their own knowledge, it may
well be concluded, that the negroes acquaintance with -
the Europeans might have been a happinefs to them ;
but thefe, forgetful of their duty as men and Chri-,
ftians, have conduced themfelves in fo iniquitous a .
formation he received of one of the faftors who had manner, as muft neceffarily raife in the minds of the
•Smith,
j>. 266.
refided ten years in that country, fays, “ That the
difeerning natives account it their greateft unhappi-
nefs, that they were ever vifited by the Europeans. #”
“ That we Chriftians introduced the traffic of flaves ;
and that before our coming they lived in peace.”
In the accounts relating to the African trade, we
thoughtful and well-difpofed negroes the utmoft.fcora.
and deteftation of the very name of Chriftians. All
other confiderations have given way to an infatiable.
defire of gain, which has been the principal and mo¬
ving caufe of the moft dete[table and barbarous feene
that was perhaps ever afted upon the face of.the earthy
find this melancholy truth farther afferted by fome of inftead of making ufe of that fuperior knowledge with.
■f ColhSlitn,
vol. ii.
p. 58.
t ?• 3*.
the principal directors in the different factories; par¬
ticularly. A. Bruefaysf, “ That the Europeans were
far from defiring to a£t as peace-makers amongft the
negroes ; which would be acting contrary to their in-,
tereft, fince the greater the wars, the more flaves were
procured.” And William Bofman alfo remarks^;, “That,
which the Almighty, the common Parent.of. mankind,
had favoured them, to ftrengthen. the principle o£
peace and good will, in the breafts of the ineautioua..
negroes, the Europeans have, by their bad example,
led them into excefs of drunkennefs, debauchery, and
avarice ; whereby every paffion of corrupt nature be-
one of the former commanders, gave large fums of ing inflamed, they have been eafily prevailed upon to.
money to the negroes of one nation, to indiice them
to attack fome of the neighbouring.nations; which oc-
cafioned a battle which was more bloody than the
wars of the negroes ufually are.” This is confirmed
by J. Barbot, who fays, “ That the .country of D’El*
make war and captivate one another, as well to. fur-
nifh means for the exceffes they , had been habituated
to, as to fatisfy the greedy defire of gain in their pro¬
fligate employers; who to this intent have furniffied
them with prodigious quantities of arms and ammuni¬
tion.
G tJ I
[ 187 3
GUI
'Guinea. t!on. Thus they have been hurried Into cohfufion,
• diftrefs, and all the extremities of temporal mifery;
eveiy thing, even the power of their kings, has been
made fubfervient to this witked purpofe ; for inftead
of being protestors1 of their fuhjefts, fome of thofe ru¬
lers, corrupted by the exceffive love of fprituous li¬
quors, and the tempting baits laid before them by the
fattorSj have invaded the liberties of their unhappy fub-
jedls, and are become their oppreffors.
Here‘it may be neceflary to obferve, that the ac-
1 counts we have of the inhabitants of Guinea are
chiefly given by perfons engaged in the trade, who,
from felf-interefted views, have defcribed them in fuch
colours as were leaft likely to excite compaffion and
refpeft, and endeavoured to reconcile fo manifeft
abundance of the people, not only on this coaft, but Guinea,
almoft every where in Guinea, who have come on
board their ihips in a harmlefs and confiding manner s
thefe they have in great numbers carried away, and
fold in the plantations, with other flaves which they
had purchafed.” And although fome of the negroes
may be juflly charged with indolence and fupinenefs,
yet many others are frequently mentioned by authors
as a careful, induitrious, and even laborious people.
By an inquiry into the laws and cuftoms formerly in
ufe, and ftill in force amongft the negroes, particularly
on the Gold Coafl, it will be found, that provifion was
made for the general peace, and for the fafety of indi¬
viduals ; even in W. Bofman’s time, long after the
Europeans had eftablilhed the flave-trade, the natives
Violation of the rights of mankind to the minds of the were not publicly enflaved, any otherwife than in pu-
purchafers; yet they cannot but allow the negroes to nifhment for crimes, when prifoners of war, pr by i
be poffeffed of'fome good qualities, though they con¬
trive as much as pdffible to call; a (hade over them. A
particular inftance of this appears in Aftley’s Collec¬
tion, vol. ii. p. 73; where the author, fpeaking of the
Mandingos fettled at Galem, which is fituated 900
miles up the Senegal, after faying that they carry on
a commerce to all the neighbouring kingdoms, and
amafs riches, adds, “ That excepting the vices pecu¬
liar to the blacks, they are a good fort of people, ho¬
ned, hofpitable, juft to their word, laborious, induftri-
ous, and very ready to learn arts and fciences.” Here
it is difficult to imagine what vices can be peculiarly
attendant on a people fo well difpofed as the author de¬
violent exertion of the power of their corrupted kings.
Where any of the natives were ftolen in order to be
fold to the Europeans, it was done fecretly, or at leaft
only connived at by thofe in power : this appears from
Barbot and Bofman’s account of the matter, both a-
greeingthat man-ftealing was not allowed on the Gold
Coaft. The firft fays, “ Kidnapping or dealing of
human creatures is puniftied there, and even fometimes
with death.” And Bofman, whofe long refidence
on the coaft enabled him to fpeak with certainty, fays,
“ That the laws were fevere againft murder, thievery,
and adulteryand adds, “ That man-ftealing was
punifhed on the Gold Coaft with rigid feverity, and
feribes thefe to be. With refpeft to the charge fome fometimes with death itfelf.” Hence it may be con-
authors have brought againft them, as being void of all
natural affection, it is frequently contradidled by
others. In vol. ii. of the Colleftion, p. 275 and 629,
the negroes of North Guinea and the Gold Coaft are
eluded, that the fale of the greatett part of the negroes
to the Europeans is fupported by violence, in defiance
of the laws, through the knavery of their principal
men, who (as is too often the cafe with thofe in Eu-
faid to be fond of their children, whom they love with ropean countries), under pretence of encouraging trade,
tendernefs. And Bofman fays, p. 340, “ Not a few and increafing the public revenue, difregard the diftates
his country (viz. Holland) fondly imagine, that of juftice, and trample upon thofe liberties which they
parents here fell their children, men their wives, and
one brother the other: but thofe who think fo, deceive
appointed to preferve.
Moore alfo mentions man-ftealing as being difeounte-
themfelves ; for this never happens on any other ac- nanced by the negro governments on the river Gambia „
count but that of neceffity, or fome great crime.” and fpeaks of the inflaving the peaceable inhabitants.
The fame is repeated by J. Barbot, p. 326, and alfo as a violence which only happens under a corrupt ad-
—15—~A u~ “—'ul: miniftration of juftice. He fays, “ The kings of that
country generally advife with their head men, fcarcely
doing any thing of confequence without confulting
them firft, except the king of Barfailay, who being
fubjeft to hard drinking, is very abfolute. It is to this
king’s infatiable third for brandy, that his fubjefts
confirmed by Sir Hans Sloane in the introduction to
his natural hiftory of Jamaica ; where, fpeaking of the
negroes, he fays, “ they are ufually thought to be ha¬
ters of their own children; and therefore it is believed
that they fell and difpofe of them to ftrangers for mo¬
ney : but this is not true; for the negroes of Guinea
being divided into feveral captainfhips, as well as the freedoms and families are in fo precarious a fituation.
Indians of America, have wars; and befides thofe Whenever this king wants goods or brandy, he fends a
flain in battle, many prifoners are taken, who are fold meffenger to the Englifh governor at James Fort, to
as flaves, and brought thither: but the parents herej
although their children are flaves for ever, yet have fo
great love for them, that no mafters dare fell or give
away one of their little ones, unlefs they care not whe¬
ther their parents hang themfelves or no.” J. Bar¬
bot, fpeaking of the occafion of the natives of Guinea
being reprefented as a treacherous people, aferibes it
to the Hollanders (and doubtlefs other Europeans)
ufurping authority, and fomenting divifions between
defire he would fend a floop there with a cargo : this'
news being not at all unwelcome, the governor fends ac¬
cordingly ; againft the arrival of the floop, the king
goes and ranfacks fome of his enemies towns, feizing
the people, and felling them for fuch commodities as
he is in want of, which commonly are brandy, guns,
powder, balls, piftols, and cutlaffes, for his attendants
and foldiers; and coral and filver for his wives and
concubines. In cafe he is not at war with any neigh-
the negroes. At p. no, he fays, “ It is well known bouring king, he then falls upon one of his own towns.
that many of the European nations trading amongft
thefe people, have very unjuftly and inhumanly, with¬
out any provocation, ftolen away, from time to time,
which are numerous, and ufes them in the fame man¬
ner. He often goes with fome of his troops by a town
in the day time, and returning in the night, fets fire
& 2 to
GUI- [ 188 1 'GUI
Ouiuea. to three parts of it, and putting guards at the fourth,
c—y—j there feizes the people as they run out from the fire ;
he ties their arms behind them, and marches them ei¬
ther to Joar or Cohone, where he fells them to the Eu¬
ropeans.”
Mr Brue, the French direftor, gives much the fame
* Ajlley, account, and fays*, “ That having received goods,
vol. ii. he wrote to the king, that if he had a fufficient num-
^9‘ her of flaves, he was ready to trade with him. This
prince, as well as the other negro monarchs, has always
a fure way of fupplying his deficiencies, by felling his
own fubje&s, for which they feldom want a pretence.*
The king had recourfe to this method, by feizing 300
of his own people, and fent word to the direftor that
he had the flaves ready to deliver for the goods.” It
feems the king wanted double the quantity of goods
which the factor would give him for thefe 300 flaves;
but the fador refufing to truft him as he.was already
in the company’s debt, and perceiving that this refufal
had put the king much out of temper, he propofed
that he fhould give him a licence for taking fo many
more of his people as the goods he flill wanted were
worth : but this the king refufed, faying, “ 7/ might
occafion a dilturbance amongft his fubje&s.” Except
in the above inftance, and fome others, where the
power of the negro kings is unlawfully exerted over
their fubjefts, the flave-trade is carried on in Guinea
with fome regard to the laws of the country, which al¬
low of none to be fold but prifoners taken in their
national wars, or people adjudged to flavery in punifli-
ment for crimes ; but the largenefs of the country, the
number of kingdoms or commonwealths, and the great
encouragement given by the Europeans, afford fre¬
quent pretences and opportunities to the bold defign-
ing profligates of one kingdom, to furprize and feize
upon not only thofe of a neighbouring government,
but alfo the weak and hclplefs of their own ; and the
unhappy people, taken on thofe occafions, are, with
impunity, fold to the Europeans. Thefe pra&ices
are doubtlefs difapproved of by the moft confider-
ate amongft the negroes; for Bofman acquaints us,
that even their national wars are not agreeable to fuch.
He favs, “ If the perfon who occalioned the begin¬
ning of the war be taken, they will not eafily admit
him to ranfom, though his weight in gold fhould be
offered, for fear he fhould in future form fome new de-
fign againft their repofe.”
. We fhall conclude this article with the following ac¬
count of the (hocking methods ufed in the carrying on
of the flave.trade, as deferibed by faftors of different
nations.
f p. 28. Mr Moore f, fa&or for the Englifh African Com¬
pany on the river Gambia, writes, “ That there are
a number of negro traders, called joncots, o» merchants,
who follow the flave-trade as a bufinefs ; their place of
pefidence is fo high up the country as to be fix weeks
travel from James Fort, which is fitualed at the mouth
of that river. Thefe merchants bring down elephants
teeth, ancl in fome years 2000 flaves, moft of which,
they fay, are prifoners take.n in war. They buy them
from the different princes who take them ; many of
them are Bumbrongs and Pfctcharies; nations who
each of them have different languages, and are brought
from a vaft way inland. Their way of bringing them is
tying them by the neck with leather thongs, at about
a yard diftant from each other, 30 or 40 in a firing, Guinea. |
having generally a bundle of corn or elephants teeth  v—
upon each of their heads. In their way from the
mountains, they travel through very great woods,
where they cannot for fome days get water ; fo they
carry in fkin bags enough to fupport them for a time.
I cannot (adds Moore) be certain of the number of
merchants who follow this trade, but there may', per¬
haps, be about 100, who go up into the inland
country with the goods which they buy from the
white men, and with them purchafe, in various coun¬
tries, gold, flaves, and elephants teeth. Befides the
flaves which the merchants bring down, there are many
bought along the river : Thefe are either taken in war,
as the former are, or men condemned for crimes; or
elfe people Jlolen, which is very frequent.—Since the
flave-trade has been ufed, all punifhments are changed
into flavery ; there being an advantage on fuch con¬
demnation, they Jlrain for crimes very hard, in order to
get the benefit of felling the criminal.”
John Barbot, the French fadlor, in his account of
the manner by which the flaves are procured, fays,
“ The flaves fold by the negroes are for the moft part
prifoners of war, or taken in the incurfions they make
into their enemies territories; others are ftolen away by
their neighbours, when found abroad on the road, or
in the woods; or elfe in the corn fields, at the time of
the year when their parents keep them there all the day
to fcare away the devouring fmall birds.” Speaking
of the tranfa&ions on that part of Guinea called the
Slave Goaf, where the Europeans have the moft fa&o-
ries, and from whence they bring away much the
greateft number of flaves, the fame author fays, “ The
inhabitants of Goto do much mifehief in Healing thofe
flaves they fell to the Europeans from the upland
country. That the inhabitants of Popo excel the
former; being endowed with a much larger (hare of
courage, they rob more fuccefsfully, by which means
they increafe their riches and trade.” The author par¬
ticularly remarks, “ That they are encouraged in this prac¬
tice by the Europeans : fometimes it happens, according
to the fuccefs of their inland excurfions, that they are
able to furnifh 200 flaves or more in a few days.”
And he fays, “ The blacks of Fida, or Whidah, are
fo expeditious in trading for flaves, that they can de¬
liver 1000 every month.”—“ If there happens to be no
flock of flaves there, the fadlor mutl trull the blacks
with his goods, to the value of 1501. or 2001.
which goods they carry up into the inland country to
buy flaves at all markets for above 600 miles up the
country, where they are kept like cattle in Europe;
the flaves fold there being generally prifoners of war,
taken from their enemies like other booty, and perhaps-
fome few fold by their own countrymen, in extreme
want, or upon a famine, as alfo fome as a punifhment
of heinous crimes.” So far Barbot’s account. That
given by Bofman is as follows: “ When the flaves which
are brought from the inland countries come to Whi¬
dah, they are put in prifon together; when we treat
concerning buying them, they are all brought out to¬
gether in a large plain, where, by our furgeons, they
are thoroughly examined, and that naked, both men
and women, without the lead diftin£lion or modefty.
Thofe which are approved as good, are fet on one fide;
in the mean while a burning iron, with the arms or
name
GUI [ 189 ] GUI
name of the company, lies in the fire, with which ours
are marked on the breaft. When we have agreed with
the owners of the flaves, they are returned to their
prifons ; where, from that time forward, they are kept
at our charge, and coft us two pence a day each flave,
which ferves to fubfift them like criminals on bread and
water ; fo that to fave charges, we fend them on board
our (hips the very firft opportunity : before which,
their mailers ftrip them of all they have on their backs,
fo that they come on board Hark naked, as well wo¬
men as men. In which condition they are obliged to
continue, if the mailer of the fhip is not fo charitable
(which he commonly is) as to bellow fomething on
them to cover their nakednefs. Six or feven hundred
are fometimes put on board a velfel, where they lie as
clofe together as it is poflible for them to be crowded.”
When the great income which arifes to the negro
kings on the Slave Coaft, from the flaves brought
through their.feveral governments to be Ihipped on
board the European velfels, is confidered, we have no
caufe to wonder that they give fo great a countenance
to that trade. Bofman fays, e‘ That each fhip which
comes to Whidah to trade, reckoning one with ano¬
ther, either by toll, trade, or cuftom, pays about 4001.
and fometimes 50 (hips come hither in a year.”
Barbot confirms the fame,' and adds, “ That in the
neighbouring kingdom of Ardah, the duty to the king
is the value of 70 or 80 flaves for each trading Ihip;”
which is near half as much more as at Whidah. Nor
can the Europeans concerned in the trade, with any
degree of propriety, blame the African kings for coun¬
tenancing it, while they continue to fend veffels on
purpofe to take in the flaves which are thus Helen, and
that they are permitted, under the fan&ion of national
laws, to fell them to the colonies.
According to a late fenfible writer, Mr Ramfay, the
annual Britilh exports to thefe coalts are eftimated at
500,000!. including a confiderable quantity that is
annually exchanged with American and other foreign
traders there; about 50,006 1. of this is returned in
ivory, gold dull, gum, &c. The greateft part of the
profits of the flave trade is railed on the fugar planta¬
tions. . If by eltablilhing factories, and encouraging ci¬
vilization on the coa(t of Africa, and returning fome
of our Weft Indian flaves to their original country, we
tried to make up for our pall treachery to the natives,
and inftru&ed the inhabitants in the culture of tobacco,
indigo, cotton, rice, &e. to barter with us for our
manufaftures, and fupply us with thofe articles, our
demand for which has been fo advantageous to Ameri¬
ca, great would be our profits. Were Africa civilized,
and could we preoccupy the affedlions of the’ natives,
and introduce gradually our religion, manners, and lan¬
guage among them, we Ihould open a market that
would fully employ our manufacturers and feamen, mo¬
rally fpeaking, till the end of time. And while we
enriched ourfelves, we Ihould contribute to their hap-
pinefs. For Africa, in its higheft probable Hate of
culture, could not poffibly interfere with the ftaple of
Britain, fo as to hinder an extenfive and mutually ad¬
vantageous trade from being carried on between the
countries. The great difference of climate and foil
muft always diftinguifh the fupplies and wants of each.
The flave-trade indeed has been long confidcred as
difgraceful to an enlightened age; and in this country
a fpirit is arife'n which feems bent on annihilating it New
altogether, or fo changing the nature of it as to blend nt
humanity with policy. During the Seffion 1788, the '
philanthropy of parliament, fupported by that ©f the
nation, paid a very particular attention to this odious
branch of traffic. It was, however, a fubjedt of too
comprehenfive a nature, and too materially conne&ed
with our African commerce at large and our Weft In¬
dian colonies, to come to an immediate decifion upon
it. Parliament, therefore,, was obliged to cbntent it-
felf for that time with a temporary bill to regulate the
fhipping and carrying flaves in Britifh veffels from
thole coafls. But the public attention has been lince
kept awake by a great variety of publications on both-
fides of the queftion; and the final arrangement of this
important bufinefs, in which the honour of the Britifh
commerce and the Britifh charadler, as well as the hap-
pinefs of millions of our fable African brethren, is in¬
volved, is expedled to take place during the prefent
feffion 1791.—This traffic in human beings is not,
however, without its advocates. But the moll fpecious
arguments of its ableft defenders reach no further than
political expediency, which can never alter the real na¬
ture of things. That in queftion would not remain
lefs an unjuft, cruel, and wicked trade, in its very na¬
ture eflentially and unalterably wrong. Its abolition,
therefore, not in a rafh, but in as gentle and equitable
a way as circumflances will allow, is devoutly to be
wifhed, and it is hoped may.be accomphfhed..
New Guinea, a long and narrow ifland of the Eafl
Indies, very impcrfeftly known. It was fuppofed to
be connefted with New Holland, until Captain Cook
difeovered the flrait which feparates them. New Gui¬
nea, including Papua, its north-weftern part (which-
according to Bougainville’s conjecture is feparated from
it by a flrait), reaches from the equator to the 12th
degree of fouth latitude, and from 131 to 150 degrees
call longitude; in one part it does not appear to be
above 50 miles broad. It was firft vifited by an Euro¬
pean fhip in 1529. . Saavedra, a Portuguefe, who.
made the difeovery of the north weft part of this coun¬
try, called it Terra de Papuas or Papos. Van Schou-
' ten, a Dutch difeoverer, afterwards gave the name of
New-Guinea to its fouth-weftern part. Admiral Rog-
gewain alfo touched here; and before him Dampier,.
1 ft January 1700. Captain Cook made the coaft of
New-Guinea, in latitude 6 degrees 15 minutes, longi-
gitude 138 eaft, on the 3d of September, and landed
in the pinnace, accompanied by Mr Banks, Dodlor
Solander, nine of the fhip’s crew, and fervants well
armed, and leaving two feamen to take care of the
boat, advanced fome little way up the country ; but
coming to the fkirts of a thick wood, they judged it
prudent to proceed no further, left they fhould fall in¬
to an ambufeade of the natives, and their retreat to the
boat be cut off. Having advanced about a quarter of
a mile from the boat, three Indians ruftied out of the
wood with a hideous fhout ; they threw their darts,
and fhowed fuch a hoftile difpofition, that the party, to-
prevent the deftrudlion of thefe people, returned to the
boat, as they had no intention forcibly to invade their
country, either to gratify their appetites or curiofity„
and it was evident nothing could be done upon friend¬
ly terms. When they got on board the boat, they
rowed along the fhore, and the number of Indians af~
femhledi
G U l
fcmbled feemed to be between 60 and 103.
made much the fame appearance as the New-Holian-
ders, being dark naked, and their hair cropped fhort.
* All the while they were fhouting denance, and throw¬
ing fomething out of their hand which burnt exa&ly
like gun-powder, but-made no report; -what thefe fires
were, or for what purpofe intended, could not be guef-
fed at; thofe who difcharged them -had in their hands
a ihort piece of ftick, poffibly a hollow cane, which
they fwung fidewife from them, and immediately fire
and fmoke ifiued, exaftly refembling the difcharge of a
mulket, and of no longer duration. This wonderful
[ 190 T G U L
They band, The League, The plan was formed by the car¬
dinal, his younger brother; and under the pretext
of defending the Roman Catholic religion, the king
Henry III. and the freedom of the ftate, againft the ^
defign of the Huguenots, or -French Proteftants, they,
carried on a civil war, maflacred the Huguenots, and
governed the king, who forbid his appearance at Pa¬
ris : but Guife now became an open rebel, entered the
city againft the king’s exprefs order, and put to the
fword all who oppofed him ; the ftreets being barricad¬
ed to prevent his progrefs, this fatal day is called in
the French hiftory, The day of the barricades. Mafters
phaenomenon -was obferved from the fhip ; and the de- of Paris, the policy of the Guifes failed them : for they
ception was fo great, that the people on board thought fuffered the king to efcape to Blois, though he was de-
they had fire-arms; and even in the boat if they had ferted in his palace at Paris by his very guards. At
not been fo near as that they muft have heard the re- Blois, Henry convened an aflembly of the ftates of
port, if there had been any, they fhould have thought France ; the duke of Guife had the boldnefs to appear
they had been firing-volleys. After looking at them to a fummons fent him for that purpofe ; a forced re-
attentively for fome time, without taking any notice conciliation took place between him and the king, by
of their flalhing and vociferation, the failors fired fome the advice of this aflembly ; but it being accidentally
mu fleets over their heads. Upon hearing the balls difeovered, that Guife had formed a defign to de-
rattle among the trees, they walked leifurely away, throne the king, that weak monarch, inftead of refo-
and the boat returned to the fhip. Upon examining lately bringing him to juftice, had him privately affaf-
ibme weapons which the natives had thrown, they
were found to be light darts, about four feet long,
very ill made, of a reed or bamboo cane, and pointed
with hard wood, in which there were many barbs.
finated, December 23. 1558, in the 38th year of hia
age. His brother the cardinal lhared the fame fate the
next day.
GUITTAR, Guitarra, a mufical inftrument of
They were difcharged with great force, for at rio yards the ftringed kind, with five double rows of firings;
di fiance they went beyond the party; but in what of which thofe that are brafs are in the middle, except
manner they were thrown could not be exactly feen. it be for the burden, an oftave lower than the fourth.
But the general opinion was, that they were thrown This inftrument was firft ufed in Spain and by
with a ftick in the manner pra&ifed by the New-Hol- the Italians. In the former country it is ftill greatly
landers. in vogue. There are few of that nation who cannot
The land here is very low, as is every other part of play on the guittar ; and with this inftrument they fe-
the coaft ; but it is covered with a luxuriance of wood renade their miftreffes at night. At Madrid, and other
and herbage that can fcarcely be conceived. Here the
cocoa-nut, plantain, and bread-fruit, flsurifh in the
higheft perfection.
Guinea, a gold coin, (truck and current in Bri¬
tain. The value or rate of guineas has varied : it was
cities in that country, it is common to meet in the
ftreets young men equipped with a guittar and a dark
lanthorn, who, taking their ftation under the windows,
ling, and accompany their voices with this inftrument;
and there is fcarce an artificer or day-labourer in any of
firft ftruck en the footing of 20 s. by the fcarcity of the cities or principal towns who does not entertain
gold was afterwards advanced to 21 s. 6 d. but it is himfelf with his guittar.
now funk to 2 <
The pound weight troy of gold is cut into 44 parts
and a half; each part makes a guinea.—This coin
took its denomination guinea, becaufe the gold, where-
GULDENSTAEDT (John Anthony), was born
at Riga, April 26. 1745; received the rudiments of
his education in that town ; and in 1763 was admitted
into the medical college of Berlin. He completed his
of the firft was ftruck, was brought from that part of ttudies at Frankfort upon the Oder, and in 1767 1
Africa called Guinea; for which reafon it likewife bore ceived the degree of M. D. in that univerfity. On
the impreffion of an elephant. account of his knowledge of foreign languages, and
Guinea Company. See Company (African.) the confiderable progrefs he had made in natural hi-
GuiNEA-Hen, in ornithology. See Numida. ftory, he was confidered as a fit perfon to engage in the
Guinea-Pig, in zoology. See Mus. expeditions which were planned by the imperial aca-
GuiNEA-lVheat. See Zea. demy. Being invited to St Peterfburg, he arrived in
GUIPUSCOA, the n^rth-eaft divifion of the pro- that city in 1768, was created adjun& of the academy,
vince of Bifcay in Spain, fituated on the confines of and afterwards, in 1770, member of that fociety, and
Navarre. profeflbr of natural hiftory. In June 1761 he let out
GUISE, a fmall town of France in Picardy, and in upon his travels, and was abfent feven years. From
Tierache, with a very ftrong caille, and the title of a Mofcow, where he continued till March 1769, hepafs-
duchy. It is feated on the river Oufe,
3. 42. N. Lat. 49. 54.
Guise (Henry) of Lorrain, dnke of Guife (eldeft
E. Long, ed to Voronetz, Tzaritzin, Aftracan, and Kiflar, ;
fortrefs upon the weftern fhore of the Cafpian, and clofe
to the confines of Perfia. In 1770 he examined the
fon of Francois of Lorrain duke of Guife), memorable diftridts watered by the rivers Terek, Sunfha, and Alk-
in the hiftory of France as a gallant officer ; but an im- fai, in the eaftern extremity of Caucafus ; and in the
perious, turbulent, feditious fubjedt, who placed him- courfe of the eitfuing year penetrated into Olfetia, in
fifglf at the head of an armed force, and called his rebel the higheft part of the fame mountain ; where he col-
3 ledted
G U £ [ 191 ] GUM
6al» Ic^ed vocabularies of the languages fpoken in thofe re- is reprefented in engraving-by perpendicular lines. It
II gions, made inquiries into the hiftory of the people, may ferve of itfelf to denote martial prowefs, boldnefs,
, es' and difcovered fome traces of Chriilianity among them, and hardinefs: for the ancients ufed this colour to
Havimr vifrted Cabarda and the northern chain of the make themfelves terrible to their enemies, to ftir up ”
Caucafus, he proceeded to Georgia, and was admitted magnanimity, and to prevent the feeing of blood, by
to an audience of prince Heraclius, who was encamped the likenefs of the colours; for which reafon perhaps it
about ten miles from Tefflis. Having pafied the win- is ufed by the Engliih. But, according to G. Leigh*
ter here, and in examining the adjacent country, he if this tin&ure is compounded with
followed in fpring the prince to the province of Ko- Or. f Defire.
ketia, and explored the fouthern diftridfs inhabited by Arg. j | Envy.
the Turcoman Tartars in the company of a Georgian Azu. I ^ I Ardour.
magnate, whom he had: cured of a dangerous, diforder. Ver. 1 5.. Strengths
In July he paffed into Imeretia, a country which lies Pur. I . Juftice.
between the Cafpian and Black Seas, and is bounded Sab. J t Wearinefs.
on the eaft by Georgia, on the north by Offetia, on This colour is by the generality of the Englifii heralds -
the weft by Mingreiia, and on the fouth by the Turk- ranked before azure ; but French heralds, N. Upton
ilh dominions. He penetrated into the middle chain andhis followers, prefer azure to it.
of mount Caucafus, vifited the confines of Mingreiia, GULL, in ichthyology. See Larus.
Middle Georgia, and Eaftern and Lower Imeretia ; GULF, a broad and capacious bay comprehended
and, after efcaping many imminent dangers from the between two promontories, and fometimes taking the
banditti of thofe parts, fortunately returned to Kif- name of ay?a when it isivery extenfive ; but particu¬
lar on the 18th of November, where-he palled the larly when it only communicates with the fea by means
winter,' colledting various information concerning the of a ftrait. Such are the Euxine or Black Sea, other-
neighbouring Tartar tribes of the Caucafus, and par- wife called f/x Gulf of Conjlantinopk; the Adriatic
ticularly the Lefgees. In the following fummer he Sea, called alfo the Gulf of Venice ; the gulph of Si-
tourneyed to Cabarda Major, continued his courfe to dra near Barbary ; and the gulph of Lions near
mount Bdhton, the higheft point of the iirft ridge of France. All thefe gulfs are in the Mediterranean,
the Caucafus; infpeifted the mines of Madfhar, and There are, befides the gulf of Mexico, the gulf of St
went to Tcherkafti upon the Don. From thence he Lawrence, and the gulph of California, which are in
ipade expeditions to Azof and Taganrog, and then, North America. There are alfo the gulf of Perfia, o-
along the new limits to the Dnieper, he finilhed this therwife called the Red Sea, between Perfia and Ara-
car’s route at Krementlhuk, in the government of bia ;. the gulf of Bengal in India ; and the gulfs of
'lew Ruflia. In the enfuing fpring, he was proceed- Cochinchina and Kamtfchatka, near the countries of
iug to Crim Tartary; but receiving an order of recal, the fame name.
he returned through the Ukraine to Mofcow and St The word comes from the French golfe, and that
Peterfburg, where he arrived in the month, of March from the Italian golfo, which fignify the fame. Some
1775. Upon his return, he was employed in arran- deduce thefe further from the Greek ; which
ging his papers.; but before he could finifti them for Guifhart again .derives, from the Hebrew zto gob. Du
the prefs, was feized with a violent fever, which Cange derives them from the barbarous Latin gulfum^
carried him to the grave in March 1781. His wri- ox gulf us, which fignify the fame thing,
tings which have been hitherto publilhed confift of a GULLET. See Gula.
number of curious treatifes, of which, a lift is given in GUM (Gummi), is a concrete vegetable juice, of no
Coxe’s Travels, Vol. I. p„ 162-. particular fmell or tafte, becoming vifcous and tena-
GULA, in anatomy, the cefophagus or gullet; that cious when moiftened with water ; totally dilfolving in
conduit by which animals take down food into the fto- water into a liquid, more or lefs glutinous in propor-
mach. See Anatomy, n0 92. tion to the quantity of the gum.; not diffolving in vi-
GULE o/AuGusr,the day of St Peter ad vincula, nous fpirits or in oils ; burning in the fire to a black
which is celebrated on the .firit of Auguft. It is called coal, without melting or catching flame ; fuffering no
the gule of AuguJl, from the Latin gula, “ a throat,” dilfipation in the heat of boiling water,
for this ri-afon, that one Quirinus, a tribune, having. The true gums are gum arable, gum tragacanth,
a daughter that had a difeale in her throat, went to gum fenega, the gum of cherry and plum trees, and
Pope Alexander, the fixth from St Peter, and defired fuch like. All elfe have more or lefs of refin in them,
of him to fee the chains that St Peter was chained with Gvm Arabic is the produce of a fpecies of Mimosa;
under Nero ; which requeft being granted, and Ihe, which fee.
killing the chains, was cured of her difeafe ; where- The medical charafter of gum arabic is its glutinous
upon the Pope inftituted this feaft in honour of St Pe- quality, in confequence of which it ferves to incraflate
ter; and, as before, this day was termed only the and obtund thin acrid humours, fo proves ufeful in
calends of Auguft, it was on this occafion called in- tickling, coughs, alvine fluxes, hoarfenefles, in fluxea
differently either the day of.. St Peter ad-vincula, of the belly with gripes, and where the mucus is abra-
from what wrought the miracle ; or the gule of Au- ded from the bowels or from the urethra. In a dyfu-
guf, from that part of the. virgin, whereon it was ria the true gum arabic is more cooling than the other
wrought. Ample gums, fo Ihould be preferred.
GULES, in heraldry, a corruption of the French One ounce of gum arabic renders a pint of water con-
word which in this Icience lignifies red,” and fiderably glutinous; four ounces gives it a thick fyrupy; ■
£
GUM [ 192 1 GUM
Gum. confidence : but for mucilage, one part gum to two
v—v  parts water is required ; and for fome purpofes in equal
proportion will be neceffary.
Vol. i. In Dr Percival’s Effays we have the following eu-
.31^ &c. rious account, by Mr Henry, of the faculty which ,
this gum hath of diflblving and keeping fufpended
in water not only refinous but alfo other fubftances,
which Ihould feem not likely to be at all affe&ed by it.
“ One fcruple of balfam of tolu, rubbed with half
an ounce of diddled rain-water, added gradually to it
for 15 minutes, formed a mixture, which on danding
about a minute fubfided, but re-united by {baking :
being fet by a few days, the balfam became a concrete
mals, not again mifcible by {baking up the bottle. The
fame quantity required more trituration to mix it with
common pump-water. One fcruple of the fame, rub¬
bed with 15 grains of gum arabic, was nearly as long
in perfeftly uniting with half an ounce of diddled wa¬
ter as that without the gum. This was perhaps ow¬
ing to the latter piece being more refinous; however,
though on long danding there was a fmall fediment, it
immediately reunited a week after by agitation. Fif¬
teen grains of balfam capivi united very fmoothly with
half an ounce of diddled water, by the medium of three
grains of gum arabic. Five grains of the gum were
not fo effectual with pump-water. Balfam Peru ten
drops, with gum arabic three grains, diddled water
half an ounce, formed a neat white emulfion, but with
common water a very unequal mixture. Gum myrrh
(powdered that there might be no difference in the fe-
veral quantities ufed), half a fcruple, diffolved readily
with gum arabic three grains, in both kinds of water,
and even mixed with them by longer trituration with¬
out any medium, but more eafdy with diddled than
common fpring water. Olibanum, madich, gum gua-
iacum, and galbanum, may likewife be mixed with
water by rubbing, without any gum arabic or egg.
The fpring-water made ufe of in thefe experiments was
very aluminous.
“ In the making of all the faline preparations, when
any confiderable quantities of water are ufed, diddled
or pure rain or river water is greatly to be preferred ;
for the calcareous, aluminous, and felenitical matter,
which fo much abounds in mod fpring water, will ren¬
der any fait diffolved in it very impure.
“ The folution of crude mercury with mucilage of
gum arabic being fo eafdy accompldhed, and it being
very difagreeable to many patients, and to fomealmod
impoffible, to fwallow pills, bolufes, or eleftuaries, I
was induced to try whether calomel, cinnabar, and the
other heavy and metalline bodies commonly adminider-
ed only under thefe forms, might not by the fame
means be rendered mifcible with water, fo as to be gi¬
ven more agreeably in a liquid form. I accordingly
rubbed ten grains of cinnabar of antimony and a fcruple
of gum arabic, with a fufficient quantity of diddled
water to form a mucilage, and added a drachm of
fimple fyrup and three drachms more of water. This
makes an agreeable little draught; and having dood
about half an hour without depofiting any fediment, I
added three drachms more of water to it; and notwith-
danding the mucilage was rendered fo much more di¬
lute, very little of the cinnabar fubfided even after it
had dood fome days.
“ Steel Amply prepared, and prepared tin, were both
N°145-
mixed with water by their own weight of gum arabic. Gum.
and remained fufpended, except a very fmall portion of  v—■
each, which w^s not reduced to a diffidently fine
powder.
“ Five grains of calomel were mixed with two
drachms of diddled water and half a drachm of fimple
fyrup by means of five grains of gum arabic, which
kept it Efficiently fufpended: a double quantity of the
gum preferred the mixture uniform dill longer. In this
form it will be much more eafily given to children than
in fyrups, conferves, See. as a great part of it is gene¬
rally wafted, in forcing thofe vil'cid vehicles into them;
and it may be joined with fcammony and other refinous
purgatives by the fame method, and of thefe perhaps
the gum arabic would be the bed corre&or.
“ Gum arabic likewife greatly abates the difagree¬
able tade of the corrofive fublimate, mixed with water
indead of brandy ; and (from the few trials I have
made) fits eafier on the domach, and will not be fo apt
to betray the patient by the fmell of the brandy.
“ Mr Plenck, who'fird indrufted us in the method
of mixing qtfickfilver with mucilage, obferves (and
experience confirms the truth of it), that this prepa¬
ration is not fo apt to bring on a fpitting as the
argent, viv. mixed by any other medium, or as the
faline and other mercurial preparations.—How far the
theory by which he accounts for it may be jud is not
of much importance; but it may perhaps he worth
while to inquire, whether it would not be equally
effe&ual in preventing calomel, and the other prepara¬
tions of mercury, from affefting the mouth.—If .fo, is
it not improper, where a falivation is intended, to give
emulfions with gum arabic and other mucilaginous li¬
quors for the patient’s common drink, as by that means
the fpitting may be retarded ? And, on the contrary,
may it not be a ufeful medicine to diminiffi the difi-
charge when too copious ?
“ The following cafe may in fome meafure ferve to
confirm the above obfervation.—A gentleman, always
eafily affefted by mercurials, having taken about 26
grains of calomel in dofes from one to three grains, not-
withdanding he was purged every third day, was fud-
denly feized with a falivation. He fpat plentifully, his
breath was very fetid, teeth loofe, and his gums, fau¬
ces, and the margin of his tongue, greatly ulcerated
and inflamed. He was direfted to ufe the following
gargle, R. Gum. arab. femiunc. falve in aqua font,
bullient. felib. & adde mel. rofac. unc. unam. M. ft. gargar.
And to drink freely of a ptifan prepared with aq. hard,
lib. if gum. arabic. unc. if nitr.pur. drachm, ij.facchar. alb.
unc.j. His purgative was repeated the fucceeding
morning. The next day his gums were lefs inflamed,
but the floughs on his tongue, Sec. were dill as foul:
his fpitting was much the fame: he had drank about a
pint of the ptifan. Some fpt. vitrioli was added to the
gargle. From this day to the fourth he was purged
every day without effedt, his falivation dill continued,
his mouth was no better, he had negle&ed the muci-
laginous'drink. This evening he was perfuaded to drink
about a pint of it which remained, and he had it’ re¬
peated, and drank very freely of it that night. On
the fifth morning the purgative was again repeated.
Though it operated very little, yet the change was
very furprifing : his mouth was nearly well, and his
ptyalifm greatly decreafed. The ptifan was repeated;
GUM [ 193 ] GUN
and on the fixth day, being quite well, he was permitted either jaw, through which the teeth fpring from the
to go abroad.” jawbone. See Anatomy, n° 102.
In Mr Hafielquift’s Travels we have an inftance of The gums are apt to become fpongy, and to fepa-
" m' rate from the teeth; but the caufe is frequently a ftony
the extraordinary nutritive virtues of this gum. “ The
Abyfiinians (fays he) make a journey every year to
Cairo, to fell the products of their country. They muft
travel over terrible defarts, and their journey depends
as much on the weather as a voyage at fea : confer
quently they know as little as a feamanhow long they
muft be on their journey; and the neceffaries of life
may chance to fail them when the journey lafts too
long. This happened to the AbyfTinian caravan in the
year 1740, their provifions being confumed when a putrid ftate of the gums.
kind of cruft, which forms itfelf therein, which when
feparated, the gums foon return to their former ftate,
efpecially if rubbed with a mixture of the infufion of
rofes four parts, and the tinfture of myrrh one part.—
The fcurvy is another diforder which affedls the gums.
This diforder, when not manifeft in any other part,
fometimes appears in this: indeed, when a fcorbutic
diforder invades the whole habit, its firft fymptom is
they had ftill two months to travel. They were then
obliged to fearch for fomething among their merchan-
dife wherewith they might fupport nature; and found
nothing more proper than gum arabic, of which they
had carried a confiderable quantity along with them.
This ferved to fupport above tooo perfons for two
months; and the caravan at laft arrived at Cairo with¬
out any great lofs of people either by hunger or
difeafes.’’
GUN, in the military art, a fire-arm, or weapon of
offence, which forcibly difcharges a ball or other hard
and folid matter through a cylindric tube, by means of
inflamed gun-powder. See Gun-PorroER.
The word gun now includes moft of the fpecies of
fire-arms ; piftols and mortars being almoft the only
ones excepted from this denomination. They are di¬
vided into great and fmall guns: the former including
all that we alfo call cannon, ordnance, or artillery ;
Gum Seneca, is a gum extremely refembling-gum the latter includes mufquets, carabines, mufquetoons,
arabic.. It is brought to us from the country through blunderbuffes, fowling-pieces, &c.
which the river Senega runs, in loofe or fingle drops:
but thefe are much larger than thofe of the gum ara¬
bic ufually are ; fometimes it is of the bignefs of an
egg, and fometimes much larger: the furface is very
rough or wrinkled, and appears much lefs bright than
the inner fubftance where the maffes are broken. It
has no fmell, and fcarce any tafte. It is probably pro¬
duced from a tree of the fame kind with the former.
The virtues of it are the fame with the gum arabic ;
but it is rarely ufed in medicine, unlefs as mixed with
the gum arabic: the dyers and other artificers confume
It is not known at what time thefe weapons were
firft invented. Though, comparatively fpeaking, the
introdudlion of guns into the weftern part of the world
is but of a modern date ; yet it is certain that in fome
parts of Afia they have been ufed, though in a very
rude and imperfeft manner, for many ages.—Philo-
ftratus fpeaks of a city near the river Hyphafis in the
Indies, which was faid to be impregnable, and that its
inhabitants were relations of the gods,becaufe they threw
thunder and lightning upon their enemies. Hence fome
imagine that guns were ufed by the eaftern nations even
the great quantities of it that are annually imported in the time of Alexander the Great; but however this
hither. The negroes diffolve it in milk, and in that may be, many of our modern travellers affert that they
ftate make it a piincipal ingredient in many of their were ufed in China as far back as the year of Chrift 85,
dilhcs, and often feed on it thus alone. —* 1 J "r —
GuMpragacanth, the gum of the tragacanth, a thorny
bufh growing in Crete, Afia, and Greece. See A-
STRAGALUS,
and have continued in ufe ever fince.
The firft hint of the invention of guns in Europe is
in the works of Roger Bacon, who fiourilhed in the
13th century. In a treatife written by him about the
Other fubftances known by the name oigums are as year 1280, he propofes to apply the violent explofive
foHo’
Gum Ammoniac. See Ammoniac.
Gum Elemi. See Amyris.
Gum Keno. See Keno.
Gvm Gualacum. See Guaiacum.
Gum Lacca. See Coccus and Lacca.
Gum, among gardeners, a kind of gangrene inci¬
dent to fruit trees of the (tone kind, arifing from a
corruption of the fap, which, by its vifcidity, not be¬
ing able to make its way through the fibres of the tree,
is, by the protrufion of ether juice, made to extrava-
fate and ooze out upon the bark.
When the diftemper furrounds the branch, it admits
of no remedy; but when only on one part of a bough,
it fhould be taken off to the quick, and fome cow-
dung clapped on the wound, covered over with a linen
force of gun-powder for the deftru&ion of armies. In
1320, Bartholomew Schwartz, a German monk, is
commonly faid to have invented gun-powder, though
it is certainly known that this compofition is deferibed
by Bacon in fome of his treatifes long before the time
of Schwartz. The following is faid to have been the
manner in which Schwartz invented gun-powder. Ha¬
ving pounded the materials for it in a mortar, which
he afterwards covered with a ftone, a fpark of fire ac¬
cidentally fell into the mortar and fet the mixture on
fire; upon which the explofion blew the ftone to a con¬
fiderable diftance. Hence it is probable that Schwartz
might be taught the fimpleft method of applying it in
war; for Bacon feems rather to have conceived the
manner of ufing it to be by the violent effort of the flame
„ ,. unconfined, and which is indeed capable of producing
cloth, and tied down. M. Quiminie dire&s to cut off aftonilhing effefts *. The figure and name of mortars * See Cun-
the morbid branch two or three inches below the part given to a fpecies of old artillery, and their employmejit
(which was throwing great ftone-bullets at an elevation),
very much corroborates this conjefture.
Soon after the time of Schwartz, we find guns
commonly made ufe of as inftruments of war. Great
A a guns
the
affeaed.
GUMMA, a fort of venereal excrefcence
periofteum of the bones.
GUM£* in anatomy, the hard flefliy fubftance in
Von. VIII. Part I.
GUN [ 194 1 GUN
guns were firft ufed. They were originally made of
iron-bars foldered together^ and fortified with ftrong
iron-hoops; fome of which are ftill to be feen, viz. one
in the Tower of London, two at Woolwich, and one
in the royal arfenal at Lifbon. Others were made of
thin iheets of iron rolled up together and hooped; and
on emergencies they were made of leather, with plates
of iron or copper. Thefe pieces were made in a rude
and imperfeft manner, like the firft effays of many new
inventions. Stone-balls were thrown out of them, and
a fmall quantity of powder ufed on account of their
weaknefs. Thefe pieces had no ornaments, were placed
on their carriages by rings, and were of a cylindrical
form. When or by whom they were made is uncer¬
tain : the Venetians, however, ufed cannon at the fiege
of Claudia Jeffa, now called Chioggia, in 1366, which
were brought thither by two Germans, with fome
powder and leaden balls; as like wife in their wars with
the Genoefe in 1379. King Edward III. made ufe of
cannon at the battle of Creffy in 1346, and at the fiege
of Calais in 1347. Gannon were made ufe of by the
Turks at the iiege of Conftantinople, then in pofief-
fion of the Chriftians, in 1394, and in that of 1452,
that threw a weight of loolb. but they generally burft
either the firft, fecond, or third ftrot. Louis XII. had
one caft at Tours, of the fame fize, which threw a
ball from the Baftile to Charenton. One of thofe fa¬
mous cannon was taken at the fiege of Dieu in 1546,
by Don John de Caftro; and is in the caftle of St Jui-
liao da Barra, 10 miles from Lilbon : its length is 20
feet 7 inches, diameter at the centre 6 feet 3 inches,
and it difcharges a ball of toolb. It has neither dolphins,
rings, nor button ; is of a curious kind of metal; and
has a large Indoftan infeription upon it, which fays it
was caft in 1400.
Formerly the cannon were dignified with uncommon
names; for, in 1503, Louis XII. had 12 brafs can¬
non caft, of an extraordinary fize, called after the
names of the 12 peers of France. The Spanifh and
Portuguefe called them after their faints. The empe¬
ror Charles V. when he marched before Tunis, founded
the 12 apoftles. At Milan there is a 70 pounder,
called the Pimontelle; and one at Bois-le-duc, called
the Devil. A 60 pounder at Dover-caftle, called Shieen
Elizabeth's pocht-pijlol. An 80 pounder in the Tower
of London (formerly in Edinburgh-caftle), called
Mounts-meg. An 80 pounder in the royal arfenal at
Berlin, called the Thunderer. An 80 pounder at Ma-
lago, called the Terrible. Two curious 60 pounders
in the arfenal at Bremen, called the Mejfengers of bad
news.. And, laftly, an uncommon 70 pounder in the
caftle of St Angelo at Rome, made of the nails that
faftened the copper-plates which covered the ancient
Pantheon, with this infeription upon it: Ex clavis
irabalibus porticus Agrippee,
In the beginning of the 15 th century thefe uncom¬
mon names were generally abolilhed, and the following
more univerfal ones took place, viz.
Cannon royal, or
carthoun
Baftard cannon,
or l carthoun
\ Carthoun
Whole culverins
Pounders.
| =48
Cwt.
about 90
79
60
5-0
Pounders. Cwt.
Demi culverins —9 30
Falcon =6 25
C loweft fort =: 5 13
Sacker -^ordinary =6 ij"
(.largeft fize zz 8 18
Bafilific =48 85
Serpentine =4 8
Afpic zz 2 7
Dragon =6 12
Syren =60 81
Falconet = 3, 2, & 1 15, to, y.
Moyens, which carried a ball of 10 or 12 ounces, &c.
Rabinet, which carried a ball of 16 ounces.
Thefe curious names of beafts and birds of prey
were adopted on account of their fwiftnefs in motion
or of their cruelty ; as the falconet, falcon, facker, and
culverin, &c. for their fwiftnefs in flying; the bafili/k,
ferpentine, afpike, dragon, fyren, &c. for their cruelty.
At prefent cannon take their names from the -weight
of the ball they difeharge. Thus a piece that difchar¬
ges a ball of 24 pounds, is called a 2\ pounder; one
that carries a ball of 12 pounds, is called a 12 poun¬
der; znA fo of the reft, divided into the following
forts, viz.
Ship-guns, confifting in 42, 36, 32, 24, 18, 12,
9, 6, and 3 pounders.
Garrifon-guns, in 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, and 6
pounders.
Battering-guns, in 24, 18, and 12 pounders.
Field-pieces, in 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, 14, ij and £
pounders.
Mortars are thought to have been fully as ancient
as cannon. They were employed in the wars of
Italy, to throw balls of red-hot iron, ftones, &c. long
before the invention of ftiells. Thefe laft are thought
to be of German invention, and the ufe of them in war
to have been taught by the following accident. A citi¬
zen of Venlo, at a certain feftival celebrated in honour
of the duke of Cleves, threw a number of /hells, one
of which fell on a houfe and fet fire to it, by which
misfortune the greateft part of the town was reduced
to a/hes. The firft account of /hells ufed for military
purpofes is in 1435, when Naples was befieged by
Charles VIII. Hiftory informs us with more certainty,
that /hells were thrown out of mortars at the fiege of
Wachtendonk, in Guelderland, in iyS8, by the Earl
of Mansfield. Mr Maker, an Engli/h engineer, firft
taught the French the art of throwing /hells, which
they praftifed at the fiege of Motte in 1634. The
method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars was
firft certainly put in pratlice at the fiege of Stralfund
in 1675 by the ele&or of Brandenburgh; though fome
fay in 1653 at the fiege of Bremen. For the proper
dimenfions of guns, their weight, the metal of which
they are formed, &c. fee the article Gunnery.
Mu/kets were firft ufed at the fiege of Rhege in the
year 1521. The Spaniards were the firft who armed
part of their foot with thefe weapons. At fit ft they
were very heavy, and could not be ufed without a reft;
They had match-locks, and did execution at a great
diftance. On their march the foldiers carried only
the refts and ammunition, and had boys to bear their
mu fleets after them. They were very flow in loading,
not only by reafon of the unwieldinefs of their pieces,
4 and
GUN l i95 ] GUN
Oanddh, and becaufe they carried the powder and ball feparate,
Gunetlus. j3Ut from tiie t;me jt took to prepare and adjuft the
- v match ; fo that their fire was not near fo briik as ours
is now. Afterwards a lighter matchlock-mulket
came in ufe: and they carried their ammunition in
bandeliera, to which were hung fereral little cafes of
wood covered with leather, each containing a charge
of powder. The balls were carried loofe in a pouch,
and a priming-horn hanging by their fide. The muf-
kets with refts were ufed as late as the beginning of
the civil wars in the time of Charles T. The lighter
kind fucceeded them, and continued till the beginning
of the prefent century, when they alfo were difufed,
and the troops throughout Europe armed with fire¬
locks.
GUNDELIA, in botany : A genus of the poly-
gamia fegregats order, belonging to the fyngenefia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofita. There is fcarce any
calyx, but quinqueflorous, with tubular hermaphrodite
florets ; the receptacle briftly, with fcarce any pappus.
GUNELLUS, in ichthyology. See Blennius.
GUNNER, an officer appointed for the fervice of Gunner,
the cannon, or one /killed to fire the guns. Gunner*.
In the Tower of London, and other garrifons, as
well as in the field, this officer carries a field ftaff, and
a large powder-horn in a firing over his left Ihoulder :
he marches by the guns; and when there is any appre-
henfion of danger, his field-ftaff is armed with match.
His bufinefs is to lay the gun to pafs, and to help to
load and traverfe her.
Mafter Gunner, a patent-officer of the ordnance,
who is appointed to teach all fuch as learn the art of
gunnery, and to certify to the mafter-general the abi¬
lity of any perfon recommended to be one of the king's
gunners. To every fcholar he adminifters an oath
not to ferve, without leave, any other prince or ftate;
or teach any one the art of gunnery but fuch as have
taken the faid oath.
GUNNERA, in botany ; a genus of the diandria
order, belonging to the gynandria clafs of plants. The
amentum confirts of uniflorous fcales ; there is neither
calyx nor corolla; the germen is bidented, with twro
ftyles and one feed.
GUNNERY,
IS the art of charging, dire&ing, and exploding fire¬
arms, as cannons, mortars, muikets, &c. to the beft
advantage.—As this art depends greatly on having the
guns and Ihot of a proper fize and figure, and well
adapted to each other, it hence follows that the proper
dimenfions, &c. of cannon and fmall arms come pro¬
perly to be confidered under the prefent article.
Sect. I. Hiftory of Gunnery.
The ancients, who knew not the ufe of gunpowder
and fire-arms, had notwithftandiilg machines which
were capable of difcharging ftooes, darts, and arrows,
with great force. Thefe were a&uated chiefly by the
elaftic force of ropes, or of ftrong fprings, and re¬
quired a great number of men to work them ; for
which reafon, the explofion of gunpowder, as afting
inftantaneoufly, and feemingly with irrefiftible force,
feemed to be a moft proper fuccedaneum for all the
powers by which the military engines in former times
were aftuated. It foon appeared, however, that this
force was not very eafily applied. Though the expe¬
riment of Bartholomew Schwartz, mentioned under the
article GunJ had given a good hint towards this ap¬
plication in a fuccefsful manner, yet the violent re¬
action of the inflamed powder on the containing veflels
rendered them very apt to burft, to the great danger
of thofe wdio flood near them. The gunpowder in
thofe days, therefore, was much weaker than it is now
made; though this proved a very infufficient remedy for
the inconvenience above mentioned. It was alfo foon
difcovered, that iron-bullets of muchlefs weight than
ftone ones would be more efficacious if impelled by
greater quantities of ftronger powder. This occafioned
an alteration in the matter and form of the cannon,
which were now call of brafs. Thefe were lighter and
more manageable than the former, at the fame time
that they were ftronger in propordon to their bore.
Thus they were capable of enduring greater charges
of a better powder than what had been formerly ufed;
and their iron-bullets (which were from 40 to 60
pounds weight), being impelled with greater velocities,
were more effe&ual than the heavieft ftones could ever
prove. This change took place about the latter end
of the 15th century.
By this means powder compounded in the manner
now praCtifed over all Europe came firft in ufe. But
the change of the proportion of materials was not the
only improvement it received. The method of grain¬
ing it is undoubtedly a confiderable advantage. At
firft the powder was always in the form of fine meal,
fuch as it was reduced to by grinding the materials
together. It is doubtful whether the firft graining
of powder was intended to increafe its ftrength, or
only to render it more convenient for filling into fmall
charges and the charging of fmall arms, to which
alone it was applied for many years, whilft meal-powder
was ftill made ufe of for cannon. But at laft the ad¬
ditional ftrength which the grained powder was found
to acquire from the free paffage of the air between the
grains, occafioned the meal-powder to be entirely laid
afide.
For the laft two hundred years, the formation of
cannon hath been very little improved; the beft pieces
of modern artillery differing little in their proportions
from thofe ufed in the time of Charles V. Indeed
lighter and Ihorter pieces have been often propofed
and effayed ; but though they have their advantages
in particular cafes, yet it feems now to be agreed
that they are altogether infufficient for general fervice.
But though the proportions of the pieces have- not
been much varied within that period, yet their ufe and
application have undergone confiderable alterations;
the fame ends being now accomplifhed by fmaller
pieces than what were formerly thought neceffary.
Thus the battering cannon now universally approved
of are thofe formerly called demi-cannons, carrying
a ball of 24 pounds weight; it being found by expe¬
rience, that their ftroke, though lefs violent than that
A a 2 of
296
Theory. 0f larger pieces, is yet fufficiently adapted to the
Vl' * ,J- ftrength of the ufual profiles of fortification ; and that
the facility of their carriage and management, and
the ammunition they fpare, give them great advanta¬
ges beyond the whole cannons formerly employed in
making breaches. The method alfo of making a
breach, by firft cutting off the whole wall as low as
.pofiible before its upper part is attempted to be beat
down, feems alfo to be a confiderable modern improve¬
ment in the pradical part of gunnery. But the moft
confiderable improvement in the practice is the method
of firing with fmall quantities of powder, and eleva¬
ting the piece fo that the.bullet may juit go clear of
the parapet of the enemy, and drop into their works.
By this means the bullet, coming to the ground at a
fmall angle, and with a fmall velocity, does not bury
itfelf, but bounds or rolls along in the diredion in
which it was fired : and therefore, if, the piece be pla¬
ced in a line with the battery it is intended to filence,
or the front it is to fweep, each Ihot rakes the whole
length of that battery or front ; and has thereby a
much greater chance of difabling the defendants, and
difmounting their cannon, than it would have if fired
in the common manner. This method was invented
by Vauban, and was by him ftyled Batterie a Ri¬
cochet. It was firft put in pradice in the year
1692 at the fiege of Acth.— Something fimilar to
this was put in pradice by the king of Pruflia at
the battle of Rolbach in 1757. He had feveral fix-
inch mortars, made with trunnions and mounted on
travelling carriages, which fired obliquely on the ene¬
my’s lines, and amongft their horfe. They were
charged with eight ounces of powder, and elevated at
an angle of one degree fifteen minutes, and did great
execution ; for the ftiells rolling along the lines with
burning-fufes made the ftouteft of the enemy not wait
for their burfting.
Sect. II. Theory of Gunnery.
Theory of The ufe of fire-arms had been known for a long
gunnery time, before any theory concerning them was at-
at' tempted. The firft author who wrote profeffedly on
Tartalea y t^e of cannon-fhot was Tartalea. In 1537 he
publilhed a book, at Venice, intitled Nova Sclentia ;
and afterwards another, intitled §>u/?fiti et Inventioni
diverf, printed at the fame place in 1546, in which
he treats profeffedly on thefe motions. His difcove-
ries were but few, on account of the imperfed Hate
of mechanical knowledge at that time. However, he
determined, that the greateft range of cannon was with
an elevation of 45 degrees. He likewife determined,
(contrary to the opinion of praditioners), that no part
of the trad defcribed by a bullet was a right line ;
although the curvature was in fome cafes fo little, that
it was not attended to. He compared it to the fur-
face of the fea; which, though it appears to be a
plane, is yet undoubtedly incurvated round the centre
of the earth. He alfo affumes to himfelf the inven¬
tion of the gunner’s quadrant, and often gave ftirewd
gueffes at the event of fome untried methods. But as
he had not opportunities of being converfant in the
pradice, and founded his opinions only on fpeculation,
he was condemned by moft of the fucceeding writers,
though often without any fufficient reafon. The phi-
lofophers of thofe times alfo intermeddled in the que-
GUNNERY, Sea:. IT.
ftions hence arifing ; and many difputCs bn motion Theory,
were fet on foot (efpecially in Italy), which continued -v—*™*
till the time of Galileo, and probably gave rife to his
celebrated Dialogues on motion. Thefe were pub¬
lilhed in the year 1638 ; but in this interval, and be¬
fore Galileo’s dodrine was thoroughly eftablilhed,
many theories of the motion of military projediles,
and many tables of their comparative ranges at differ^
ent elevations, were publilhed ; all of them egregioufly
fallacious, and utterly irreconcileable with the mo¬
tions of thefe bodies. Very few of the ancients in¬
deed refrained from indulging themfelves in fpecula-
tions concerning the difference betwixt natural, vio-i
lent, and mixed motions ; although fcarce any two of
them could agree in their theories. 3
It is ftrange, however, that, during all thefe con- Experl-
tefts, fo few of thofe who were intrufted with them!Tts,,y
charge of artillery thought it worth while to bring
thefe theories to the left of experiment. Mr Robins fhe ranges
informs us, in his Preface to the New Principles of of artillery..
Gunnery, that he had met with no more than four
authors who had treated on this fubjed. The firft
of thefe is Collado, who has given the ranges of a fal¬
conet carrying a three-pound Ihot to each point of the'
gunner’s quadrant. But from his numbers it is ma-
nifeft, that the piece was not charged with its cufto-
mary allotment of gun-powder. The refults of his
trials were, that the point-blank Ihot, or that in which
the path of the ball did not fenfibly deviate from a
right line, extended 268 paces. At an elevation of
one point (or of the gunner’s quadrant) the range
was 594 paces ; at an elevation of two points, 794
paces; at three points, 954 paces; at four, 1010;
at five, 1040 ; and at fix, 1053 paces. At the fe-
venth point, the range fell between thofe of the third
and fourth ; at the eighth point, it fell between the
ranges of the fecond and third; at the ninth point,
it fell between the ranges of the firft and fecond ; at
the tenth point, it fell between the point-blank di-
ftance and that of the firft point ; and at the eleventh
point, it fell very near the piece.—The paces fpoke
of by this author are not geometrical ones, but com¬
mon fteps.
The year after Collado’s treatife, another appeared
on the fame fubjed by one Bourne an Englilhman.
His elevations were not regulated by the points of
the gunner’s quadrant, but by degrees ; and he afcer-
tains the proportions between the ranges at different
elevations and the extent of point-black Ihot. Ac¬
cording to him, if the extent of the point-blank (hot
be reprefented by 1, the range at 50 elevation will be
2^, at io° it will be 3-^, at 150 it will be 4f,
at 20" it will be 4I-, and the greateft random will be
5-I-. This laft, he tells us, is in a calm day when the
piece is elevated to 420; but according to the fttength
of the wind, and as it favours or oppofes the flight
of the (hot, it may be from 450 to 36'J.—He hath not
informed us with what piece he made his trials ;
though by his proportions it feems to have been a
fmall one. This however ought to have been attended
to, as the relation between the extent of different ran¬
ges varies extremely according to the velocity and den-
iity of the bullet.
After him Eldred and Anderfon, both Englifhmen,
publiihed treatifes on this fubjedt. The firft pub-
lifhed
G TJ ^ST jST E R Y .
Plate ccxm
/ Q f .
<• ///, ///tf iXI.
/iSbu n<j/t3>
^Oa^ajsaAJe^jOed..
ts/ dce/i/unv (
(ife .
Sea. ii. gun:
Theory, lifiied his treatife ii^ 16+6, and has given the aftual
v-—\  ranges of ^different pieces of artillery at fmall elevations
all under ten degrees. His principles were not rigo-
roufly true, though not liable to very confiderable
errors ; yet, in confequence of their deviation from the
truth, he found it impoffible to make fome of his expe¬
riments agree with his principles.
4 > In 163.8, Galileo printed his dialogues on motion.
theory * tije^e ‘ie pointed out the general laws obferved by
nature in the produ&ion and compofition of motion ;
and was the firft who defcribed the aftion and effe&s
of gravity on falling bodies. On thefe principles he
determined, that the flight of a cannon fhot,. or any
other proje&ile, would be in the curve of a parabola,
except in as far as it was diverted from that track by
the rehdance of the air. He has alfo propofed the
means of examining the inequalities which arife from
thence, and of difeovering what fenfible effects that
reilftance would produce in the motion of a bullet at
fome given diitance from the piece.'
Though Galileo had thus fhown, that, independent
of the refiftance of the air, all projectiles would, in
their flight, dr fori be the curve of a parabola ; yet
thofe who came after him, feem never to have imagi¬
ned that it was neceffary to confider how far the ope¬
rations of gunnery were affeCted by this refiflance.
The fubfequent writers indeed boldly afferted, without
making the experiment, that no conliderable variation
coidd arife from the refiitance of the air in the flight
of fhells or cannon {hot. In this perfuafion they fup-
ported themfelves chiefly by conhdering the extreme
rarity of the air, compared with thofe denle and
ponderous bodies; and at laft it become an almoft ge¬
nerally eftabliflied maxim, that the flight of thefe bo¬
dies was nearly in the curve of a parabola.
5 In 1674, -^r Anderfon above-mentioned publilh-
New theo- gg his treatife on the nature and effeCfs of the gun ; in
derfcnAn* Proceeds on the principles of Galileo, and
ftrenuoufly aflerts, that the flight of all bullets is in
the curve of a parabola ; undertaking to anfwer all
objeftions that could be brought to the contrary. The
fame thing was alfo undertaken by Mr Blonde], in a
treatife publifhed at Paris in 1683 ; where, after long
difeuffion, the author concludes, that the variations
from the air’s refiftance are fo flight as fcarce to merit
^notice. The fame fubjeCf is treated of in the Philofo-
phical TranfaCtions, N 216. p. 68. by Dr Halley ;
and he alfo, fwayed by the very great difproportion be¬
tween the denfity of the air and that of iron or lead,
thinks it reafonable to believe, that the oppofition of
the air to large metal-fhot is fcarcely difcernible ; al¬
though in fmall and light (hot he ovtfns that it muft be
accounted for.
But though this hypothefis went on fmoothly in
fpeculation ; yet Anderfon, who made a great number
of trials, found it impofiible to fupport it without fome
new modification. For though it does not appear
that he. ever examined the comparative ranges of either
cannon or mufket fhot when fired with their ufual
velocities, yet his experiments on the langes of fhells
thrown with fmall velocities (in comparifon of thofe
above-mentioned), convinced him that their whole
trad was not parabolical. But inftead of making
the proper inferences from hence, and concluding the
refiftance of the air to be.of confiderable efficacy, he
si E R Y. 197
framed a new hypothefis; which was, that the fliell or Theory
bullet, at its firlt difeharge, flew to a certain diftance —y—
in a right line, from the end of which line only it be¬
gan to deferibe a parabola. And this right line,
which he calls the line of the impulfe of the fire, he
fuppofes to be the fame in all elevations. Thus, by
affigning a proper length to this line of impulfe, it was
always in his power to reconcile any two fhots made
at different angles, let them differ as widely as we
pleafe to fuppofe. But this he could not have done with
three {hots ; nor indeed doth he ever tell us the event
of his experiments when three ranges were tried at
one time. 6
When Sir Ifaac Newton’s Principia was publifhed, Laws of
he particularly confidered the refiftance of the a'r 1:0 Infance^aid
projediles which moved with fmall velocities ; but as j,y
he never had an opportunity of making experiments Newton,
on thofe which move with fuch prodigious fwiftnefs,
he did not imagine that a difference in velocity could
make fuch differences in the refiftance as are now found
to take place. Sir Ifaac found, that, in fmall velocities,
the refiftance was increafed in the duplicate proportion
of the fwiftnefs with which the body moved ; that is,
a body moving with twice the velocity of another of
equal magnitude, would meet with four times as much
refiftance as the firft, with thrice the velocity it would ^
meet with nine times the refiftance, &c.—This prin- Erroneous
ciple itfelf is now found to be erroneous with regard to in military
military projediles; though, if it had been properly P'°je<aile8i
attended to, the refiftanee of the air might even from
thence have been reckoned much more c.mfiderable
than was commonly done. So far, however, were
thofe who treated this fubjed fcientificaliy, from gi¬
ving a proper allowance for the refiftance of the atmo-
fphere, that their theories differed moft egregiovjfly
from the truth. Huygens alone feems to have at¬
tended to this principle : for, in the year 1690, he
publifhed a treatife on Gravity, in which he gave an
account of fome experiments tending to prove, that the
track of all projediles moving with very fvvift mo¬
tions was widely different from that of a parabola.
All the reft of the learned acquiefced in the juftnefs of
Galileo’s dodrine, and very erroneous calculations
concerning the ranges of cannon were accordingly
given. Nor was any notice taken of thefe errors till the 8
year 1716. . At that time Mr Reffons, a French offi- Ah drefe -
cer of artillery, diftinguifhed by the number of neges
at which he had ferved, by his high military rank, and ferent from
by his abilities in his profeffion, gave in a memoir to the truth,
the Royal Academy, of which he was a member, im¬
porting, that, “ although it was agreed, that theory
joined with pfadice did conftitute the perfedion of
every art; yet experience had taught him, that theory
was of very little iervice in the ufe of mortars: That
the works of M. Blondel had juftly enough deferibed
the feveral parabolic lines, according to the different
degrees of the elevation of the piece ; but that prac¬
tice had convinced him, there was no theory in the ef-
fed of gunpowder; for having endeavoured, with the
greateft precifion, to point a mortar agreeably to thefe
calculations, he had never been able to eilablifh any
folid foundation upon them.”
From the biliary of the academy, it doth not appear
that the fentiments of Mr Reffons were at any time
controverted, or any reafon offered for the failure of
the.-
198 gunner y. Sea. IL
Theory, the theory of projectiles when applied to ufe. Nothing
v farther, however, was done till the time of Benjamin
Robins, who in 1742 publifhed a treatife, intitled,
Mr Robins New Principles of Gunnery, in which he hath treated
firft intro- particularly not only of the refiftance of the atmo-
duces a true fphere, but almoft every thing elfe relating to the flight
theory. 0f m;i;tary proje&iles, and indeed advanced the theory
of gunnery much nearer perfection than ever it was
IO before.
His method The firft thing confideredby Mr Robins, and which
of determi- is indeed the foundation of all other particulars rela-
iung the tive to gunnery, is the explofive force of gunpowder.
Bunnow- This he determined to be owing to an elaftic fluid ft-
der. milar to our atmofphere, having its elaftic force greatly
incrcafed by the heat. “ If a red-hot iron (fays he)
be included in a receiver, and the receiver be exhauft-
ed, and gunpowder be then let fall on the iron, the pow¬
der will take fire, and the mercurial gage will fuddenly
defeend upon the explofion ; and though it immedi¬
ately afeends again, it will never rife to the height it
firft ftood at, but will continue deprefltd by a fpace
proportioned to the quantity of powder which was let
fall on the iron.—The fame produ&ion likewife takes
place when gunpowder is fired in the air : for if a fmall
quantity of powder is placed in the upper part of a
glafs tube, the lower part of which is immerfed in wa¬
ter, and the fluid be made to rife fo near the top, that
only a fmall portion of air is left in that part where
the gunpowder is placed ; if in this fituation the com¬
munication of the upper part of the tube with the ex¬
ternal air is clofed, and the gunpowder fired, which
may be eafily done by means of a burning-glafs, the
water will in this experiment defeend on the explofion,,
as the quickfilver did in the laft ; and will always con¬
tinue deprefled below the place at which it ftood be¬
fore the explofion. The quantity of this depreflion
will be greater if the quantity of powder be increafed,
or the diameter of the tube be diininifbed.
“ When any confiderable quantity of gunpowder
is fired in an exhaufted receiver, by being let fall on a
red-hot iron, the mercurial gage inftantly defeends
upon the explofion, and as fuddenly afeends again.
After a few vibrations, none of which except the firft
are of any great extent, it feemingly fixes at a point
lower than where it ftood before the explofion. But
even when the gage has acquired this point of appa¬
rent reft, it ftill continues fifing for a confiderable
time, although by fuch imperceptible degrees, that it
can only be difeovered by comparing its place at di-
ftant intervals: however, it will not always continue
to afeend ; but will rife flower and flower, till at laft it
will be abfolutely fixed at a point lower than where the
mercury ftood before the explofion. The fame cir-
cumftances neatly happen, when powder is fired in the
upper part of an unexhaufted tube, whofe lower part
is immerfed in water.
“ That the elafticity or preffure of the fluid produ¬
ced by the firing of gunpowder is, cateris paribus, di-
reftly as its denfity, may be proved from hence, that
if in the fame receiver a double quantity of powder be
let fall, the mercury will fubfide twice as much as in
the firing of a Angle quantity. Alfo the defeents of
the mercury, when equal quantities of powder are fired
in different receivers, are reciprocally as the capacities
of thofe receivers, and confequently as the denfity of
produced fluid in each. But as, in the ufual method of Theory,
trying this experiment, the quantities of powder are *—v—“
fo very fmall that it is difficult to afeertain thefe pro¬
portions with the requifite degree of exaftnefs, I took
a large receiver containing about 520 inches, and let¬
ting fall at once on the red-hot iron one drachm or the
fixteenth part of an ounce avoirdupois of powder, the
receiver being firft nearly exhaufted ; the mercury, after
the explofion, was fubfided two inches exadtly, and all
the powder had taken fire. Then heating the iron a
fecond time, and exhaufting the receiver as before, two
drachms were let down at once, which funk the mer¬
cury three inches and three qaarters ; and a fmall part
of the powder had fallen befide the iron, which (the
bottom of the receiver being wet) did not fire, and the
quantity which thus efcaped did appear to be nearly
fufficient, had it fallen on the iron, to have funk the
mercury a quarter of an inch more ; in which cafe the
two defeents, viz. two inches and four inches, would
have been accurately in the proportion of the refpec-
tive quantities of powder; from which proportion, as
it was, they very little varied.
“ As different kinds of gunpowder produce diffe¬
rent quantities of this fluid, in proportion to their dif¬
ferent degrees of goodnefs, before any definite deter¬
mination of this kind can take place, it is neceffary to
afeertain the particular fpecies of powder that is pro-
pofed to be ufed. (Here Mr Robins determines in
all his experiments to make ufe of government-powder,
as confifting of a certain and invariable proportion of
materials, and therefore preferable to fuch kinds as
are made according to the fancy of private perfons.)
“ This being fettled, we muft further premife thefe
two principles: 1. That the elafticity of this fluid in-
creafes by heat and diminiflres by cold, in the fame
manner as that of the air; 2. That the denfity of
this fluid, and confequently its weight, is the fame
with the weight of an equal bulk of air, having the
fame elafticity and the fame temperature. Now from
the laft experiment it appears, that Tly of an ounce a-
voirdupois or about 27 grains Troy of powder, funk
the gage, on its explofion, two inches; and the mercury
in the barometer ftanding at near 30 inches, -rg-ths of
an ounce avoirdupois, or 410 grains Troy, would have
filled the receiver with a fluid whofe elafticity would
have been equal to the whole preffure of the atmo¬
fphere, or the fame with the elafticity of the air we
breathe ; and the content of the receiver being about
520 cubic inches, it follows, that 4-g-ths of an ounce of
powder will produce 520 cubic inches of a fluid poffef-
fing the fame degree of elafticity with the common air;
whence an ounce of powder will produce near 575 cu¬
bic inches of fuch a fluid.
“ But in order to afeertain the denfity of this fluid,
we muft confider what part of its elafticity, at the time
of this determination, was owing to the heat it recei¬
ved from the included hot-iron and the warm receiver.
Now the general heat of the receiver being manifeftly
lefs than that of boiling water, which is known to in-
creafe the elafticity of the air to fomewhat more than
£ of its augmented quantity ; I colleft from hence and
other circumftances, that the augmentation of daftici-
ty from this caufe was about \ of the whole : that is,
if the fluid arifing from the explofion had been reduced
to the temperature of the external air, the defeent of
the
Sea. II. GUN
Theory, the mercurial gage, inftead of two inches, would have
-v ■— been only 14-inch ; whence 575, reduced in the propor¬
tion of five to lour, becomes 460 ; and this laft number
reprefents thi cubic inches of an elaftic fluid equal in
denfity and elaitioity with common air, which are produ¬
ced from'the exploiton of 1 ounce avoirdupois of gun¬
powder ; the weight of which quantity of fluid, accord-
ding to the ufual eftimation of the weight of air, is 131
grains ; whence the weight of this fluid is ^rf-r or TVth*
nearly of the weight of the generating powder. The'
ratio of the bulk of gunpowder to the bulk of this fluid
may be determined from confidering that 17 drams
avoirdupois of powder fill two cubic inches, if the
powder be well fhook together: therefore, augmenting
the number laft found in the proportion of 16 to 17,
the refuking term 488!: is the number of cubic inches of
an elaftic fluid, equal in denfity with the air produced
from two cubic inches of powder : whence the ratio of
the refpecfive bulk of the powder, and of the fluid pro¬
duced from it, is in round numbers as 1 to 244.”—
This calculation was afterwards juftified by experi¬
ments.
“ If this fluid, inftead of expanding when the pow¬
der was fired, had been confined in the fame fpace which
the powder filled before the explofion ; then it would
have had, in that confined ftate, a degree of elafticity
244 times greater than that of common air ; and this
independent of the great augmentation this elafticity
would receive from the a&ion of the fire in that in-
ftant.
“ Hence, then, we are certain, that any quantity of
powder, fired in a confined fpace, which it adequately
fills, exerts, at the inftant of its explofion, againft the
fides of the veffel containing it, and the bodies it im¬
pels before it, a force at leaft 244 times greater than
the elafticity of the common air, or, which is the fame
thing, than the preflure of the atmofphere ; and this
without confidering the great addition which this force
will receive from the violent degree of heat with which
it is alfe&ed at that time.
“ To determine how far the elafticity of air is aug¬
mented when heated to the extremeft degree of red-
hot iron, I took a piece of a muflcet-barrel about fix
inches in length, and ordered one end to be clofed up
entirely ; but the other end was drawn out conically,
and finifhed in an aperture of about -J- of an inch in
diameter. The tube thus fitted, was heated to the ex¬
tremity of a red heat in-s finith’s forge ; and was then
immerfed with its aperture downwards in a bucket of
water, and kept there till it was cool; after which it
was taken out carefully, and the water which had en¬
tered it in cooling was exaftly weighed. The heat gi¬
ven to the tube at each time, was the beginning of
what workmen call a white heat; and to prevent the
rulhing in of the aqueous vapour at the immerfion,.
which would otherwile drive out great part of the air,
and render the experiment fallacious, I had an iron wire
filed tapering, foas to fit the aperture of the tube, and
with this 1 always flopped it up before it was taken
from the fire, letting the wire remain in till the whole
wTas cool, when, removing it, the due quantity of wa¬
ter would enter. The weight of the water thus taken
in.at three different trials was 6to grains, 593 grains,
and 600 grains, refpc&ively. The content of the whole
cavity of the. tube was 796 grains of water; whence
N E R Y. I99
the fpaces remaining unfilled in thefe three experi- Theory.
ments were 186, 201, and 196 grains refpedlively.  V—^
Thefe fpaces undoubtedly contained all the air which,
when the tube was red-hot, extended through its whole
concavity ; confequently the elafticity of the air, when
heated to the extreme heat of red-hot iron, was to the
elafticity of the fame air, when reduced to the tempe¬
rature of the ambient atmofphere, as the whole capacity
of the tube to the refpetfive fpaces taken up by the
' cooled air; that is, as 796 to 186, 201, 196; or,
taking the medium of thefe three trials, as 796 to
194t-
“ As air and this fluid appear to be equally affe&ed
by heat and cold, and confequently have their elaftici-
ties equally augmented by the addition of equal degrees
of heat to each ; if we fuppofe the heat with which
the flame of fired powder is endowed to be the fame
with that of the extreme heat of red-hot iron, then
the elafticity of the generated fluid will be greater at the
time of the explofion than afterwards, when it is re¬
duced to the temperature of the ambient air, in the
ratio of 796 to 194} nearly. It being allowed then,
(which furely is very reafonable),-that the flame of
gunpowder is not lefs hot than red-hot iron, and the
elafticity of the air, and confequently of the fluid
generated by the explofion, being augmented in the
extremity of this heat in the ratio of 1944-to 79<5»
it follows, that if 244 be augmented in this ratio, the
refulting number, which is 999}’ will determine how
many times the elafticity of the flame of fired powder
exceeds the elafticity of common air, fuppofing it to
be confined in the fame fpace which the powder filled
before it was fired. —Hence then the abfolute quanti¬
ty of the preffure exerted by gunpowder at the mo¬
ment of its explofion may be affigned; for, fince the
fluid then generated has an elafticity of 9994-, or m
round numbers ioco times greater than that of the
atmofphere, and fince common air by its elafticity-
exerts a preffure on any given furface equal to the
weight of the incumbent atmofphere with which it.
is in equilibrio, the preffure excited by fired powder
before it dilated itfelf is 1000 times greater than the
preffure of the atmofphere: and confequently the rr
quantity of fhis force, on a furface of an inch fquare, Prodigious
amounts to above fix ton weight; which force, how-20V^er of
ever, diminifties as the fluid dilates itfelf. ^ P°W*
“ But though we have here fuppofed that the heat—-
of gunpowder, when fired in any confiderable quanti¬
ty, is the fame with iron heated to the extremity of
red heat, or to the beginning of a white heat, yet it
cannot be doubted but that the fire produced in the
explofion is fomewhat varied (like all other fires) by
a greater or leffer quantity of. fuel; and it may be
prefumed, that, according to the quantity of powder
fired together, the flame may have all the different de¬
grees, from a languid red heat to that fuflftcient for
the vitrification of metals. But as the quantity of
powder requisite for the produ&ion of this laft men¬
tioned heat, is certainly greater than what is ever fired
together for any military purpofe, we cannot be far from
our fcope, if we fuppofe the heat of fuch quantities as
are ufually fired to be nearly the fame with that of red-
hot iron ; allowing a gradual augmentation to this
heat in larger quantities, and diminilhing it when the
quantities are very fmall.”
Having.
200
Theory.
Mr Ro¬
bins’s me
•thod of de¬
termining
the veloci-
: ties of halls.
tfnftantane-
ous firing
iof powder.
14
Why fome
powder is
blown out
of the
mouth of
a cannon
without be¬
ing fired.
GUNNERY. Sea. IT.
Having thus determined the force of the gunpow- the whole : but if the common opinion was true, that 'Theory,
der, Mr Robins next proceeds to determine the velo- a fmall part only of the pow derfires at firft, and other
city with which the ball is difeharged. The folution parts of it fucceffively as the bullet paffes through the
of this problem depends on the two following prin- barrel, and that a confiderable part of it is often blown
ciples. x. That the aftion of the powder on the out of the piece without firing at all; then the velocity
bullet ceafes as foon as the bullet is got out of the which three bullets received from the explofion ought
piece. 2. That all the powder of the charge is fired to have been much greater than we have found it to
and converted into elaftic fluid before the bullet is be.—But the truth of this fecond poftulate more fully
fenfibly moved from its place. appears from thofe experiments, by which it is fhown,
“ The firft of thefe (fays Mr Robins) will appear that the velocities of bullets may be afeertained to the
manifeft when it is confidercd how fuddenly the flame fame exa&nefs when they are afted on through a bar-
will extend icfelf on every fide, by its own elaftiexty, rel of four inches in length only, as when they are dif-
when it is once got out of the mouth of the piece ; charged from one of four feet.
ifor by this means its force will then be diffipated, and “ With refpedl to the grains of powder which are
the bullet no longer fenfibly affe&ed by it. often blown out unfired, and which are always urged
“ The fecond principle is indeed lefs obvious, be- as a proof of the gradual firing of the charge, I be-
)ing contrary to the general opinion of almoft all writers lieve Diego Uffano, a perfon of great experience in
ou this fubjedt. It might, however, be fufficient for the the art of gunnery, has given the true reafon for this
proof of this pofition, to obferve the prodigious com- accident; which is, that fome fmall part of the charge
preflion of the flame in the chamber of the piece, is often not rammed up with the reft, but is left in the
Thofe who attend to this circumftance, and to the ea- piece before the wad, and is by this means expelled by
4fy paflage of the : flame through the inter vals of the the blaft of air before the fire can reach it. I muft
;grains, may foon fatisfy themfekes, that no one grain - add, that,'in the -charging of cannon and fmall arms,
contained in that chamber can continue for anytime efpecrally after the firft time, this is fcarcely to be
r.ninflamed, when thus furrounded and prefled hy fuch avoided by ariy method I have yet feen prafttfed. Per-
an arftive fire. However, not to rely on mere fpecula- traps, too, there may b^ fomfe few-grains in the belt
tion in a itiatter of fo much confequence, I confr- powder, of fuch an heterogeneous eompofrtion as to bfe •
dered, that if part' only of the powder is fired, and lefs fufceptible of firing ; which, I think, I have njyi;
that fucceffively ; then by laying a greater weight be- felf obferved: and thefe/ though they are furrounded
fore the charge (fuppofe two or three bullets inftead by the flame, may be driven but unfired. 15
of one), a greater quantity of powder would neceflartly “ Thefe poftulates being now allowed to be.juft, let Demonftra*
be fired, fince a heavier weight would be a longer time AB reprefent the axis of any piece of artillery, A the^°n ofrtge
in palling through the barrel. Whence it fhould fol- breech, and B the muzzle ; DC the diameter of tt's|.g^Cp°wd*r
low, that two or three bullets would be impelled by a bore, and DEGC a part of its cavity filled with pow- on the ball,
much greater force than one only. But the contrary der. Suppofe the ball that is to be impelled to lie t,iate
to this appears by experiment ; for firing one, two, with its hinder furface at the line GE; then the pref-£CXX^*
and three bullets laid contiguous to each other with fare exerted at the explofion on the circle of which 1‘
the fame charge refpeftively, I have found tHat their GE is the diameter, or, which is the fame thing, the
velocities were not much different from the reciprocal preffure exerted in the direction FB on the furface of
of their fubduplicate quantities of matter ; that is, if the ball, is eafiiy known from the known dimenfions of • -
a given charge would communicate to one bullet a ve- that circle. Draw any line FH perpendicular to F.By
Ibcrty of 1700 feet in a fecond, the fame charge would and AI parallel to FH ; and through the point '
communicate to two bullets a velocity from 1250 to to the afymptotes IA and AB, deferrbe the hyperbola
1300 feet in a fecond, and to three bullets a velocity KHNQj then, if FH reprefents the force impelling
from 1050 to 1110 feet in the lame time. From the ball at the point F, the force impelling the ball at
hence it appears, that, whether § piece is loaded with any other point as at M, will be reprefented by the
a greater or lefs weight of bullet, the adtion is neatly line MN, the ordinate to the hyperbola at that point,
the fame ; fince all mathematicians know, that if bo- For when the fluid impelling the body along has dr-
dies containing different quantities of matter are fuc- lated itfelf to M, its denfrty will be then to its origt-
ceffivdy impelled through the fame fpace by the fame nal denfity in the fpace DEGC reciprocally as the
power afting with a determined force at each point fpaces through which it is extended ; that is, as FA
of that fpace ; then the velocities given to thefe diffe- to MA‘, or as MN to FH; but it has been flrown,
rent bodies will be reciprocally in the fubduplicate that the impelling force or elaftrerty of this fluid is di-
ratio of their quantities of matter. The excefs of the reftly as its denfity ; therefore, if FH reprefents the
velocities of the two and three bullets above what force at the point F, MN will reprefent the like force
they ought to have been by this rule (which are at the point M.
that of 1200 and 980 feet in a fecond), undoubtedly “ Since the abfolute quantity of the force impelling
arrfes from the flame, which, efcaping by the fide of the ball at the point F is known, and the weight of the
the firft bullet, afts on the furface of the fecond and ball is alfo known, the proportion between the force
third. with which the ball is impelled and its own gravity is
“ Now, this excefs has in many experiments been known. In this proportion take FH to , FL, and
imperceptible, and the velocities have been reerpro- draw LP-parallel to FB; then, MN the ordinate to
cally in the fubduplicate ratios of the number of bul- the hyperbola in any point will be to its part MR, cut
lets, to fufficient exa&nefs ; and where this error has off by the line LP, as the impelling force of the pow-
been greater, it has never ariftn to an eighth part of der in that point M to the gravity of the ball; and
N°145. 6 con-
/Jet.
Sea. II. GUNN
Theory, confequently the lineLP will determine aline propor-
'■’■■’“v  tional to the uniform force of gravity in every point;
whilft the hyperbola HNQjletermines in like manner
fuch ordinates as are proportional to the impelling
force of the powder in every point; whence by the
39th Prop, of lib 1. of Sir Ifaac Newton’s Principia,
the areas FLPB and FHQB are in the duplicate pro¬
portion of the velocities which the ball would acquire
when a died upon by its own gravity through the fpace
FB, and when impelled through the fame fpace by the
force of the powder. But fince the ratio of AF to
AB and the ratio of FH to FL are known, the ratio
of the area FLPB to the area FHQB is known ; and
thence its fubduplicate. And fince the line FB is gi¬
ven in magnitude, the velocity which a heavy body
would acquire when impelled through this line by its
own gravity is known; being no other than the velo¬
city it would acquire by falling through a fpace equal
to that line : find then another velocity to which this
laft mentioned velocity bears the given ratio of the fub¬
duplicate of the area FLPB to the area FHQB ; and
this velocity thus found is the velocity the ball will ac¬
quire when impelled through the fpace FB by the ac¬
tion of the inflamed powder.
“ Now to give an example of this : Let us fuppofe
AB, the length of the cylinder, to be 45 inches, its dia¬
meter DC, or rather the diameter of the ball, to be
|ths of an inch; and AF, the extent of the powder,
to be 2-5-th inches; to determine the velocity which
will be communicated to a leaden bullet by the explo-
fion, fuppofing the bullet to be laid at firft with its
furface contiguous to the powder.
“ By the theory we have laid down, it appears,
that at the firft inftant of the explofion the flame will
exert, on the bullet lying clofe to it, a force 1000
times greater than the preffure of the atmofphere. The
medium preffure of the atmofphere is reckoned equal
to a column of water 33 feet in height; whence, lead
being to water as 11,345 to 1, this preflure will be
equal to that of a column of lead 34,9 inches in height.
Multiplying this by 1000, therefore, a column of lead
34900 inches (upwards of half a mile) in height,
would produce a preffure on the bullet equal to what
is exerted by the powder in the firft inftant of the ex¬
plofion ; and the leaden ball being ^ths of an inch ii
E R Y.
201
i. '• ^ , r, , a givvi, v1uoui.ii,y ui puwucr, occupying a
diameter, and confequently equal to a cylinder of lead given cavity behind that bullet; it follows, that bVmeans
nf the fame hafe half an inch in heiorht. the nreflin-e at . r. •. r . ...
ing through a fpace equal to FB, to the velocity the Theory,
bullet will acquire from the aftion of the powder im- *
pelling it through FB. But the fpace FB being 424-
inches, the velocity a heavy body will acquire in fall¬
ing through fuch a fpace is known to be what would
carry it nearly at the rate of 15.07 feet in a fecond ;
whence the velocity to which this has the ratio of 1 to
110,7 is a velocity which would carry the ball at the
rate of 1668 feet in one fecond. And this is the ve¬
locity which, according to the theory, the bullet in
the prefent circumftances would acquire from the ac¬
tion of the powder during the time of its dilatation.
“ Now this velocity being once computed for one
cafe, is eafily applied to any other ; for if the cavity
DEGC left behind the bullet be only in part filled
with powder, then the line HF, and confequently the
area FHQB wall be diminifhed in the proportion of
the whole cavity to the part filled. If the diameter of
the bore be varied, the lengths AB and AF remaining
the fame, then the quantity of powder and the furface
of the bullet which it afts on, will be varied in. the
duplicate proportion of the diameter, but the weight
of the bullet will vary in the triplicate proportion of
the diameter; wherefore the line FH, which is direftly
as the abfolute impelling force of the powder, and re¬
ciprocally as the gravity of the bullet, will change in
the reciprocal proportion of the diameter of the bul¬
let. If AF, the height of the cavity left behind the
bullet be increafed or diminiflied, the re&angle of the
hyperbola, and confequently the area correfponding to
ordinates in any given ratio, will be increafed or dimi¬
niflied in the fame proportion. From all which it
follows, that the area FHQB, which is in the dupli¬
cate proportion of the velocity of the impelled body,
will be dire&ly as the logarithm (where AB re-
prefents the length of the barrel, and AF the length
of the cavity left behind the bullet) ; alfo direftly as
the part of that cavity filled with powder ; and in-
verfely, as the diameter of the bore, or rather of the
bullet, likewife diredtly as AF, the height of the cavity
left behind the bullet. Confequently the velocity be¬
ing computed as above, for a bullet of a determined
diameter, placed in a piece of a given length, and
impelled by a given quantity of powder, occupying a
of the fame bafe half an inch in height, the preflure at
firft afting on it will be equal to 34900X2, or 6980c
times its weight: whence FL to FH as 1 to 69800 ;
and FB to FA as 45—2^; or 42-|- to 2-|-; that is, as
339 to 21 ; whence the re&angle FLPB is to the rec¬
tangle AFHS as 339 to 21X69800, that is, as 1 to
4324.—And from the known application of the loga¬
rithms to the menfuration of the hyperbolic fpaces it
follows, that the rectangle AFHS is to the area FHQB
AB ^
as 43,429, die. is to the tabular logarithm of ; that
of thefe ratios, the velocity of any other bullet may
be thence deduced ; the neceffary circumftances of its
pofition, quantity of powder, &c. being given. Where
note, That in the inftance of this fuppofition, we have
fuppofed the diameter of the ball to be ^ths of an inch •
whence the diameter of the bore will be fomething
more, and the quantity of powder contained in the
fpace DEGC will amount exaftly to 12 pennyweight,
a fm^ll wad of tow included.
“ In order to compare the velocities communicated
to bullets by the explofion, with the velocities refult-
is,of which is 1,2340579; whence the ratio of ing from the theory by computation, it is neceflary
the reftangle FLPB to the hyperbolic area FHQB is that the a&ual velocities with whiVh hullets
compounded of the ratios of 1 to 4324— and of
,43429, &c. to 1,2340579 ; which together make up
the ratio of 1 to 122^3, the fubduplicate of which is
the ratio of 1 to 110,7 ; and in this ratio is the velo¬
city which the bullet would acquire by gravity in fall-
Vox.. VIII. Part I.
that the aftual velocities with which bullets move
fhould be difeovered. The only methods hitherto prac-
tifed for this purpofe, have been either by obferving
the time of the flight of a Ihot through a given fpace,
or by meafuring the range of a fliot at a given eleva¬
tion ; and thence computing, on the parabolic hypo-
B b thefts',
GUNNERY. Sean;
tlidts, what degree of velocity would produce this be free and tafy, though with fome minute refidance; Theory.
J range.—1’hefirft methodlabours under this infurmount- then fettling the pendulum at reft, let the part LN be- '“""V ' J
16
difeovering
the veloci¬
ties of bul¬
lets.
Method of
ufing the
machine.
able difficulty, that the velocities of thefe bodies are tween the pendulum and the edges be drawn ftrait,
often fo fwift,; and confequently the time oljfervcd is but not ftratned, and fix a pin in that part of the ri!>-
fo fhort,that an imperceptible error in that time may bon which is then contiguous to the edges: let now a
occafion an error in the velocity thus found of 2, 3, ball impinge on the pendulum ; then the pendulum
4, 5, or Goo feet, in a fecond. The other method twinging back will draw out the ribbon to the juft ex-
is fo fallacious, by reafon of the ivfiftance of the at- tent of its vibration, which will confequently be deter-
mofphere (to which inequality the firft t-s alfo liable), mined by the interval on the ribbon between the edges
that the velocities thus affigned may not perhaps be UN and the place of the pin.
the tetith part o! the adlual velocities fought. “ The weight of the whole pendulum, wood and all,
“The fimpleft method of determining this veloctr was 561b. 3 oz. its centre of gravity was 52 inches
ty is by means of the inftrument reprefented fig. 2. diftant from its axis of fufpenfion, and 200 of its-fmali
where ABCD reprefents the body of the machine fwings were performed in the time of 253 feconds ;
compofed of the three poles B, C, D, fpreading whence its centre of ofeiilation (determined from hence)
at bottom, and joining together at the top A; being is 62-fd inches diftant from that axis. The centre of
the fame with what is vulgarly ufed in lifting and the piece of wood GKIH is diftant from the fame axis
weighing very heavy-bodies, and is called by workmen 66 inches.
the triangles. On two of thefe poles, towards their “ In the compound ratio of 66 to 62^, and 66 to 52,
tops, are ferewed on the fockets RS; and on thefe take the quantity of matter of the pendulum to a 4th
fockets the pendulum EFGHIK is hung by means of quantity, which will be 42 lb. ^oz. Now geometers
its crofs-piece EF, which becomes its axis of fuf- will know, that if the blow be ftruck on the centre of
penljon, and on which it mull be made to vibrate the piece of wood GKIH, the pendulum will refift to
with great freedom. The body of this pendulum is the ftroke in the fame manner as if this laft quantity
made of iron, having a broad part at bottom, and its of matter only (42 lb. oz.) was concentrated in that
lower part is covered with a thick piece of wood point, and the reft of the pendulum was taken away :
GKIH, which is fattened to the iron by ferews. Some- whence, fuppofing the weight of the bullet impin-
thing lower- than the bottom of the pendulum there ging in that point to be the -jirth of a pound, or the
is a brace OP, joining the two poles to which the pen- of this quantity of matter nearly, the velocity of
dulum is fufpended ; and to this brace there is fallen- the point of ofcillation after the ftroke will, by the
cd a contrivance MNU, made with two edges of fteel, laws obferved in the congreis of fuch, bodies as rebound
bearing on each other in the line UN, fomething in not from each other, be the t*ie velocity the
the manner of a drawing-pen ; the ftrength with bullet moved with before the ftroke ; whence the ve-
which thefe edges prefs on each other being diminifti- locity of this point of ofcillation after the ftroke being
ed or increafed at pleafure by means of a ferew Z afeertained, that multiplied by 505 will give the velo-
going through the upper piece. There is fattened to city with which the ball impinged,
the bottom of the pendulum a narrow ribbon LN, “ But the velocity of the point of ofcillation after
which pafies between thefe fteel edges, and which af- the ftroke is eafily deduced from the chord of the arch,
terwards, by means of an opening cut in the lower through which it afeendsby the blow; for it is a well-
piece of fted, hangs loofely down, as at W. known propofition, that all pendulous bodies afeend
“ This inftrument thus fitted, if the weight of the to the fame height by their vibratory motion as they
pendulum be known, and likewife the refpeAive di- would do, if they were projefted directly upwards
fiances of its centre of gravity, and of its centre of from their lowed point, with the fame velocity they
ofcillation from its axis of fufpenfion, it will thence be have in that point : wherefore, if the verfed fine of
known what motion will be communicated to this the afeending arch be found (which is eafily deter-
pendulum by the percuffion of a body of a known mined from the chord and radius being given), this
weight moving with a known degree of celerity, and verfed fine is the perpendicular height to which a
ftriking it in a given point ; that is, if the pendulum body projected upwards with the velocity'of the point
be fuppofed at reft before the percuffion, it will be of ofcillation would arife; and confequently what that
known w-hat vibration it ought to make in confequence velocity is, can be eafily computed by the common
of fuch a determined blow; and, on the contrary; if theory of falling bodies.
the pendulum, being at reft, is ftruck by a body of a “ For inftanee, the chord of the arch, deferibed by
known weight, and the vibration which the pendulum the afeent of the pendulum after the ftroke meafured
makes after the blow is known, the velocity of the on the ribbon, has been fometimes 1 y-^th inches ; the
ftriking body may from thence be determined. aiftance of the ribbon from the axis of fufpenfion is
“ Hence then, if a bullet of a knowm weight ftrikes yifth inches; whence reducing lyfth in the ratio
the pendulum, and the vibration, which the pendulum of yi-yth to 66, the refulting number, which is nearly
makes in confequence of the ftroke, be afeertained ; 16 inches, will be the chord of the arch through which
the velocity with which the ball moved is thence to the centre of the board GKIH afeended after the
be known. ftroke ; now the verfed fine of the arch, whofe chord
“ Now the extent of the vibration made by the pen- is 16 inches, and its radius 66, is 1.93939; and the
dulum after the blow, may be meafured to great ac- velocity which would carry a body to this height, or,
curacy by the ribbon LN. For let the preffure of the which is the fame thing, the velocity which a body
edges UN on the ribbon be fo regulated by the ferew wmuld acquire by defeending through this fpace, is
Z, that the motion of the ribbon between them may nearly that of j^th feet in 1".
To
Sea. II. GUN
Theory. “ To determine then the velocity with which the
**•—v  bullet impinged on the centre of the wood, when the
chord of the arch defcribed by the afcent of the pen¬
dulum, in gonfequence of the blow, was i y^th inches
meafured on the ribbon, no more is neceffary than to
multiply g^th by 505, and the refulting number 1641
will be the feet which the bullet would deferibe in 1
if it moved with the velocity it had at the moment of
its percuffion: for the velocity of the point of the pen¬
dulum, on which the bullet {truck, we have juft now
determined to be that of 3|-th feet in r"; and we have
before ftiown, that this is the of the velocity of
the bullet. If then a bullet weighing T^-th of a pound
flrikes the pendulum in the centre of the wood GKIH,
and the ribbon be drawn out ly^-th inches by the blow;
the velocity of the bullet is that of 1641 feet in 1
And fince the length the ribbon is drawn is always
neatly the chord of the arch defcribed by the afcent,
(it being placed fo as to differ infenfibly from thofe
chords which moft frequently occur), and thefe chords
are known to be in the proportion of the velocities of
the pendulum acquired from the ftroke; it follows, that
the proportion between the lengths of ribbon drawn
out at different times, will be the fame with that of
the velocities of the impinging bullets ; and confe-
quently, by the proportion of thefe lengths of ribbon
to 1 y^th, the proportion of the velocity with which
the bullets impinge, to the known velocity of 1641 feet
jg in i7, will be determined.
Camions to “ Hence then is ftiown in general how the velocities
be ohfervtd of bullets of all kinds may be found out by means of
in making this inftrument; but that thofe who may be difpofed
riments^6 t0 trf experiments may not have unforefeen dif¬
ficulties to ftruggle with, we (hall here fubjoin a few
obfer vat ions, which it will be neceffary for them to at¬
tend to, both to fecure fuccefs to their trials and fafe-
ty to their perfons.
“ And firfl, that they may not conceive the piece of
wood GKIH to be kn unneceffary part of the ma¬
chine, we muft inform them, that if a bullet impelled
by a full charge of powder fhould ftrike diredtly on the
iron, the bullet would be beaten into ftrivers by the
Itroke, and thefe drivers will rebound back with fuch
violence, as to bury themfelves in any wood they
chance to light on, as I have found by hazardous ex¬
perience ; and befides the d^rger, the pendulum will
not in this inftance afeertain the velocity of the bullet,
becaufe the velocity with which the parts of it re¬
bound is unknown.
“ The weight of the pendulum, and the thicknefs of
the wood, nmft be in fome meafure proportioned to
the fize of the bullets which are ufed. A pendulum
of the weight here defcribed will do very well for all
bullets under three or four ounces, if the thicknefs of
the board be increafed to feven or eight inches for the
heavieft bullets; beech is the tougheft and propereit
wood for this purpofe.
“ It is hazardous {landing on the fide of the pendu¬
lum, unlefs the. board be fo thick, that the greateft
part of the bulleris force is loft before it comes at the
iron; for if it ftrikes the iron with violence, the fliivers
of lead, which cannot return back through the wood,
will force themfelves out between the wood and iron,
and will fly to a confidtrable diftance.
“ As there is no effectual way of faftening the wood
N E R Y. 2o:
to the iron but by ferews, the heads of which muft Theory,
come through the board ; the bullets will fometimes
light on thofe ferews, from whence the {hirers will dif-
perfe themfelves on every fide.
“When in thefe experiments fo fmall a quantity of
powder is ufed, as will not give to the bullet a velocity
of more than 460 or 500 feet in 1''; the bullet will
not (tick in the wrood, but will rebound from it entire,
and (if the wood be of a very hard texture) with a very
confiderable velocity. Indeed I have never examined
any of the bullets which have thus rebounded, but I
have found them indented by the bodies they have
{truck againft in their rebound.
“ To avoid then thefe dangers, to the braving of
which in philofophical refearches no honour is annex¬
ed ; it will be convenient to fix whatfoever barrel is
ufed, on a ftrong heavy carriage, and to fire it with a
little flow match. Let the barrel too be very well for¬
tified in all its length ; for no barrel (I fpeak of muf-
ket barrels) forged with the ufual dimenfions will
bear many of the experiments without burfting. The
barrel I have molt relied on, and wrhich I pr icu-
red to be made on purpofe, is' nearly as thick at the
muzzel as at the breech ; that is, it has in each place
nearly the diameter of its bore in thicknefs of metal.
“ The pow'der ufed in thefe experiments ihould be
exaddly weighed : and that no part of it be fcattered
in the barrel, the piece muft be charged wu'th a ladle
in the fame manner as is praftiffd with cannon ; the
wad Ihould be of tow, of the fame weight each time,
and no more than is juft neceffary to confine the pow¬
der in its proper place : the length of the cavity left
behind the ball Ihould be determined each time with
exadlnefs ; for the increafing or diminifhing that fpace
will vary the velocity of the {hot, although the bullet
and quantity of powder be not changed. The diftance
of the mouth of the piece from the pendulum ought to
be fuch, that the impulfe of the flame may not adt on
the pendulum ; this will be prevented in a common
barrel charged with 4- an ounce of powder, if it be at
the difiance of 16 or 18 feet: in larger charges the
impulfe is fenfible farther off; I have found it to ex¬
tend to above 25 feet; however, between 25 and t8
feet is the diftance I have ufually chofen.”
With this inftrument, or others fimilar toil, Mr Account of
Robins made a great number of experiments on bar- Mr Ro-
rcis of different lengths, and with different charges 0fbins’sex-
pawder. He hath given us the refults of 6r of thefe;')enments*
and having compared the adlual velocities with the
computed ones, his theory appears to have come as
near the truth as could w'dl be expedled. In feven of
the experiments there was a perfedt coincidence j the
charges of powder being fix or twelve pennyweights;
the barrels 45, 24.312, and 7.06 inches in length.
The diameter of the firft (marked A) was |ths qf au
inch ; of the fecond (B) was the fame ; and of D, 83
of an inch. In the reft of the experiments, another
barrel (C) was ufed, whole length was W.375 inches,
and the diameter of its bore |th inches.—In 14 more
of the experiments, the difference between the length
of the chord of the pendulum’s arch fhown by the
theoyy and the adlual experiment was ^th of an inch
over or under. This {bowed an error in the theory
varying according to the different lengths of the chord
from t4t to ^TT of the whole ; the charges of powder
B b 2 were
204
Theory.
Hi* con cl u
ijons from
them.
GUNNERY.
Sed. II,
were the fame as in the laft.—In 16 other experiments
the error was -j—ths of an inch, varying from -fT to
.jij- of the whole ; the charges of powder were 6, 8,
9, or 12 pennyweights.—In feven other experiments,
the error was -j^ths of an inch, varying from to
r'T of the whole; the charges of powder fix or twelve
pennyweights. In eight experiments, the difference
was -,-4oths of an inch, indicating an error from £-z to
•i*T of the whole ; the charges being 6, 9, 12, and 24
pennyweights of powder. In three experiments, the
error was Ts^ths, varying from y-g-th to xVth of the
whole; the charges Sand 12 pennyweights of powder.
In two experiments the error was -i%ths, in one cafe
amounting to fomething lefs than in the other to
of the whole; the charges 12 and 36 penny¬
weights of powder. By one experiment the error was
feven, and by another eight, tenths; the firft amount¬
ing to -r^th nearly, the latter to almoft -fth of the
whole : the charges of powder 6 or 12 pennyweights.
The laft error, however, Mr Robins afcribes to the
wind. The two remaining experiments varied from
theory by 1.3 inches, fomewhat more than -J-th of
the whole: the charges of powder were 12 penny¬
weights in each ; and Mr Robins afcribes the error to
the dampnefs of the powder. In another cafe, he
afcribes an error of x^ths to the blaft of the powder on
the pendulum.
From thefe experiments Mr Robins deduces the fol¬
lowing cohclufions. “ The variety of thefe experi¬
ments, apd the accuracy with which they correfpond
to the theory, leave us no room to doubt of its cer¬
tainty.—This theory, as here eftablifhed, fuppofes,
that, in the firing of gunpowder, about Toths of its
fubllance is converted by the fudden inflammation into
a permanently elaftic fluid, whofe elafticity, in pro¬
portion to its heat and denfity, is the fame with that
of common air in the like circumftances; it farther
fuppofes, that all the force exerted by gunpowder in
its mail violent operations, is no more than the aftion
of the elafticity of the fluid thus generated ; and thefe
principles enable us to determine the velocities of bul¬
lets impelled from fire-arms of all kinds ; and are fully
fufficient for all purpofes where the force of gunpow¬
der is to be eftimated.
“ From this theory many deductions may be made
of the greateft confequence to the practical part of
gunnery. From hence the thicknefs of a piece, which
will enable it to confine, without burfting, any given
charge of powder, is eafily determined, fince the effort
of the powder is known. From hence appears the
inconclufivenefs of what fome modern authors have ad¬
vanced, relating to the advantages of particular forms
of chambers for mortars and cannon ; for all their la¬
boured fpeculations on this head are evidently founded
on very erroneous opinions about the a&ion of fired
powder. From this theory too we are taught the ne-
cefiity of leaving the fame fpace behind the bullet
when we would, by the fame quantity of powder,
communicate to it an etjual degree of velocity; fince,
on the principles already laid down, it follows, that the
fame powder has a greater or lefs degree of elafticity,
according to the different fpaces it occupies. The
method which I have always praftifcd for this pur-
pofe has been by marking the rammer; and this is
& maxim which ought not to be difpenfed with when
cannon are fired at an elevation, particularly in thofe Theory,
called by the French batteries a ricochet. ' * " "L
“ From the continued adtion of the powder, and its
manner of expanding defcribed in this theory, and the
length and weight of the piece, one of the moft effen-
tial circumftances in the well dire&ing of artillery
may be eafily afcertained. All practitioners are agreed,
that no /hot can be depended on, unlefs the piece be
placed on a folid platform : for if the platform {hakes
with the firft impulfe of the powder, it is impoffible
but the piece muft alfo (hake : which will alter its di¬
rection, and render the {hot uncertain. To prevent
this accident, the platform is ufually made extremely
firm to a confiderable depth backwards; fo that the
piece is not only well fupported in the beginning of
its motion, but likewife through a great part of its
recoil. However, it is fufficiently obvious, that when
the bullet is feparated from the piece, it can be no
longer affeCted by the trembling of the piece or plat¬
form j and, by a very eafy. computation, it will be
found, that the bullet will be out of the piece before
the latter hath recoiled half an inch : whence, if the
platform be fufficiently folid at the beginning of the
recoil, the remaining part of it may be much {lighter;
and hfence a more compendious method of coitftruCting
platforms may be found out.
“ From this theory alfo it appears how greatly
thefe authors have been miftaken, who have attributed
the force of gunpowder, or at lead a confiderable part
of it, to the aCtion of the air contained either in the
powder or between the intervals of the grains: for
they have fuppofed that air to exift in its natural ela¬
ftic ftate, and to receive all its addition of force from
the heat of the explofion. But from what hath been
already delivered concerning the increafe of the air’s
elafticity by heat, we may conclude that the heat of
the explofion cannot augment this elafticity to five
times its common quantity; conftquently the force
arifing from this caufe only cannot amount to more
than the 200th part of the real force exerted on the
occafion.
“ If the whole fubftance of the powder was con¬
verted into an elaftie fluid at the inftant of the explo¬
fion, then from the known elaftipity of this fluid af-
figned by our theory, and its known denfity, we could
eafily determine the velocity with which it would be¬
gin to expand, and could thence trace out its future
augmentations in its progrefs through the barrel: but
as we have Ihown that the elaftic fluid, in which the
activity of the gunpowder confifts, is only tV^8 of the
fubftance of the powder, the remaining -j^ths will, in
the explofion, be mixed with the elaftic part, and will
by its weight retard the aCtivity of the explofion,;
and yet they will not be fo completely united as tq
move with one common motion ; but the -.unelaftic
part will he lefs accelerated, than the reft, and fome
will not even be carried out of. the barrel, as appears
by the confiderable quantity of unCtuous matter which
adheres to the infide of all fire-arms after they have,
been ufed.—Theie inequalities in the expanfive motion
of the flame oblige us to recur to experiments for its
accurate determination.
“ The experiments made ufe of for this purpofe were
of two kinds. The firft was made by charging the
barrel A with 12 pennyweights of powder, and a
fmall
Sea.II.
Theory, fmall.wad of tow only ; and then placing its mouth
v 19 inches from the centre of the pendulum. On firing
_ at. it in this fituation, the impulfe of the flame made it
memi^for afcenfl through an arch whofe chord was 13.7 inches ;
determi- whence, if the whole fubftance of the powder was
ning the fuppofed to ftrike againft the pendulum, and each part
fired^un^ to ^rl^se t^le ^ame velocity, that common velocity
powder.U" niuft have been at the rate of about 2650 feet in a
fecond.—But as fome part of the velocity of the flame
was loft in palling through 19 inches of air ; I made
the remaining experiments in a manner not liable to
this inconvenience.
“ I fixed the barrel A on the pendulum, fa that its
axis might be both horizontal and alfo perpendicular
to the plane HK ; or, which is the fame thing, that
it might be in the plane of the pendulum’s vibration :
the height of the axis of the piece above the centre of
the pendulum was fix inches; and the weight of the
piece, and of the iron that faftened it, &c. was 12^ lb.
The barrel in this fituation being charged with 12,
penny-weights of powder, without either ball or wad,
only put together with the rammer; on the difcharge
the pendulum afcended through an arch whofe chord
was 10 inches, or reduced to an equivalent blow in
the centre of the pendulum, fuppoling the barrel a-
way, it would be 14.4 inches nearly.—The fame ex¬
periment being repeated, the chord of the afcending
arch was to.i inches, which, reduced to the centre,
is 14.6 inches.
“ To determine what difference of velocity there
was in the different parts of the vapour, I loaded
the piece again with 1 2 penny-weights of powder,
and rammed it down with a wad of tow, weighing
one penny-weight. Now, I conceived that this wad
being very light, would prefently acquire that veloci¬
ty with which the palftic part of the fluid wmuld ex¬
pand itfelf when uncompreffed ; and I accordingly
found, that the chord of the afcending arch was by
this means increafed to 12 inches, or at the centre to
1 7.3 ; whence, as the medium of the other two expe¬
riments is" 14.5, the pendulum afcended through an
arch 2.8 inches longer, by the additional motion of
one penny-weight of matter, moving with the velo¬
city of the fwifteft part of the vapour; and'confe-
quently the velocity with which this penny-w'eight of
. matter moved, was that of about 7000 feet in a fe¬
cond.
“ It will perhaps be objefted to this determina¬
tion, that the augmentation of the arch through which
the pendulum vibrated in this cafe was not all of it
owing to the quantity of motion given to the wad,
but part of it was produced by the confinement of the
powder, and the greater quantity thereby fired. But
if it were true that a part only of the powder fired
when there was no wrad, it would not happen that in
firing different quantities of powder without a wad
the chord wmuld increafe and decreafe nearly in the
ratio of thefe quantities ; which yet I have found it to
do : for with nine pennyweights that chord was 7.3
inches, which with 12 pennyweights we have feen
was' only 10, and 10.1 inches; and even with three
pennyweights the chord was two inches; deficient
from this proportion by .5 only ; for which defedl too
other valid reafons are to be afligned.
And there is Hill a- more convincing proof that
205
all the powder is fired, although no wad be placed be- Theory.
fore the charge, which is, that the part of the recoil  
anting from the expanfion of powder alone, is found to
be no greater when it impels a leaden bullet before it,
than when the fame quantity is fired without any wad to
confine it. We have feen that the chord of the arch
through which the pendulum rofe from the expanlive
force of the powder alone is 10, or To. 1 ; and the
chord of that arch, when the piece was charged in the
cuftomary manner with a bullet and wad, I found to
be the firft time 22^, and the fecond 22T, or at a
medium 22.56. Now the impulfe of the ball and
wad, if they were fuppofed to ftrike the pendulum in
the fame place in which the barrel was fufpended, with
the velocity they had acquired at the mouth of the
piece, would drive it through an arch vvhofe chord
would be about 12.3 ; as is. known from the weight
of the pendulum, the weight and pofition of the bar¬
rel, and the velocity of the bullet determined by our
former experiments; whence, fubtrafting this num¬
ber 12.3 from 22.56, the remainder 1026 is nearly
the chord of the arch which the pendulum would have
afcended through from the expanfion of the powder
alone with a bullet laid before it. And this number,
10.26, differs but little from 10.1, which we have a-
bove found tabe the chord of the afcending ar.ch, when-
the fame quantity of powder expanded itfelf freely
without either bullet or wad before it.
“ Again, that this velocity of 7090 feet in a fe¬
cond is not much beyond what tire mod active part
of the flame acquires in expanding, is evinced from
hence, that in fome experiments a ball has been found
to be difcharged with a velocity of 2400 feet in a fe¬
cond; and yet it appeared not that the a&ion of the
powder was at all diminiflied on account of this immenfo
celerity : confequently the degree of fwiftnefs with
which, in this inftance,. the powder followed the ball
without lofing any part of its preffure, muft have been-
much ftiort of what the powder alone would have ex¬
panded with, had not the ball been there.^
“ From thefe determinations may be deduced the
force of petards; fince their aftion depends entirely
on the impnlfe of the flame ; and it appears that a
quantity of powder properly difpofed in fuch a ma¬
chine, may produce as violent an effort as a bullet of
twice its weight, moving with a velocityof 1400 or 1500
feet in a fecond.
“ In many of the experiment's already recited, the A bullet"
ball was not laid immediately contiguous to the pow-flies off
der, .but at a fmall diftance, amounting, at the ut-Wlth tj!e
moft, only to an inch and a half. In thefe cafes thekdtywheu
theory agreed very well with the experiments. But laid'at a di-
if a bullet is placed at a greater diftance from theftance fr,,ni
powder, fuppofe at 12, 18; or 24 inches, w<b cannotthe i 0>v<5trf
then apply-to this ball the fame principles which may
be applied to thofe laid in contaft, or nearly- fo, with
the powder ; for when the furface of the fired powder
is not confined by a heavy body, the flame dilates it¬
felf with a velocity far exceeding that which it can
communicate to a bullet by its continued preffure: con¬
fequently, as at the diftance of 12, 18, or 24 inches,
the powder will have-acquired a confiderable degree
of this velocity of expanfion, the firft motion of the
ball will not be produced by the continued preffure
of the powder, but by. the aftual percuffion ■ of the.
flam?
GUNNERY.
206 g u Kr
Theory, flame ; and it will therefore tegin to move with a
^—\—*■ quantity of\ motion proportioned to the quantity of
this flame, and the velocities of its refpe&ive parts.
“ From hence then it follows, that the velocity of
the bullet, laid at a coniiderable diftance before the
charge, ought to be greater than what would be com¬
municated to it by the preffure of the powder adfing
in the manner already mentioned : and this dedudlion
from our theory we have confirmed by manifold expe¬
rience ; by which we have found, that a ball laid in
the barrel A, with its hinder part 1inches from its
breech, and impelled by 12 pennyweights of powder,
has acquired a velocity of about 14CO feet in a fe-
cond ; when, if it had been adled on by the prelfure
of the flame only, it would not have acquired a velocity
of 1200 feet in a fecond. The fame we have found
to hold true in all other greater diftances (and alfo
in leffer, though not in the fame degree), and in all
quantities of powder : and we have likewife found,'
that thefe etfefts nearly correfpond with what has been
already laid down about the velocity of expanlion and
the elaftic and unelaftic parts of the flame.
“ From hence too arifes another coniideration of
great confequence in the praftice of gunnery ; which
is, that no bullet fliould at any time be placed at a
confiderable diftance before the charge, unlefs the piece
is extremely well fortified : for a moderate charge of
powder, when it has expanded itfelf through the va¬
cant fpace, and reaches the ball, will, by the velocity
each part has acquired, accumulate itfelf behind the
ball, and thereby be condenfed prodigioufly ; whence,
if the barrel be not extremely firm in that part, it
muft, by means of this re-inforced elafticity, infal¬
libly burft. The truth of this reafoning I have ex¬
perienced in an exceeding good Tower-mulket, forged
of very tough iron ; for charging it with 12 penny¬
weights of powder, and placing the ball 16 inches
from the breech, on firing it, the part of the barrel
juft behind the bullet was fwelled out to double its
diameter like a blown bladder, and two large pieces of
two inches long were burft out of it.
“ Having feen that the entire motion of a bullet
laid at a confiderable diftance from the charge, is ac¬
quired by two different methods in which the powder
afts on it; the firft being the percuffion of the parts
of the flam^with the velocity they had refpe&ively
acquired, by expanding, the fecond the continued
preffure of the flame throug.h the remaining part of
the barrel; I endeavoured to feparate theie different
adtions, and to retain that only which arofe from the
continued preffure of the flame. For this purpofe I
no longer placed the powder at the breech, from whence
it would have full fcope for its expanfion ; but I feat-
tered it as uniformly as I could through the whole
cavity left behind the bullet ; imagining that by this
means the progreflive velocity of the flame in each
part would be prevented by the expanfion of the neigh¬
bouring parts: and I found, that the ball being laid
n-J inches from the breech, its velocity, inftead of
1400 feet in a fecond, which it acquired in the laft
experiments, was now no more than 1100 feet in the
fecond, which is too feet ihort of what according to
the theory fliould arife from the continued preffure of
the powder only.
“ The reafon of this deficiency was, doubtlefs, the
N E R Y. Sea. II.
inteftine motion of the flame : for the accenfion of the Theory,
powder thus diftributed through fo much larger a ~ v”™*-
fpace than it could fill, muft have produced many re¬
verberations and pulfations of the flame; and from thefe
internal agitations of the fluid, its preffure on the
containing furface w-ill (as is the cafe of all other
fluids) be confiderably diminifhed; and in order to
avoid this irregularity, in all other experiments I took
care to have the powder clofdy confined in as fmall a
fpace as poflible, even when the bullet lay at fome little
diftarice from it. *
“ With regard to the refiftance of the air, whichof thc re-
fo remarkably affedfs all military projeftiles, it is ne- finance of
ceffary to premife, that the greateft part of authors die a:r to
have eftabliflred it as a certain rule, that while the lame
body moves in the fame medium, it is always refilled
in the duplicate proportion of its velocity; that is,
if the refilled body move in one part of its track with
three times the velocity with which it moved in fome
other part, then its refiftance to the greater velocity
will be nine times the refiftance to the leffer. If the
velocity in one place be four times greater than in
another, the reiiftance of the fluid will be 16 times
greater in the firft than in the fecond, &c. This rale,
however, though pretty near the truth when the ve¬
locities are confined within certain limits, is excdlive-
ly erroneous when applied to military projectiles, where
fuch refinances often occur as could fcarcely be effed-
ed, on the commonly received principles, even by a
treble augmentation of its denfity.
“ By means of the machine already deferibed, I
have it in my power to determine the velocity with
which a ball moves in any part of its track, provided
I can direct the piece in fuch a manner as to caufe the
bullet to impinge on the pendulum placed in that part:
and therefore, charging a mufket-barrel three times
fucceflively with a leaden ball of an inch in diame¬
ter, and about half its weight of powder ; and taking
fuch precaution in weighing of the powder and placing
it, that I was allured, by many previous trials, that
the velocity of the ball could not differ by 20 feet in
a fecond from its medium quantity ; I fired it againll
the pendulum placed at 25, 75, and 125 feet diliance
from the mouth of the piece refpe&ively ; and I found
that it impinged againlt the pendulum, in the firft cafe,
with a velocity of 1670 feet in a fecond; in the fe¬
cond cafe, with a velocity of 1550 feet in a fecond}
and in the third cafe, with a velocity of 1425 feet in
a fecond : fo that, in pafliug through 50 feet of air,
the bullet loft a velocity of 120 or 125 feet in a fe¬
cond; and the time of its palfing through that fpace
being about ^ or of a fecond, the medium quantity
of refiftance muft, in thefe inftance-s, have been about
120 times the weight of the bail; which (as the ball
was nearly X*T of a pound) amounts to about 10 lb. a-
voirdupoife.
“ Now, if a computation be made according to the
method laid down for compreffed fluids in the 38th
propofition of Newton’s Prwa/rft, fuppofing the weight
of water to that of air as 850 to 1, it will be found,
that the refiftance to a globe of | of an inch diamer
ter, moving with a velocity of about 1600 feet in
a fecond, will not, on thefe principles, amount to
any more than 4^ lb. avoirdupoife; whence, as we
know that the rules contained in that propofition are
very
Sea.ir.
GUNNERY.
Theory, very accurate with regard to flow motions, we may
^ v  hence conclude, that the refiftance of the air in flow mo-
207
retarded confiderably more than it ought to have been Theory-
had that theory taken place in its motion; confequent- ‘
tions is lefs than that in fwift motions, in the ratio of 4^ ly the refillance of the air is very fenflbly increafed,
to 10; a proportion between that of 1 to 2, and 1 to 3. even in fuch a fmall velocity as that of 400 feet in a
; Again, I charged the fame piece a number of feeond.
times with equal quantities of powder, and balls of
the fame weight, taking all potfible care to give to
every fhot an equal velocity; and, firing three times a-
gainll the pendulum placed only 25 feet from the mouth
of the piece, the medium of the velocities with which
the ball impinged was nearly that -of 169-0 feet in a
fecond : then removing the piece 175 feet from the
pendulum, I found, taking the medium of five fhots,
As no large fliot are ever projected in practice
with velocities exceeding that of 1700 feet in a fecond, |;;^xxv*
it will be fufficient for the purpofes of a pra&ical gun- S’3‘
ner to determine the .refiftance to all leffer velocities;
which may be thus exhibited. Let AB be taken to
AC, in the ratio of 1700 feet in a fecond to the
given velocity to which the refifting power of the air
is required. Continue the line AB to D, fo that
that the velocity with which the ball impinged at this BD may be to AD, as the refifting power of the air
diftance was 1300 feet in a fecond ; whence the ball, to flow motions is to its refilling power to a velocity
in palTing through 150 feet of air, loft a velocity of of 1700 feet in a fecond; then fhall CD be to AD
about 390 feet in a fecond; and the idiftance compu- as the refilling power of the air to flow motions is to
ted from thefe numbers, comes out fomething more its refifting power to the given velocity reprefentcd
than in the preceding inftance, it amounting here to by AC.
between 11 and 12 pounds avoirdupoife; whence, ac- “ From the computations and experiments already
cording to thefe. experiments, the refifting power of mentioned, it plainly appears, that a leaden ball of
the air to fwift motions is greater than to flow ones, in of an inch diameter, and vveighing nearly i-j-oz. avoir-
ratio which approaches nearer to that of 3 to 1
than in the preceding experiments.
“ Having thus examined the refiftance to a veloci¬
ty of 1700 feet in a fecond, I next examined the re¬
fillance to fmaller velocities: and for tin's purpofe, I
charged the fame barrel with balls of the fame diame-
dupoife,.if it be fired from a barrel of 45 inches in
length, with half its weight of powder, will ilfuc from
that piece with a velocity which, if it were uniformly
continued, would carry it near 1700 feet in a fecond.
—If, inftead of a leaden ball, an iron one, of an equal
diameter, was placed in the fame fituation in the fame
ter, but with lefs powder, and placing the pendulum piece, and was impelled by an equal quantity of powder,
•at 25 feet diftance from the piece, I fired againit it the velocity of fuch an iron-bullet would be greater
-- —1 —— —*- ~“j: than that of the leaden one in the fubduplicate ratio
of the fpecificate gravities of lead and iron ; and fup-
pofing that ratio to be as three to two, and computing
on the principles already laid down, it will appear^
that an iron-bullet of 241b. weight, fliot from a piece
five times with an equal charge each time : the medi¬
um velocity with which the ball impinged, was that
of 1180 feet in a fecond ; then, removing the pendu-
lum to the diftance of 250 feet, the medium velocity
of five fhots, made at this dillance, was that of 950
feet in a fecond: whence the ball, in pafiing through of 10 feet in length, with i61b. of powder, will acquire
225 feet of air, loft a velocity of 230 feet in a fecond : from the explofion a velocity which, if uniformly con-
and as it pafled through that interval in about of tinued, would carry it nearly 1650 feet in a fecond
a fecond, the refiftance to the middle velocity will come
out to be near 33-^ times the gravity of the ball, or
2 lb. 10 oz. avoirdupoife. Now, the refiftance to the
fame velocity, according to the laws obferved in flow¬
er motions, amounts to TV of the fame quantity ;
whence, in a velocity of 1065 ^eet *n a fecond, the re¬
fifting power of the air is augmented in no greater a
proportion than that of 7 to 1 1; whereas we have feen
in the former experiments, that to Hill greater degrees
of velocity the augmentation approached'very near
the ratio of one to three.
“ But farther, I fired three fhot, of the fame fize
and weight with thofe already mentioned, over a large
piece of water; fo that their dropping into the water
being very difcernible, both the diftance and time of
their flight might be accurately afeertained. Each
fhot was difeharged with a velocity of 40Q feet in a
fecond ; and I had fatisfied myfelf by many previous
trials of the fame charge with the pendulum, that I
could rely on this velocity to ten feet in a fecond. The
firft fhot flew 313 yards in four feconds and a quarter,
“ This is the velocity which, according to cul
theory, a cannon-ball of 241b. weight is difeharged
with when it is impelled by a full charge of powder;
but if, initcad of a quantity of powder weighing two-
thirds of the ball, we fuppofe the charge to be only
half the weight of it, then its velocity wiff on the fame
principles be no more than 1490 feet^in a fecond. The
fame would be the velocities of every lefftr bullet fired
with the fame proportions of powder, if the lengths of
all pieces were conftantly in the fame ratio with the
diameters of their bore; ami although, according to
the ufual dimenfions of the fmaller pieces of artillery '
this proportion does not always hold, yet the difference
is not great enough to occafion a very great variation
from the velocities here afligned ; as will be obvious to
any one who fhall make a computation thereon. But
in thefe determinations we fuppofe the windage to be
no more than is juft fufficient for putting down the bul¬
let eafily; whereas in real fei vice, either through negli¬
gence or unfkilfulnefs, it often happens, that the dia¬
meter of the bore fo much exceeds the diameter of the
the fecond flew 3 19 yards in four feconds, and the third bullet, that great part of the inflamed fluid efcapes by
372 yards in five feconds and an half. According to its fide : wfienee tl.e n. .. .• .id /
the theory ef refiftance eftablifhed for flow motions,
the firft fhot ought to have fpent no more than 3.2
feconds in its flight, the fecond 3.28, and the third
4 feconds: whence it is evident, that every fliot was
may be confiderably lefs than what we have affigned.
However, this perhaps may be compenfated by the
greater heat which in all probability attends the firing
of thefe large quantities of powder.
5 «
From
GUNN
Theory. « From this great velocity of cannon-fhot we may
 clear up the difficulty concerning the point-blank (hot
Solution which occafioned the invention of Anderfon’s ftrange
of'thediffi- hypothefisf. Here our author was deceived by his
culty con- not knowing how greatly the primitive velocity of the
cerning heavieft ffiot is diminifhed in the courfe of its flight by
point-blank ^ rep1fl;ance Df the a;r. And the received opinion of
f Ste n°5. praftical gunners is not more difficult to account for;
fince, when they agree that every fliot flies in a ftraight
line to a certain diftance from the piece, which imagi¬
nary diftance they have called the extent of the point-
blank Jlooty we need only fuppofe, that, within that di¬
ftance which they thus determine, the deviation of the
path of the (hot from a ftraight line is not very percep¬
tible in their method of pointing. Now, as a Ihot of
241b. fired with two-thirds of its weight of powder,
will, at the diftance of 500 yards from the piece, be
feparated from the line of its original direftion by an
angle of little more than half a degree; thofe who are
acquainted with the inaccurate methods often ufed in
the direfting of cannon will eafily allow, that fo fmall
an aberration may not be attended to by the generality
of praftitioners, and the. path of the flrot may con-
fequently be deemed a ftraight line ; efpecially as
other caufes of error will often intervene much greater
than what arifes from the incurvation of this line by
*5 gravity.
fin "the^3* ** ^ave nOW de-terlT“ned t^ie vel°cdy the ffiot
quantity of both when fired with two-thirds of its weight and
powder, the with half its weight of powder refpe&ively ; and on
velocity of this occafion I muft remark, that on the principles of
w'U^ot our t^o'T* tlie increafing the charge of powder will
continually increafe the velocity of the ffiot, till the powder ar-
iticreafe. rives at a certain quantity ; after which, *if the powder
be increafed, the velocity of the ffiot will diminiffi.
The quantity producing the greateft velocity, and the
proportion between that greateft velocity and,the ve¬
locity communicated by greater and leffer charges, may
be thus affigned. Let AB reprefent the axis of the
Plate piece; draw AC perpendicular to it, and to the afymp-
CCXXV. totes AC and AB draw any hyperbola LF, and draw
flg< 3- parallel to AC ; find out now the point D, where
the re&angle ADEG is equal to the hyperbolic area
DEFB ; then will AD reprefent that height of the
charge which communicates the greateft velocity to the
fhot: whence AD being to AB as 1 to 2.71828, as
appears from the table of logarithms, from the length
of the line AD thus determined, and the diameter of
the bore, the quantity of powder contained in this
charge is eafily known. If, inftead of this charge, any
other filling the cylinder to the height AI be ufed,
draw IH parallel to AC, and through the point H to
the fame afymptotes AC and AB defcribe the hyper¬
bola HK; then the greateft velocity will be to the ve¬
locity communicated by the charge A I, in the fub-
duplicate proportion of the re&angle AE to the fame
redtangle diminiflied by the trilinear fpace KKE.
16 “ It hath been already Ihown, that the refiftance of
Exceeding air 0p t.l)e furface of a bullet of of an inch dia-
fiftswce^f meter> moving with a velocity of 1670 feet in a fccond,
the air. amounted to about to lb. It hath alfo been ffiown,
that an iron-bullet weighing*24 lb. if fired with 16 lb.
of powder (which is ufually efteemed its proper bat¬
tering charge), acquires a velocity of about 1650 feet
in afecond, fcarcely diffeting from the other: whence,
N° 146.
E R Y. Sea. II.
as the furface of this laft bullet is more than 54 times Theory.
greater than the furface of a bullet of £ of an inch dia-  r—**
meter, and their velocities are nearly the fame, it
follows, that the refiftance on the larger bullet will a-
mount to more than 5401b. which is near 23 times
its own weight.
“ The two laft propofxtions are principally aimed
againft thofe theorifts who have generally agreed in
fuppofing the flight of ffiot and ffiells to be nearly in
the curve of a parabola. The reafon jgiven by thofe
authors for their opinion is the fuppofed inconfiderable
refiftance of the air ; fince, as it is agreed on all fides
that the traft of projeftiles would be a perfeft parabo¬
la if there was no refiftance, it has from thence been
too rafldy concluded, that the interruption which the
ponderous bodies of ffiells and bullets would receive
from fuch a rare medium as air would be fcarcely fen-
fible, and confequently thattheir parabolic flight would
be hereby fcarcely affe&ed.
“ Now the prodigious refiftanee of the air to a bul¬
let of 24 lb. weight, fuch as we have here eftabliffied
it, fufficiently confutes this reafoning; for how erro¬
neous muft that hypothefis be, which negledts as in¬
confiderable a force amounting to more than 20 times
the weight of the moving body?” But here it is necef-
fary to affume a few particulars, the demonftrations of
which, on the commonly received principles, may be
feen under the article Projectiles.
“ 1. If the refiftance of the air be fo fmall that the Common
motion of a projedled body is in the curve of a para- maxims
bola, then the axis of that parabola will be perpendi- concerning
cular to the horizon, and confequently the part of the
curve in which the body afcends will be equal and fiml- tiles,
lar to that in which it defcends.
“ 2. If the parabola in which the body moves be
terminated on a horizontal plane, then the vertex of
the parabola will be equally diftant from its two ex¬
tremities.
“ 3. Alfo the moving body will fall on that horizon¬
tal plane in the fame angle, and with the fame velocity
with which it was firft projected.
“ 4. If a body be proje&ed in different angles but
with the fame velocity, then its greateft horizontal
range will be when it is projected in an angle of 45
with the horizon.
“5. If the velocity with which the body is projefted
be known, then this greateft horizontal range may be
thus found. Compute, according to the common
theory of gravity, what fpace the proje&ed body
ought to fall through to acquire the velocity with
which it is projefted; then twice that fpace will be
the greateft; horizontal range, or the horizontal range
when the body is proje&ed in an angle of 450 with the
horizon.
“ 6. The horizontal ranges of a body, when projec¬
ted with the fame velocity at different angles, will be
between themfelves as the fines of twice the angle
in which the line of projeftion is inclined to the
horizon.
“7. If a body is proje&ed in the fame angle with
the horizon but with different velocities, the horizon¬
tal ranges will be in the duplicate proportion of thofe
velocities. 28
“ Thefe poftulatea which contain the principles of
the modern art of gunnery are all of them falfe ; for *
1 it theory.
Sea. IT.
GUNNERY.
Theory, it hath hfen already fhown, that a muiket-ball 4 of an
incjj ;n diameter, fired with half its weight of powder,
from a piece 45 inches long, moves with a velocity of
near 1700 feet in a fecond. Now, if this ball flew in
the curve of a parabola, its horizontal range at 45“
■would be found by the fifth poftulate to be about 17
miles. But all the pra&ical writers aflure us, that
this range is really fliort of half a mile. Diego Ufano
afiigns to an arquebuls, four feet in length, and carry¬
ing a leaden ball of i^-oz. weight (which is very near
our dimenfions), an horizontal range of 797 common
paces, when it is elevated between 40 and 50 degrees,
and charged with a quantity of fine powder equal in
weight to the ball. Merfennus alfo tells us, that he
found the horizontal range of an arquebufs at 450 to
be'lefs than 400 fathom, or 800 yards; whence, as
cither of thefe ranges are fliort of half an Englifli mile,
it follows, that a muflcet (hot, when fired with a rea-
fonable charge of powder at the. elevation of 45°, flies
not -jij- part of the diftance it ought to do if it moved
in a parabola. Nor is this great contradlion of the
horizontal range to be wondered at, when it is confi-
dered that the refifiance of this bullet when it firlt if-
fues from the piece amounts to 120 times its gravity,
as hath been experimentally demonfirated, n° 2 3.
“ To prevent objeftions, our next inftance fliall be
in an iron-bullet of 241b. weight, which is the
heavieft in common ufe for land-fervice. Such a bul¬
let fired from a piece of the common dimenfions with
its greateft allotment of powder hath a velocity of
1650 feet in a fecond, as already fliown. Now, if the
horizontal range of this fliot, at 450, be computed on
the parabolic hypothefis by the fifth poftulate, it will
come out to be about 16 miles, which is between five
and fix times its real quantity; for the pradtical writers
all agree in making it lefs than three miles.
“ But farther, ij, is not only when projectiles move
with thefe very great velocities that their flight fen-
iihly varies from the curve of a parabola; the fame
aberration often takes place in fuch as move flow e-
nough to have their motion traced out by the eye:
for there are few projectiles that can be thus exami¬
ned, which do not vifibly difagree with the firft, fe¬
cond, and third poftulate ; obvioufly defcending thro’
a curve, which is fhorter and lefs inclined to the ho¬
rizon than that in which they afcended. Alfo the
higheft point of their flight, or the vertex of the
curve, is much nearer the place where they fall to the
ground than to that from whence they were at firft
difcharged.
“ 1 have found too by experience, that- the fifth,
lixth, and feventh poftulates are exceflively erroneous
when applied to the motions of bullets moving with
fmall velocities. A leaden bullet \ of an inch in dia¬
meter, difcharged with a velocity of about 400 feet
in a fecond, and in an angle of 190 5' with the hori¬
zon,‘rattged on the horizontal plane no more than 446
yards : whereas its greateft horizontal range bein*g
found by the fifth poftulate to be at leall 1700 yards,
the range at 19" 5' ought by the fixth poftulate to have
29 been 1050 yards; whence, in this experiment, the
Rotatory range was not 4 of what it muft have been had the
motion of commonly received theory been true.”
greatfource From this and other experiments it is clearly
of diffec- proved, that the track defcribed by the flight even of
tion. Vol.VIII. Parti,
the heavieft fhot, is neither a parabola, nor approach¬
ing to a parabola, except when they are projected with
very fmall velocities. The nature of the curve really
defcribed by them is explained under the article Pro¬
jectiles. But as a fpecimen of the great complica¬
tion of that fubjeft, we fhall here infert an account
of a very extraordinary circumftance which frequently
takes place therein.
“ As gravity adts perpendicularly to the horizon,
it is evident, that if no other power but gravity de-
fledied a projedfed body from its courfe, its motion
would be conftantly performed in a plane perpendi¬
cular to the horizon, palling through the line of its
original diredlion : but we have found, that the body
in its motion often deviates from this plane, fome-
times to the right hand and at other times to the
left ; and this in an incurvated line, which is convex
towards that plane : fo that the motion of a bullet is
frequently in a line having a double curvature, it be¬
ing bent towards the horizon by the force of gravity,
and again bent out of its original diredtion to the right
or left by fome other force: in this cafe no part of the
motion of the bullet is performed in the fame plane,
but its track will lie in the furface of a kind of cylinder,
whofe axis is perpendicular to the horizon.
“ This propolition may be indifputably proved by
the experience of every one in the leaft converfant
with the pradtice of gunnery. The fame piece which
will carry its bullet within an inch of the intended
mark at 10 yards diitance, cannot be relied on to
to inches in 100 yards, much lefs to 30 inches in
300 yards. Now this inequality can only arife from
the track of the bullet being incurvated Tideways as well
as downwards: for by this means the diftance between
that incurvated line and the line of diredtion will in-
creafe in a much greater ratio than that of the di¬
ftance ; thefe lines being coincident at the mouth of
the piece, and afterwards feparating in the manner of
a curve and its tangent, if the mouth of the piece be con-
ftdered as the point of contadt.—To put this matter
out of all doubt, however, I took a barrel carrying a
ball 4 of an inch diameter, and fixing it on a heavy
carriage, I fatisfied myielf of the fteadinefs and truth
of its diredtion, by firing at a board 14 feet fquare,
which was placed at 180 feet diftance; for I found,
that in 16 fuccelfive ftiots I miffed the mark but once.
Now, the fame barrel being fixed on the fame carriage,
and fired with a fmaller quantity of powder, fo that
the ihock on the difeharge would be much lefs, and
confequently the direction lefs changed, I found, that
at 760 yards diftance the ball flew fometimes 100
yards to the right of the line it was pointed on, and
fometimes as much to the left. I found, too, that
its diredtion in the perpendicular line was not lefs un¬
certain, it falling one time above 200 yards ftiort of
what it did at another; although, by the niceft exa¬
mination of the piece after the difeharge, it did not
appear to have ftarted in the leaft from the pofition it
was placed in.
“ I he reality of this doubly curvated tradl being
thus demonftrated, it may perhaps be allied, What can
be the caufe of a motion fo different from what has been
hitherto fuppofed ? And to this I anfwer, That the
deflection in queftion muft be owing to fome power
adting obliquely to the progreffive motion of the
C c body;
GUNNERY. Sea.R
Theory, body ; which power can be no other than the refiftance
of the air. If it be farther aiked, how the refiftance
of the air can ever come to be oblique to the progref-
five motion of the body ? I farther reply, that it may
fometimes arife from inequalities in the refilled fur-
face ; but that its general caufe is doubtlefs a whirling
motion acquired by the bullet about its axis: for by
this motion of rotation, combined with the progref-
five motion, each part of the bullet’s furface will ftrike
the air very differently from what it would do if there
was no fuch whirl; and the obliquity of the action of
the air ariling from this caufe will be greater as the
motion of the bullet is greater in proportion to its pro-
greffive one.
“ This whirling motion undoubtedly arifes from the
fri&ion of the bullet againft the tides of the piece;
and as the"rotatory motion will in fome part of its re¬
volution confpire with the progrefiive one, and in ano¬
ther part be equally oppofed to it ; the refiftance of
the air on the fore part of the bullet will be hereby
affe&ed, and will be increafed in that part where the
whirling motion confpires with the progreffive one, and
diminilhed where it is oppofed to it: and by this
means the whole effort of the refiftance, inftead of
being oppofite to the direction of the body, will be¬
come oblique thereto, and will produce thofe effefts
already mentioned. If it was pofiible to predift the
pofition of the axis round which the bullet ftiould
whirl, and if that axis was unchangeable during the
whole flight of the bullet, then the aberration of the
bullet by this oblique force would be in a given direc¬
tion ; and the incurvation produced thereby would re¬
gularly extend the fame way from one end of its track
to the other. For inftance, if the axis of the whirl
was perpendicular to the horizon, then the incurvation
would be to the right or left. If that axis was hori¬
zontal, and perpendicular to the dire&ion of the bullet,
then the incurvation would be upwards or downwards.
But as the firft pofition of this axis is uncertain, and
as it may perpetually fhift in the courfe of the bullet’s
flight; the deviation of the bullet is not neceffarily
either in one certain dire&ion, or tending to the fame
fide in one part of its track that it does in another, but
more ufually is continually changing the tendency of its
deflexion, as the axis round which it whirls muft fre¬
quently fhift its pofition to the progreffive motion by
many inevitable accidents.
“ That a bullet generally acquires fuch a rotatory
motion, as here defcribed, is, I think, demonftrable :
however, to leave no room for doubt or difpute, I
confirmed it, as well as fbme other parts of my theory,
39 by the following experiments,
for'm'aftr. “ ^ caufed the machine to be made reprefented
ang the air’.s Plate CCXXV. fig. 4. BCDE is a brafs barrel, move-
refiftanee. able on its axis, and fo adjufted by means of fri&ion-
wheels, not reprefented in the figure, as to have no
friction worth attending to. The frame in which this
barrel is fixed is fo placed that its axis may be per¬
pendicular to the horizon. The axis itfelf is continued
above the upper plate of the frame, and has fattened
on it a light hollow cone, AFG. From the lower
part of this cone there is extended a long arm of wood,
GH, which is very thin, and cut feather-edged. At
its extremity there is a contrivance for fixing on the
body, whole refiftance is to be inveftigated (as here the
globe P) ; and to prevent the arm GH from fwaying Theory,
out of its horizontal pofition by the weight of the an- —v~“
nexed body P, there is a brace, AH, of fine wire, fa¬
ttened to the top of the cone which fupports the end of
the arm.
“ Round the barrel BCDE, there is wound a fine
filk line, the turns of which appear in the figure.; and
after this line hath taken a fufficient number of turns,
it is conduced nearly in a horizontal direction to the
pully L over which it is paffed, and then a proper
weight M is hung to its extremity. If this weight
be left at liberty, it is obvious that it will defcend by
its own gravity, and will, by its defcent, turn round
the barrel BCDE, together with the arm GH, and
the body P fattened to it. And whilft the refiftance on
the arm GH and on the body P is lefs than the weight
M, that weight will accelerate its motion ; and there¬
by the motion of GH and P will increafe, and con-
fequently their refiftance' will increafe, till at laft this-
refiftance and the weight M become nearly equal to
each other. The motion with which M defcends,
and with which P revolves, will not then feniibly dif¬
fer from an equable one. Whence it is not difficult
to conceive, that, by proper obfervations made with
this machine, the refiftance of the body P may be de¬
termined. The moft natural method of proceeding in
this inveftigation is as follows : Let the machine firft
have acquired its equable motion, which it will ufually
do in about five or fix turns from the beginning ; and
then let it be obferved, by counting a number of turns,
what time is taken up by one revolution of the body
P : then taking off the body P and the weight M, let
it be examined what fmaller weight will make the arm
GH revolve in the fame time as when P was fixed to
it; this fmaller weight being taken from M, the re¬
mainder is obvioufiy equal in effort to the refiftance of
the revolving body P ; and this remainder being redu¬
ced in the ratio of the length of the arm to the femi-
diameter of the barrel, will then become equal to the
abfolute quantity of the refiftance. And as the time of
one revolution is known, and confcquently the velocity.
of the revolving body, there is hereby diftcovered the
abfolute quantity of the refiftaace to the given body
P moving with a given degree of celerity.
“ Here, to avoid all objections, I have generally
chofe, when the body P was removed, to fix in its
ftead a thin piece of lead of the fame weight, placed
horizontally; fo that the weight which was to turn
round the arm GH, without the body P, did alfo carry
round this piece of lead. But mathematicians will
eafily allow that there was no neceffity for this precau¬
tion.—The diameter of the barrel BCDE, and of the
filk firing wound round it, was 2.06 inches. The
length of the arm GH, meafured from the axis to the
furface of the globe P, was 49.5 inches. The body
P, the globe made ufe of, was of pafteboard ; its fun-
face very neatly coated with marbled paper. It was
not much dittant from the fize of a 12 lb. fhot, being
in diameter 4.5 inches, fo that the radius,of the circle
defcribed by the centre of the globe was 51.75 inches.
When this globe was fixed at the end of the arm, and
a weight of half a pound was hung at the end of the
firing at M, it was examined how foon the motion of
the defcending weight M, and of the revolving body
P, would become equable as to fenfe. With this view,
three
Sea. IT. GUNNERY.
three revolutions being fuffered to elapfe, it was found
that the next 10 were performed in 27I", 20 in lefs
than 55", and 30 in 824"; fo that the firft 10 were
-performed in 274", the fecond in 273:', and the third
in 274-''.
“ Thefe experiments fufficiently evince, that even
with half a pound, the fmalleft weight made ufe of,
the motion of the machine was fufficieutly equable after
the firll three revolutions.
“ The globe above mentioned being now fixed at
the end of the arm, there was hung on at M a weight
of 3ilb. ; apd xo revolutions being fulfered to elapfe,
the fucceeding 20 were performed in 21*-. Then the
globe being taken off, and a thin plate of lead, equal
to it in weight, placed in its room; it was found, that
Inftead of 3-3 lb. a weight of one pound would make
it revolve in lefs time than it did before ; performing
now 20 revolutions after 10 were elapfed in the fpace
of 19".
“ Hence then it follows, that from the 34 lb. firft
hung on, there is lefs than 1 lb. to be. deduced for
the refiftance on the arm; and confequently the re-
fiftance on the globe itfelf is not lefs than the effort of
24 lb. in the fituation M ; and it appearing from the
former meafures, that the radius of the barrel is nearly
of the radius of the circle, defcribed by the centre
of the globe ; it follows, that the abfolute refiftance
of the globe, when it revolves 20 times in 2!4"> (a-
bout 25 feet in a fecond), is not lefs than the 50th
part of two pounds and a quarter, or of 36 ounces;
and this being confiderably more than half an ounce,
and the globe nearly the fize of a twelve-pound (hot,
it irrefragably confirms a propofition I had formerly
laid down from theory, that the refi fiance of the air to
a 12 lb. iron {hot, moving with a velocity of 25 feet in
a fecond, is not lefs than half an ounce.
“ The reft of the experiments were made in order
to confirm another propofition, namely, that the re¬
fiftance of the air within certain limits is nearly in the
duplicate proportion of the velocity of the refifted
body. To inveftigate this point, there were fuccef-
fively hung on at M, weights in the proportion of the
numbers I, 4, 9, 16; and letting 10 revolutions firft
elapfe, the following obfervations were made on the
reft.—With 4 lb- the globe went 20 turns in 544",
with 2 lb. it went 20 turns in 274'', with 441b. it
went 30 turns in 274, and with 8 lb. it went 40 turns
in 274.—Hence it appears, that, to refiftances propor¬
tioned to the numbers 1, 4, 9, 16, there correfpond
velocities of the refifted body in the proportion of the
numbers i, 2, 3, 4 ; which proves, with great nicety,
the propofition above mentioned.
“ With regard to the rotatory motion, the firft ex¬
periment was to evince, that the whirling motion of a
ball combining with its progreffive motion would pro¬
duce fuch an oblique tefiftance and defleftive power as
already mentioned. For this purpofe a wooden ball
of 44 inches diameter was fufpended by a double
ftring, about eight or nine feet long. Now, by turn¬
ing round the ball and twilling the double ftring, the
ball when left.to itfelf would have a revolving motion
given it from the untwifting of the ftring again. And
if, when the ftrirfg was twilled,' the ball was drawn to
a confiderable diftance . from the perpendicular, and
there let go; it would at .firft, before it had acquired
its revolving motion, vibrate fteadily enough in the
fame vertical plane in which it firft began to move :
but when, by the untwifting of the ftring, it had ac¬
quired a fufficient degree of its whirling motion, it
conftantly defle&ed to the right or left of its firft
track ; and fometimes proceeded fo far as to have its
direction at right angles to that in which it began its
motion ; and this deviation was not produced by the
ftring itfelf, but appeared to be entirely owing to the
refiftance being greater on the one part of the leading
furface of the globe than the other. For the devia¬
tion continued when the ftring was totally untwifted;
and even during the time that the ftring, by the mo¬
tion the globe had received, was twilling the contrary
way. And it was always eafy to predict, before the
ball was let go, which way it would defledl, only by
confidering on which fide the whirl would be combined
with the progreffive motion; for on that fide always the
defledlive power ailed, as the refiftance was greater
here than on the fide where the whirl and progreffive
motion were oppofed to one another.”
Though Mr Robins confidered this experiment as
an inconteftable proof of the truth of his theory, he
undertook to give ocular demonftration of this de-
fle&ion of mulket-buliets even in the Ihort fpace of
100 yards.
“ As all projeililes,” fays he, “ in their flight, are
ailed upon by the power of gravity, the defleilion of a
bullet from its primary direition, fuppofes that deflec¬
tion to be upwards or downwards in a vertical plane ;
becaufe, in the vertical plane, the ailion of gravity is
compounded and entangled with the defleilive force.
And for this reafon my experiments have been princi¬
pally direiled to the examination of that defleition
which catries the bullet to the right or left of that
plane in which it began to move For if it appears at
any time that the bullet has ftiifted from that vertical
plane in which the motion began, this will be an in¬
conteftable proof of what we have advanced.—Now,
by means of fcreens of exceeding thin paper, pla-xi
parallel to each other at proper diftances, this deflexion
in queftion may be many ways inveftigated. For by
firing bullets which ftvall traverfe the fcreens, the
flight of the bullet may be traced ; and it may eafily
appear whether they do or do not keep invariably to
one vertical plane. This examination may proceed on
three different principles, which I {hall here feparately
explain.
“ For firft, an exadlly vertical plane may be traced
out upon all thefe fcreens, by which the deviation of
any Angle bullet may be more readily inveftigated, on¬
ly by meafuring the horizontal diftance of its trace
from the vertical plane thus delineated; and by this
means the abfolute quantity of its aberration may be
known. Or if the defcription of fuch a vertical plane
Ihould be efteemed a matter of difficulty and nicety, a
fecond method may be followed ; which is that of reft-
ing the piece in fome fixed notch or focket, fo that
though the piece may have fome little play to the
right and left, yet all the lines in which the bullet can
be dire&ed {hall interfedl each other in the centre of
that fixed focket: by this means, if two different {hot
are fired from the piece thus fituated, the horizontal
diftances made by the two bullets on any two fcreens
ought to be in the fame proportion to each other as
C c 2 the
Theory.
212
Theory, the refpe&ive diftances of the fereens from the focket
' ■' in which the piece was laid. And if thefe horizontal
diftances differ from that proportion, then it is certain
that one of the fhoc at leaft hath deviated from a ver¬
tical plane, although the abfolute quantity of that de¬
viation cannot hence be affigned ; becaufe it cannot be
known what part of it is to be imputed to one bullet,
and what to the other.
“ But if the conftant and invariable pofition of the
notch or focket in which the piece was placed, be
thought too hard an hypothefis in this very nice affair;
the third method, and which is the fimpleft of all,
requires no more than that two (hot be fired through
three fereens without any regard to the pofition of the
piece each time : for in this cafe, if the fhots diverge
from each other, and both keep to a vertical plane,
then if the horizontal diftances of their traces on the
fir ft fereen be taken from the like horizontal diftances
on the fecond and third, the two remainders will be
in the fame proportion with the diftances of the fecond
and third fereen from the firft. And if they are not in
this proportion, then it will be certain that one of them
at leaft hath been defle&ed from the vertical plane ;
though here, as in the laft cafe, the quantity of that
defleftion in each will not be known.
Remark- “ All thefe three methods I have myfelf made ufe
able devia- of at different times, and have ever found the fuccefs
bullets to agreeahle to my expeftation. But the moft eligible
the right method feemed to be a compound of the two laft.
and left. The apparatus was as follows.—Two fereens were fet
up in the larger walk in the charter-houfe garden ; the
firft of them at 250 feet diftance from the wall, which
was to ferve for a third fereen ; and the fecond 200
feet from the fame wall. At 50 feet before the firft
fereen, or at 300 feet from the wall, there was placed
a large block weighing about 200 lb. weight, and ha¬
ving fixed into it an iron bar with a focket at its ex¬
tremity, in which the piece was to be laid. The piece
itfelf was of a common length, and bored for an ounce
bifii. It was each time loaded with a ball of 17 to the
pound, fo that the windage was extremely fmall, and
with a quarter of an ounce of good powder. The
fereens were made of the thinneft iffue paper; and the
refiftance they gave to the bullet (and fconfequently
their probability of deflefting it) was fo fmall, that a
bullet lighting one time near the extremity of one of
the fereens, left a fine thin fragment of it towards the
edge entire, which was fo very weak that it was diffi¬
cult to handle it without breaking. Thefe things thus
prepared, five (hot were made with the piece refted in
the notch above mentioned ; and the horizontal ciftan-
ces between the firft ffiort, which was taken as a ftand-
ard, and the four fucceeding ones, both on the firft
and fecond fereen and on the wall, raeafured in inches,
were as follows:
1 ft Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
1 to 2 1,75 R. 3,15 R. 16,7 R.
3 10 L. 15,6 L. 69,25 L.
4 1,25 L* 4,5 L. 15,0 L.
5 2,15 L. 5,' L. 19,0 L.
“ Here the letters R and L denote that the fhot in
queftion went either to the right or left of the firft.
“ If the pofition of the focket in which the piece
was placed be fuppofed fixed, then the horizontal di¬
ftances meafured above on the firft and fecond fereen,
GUNNERY,
Sea. IT.
and on the wall, ought to be in proportion to the di- Theory,
ftances of the firft fereen, the fecond fereen, and the —-v—
wall from the focket. But by only looking over thefe
numbers, it appears, that none of them are in that pro¬
portion ; the horizontal diftance of the firft and third,
for inftance, on the wall being above nine inches more
than it ffiould be by this analogy.
“ If, without fuppofing the invariable pofition of
the focket, we examine the comparative horizontal di¬
ftances according to the third method deferibed above,
we ffiall in this cafe difeover divarications ftill more
extraordinary ; for, by the numbers fet down, it ap¬
pears, that the horizontal diftances of the fecond and
third ffiot on the two fereens, and on the wall, are
as under.
ift Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
11.75 18.75 ; 83.95
Here, if, according to the rule given above, the di¬
ftance on the firft fereen be taken from the diftances on
the other two, the remainder will be 7, and 74.2:’ and
thefe numbers, if each fhot kept to a vertical plane,
ought to be in the proportion of 1 to 5 ; that being
the proportion of the diftances of the fecond fereen,
and of the wall from the firft : but the laft number
74.2 exceeds what it ought to be by this analogy by
39.2 ; fo that between them there is a deviation from
the vertical plane of above 39 inches, and this too in a.
tranfit of little more than 80 yards.
“ But farther, to fhow that thefe irregularities do
not depend on any accidental circumftance of the balls
fitting or not fitting the piece, there were five ffiots
more made with the fame quantity of powder as be¬
fore ; but with fmaller bullets, which ran much loo-
fer in the piece. And the horizontal diftances be¬
ing meafured in inches from the trace of the firft bul¬
let to each of the fucceeding ones, the numbers were
as under.
ift Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
1 to 2 15.6 R. 31.1 R. 94.0 R.
3 6.4 L. 12.75 L. 23.0 L.
4 4.7 R. 8.5 R. 15.5 R.
5 12.6 R. 24.0 R. 63.5 R-
Here, again, on the fuppofed fixed pofition of the
piece, the horizontal diftance on the wall between the
firft and third will be found above 15 inches lefs than
it fhould be if each kept to a vertical plane ; and like
irregularities, though fmaller, occur in every other ex¬
periment. And if they are examined according to
the third method fet down above, and the horizontal
diftances of the third and fourth, for inftance, are com¬
pared, thofe on the firft and fecond fereen, and on the
wall, appear to be thus.
ift Screen. 2d Screen. Wall.
11.1 _ 21.25 38-5
And if the horizontal diftance on the firft fereen be
taken from the other two, the remainders will be 10.15,.
and 27.4; where the leaft of them, inftead of being
five times the firft, as it ought to be, is 23.35 ffiort of
it; fo that here is a deviation of 23 inches.
“ From all thefe experiments, the defie&ion in que-
ftion feems to be inconteftably evinced. But to give
fome farther light to this fubjetft, I took a barrel of
the fame bore with that hitherto ufed ; and bent it at
about three or four inches from its muzzle to the left,,
the bend making an angle of three or four degrees
with
Sea.H. GUNN
Theory. wlth the axis of the piece. This piece thus bent was
v~~~- fired with a loofe ball, and the fame quantity of pow¬
der hitherto ufed, the fcreens of the laft experiment
being ft ill continued. It was natural to expeft, that
if this piece was pointed by the general direftion of its
axis, the ball would be canted to the left of that di-
redtion by the bend near its mouth. But as the bul¬
let, in palling through that bent_ part, would, as I
conceived, be forced to roll upon the right-hand fide
of the barrel, and thereby its left fide would turn up
againft the air, and would increafe the refiftance on
E R Y. 2i3
breadth, and 5% in length, which was equal to the fur- Theory,
face of the pyramid, the globe P was taken off from
the machine, and the pyramid was firft fixed on ; and
2 lb. being hung at M, and the pyramid fo fitted as
to move with its vertex fonvards, it performed 20 re¬
volutions after the firft ten were elapfed in 33''. Then
the pyramid being turned, fo that its bafe, which was
a plane of four inches fquare, went foremoft, it now
performed 20 revolutions with the fame weight in
3$*'.—After this, taking off the pyramid, and fix¬
ing on the parallelogram with its longer fide perpendi-
that fide ; I predi&ed to the company then prefent, cular to the arm, and placing its furface in an angle
that if the axis on which the bullet whirled, did not
Ihift its pofition after it was feparated from the piece ;
then, notwithstanding the bent of the piece to the
left, the bullet itfelf might be expefted to incurvate
towards the right ; and this, upon trial, did moft re¬
markably happen. For one of the bullets fired fi om
of 450 with the horizon by a quadrant, the paralle¬
logram, with the fame weight, performed 20 revolu¬
tions in 434-''.
“ Now here this parallelogram and the furface of
the pyramid are equal to each other, and each of them
met the air in an angle of 45° ; and yet one of them
this bent piece paffed through the firft fereen about made 20 revolutions in 33", whilft the other took up
T.L in ('•Vi difVnnt fVnm tViP trarp of* nnp Oi r»t- firprl yl A nr? at- flip Tamp tlmp a nr-tpo*** ^
[- inch diftant from the trace of one of the ftiot fired
from the ftraight piece in the laft fet of experiments.
On the fecond fereert, the traces of the fame bullets
434- And at the fame time it appears, that, a flat
furface, fuch as a bafe of a pyramid, which meets
the fame quantity of air perpendicularly, makes 20 re-
were about three inches diftant; the bullet from the volutions in 384:", which is the medium between the
crooked piece palling on both fcreens to the left of the other two.
other: but comparing the places of thefe bullets on the “ But to give another and Hill more Ample proof
wall, it appeared that the bullet from the crooked of this principle there was taken a parallelogram four
piece, though it diverged from the track on the two inches broad and 84 long. This being fixed at the
fcreens, had now crofted that track, and was defle&ed end of the arm, with its long fide perpendicular there-
confiderably to the right of it; fo that it was obvious, to, and being placed in an angle of 450 with the horij
that though the bullet from the crooked piece might z°n> there was a weight hung on at M of 341b. with
firft be canted to the left, and had diverged from the which the parallelogram made 20 revolutions in 404".
track of the other bullet with which it was compared, But after this, the pofition of the parallelogram was
yet by degrees it deviated again to the right, and a
little beyond the fecond fereen croffed that track
fhifted, and it was placed with its Ihorter fide perpen¬
dicular to the arm, though its furface was (till inclined
from which it before diverged, and on the wall was to an angle of 4.50 with the horizon; and now, inftead
defle&ed 14 inches, as I remember, on the contrary of going flower, as might be expected from the greater
fide. And this experiment is not only the moft
convincing proof of the reality of this deflection here
contended for ; but is likewife the ftrongeft confir¬
mation that it is brought about in the very manner and
by the very circumftances which we have all along de-
feribed.
“ I have now only to add, that as I fufpedted the
confideration of the revolving motion of the bullet,
compounded with its progrefiive one, might be confi-
dered as a fubjedt of mathematical fpeculation, and
that the reality of any defle&ing force thence arifin
extent of part of its fuiface from the axis of the ma¬
chine, it went round much fafter : for in this laft fi-
tuation it made 20 revolutions in 354'', fo that there
were 57 difference in the time of 20 revolutions; and
this from no other change of circumftance than as the
larger or Ihorter fide of the oblique plane was perpen¬
dicular to the line of its diredlion.”
In the 73d volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, feveral experiments on this fubjedt, but upon a
larger fcale, are related by Lovell Edgeworth,* Efq.
They confirm the truth of what Mr Robins advances,
might perhaps be denied by fome computifts upon the but nothing is faid to explain the reafon of it.
principles hitherto received of the adlion of fluids; I
thought proper to annex a few experiments, with a
view of evincing the ftrange deficiency of all theories
of this fort hitherto eftablilhed, and the unexpected
and wonderful varieties which occur in thefe matters:
The propofition vvhich I advanced for this purpofe be¬
ing, That two equal furfaces meeting the air with the
fame degree of obliquity, may be fo differently refill¬
ed, that though in one of them the refiftance is lefs
Thefe are the principal experiments made by Mr Why the
Robins in confirmation of his theory, and which not art of gun-
only far exceed every thing that had been formerly r,:ry un¬
done, but even bid fair for advancing the art of gun-notfbLcorae'
nery to its ne plus ultra. It muft be obferved,- how- perieit*
ever, that in this art it is impoflible we ftiould ever ar¬
rive at abfolute perfe&ian ; that is, it can never be ex¬
pected that a gunner, by any method of calculation
whatever, could be enabled to point his guns in fuch a
3*
than that of a perpendicular furface meeting the fame manner, that the Ihot would hit the mark if placed any
quantity of air, yet in another it (hall be confiderably where within its range. Aberrations, which can by no
means be either forefeen or prevented, will take place
from a great number of different caufes. A variation
in the denfity of the atmofphere, in the dampnefs of
the powder, or in the figure of the fliot, will caufe
greater.
Strange “ To make out this propofition, I made ufe of the
anomaly in machine already deferibed : and having prepared a
ance^f^t'he Pd^dmml pyramid, whofebafe was four inches fquare,
finrl tx/Vinfn nlnnps marJp anorlpc nf d r° vvitVi nlan/a
and whofc planes made angles of 450 with the plane of variations in the range of the bullet, which cannot
its bafe}. and alfo a parallelogram four inches in by any means be reduced to rules, and confequently
$ mufti
214
Theory.
adb as a
moving
|iower as
refifling
VOflO..
ISlate
CCXXV.
:ig- S-
GUNN
■mull render tire event of each fhot very precarious. The
refiftance of the atmofphere fimply confidered, without
any of thofe anomalies arifing from its denfity at diffe¬
rent times, is a problem which, notwithflanding the
labours of Mr Rebins and other's, hath not been com¬
pletely folved : and, indeed, if we confider the matter
in a phyfical light, we fhall find, that without fome other
data than thofe which are yet obtained, an exadl folu-
tion of it is impoflible.
It is an objedlion that hath been made to the mathe¬
matical philofophy, and to which in many cafes it is
mod certainly liable, that it confiders the rejtjlance of
matter more than its capacity of giving motion to other
matter. Hence, if in any cafe matter afts both as a
refilling and a moving power, and the mathematician
overlooks its effort towards motion, founding his de-
monflrations only upon its property of refilling, thefe
demonflrations will certainly be falfc, tho’ they fhould
be fupported by all the powers of geometry. It is to an
error of this kind that we are to attribute thegreat dif¬
ferences already taken notice of between the calcula¬
tions of Sir Ifaac Newton, with regard to the refilling
force of fluids, and what a6tually takes place upon trial.
Thefe calculations were made upon the fuppofition that
the fluid through which a body moved could do no¬
thing elfe but refill it; yet it is certain, that the air (the
fluid with which we have to do at prefent) proves' a
fource ot motion, as well as refiflance, to all bodies which
move in it.
To underfland this matter fully, let ABC reprefent
a crooked tube made of any folid matter, and a, b, two
piftons which exadlly fill the cavity. If the fpace be¬
tween thefe piflons is full of air, it is plain they cannot
come into contadt with each other on account of the
elaflicity of the included air, but will remain at fome
certain diftance as reprefented in the figure. If the pi-
flon b is drawn up, the air which preffes in the direc¬
tion Cb adls as a refilling power, and the piflon will
rot be drjwn up with fuch eafe as if the whole was in
vacuo. But though the column of air prefixng in the
diredlion Q,b a&s as a refilling power on the piflon b,
the column prcffing in the dire&ion Aa will aft as a
moving power upon the piflon a. It is therefore plain,
that if b is moved upwards till it comes to the place
marked d, the other will defcend to that marked c.
Now, if we fuppofe the piflon a to be removed, it is
plain, that when b is pulled upwards to d, the air de-
icending through the leg AaCB willprefs on the under
fide of the pillon b, as flrongly as it would have done
upon the upper fide of .the pillon a, had it been pre¬
fent. Therefore, though the air paffing down through
the leg CB refills the motion of the pillon b when drawn
upwards, the air prefling down through the leg AB for¬
wards it as much ; and accordingly the piflon b may be
jdrawn up or pufhed down at pleafure, and with very
little trouble. But if the orifice at A is flopped, fo that
the air can only exert its refilling power on the pillon
b, it will require a confiderable degree of flrength to
move the pillon from i to A
If now we fuppofe the tube to be entirely removed
(which indedd anfwers no other purpofe than to render
the aftion of the air more evident), it is plain, that if
the piflon is moved either up or down, or in any other
direftion we can imagine, the air preffes as much upon
fhe hack part of it as it refifls it on the fore part; and
2
E R Y. Sea, If?
of confequence, a ball moving through the air with Theory.
any degree of velocity, ought to be as much accelera- —"v' “*
ted by the aftion of the air behind, as it is retarded by
the aftion of that before.—Here then it is natural to
alk, If the air accelerates a moving body as much as it
retards it, how comes it to make any refiftance at all ?
yet certain it is, that this fluid doth refift, and that
very confiderably. To this it may be anfwered, that
the air is always kept in fome certain flate or conflitu-
tion by another power which rules all its motions, and
it is this power undoubtedly which gives the refiftance.
It is not to our purpofe at prefent to inquire what that
power is ; but we fee that the air is often in very dif¬
ferent flatesr one day, for inflance, its parts are vio¬
lently agitated by a florm; and another, perhaps, they
are comparatively at reft in a calm. In the firft cafe,
nobody hefitates to own, that the florm is occafioned
by fome caufe or other, which violently refills any
other power that would prevent the agitation of the air.
In a calm, the cafe is the fame ; for it would require
the fame exertion of power to excite a tempefl in a
calm day, as to allay a tempeft in a ftormy one. Now
it is evident, that all projeftiles, by their motion, agi¬
tate the atmofphere in an unnatural manner; and confe-
quently are refifted by that power, whatever it is, which
tends to reftore the equilibrium, or bring back the at¬
mofphere to its former ftate.
If no other power befides that above mentioned ac¬
ted upon projeftiles, it is probable, that all refiftance
to their motion would be in the duplicate proportion
of their velocities ; and accordingly, as long as the ve¬
locity is fmall, we find it generally is fo. But when
the velocity comes to be exceedingly great, other four-
ces of refillance arife. One of thefe is a fubtraftion
of part of the moving power ; which though not pro¬
perly a rejtjlance, or oppofing another power to it, is
an equivalent thereto. This fubtraftion arifes from
the following caufe. The air, as we have already ob-
ferved, preffes upon the hinder part of the moving bo¬
dy by its gravity, as much as it refifts the forepart
of it by the fame property. Neverthelefs, the velocity
with which the air preffes upon any body by means of
its gravity, is limited ; and it is poflible that a body
may change its place with fo great velocity that the
air hath not time to rulh in upon the back part of it,
in order to aflift its progreflive motion. When this
happens to be the cafe, there is in the firft place a de¬
ficiency of the moving power equivalent to 15 pounds
on every fquare inch of furface ; at the fame time that
there is a pofitive refiftance of as much more on the
forepart, owing to the gravity of the atmofphere,
which mull be overcome before the body can move for¬
ward.
This deficiency of moving power, and increafe of re¬
fiftance, do not only take place when the body moves
with a very great degree of velocity, but in all motions
whatever. It is not in all cafes perceptible, becaufe
the velocity with which the body moves, frequently
bears but a very fmall proportion to the velocity with
which the air preffes in behind it. • Thus, fuppofing
the velocity with which the air rulhes into a vacuum to
be izco feet in a fecond, if a body moves with a velo¬
city of 30, 40, or 50 feet in a fecond, the force with
which the air preffes on the back part is but T*r at the
utmoft lefs than that which refifts on the forepart of it,
which
Sea. II.
Theory, which will'not be perceptible : but if, as in the cafe'of
v—— bullets, the velocity of the proje&ile comes to have a
.confiderable proportion to the velocity wherewith the
air rufhes in behind it ; then a very perceptible and
otherwife unaccountable refiftance is.obferved, as we
have feen in the experiments already related by Mr
Robins. Thus, if the air preffes in with a velocity of
1200 feet in a feoond, if the body changes its place
with a velocity of 600 feet in the.fame time, there is
a refiftance of 15 pounds on the fore part, and a pref-
fure of only 74- on the back part. The refiftance
therefore not only overcomes the moving power of the
air by 74 pounds, but there is a deficiency of other
7f pounds owing to the want of half the preffure of
the atmofphere on the back part, and thus the whole
lofs of the moving power is equivalent to 15 pounds;
and hence the exceeding great increafe of refiftance
obferved by Mr Robins beyond what it ought to be
according to the common computations.—The velocity
with which the air rufhes into a vacuum is therefore a
defideratum in gunnery. Mr Robins fuppofes that it
is the fame with the velocity of found ; and that when
a bullet moves with a velocity greater than that of
1200 feet in a fecond, it leaves a perfect vacuum be¬
hind it. Hence he accounts for the great increafe of
refiftance to bullets moving with fuch velocities; but
as he doth not take notice of the lofs of the air’s mo¬
ving power, the anomalies of all leffer velocities are inex¬
plicable on his principles. Nay, he even tells us, that
Sir Ifsac Newton’s rule for computing refiftances may
be applied in all velocities lefs than 1 too or 1200 feet
in a fecond, though this is exprefsly contradi&ed by his
Mr b °wn exPer*ments mentioned n° 23.
its daft icity Though for thefe reafons it is evident how great dif-
as well as Acuities muft occur in attempting to calculate the refift-
gravity. ance of the air to military projectiles, we have not even
yet difcovered all the fources of refiftance to thefe bo
dies when moving with immenfe velocities. Another
power by which they are oppofed (and which at laft
becomes greater than any of thofe hitherto mention¬
ed), is the air’s elafticity. This, however, will not
begin to fhow itfelf in the way of refiftance till the ve¬
locity of the moving body becomes confiderably greater
than that by which the air preffes into a vacuum. Ha¬
ving therefore firft afcertained this velocity, which we
fhall fuppofe to be 1200 feet in a fecond, it is plain,
that if a body moves with a velocity of 1800 feet in a
fecond, it muft comprefs the air before it ; becaufe the
fluid hath neither time to expand itfelf in order to fiH
the vacuum left behind the moving body, nor to rufh
in by its gravity. This compreffion it will refift by
its elaftic power, which thus becomes a new fource of
refiftance, increafing, without any limit, in proportion
to the velocity of the moving body. If now we fup¬
pofe the moving body to fet out with a velocity
of 2400 feet in a fecond, it is plain, that there is not
only a vacuum left behind the body, but the air before
it is compreffed into half its natural fpace. The lofs
of motion in the projefiile therefore is now [very confi-
derable. It firft lofes 15 pounds on every fquare inch
of furface on account of the deficiency of the moving
power of the air behind it; then it lofes 15 pounds
more on account of the refiftance of the air before it;
again it lofes 15 pounds on account of the elafticity of
the .compreffed air; and laftly another 15 pounds on ac-
215
count of the vacuum behind, which takes off the weight Theory,
of the atmofphere, that would have been equivalent to
one half of the elafticity of the air before it. The whole
refiftance therefore upon every fquare inch of furface
moving with this velocity is 60 pounds, befides that
which arifes from the power tending to preferve the
general ftate of the atmofphere, and which increafes in
the duplicate proportion of the velocity as already men¬
tioned. If the body is fuppofed to move with a velo¬
city of 4800 feet in a fecond, the refiftance from the
air’s elafticity will then be quadrupled, or amount to
60 pounds on the fquare inch of furface ; which added
to the other caufes, produces a refiftance of 105 poundp
upon the fquare inch ; and thus would the refiftance
from the elafticity of the air go on continually increa¬
fing, till at laft the motion of the projeftile would be
as effe&ually flopped as if it was fired againft a wall.
This obftacle therefore we are to confider as really z’«-
fuperalle by any art whatever, and therefore it is not
advifable to ufe larger charges of powder than what
will projeft the fhot with a velocity of 1200 feet in -a
fecond. To this velocity the elafticity of the air will
not make great refiftance, if indeed it do make any at
all: for though Mr Robins hath conjeftured that air
rufhes into a vacuum with the velocity of found, or
between 11 and 1200 feet in a fecond; yet we have no
decifive proof of the truth of this fuppofition. At this
velocity indeed, according to Mr Robins, a very fud-
den increafe of refiftance takes place: but this is denied
by Mr Glenie *, who fuppofes that the refiftance pro- * cf)
ceeds gradually ; and indeed it feems to be pretty ob- Gunnery,
vious, that the refiftance. cannot very fuddenly increafe, '*s, S0*-
if the velocity is only increafed in a fmall degree. Yet
it is certain, that the fwifteft motions with which can¬
non-balls can be projected are very foon reduced to
this ftandard ; for Mr Robins acquaints us, that “ a
24-pound (hot, when- difcharged with a velocity of
200O feet in a fecond, will be reduced to that of
1200 feet in a fecond in a flight of little more than 500
yards.”
In the 71ft volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, Mr Thbmfon has propofed a new method of de¬
termining the velocities of bullets, by meafuring the
force of the recoil of the piece. As in all cafes ac¬
tion and re-aClion are fuppofed to be equal to one ano¬
ther, it appears that the momentum of a gun, or the-
fbrce of its recoil backwards, muft always be equivalent
to the force of its charge : that is, the velocity with
which the gun recoils, multiplied into its weight, is
equal to the velocity of the bullet multiplied into its
weight ; for every particle of matter, whether folid or
fluid, that iffues out of the mouth of a piece, muft be
impelled by the attion of fome power, which power
muft re-aft with equal force againft the bottom of the
bore.—Even the fine invifible elaftic fluid that is ge¬
nerated from the powder in its inflammation, cannot
put itfelf in motion without re-atfting againft the gun
at the fame time. Thus we fee pieces, when they are
fired with powder alone, recoil as well as when their
charges are made to impel a weight of Ihot, though
the recoil is not in the fame degree in both cafes. It
is eafy to determine the velocity of the recoil in any
given cafe, by fufpending the gun in an horizontal po-
fition by two pendulous rods, and meafuring the arc of
its afcent by means of a ribbon, as mentioned under
ths :
GUNNERY.
asfi GUNNERY. Sea.ir.
Theory, the article Gunpowder } and this will give the mo- recoil by a Hill more Ample method } for the velocities Theory.
‘“’""Y—■“ men turn of the gun, its weight being known, and con- of the recoil being as the chords meafured upon the
fequently the momentum of its charge. But in order ribbon, if c is put equal to the chord of the recoil ex-
to deter mine the velocity of the bullet from the mo¬
mentum of the recoil, it will be neceffary to know how
much the weight and velocity of the elaftic fluid con¬
tributes to it.
“ That part of the recoil which arifes from the ex-
panflon of the fluid is always very nearly the fame
whether the powder is fired alone, or whether the
charge is made to impel one or more bullets, as has
been determined by a great variety of experiments.—
If'therefore a gun/fufpended according to the method
prefcribed, is fired with any given charge of powder,
but without any bullet or wad, and the recoil is ob-
prefled in Engifli inches, when the piece is fired with
powder only, and C = the chord when the fame piece
is charged with a bullet: then C—c will be as V—U;
and confequently as
V—U+W
which meafures the
velocity of the bullet, the ratio of W to B remaining
the fame.—If therefore we fuppofe a cafe in which
C—c is equal to one inch, and the velocity of the bul¬
let is computed from that chord, the velocity in any
other cafe, wherein C—c is greater or lefs than one
inch, will be found by multiplying the difference of the
. . , chords C and c by the velocity that anfwers to the dif-
ferved, and if the fame piece is afterwards fired with ference 0f one inch.—The length of the parallel rods.
the fame quantity of powder, and a bullet of a known
weight, the excefs of the velocity of the recoil in the
latter cafe, over that in the former, will be propor¬
tional to the velocity of the bullet; for the difference
of thefe velocities, multiplied into the weight of the
gun, will be equal to the weight of the bullet multi¬
plied into its velocity.—Thus, if W is put equal to
the weight of the gun, U =. the velocity of the bullet
when fired with a given charge of powder without any
bullet; V = the velocity of the recoil, when the fame
charge is made to impel a bullet; B — the weight
of the bullet, and v — its velocity ; it will be -u =:
V — U + W.”
B
To determine how far this theory agreed with prac¬
tice, an experiment was made with a charge of 165
grains of powder without any bullet, which produced
a recoil of 5.5 inches ; and in another, with a bullet,
the recoil was 5.6 inches ; the mean of which is 5.55
inches ; anfwering to a velocity of 1.1358 feet in a fe-
by which the piece was fufpended being 64 inches, the
velocity of the recoil, i=C—c~ 1 inch meafured upon
the ribbon, is 0.204655 parts of a foot in one fecond;
which in this cafe is alfo the value of V—U: the ve¬
locity of the bullet, or -a, is therefore 0.2O4655 + 579.
311= n 8.35 feet in a fecond. Hence the velocity of
the bullet may in all cafes be found by multiplying the
difference of the chords C and c by 118.35; the weight
of the barrel, the length of the rods by which it is
fufpended, and the weight of the bullet remaining the
fame ; and this whatever the charge of powder made
ufe of may be, and however it may differ in ftrength
and goodnefs.
The exactnefs of this fecond method will appear
from the following experiments. On firing the piece
with 145 grains of powder and a bullet, the mean of
three fets of experiments was 13.25, 13.15, and 13.2;
and with the fame charge of powder without a bullet,
the recoil was 4.5, 4.3, or 4.4 : C—-c therefore was
13.2—4.4= 8.8 inches ; and the velocity of the bullets
cond. In five experiments with the fame charge of =8.8+118.35=1045 feet in a fecond; the velocities
powder, and a bullet weighing 580 grains, the mean by the pendulum coming out 10.40 feet in the fame
was 14.6 inches; and the velocity of the recoil anfwer- fpace of time.
ing to the length juft mentioned, is 2.9880 feet ii
fecond: confequently V—U, or 2.9880—1.1358, is
equal to 1.8522 feet in a fecond. But as the veloci¬
ties of recoil are known to be as the chords of the arcs
through which the barrel afcends, it is not neoeffary,
in order to determine the velocity of the bullet, to com¬
pute the velocities V and U ; but the quantity V—U,
or the difference of the velocities of the recoil when the
given charge is fired with and without a bullet, may be
computed from the value of the difference of the
chords by one operation.—Thus the velocity anfwer¬
ing to the chord 9.05, is that of 1.8522 feet in a fe¬
cond, is juft equal to V—U, as was before found.
In this experiment the weight of the barrel with its
In the far greateft number of experiments to de¬
termine the comparative accuracy of the two methods,
a furprifing agreement was found betwixt the laft njen-
tioned one and that by the pendulum; but in fome few
the differences were very remarkable. Thus, in two
where the recoil was 12.92, and 13.28 the velocity, by
computation from the chords is 1630 feet per fecond;
but in computing by the pendulum it amounted only
to 900 ; but in thefe fome inaccuracy was fufpefted in
the experiment with the pendulum, and that the com¬
putation from the recoil was moff to be depended up¬
on. In another experiment, the velocity by the re¬
coil exceeded that by the pendulum by no lefs than
346.feet; the former Ihowing 2109, and the latter on-
carriage was juft 47^ pounds, to which of a pound ly 1763 feet in a fecond. In two others the pendulum
— . 1    wag aip0 deficient, though not in fuch a degree. In
all thefe it is remarkable, that where the difference
was confiderable, it was {till in favour of the recoil.
The deficiency in thefe experiments appears to have
been fomewhat embaraffmg to our author. “ It can¬
not be fuppofed, fays he, that it arofe from any im-
perfe&ion in Mr Robins’s method of determining the
velocities of bullets; for that method is founded upon
fuch principles as leave no room to doubt of its accura¬
cy ; and the practical errors that occur in making the
experiments, and which cannot be entirely prevented, or
exa&ly
were to be added on account of the weight of the rods
by which it was fufpended; which makes W = 48
pounds, or 336,000 grains. The weight of the bul¬
let was 580 grains; whence B is to W as 580 to
336,000; that is, as 1 to 579.31 very nearly. The
value of V—U, anfwering to the experiments before
mentioned, was found to be 1.8522 ; confequently the
velocity of the bullets =<!>, was 1.8522+579.31= 1073
feet, which differs only by 10 from 1083, the veloci¬
ties found by the pendulum.
The velocities of the bullets may be found from the
N° 146.
Sea. II. GUN
Theory, exa&ly compenfated, are in general fo fmall, that the
— difference in the velocities cannot be attributed to them.
It is true, the effe& of thofe errors is more likely to
appear in experiments made under fuch circumftances
as the prefent; for the bullet being very light (a), the
arc of the afeent of the pendulum was but fmall; and
a fmall miftake in meafuring the chord upon the rib¬
bon would have produced a very confiderable error in
computing the velocity of the bullet: Thus a difference
of one-tenth of an inch, more orlefs, upon the ribbon,
in that experiment where the difference was greateft,
would have made a difference in the velocity of more
than i 20 feet in a fecond. But, independent of the
pains that were takes to prevent miftakes, the flriking
agreement of the velocities in fo many other experi¬
ments, affords abundant reafon to conclude, that the
errors arifing from thofe caufes were in no cafe very
confiderable.—But if both methods of determining the
velocities of bullets are to be relied on, then the dif¬
ference of the velocities, as determined by them in thefe
experiments, can only be accounted for by fuppofing
that it arofe from their having been diminifhed by the
rtfiftance of the air in the paffage of the bullets from
the mouth of the piece to the pendulum: and this fu-
fpicion will be much ftrengthened, when we confider
how great the refiftance of the air is to bodies that
move very fwiftly*in it; and that the bullets in thefe
experiments were not only proje£fed with great veloci¬
ties, but w'ere alfo very light, and confequently more
liable to be retarded by the refiftance on that ac¬
count.
“ To put the matter beyond all doubt, let us fee
what the refiftance was that thefe bullets met with, and
how much their velocities were diminiftied by it. The
weight of the bullet in the moft erroneous experiment
was 90 grains ; its diameter 0.78 of an inch; and it was
prejefted wdth a velocity of 2109 feet *n a fecond. If
now a computation be made according to the law laid
down by Sir Ifaac Newton for compreffed fluids, it
will be found, that the refiftance to this bullet was not
lefs than 8-|- pounds avoirdupoife, which is fomething
more than 660 times its own weight. But Mr Robins
has ftiown by experiment, that the refiftance of the air
to bodies moving in it with very great velocity, is
near three times greater than Sir Ifaac has deter¬
mined it ; and as the velocity with which this bullet
was impelled is confiderably greater than any in Mr
Robins’s experiments, it is highly probable, that the
refiftance in this inftance was at leaft 2000 times great¬
er than the weight of the bullet.
“ The diftance from the mouth of the piece to the
pendulum was 12 feet; but, as there is reafon to think
that the blaft of the powder, which always follows the
bullet, continues to aft upon it for fome fenfible fpace
. of time after it is out of the bore, and, by urging it
on, counterbalances, or at leaft counterafts in a great
meafure, the refiftance of the air, we will fuppofe that
the refiftance does not begin, or rather that the mo¬
tion of the bullet does not begin to be retarded, till it
has got to the diftance of two feet from the muzzle.
The diftance, therefore, between the barrel and the
pendulum, inftead of 12 feet, is to be eftimated at 10
Vol.VIII. Parti.
N E R Y. 217
feet; and as the bullet took up about part of a Theory,
fecond in running over that fpace, it muft in that time —t—
have loft a velocity of about 335 feet in a lecond, as
will appear upon making the computation ; and this
wdll very exaftly account for the apparent diminution
of the velocity in the experiment: for the difference of
the velocities, as determined by the recoil and the pen¬
dulum = 2109—1763 = 346 feet in a fecond, is ex¬
tremely near 335 feet in a fecond, the diminution of
the velocity by the refiftance as here determined.
“ If the diminution of the velocities of the bullets
in the two fubfequent experiments be computed in like
manner, it will turn out in one 65, and. in the other
33, feet in a fecond: and, making thefe correftions, the
comparifon of the two methods of afeertaining the ve¬
locities will Hand thus : i
Velocities by,the pendulum, 1763 1317 1136
Refiftaiice of air to be added, 335
' 65
33
Velocity by the recoil,
2098 1382 1169
2109 1430 1288
Difference after correftion, -f-11 +48 +119
“ It appears therefore, that notwithftanding thefe
correftions, the velocities as determined by the pendu¬
lum, particularly in the laft, were confiderably defici¬
ent. But the manifeft irregularity of the velocities, in
thofe inftances, affords abundant reafon to conclude,
that it muft have arifen from fome accidental caufe,
and therefore that little dependence is to be put upon
the refult of thofe experiments. I cannot take upon
me to determine pofitively what the caufe was which
produced this irregularity, but I ftrongly fufpeft that
it arofe from the breaking of the bullets in the barrel
by the force of the explofion : for thefe bullets, as has
already been mentioned, were formed of lead, inclofing
leffer bullets of plafter of Paris ; and I well remember
to have obferved at the time feveral fmall fragments of
the plafter which had fallen down by the fide of the
pendulum. 1 confefs I did not then pay much atten¬
tion to this circumftance, as I naturally concluded that
it arofe from the breaking of the bullet in penetrating
the target of the pendulum ; and that the fmall pieces
of plafter I faw upon the ground, had fallen out of the
hole by which the bullet entered. But if the bullets
were not abfolutely broken in pieces in firing, yet if
. they were conliderably bruifed, and the plafter, or a
part of ir, were feparated from the lead, fuch a change
in the form might produce a great increafe in the re¬
fiftance, and even their initial velocities might be af-
fefted by it; for their form being changed from that
of a globe to fome other figure, they might not fit the
bore ; and a part of the force of the charge might be
loft by the windage.—That this aftually happened in
the experiment laft-mentioned, feems very probable ;
as the velocity with which the bullet was projefted, as
it was determined by the recoil, was confiderably lefs
in proportion in that experiment than in many others
which preceded and followed it in the fame fet.
“ As allowance has been made for the refiftance of
the air in thefe cafes, it may be expefted that the fame
D d fliould
(a) They were made of lead inclofing a nucleus of Paris plafter.
2l8
O U N N E R Y.
Seel. nr.
Theery. ftiould be done in till other cafes: but it will probably
1 appear, upon inquiry, that the diminution of the velo¬
cities of the bullets, on that account, was fo inconfi-
derable, that it might fafely be negle&ed: thus, for
inftance, in the experiments with an ounce of powder,
when the velocity of the bullet was more than 1750
feet in a fecond, the diminution turns out no more than
25 or 30 feet in a fecond, though we fuppofe the full
tefiflance to have begun fo near as two feet from "the
mouth of the piece ; and in all cafes where the veloci¬
ty was lefs, the effeft of the refittance was lefs in a much
greater proportion : and even in this inftance, there is
reafon to think, that the diminution of the velocity,
as we have determined it, is too great; for the flame
of gunpowder expands with fuch amazing rapidity,
that it is fcarcely to be fuppofed but that it follows
the bullet, and continues to aft upon it more than two
feet, or even four feet, from the gun ; and when the
velocity of the bullet is lefs, its aftion upon it muft be
fenfible at a ftill greater diftance.”
As this method of determining the velocities of bul¬
lets by the recoil of the piece did not. occur to Mr
Thomfon till after he had finifhed his experiments with
a pendulum, and taken down his apparatus, he had it
not in his power to determine the comparative ftrength
of the recoil without and with a bullet; and confe-
quently the velocity with which the flame iflues from
the mouth of a piece. He is of opinion, however, that
every thing relative to thefe mattdrs may be determi¬
ned with greater accuracy by the new method than by
any other formerly praftifed ; and he very juftly re¬
marks, that the method of determining the velocity by
the recoil, gives it originally as the bullet fets out;
while that by the pendulum fhows it only after a part
has been deftroyed by the refiftance of the air. In the
courfe of his remarks, he criticifes upon a part of Mr
Robins’s theory, that when bullets of the fame diame¬
ter, but different weights, are difeharged from the fame
piece by the fame quantity of powder, their velocities
are in a fub-duplicate ratio of their weight. This the¬
ory-, he obferves, is manifeftly defeftive, as being found¬
ed upon a fuppofition, that the aftion of the elaftic
fluid, generated from the powder, is always the fame
in any and every given part of the bore when the charge
is the fame, whatever maybe the weight of the bullet;
and as no allowance is made for the expenditure of
force required to put the fluid itfelf in motion, nor for
the lofs of it by the vent. “ It is true (fays he) Dr
Hutton in his experiments found this law to obtain
without any great error ; and poflibly it may hold good
with fuflicient accuracy in many cafes; for it fometimes
happens, that a number of errors or aftions, whofe
operations have a contrary tendency, fo compenfate
each other, that their effefts when united are not fen¬
fible. But when this is the cafe, if any one of the
caufes of error is removed, thofe which remain will be
detefted.—When any given charge is loaded with a
heavy bullet, more of the powder is inflamed in any
very fhort fpace of time than when the bullet is light¬
er, and the aftion of the powder ought Upon that ac¬
count to be greater ; but a heavy bullet takes up long¬
er time in palling through the bore than a light one;
-and confequently more of the elaftic fluid generated
from the powder efcapes by the vent and by windage.
It may happen that the augmentation of the force, on
account of one of thefe circumftances, may be juft able
to counterbalance the diminution of it arifing from the
other; and if it (hould be found upon trial, that this
is the cafe in gerieral, in pieces as they are now con-
ftrufted, and with all the variety of‘fhot that are made
ufe of in praftice, it would be of great ufe to know
the faft : but when, with Mr Robins, concluding too
haftily from the refult of a partial experiment, we fnp-
pofe, that becaufe the fum total of the preffure of the
elaftic fluid upon the bullet, Paring the time of its paf-
fage through the bore, happens to be the fame when
bullets of different weights are made ufe of, that there¬
fore it is always fo, our reafonrngs may prove very in-
conclufiVe, and lead to very dangerous errors.”
In the profequtloh of hisfiibjeft Mr Thomfon proves
mathematically, as well as'by aftual experiment, that
the theory laid down by Mr Robins in this refpeft is
erroneous. The excels is in favour of heavy bullets,
which acquire a velocity greater than they ought to
do according to Mr Robins’s rule; and fo confiderable
are the errors, that in one of Mr Thomfon’s experi¬
ments, the difference was no Ids than 2042 feet in a
fecond. When the weight of the bullet was increafed
four times, the aftion of the powder was/found to be
nearly doubled ; for in one experiment, when four bul¬
lets were difeharged at once, the ccd-ftive preffure was
as i ; but when only a Angle bullet was made ufe of,
it was no more than 0.5825 ; and on the whole he con¬
cludes, that the velocity of bullets is in the reciprocal
fub-triplicate ratio of their weights. Our author ob¬
ferves alfo, that Mr Robins is not only miftaken in the
particular juft mentioned, but in his conclufions with
regard to the abiolute force of gunpowder compared
with the preffure of the atmofphere ; the latter being
to the force of gunpowder as 1 to 1000 according to
Mr Robins; but as 1 to 1308 according to Mr Thom¬
fon.
Sect. III. Praflice of Gunnery.
With regard to the practical part ofgunnery, which
ought to confift: in direfting the piece in fuch a man¬
ner as always to hit the objeft againft which it is
pointed, there can be no certain rules given. The fol¬
lowing maxims are laid down by Mr Robins as of ufe
in praftice.
1. In any piece of artillery whatever, the greater
the quantity of powder it is charged with, the greater
will be the velocity of the bullet.
2. If two pieces of the fame bore, but of different
lengths, are fired with the fame charge of powder, the
longer will impel the bullet with a greater celerity
than the (horter.
3. If two pieces of artillery different in weight, and
formed of different metals, have yet their cylinders of
equal bores and equal lengths ; then with like charges
of powder and like bullets they will each ot them dif.
charge their (hot with nearly the fame degree of cele¬
rity.
4. The ranges of pieces at a given elevation are no-
juft meafures of the velocity of the ihot; for the fame
piece fired fucceffively at an invariable elevation, with
the powder, bullet, and every other circumftance as-
nearly
S^. lit. GUNNERY.
Practice nearly the fame as poffible, will yet range to very dif-
ferent di dances.
5. The greateft part of that uncertainty in the ran¬
ges of pieces which is deferibed in the preceding
maxim, can only arife from the refiftance of the air. .
6. The refiftance of the air afts upon proje&iles in
a twofold manner : for it oppofes their motion, and by
that means continually diminishes their celerity ; and
it befides diverts them from the regular track they
would otherwife follow; whence arife thofe deviations
and infleftions already treated of.
7. That a&ion of the air by which it retards the
motion of projeftiles, though much negle&ed by wri¬
ters on artillery, is yet, in many inftances, of an im-
menfe force; and hence the motion of thefe rdifted bo¬
dies is totally different from what it would other-
wife be.
8. This retarding force of the air afts with different
degrees of violence, according as the pvojeaile moves
with a greater ©r leffer velocity; and the refiftances
obferve this law, That to a velocity which is double a-
notber, the refiftance within certain limits is fourfold j
to a treble velocity, ninefold; and fo on.
9. But this proportion between the refiftances to
two different velocities, does not hold if one of the ve¬
locities be lefs than that of 1200 feet in a fecond, and
the other greater. For in that cafe the refiftance to the
greater velocity is near three times as much as it would
come out by a comparifon with the fmaller, according
to the law explained in the laft maxim.
10. To the extraordinary power exerted by the re¬
fiftance of the air it is owing, that when two pieces of
different bores are difeharged at the fame elevation,
the piece of the largeft bore ufudly ranges fartheft, pro¬
vided they are both fired with fit bullets, and the cu-
flomary allotment of powder.
11. The greateft; part of military projeftiles will at
the time of their difeharge acquire a whiiling motion
round their axis by rubbing againft the infide of their
refpettive pieces; and this whirling motion will caufe
them to ftrike the air very differently from what
they would do had they no other than a progreffive
motion. By this means it will happen, that the re¬
fiftance of the air will not always be directly oppofed
to their flight; but will frequently aft in a line oblique
to their courfe, and will thereby force them to deviate
from the regular traft they would otherwife deferibe.
And this is the true caufe of the irregularities deferibed
in maxim 4.
12. From the hidden trebling the quantity of the
air’s refiftance, when the projeftile moves fwifter than
at the rate of 1200 feet in a fecond (as hath been ex¬
plained in maxim 9), it follows, that whatever be the
regular range of a bullet difebarged with this laft men¬
tioned velocity, that range will be but little increafed
how much foever the velocity of the bullet may be
ftill farther augmented by greater charges of powder.
13. If the fame piece of cannon be fucceffively
fired at an invariable elevation, but with various
charges of powder, the greateft charge being the
whole weight of the bullet in powder, and the leaft not
lefs than the fifth part of that weight; then if the ele¬
vation be not lefs than eight or ten degrees, it will be
found, that fome of the ranges with the leaft charge will
exceed fome of thofe with the greateft.
14. If two pieces of cannon of the fame bore, but Pra&ice.
of different lengths, are fucceffively fired at the fame ’•—v—“
elevation with the fame charge of powder; then it
will frequently happen, that fome of the ranges with
the fhorter piece will exceed fome of thofe with the
longer.
15. In diftant cannonadings, the advantages arifing
from long pieces and large charges of powder arc
but of little moment.
16. In firing againft troops with grape-fhot, it
will be found, that charges of powder much lefs than
thofe generally ufed are the moft advantageous.
17. The principal operations in which large charges
of powder appear to be more efficacious than fmall ones,
are the ruining of parapets, the difmounting of bat¬
teries covered by flout merlons, or battering in breach;
for, in all thefe cafes, if the objeft be but little remo¬
ved from the piece, every increafe of velocity will in-
creafe the penetration of the bullet.
18. Whatever operations are to be performed by
artillery, the leaft charges of powder with which they
can be effefted are always to be preferred.
19. Hence, then, the proper charge of any piece
of artillery is not that allotment of powder which will
communicate the greateft velocity to the bullet (as
moft praftitioners formerly maintained) ; nor is it to
be determined by an invariable proportion of its weight
to the weight of the ball: but, on the contrary, it is fuch
a quantity of powder as will produce the leaft velocity
for the purpofe in hand; and, inftead of bearing al¬
ways a fixed ratio to the weight of the ball, it muft be
different according to the different bufinefs which is to
be performed
20. No field-piece ought at any time to be loaded
with more than or at the utmoft f, of the weight of
its bullet in powder ; nor fhould the charge of any
battering piece exceed f of the weight of its bullet.
21. Although precepts very different from thofe we
have here given have been often advanced by artille-
rifts, and have been faid to be derived from experience;
yet is that pretended experience altogether fallacious:
fmee from our doftrine of refiftance eftablilhed above,
it follows, that every fpeculation on the fubjeft of ar¬
tillery, which is only founded on the experimental
ranges of bullets difeharged with confiderable veloci¬
ties, is liable to great uncertainty.
The greateft irregularities in the motion of bullets _ . 3.6 .
are, as we have feen, owing to the whirling motion on ariVufe of*1
their axis, acquired by the friftion againft the futes of rifled bar-
the piece. The beft method hitherto known of pve-rels.
venting thefe is by the ufe of pieces with rifled barrels.
Thefe pieces have the infides of their cylinders cut
with a number of fpiral channels: fo that it is in rea¬
lity a female ferew, varying from the common ferews
only in this, that its threads or rifles are lefs defledled,
and approach more to a right line ; it being ufual for
the threads with which the rifled barrel is indented,
to take little more than one turn in its whole length.
The numbers of thefe threads are different in each
barrel, according to the fize of the piece and the
fancy of the workman ; and in like manner the depth
to which they are cut is not regulated by any invari¬
able rule.
The ufual method of charging thefe pieces is this:
When the proper quantity of powder is put down, a
£> d 2 leaden
• 220 GUNNERY. • Sea; Ilf.
Pr.&ke. leaden bullet is taken, a fmall matter larger than the
bore of the piece was before the rifles were cut: and this
bullet being laid on the mouth of the piece, and con¬
sequently too large tb go down of itfelf, it is forced
by a ftrong rammer impelled by a mallet, and by re¬
peated blows is driven home to the powder ; and the
foftnefs of the lead giving way to the violence with
which the bullet is impelled, that zone of the bullet
whicly is contiguous to the piece varies its arcular
form, and takes the fhape of the infide of the barrel;
fo that it becomes part of a male fcrew cxadtly an-
fwering to the indents of the rifle.
In fome parts of Germany and Switzerland, how¬
ever, an improvement is added to this pra&ice ; efpe-
cially in the larger pieces which are ufed for {hooting
at great diftances. This is done by cutting a piece
of very thin leather, or of thin fuftian, fn a circular
fhape, fomewhat larger than the bore of the barrel.
This circle being greafed pn one fide, is laid upon the
muzzle with its greafy fide downwards; and the bullet
being then placed upon it, is forced down the barrel
with it: by which means the leather or fuftian inclofes
the lower half of the bullet, and, by its interpofition
between the bullet and the rifles, prevents the lead
from being cut by them. But'it mull be remembered,
that in the barrels where this is pra&ifed, the rifles
are generally (hallow, and the bullet ought not to be
too large.—But as both thefe methods of charging at
the mouth take up a good deal of time; the rifled
barrels which have been made in Britain, are con¬
trived to be charged at the breech, where the piece is
for this purpofe made larger than in any other part.
The powder and bullet are put in through the fide of
the barrel by an opening, which, when the piece is
loaded, is then filled up with a fcrew. By this means,
when the piece is fired, the bullet is forced through
the rifles, and acquires the fpiral motion already de-
feribed ; and perhaps fomewhat of this kind, fays Mr
Robins, though not in the manner now praftifed, would
be of all others the moft perfeft method for the con-
ftruftiomof thefe kinds of barrels.
From the. whirling motion communicated by the
rifles, it happens, that when the piece is fired, that
indented zone of the bullet follows the fweep of the
rifles; and thereby, befides its progreflive motion, ac¬
quires a circular motion round the axis of the piece ;
which circular motion will be continued to the bullet
aftei; its feparation from the piece ; and thus a bullet
difeharged from a rifled barrel is conftantly made to
whirl round an axis which is coincident with the line
of its flight. By this whirling on its axis, the aber¬
ration of the bullet which proves fo prejudicial to all
operations in gunnery, is almoft totally prevented.
, The reafon of this may be eafily underftood from con-
fidering the flow motion of an arrow through the air.
For example, if a bent arrow, with its wings not placed
in fome degree in a fpiral pofition, fo as to make it
revolve round its axis as it flies through the air, were
{hot at a mark with a true dire&ion, it would con-
ftantly deviate from it, in confequence of being
prefled to one fide by the convex part oppofing the
air obliquely. Let us now fuppofe this dtfledfion in
a flight of 100 yards to be equal to 10 yards. Now,
if the fame bent arrow were made to revolve round its
axjs once, every two yards of its flight, its greateft de¬
viation would take place when it had proceeded only Pi-a&ice.
one yard, or made half a revolution ; fince at the end —V*-~i
of the next half revolution it would again return to
the fame diredtion it had at firft ; the convex fide of
the arrow having been once in oppofite pofitions. In
this manner it would proceed daring the whole epurfe
of its flight, conftantly returning to the true path at
the end of every two yards; and when it reached the
mark, the greateft defledfion to either fide that cenld
happen would be equal to what it makes in proceed¬
ing one yard, equal to -rj'oth part of the former, or
3.6 inches, a very fmall defledtion when compared
with the former one. In the fame manner, a cannon¬
ball which turns not round its axis, deviates greatly
from the true path, on account of the inequalities on
its furface; which, although fmall, caufe great devia¬
tions by reafon of the refrftance of the air, at tiie fame
time that the ball acquires a motion round its axis in
fome uncertain diredtion occafioned by the fridtion
againft its iides. But by the motion acquired from
the rifles, the error is perpetually corredted in the
manner juft now deferibed ; and accordingly fuch
pieces aie much more to be depended on, and will
do execution at a much greater diftance, than the
other.
The reafons commonly alleged for the fuperiority
of rifle-barrels over common ones, are, either that the
inflammation of the powder is greater, by the reftit-
ance which the bullet makes by being thus forced into
the barrel, and that hereby it receives a much greater
impulfe ; or that the bullet by the compounding of
its circular and revolving motions, did as it were bore
the air,' and thereby flew to a much greater diftance
than it would otherwife have done; or that by the
fame boring motion it made its way through all folid
fubftances, and penetrated into them much .deeper
than when fired in the common manner. But Mr
Robins hath proved thefe reafons to be altogether
erroneous, by a great number of experiments made
with rifle-barrelleipieces. “ In thefe experiments,” fays
he, “ I have found that the velocity of the bullet fired
from a rifled barrel was ufually lefs than that of the
bullet fired from a common piece with the fame pro¬
portion of powder. Indeed it is hut reafonable to
exped that this fhould be the cafe for if the rifles
are very deep, and the bullet is large enough to fill
them up, the fridion bears a very conhderable pro¬
portion to the effort of the powder. And that in this
cafe the fridion is of confequence enough to have its
effeds obferved, I have difeovened by the continued
ufe of the fame barrel. For the metal of the barrel
being foft, and wearing away apace, its bore by half
a year’s ufe was coniiderably enlarged, and confequent-
ly the depth of its rifles diminifned ; and then I found
that the fame quantity of powder would give to the
bullet a velocity near a tenth part greater than what
it had done at firft. And as the velocity of the bul¬
let is not increafed by the ufe of rifled barrels, fo nei¬
ther is the diftance to which it flies, nor the depth of
its penetration into folid fubftances. Indeed.thefe two
laft fuppofttions feem at firft fight too chimerical to
deferve a formal confutation. But I cannot help ob-
ferving that thofe who have been. habituated to the
ufe of rifled pieces are very exeufable in giving way to
thefe prepoffeflions. For they conftantly found, that
with ,
Sea. nr.
GUNNERY.
22 1
Prafl with them they could fire at a mark with tolerable
 fuccefs, though it were placed at three or four times
the diftance to which the ordinary pieces were fup-
pofed to reach. And therefore, as; they were ignorant
of the true caufe of this variety, and did not know
that it arofe only from preventing the defle&ion of the
ball; it was not unnatural for them to imagine that
the fuperiority, of effeft in the rifled piece was owing
either to a more violent irnpulfe at fiiil, or to a more
eafy pafiage through the air.
“ In order to confirm the foregoing theory of rifle-
barrelled pieces, I made fome experiments by which
it might be feen whether one fide of the ball difcharged
from them uniformly keeps foremofl: during the whole
courfe. To examine this particular, I cook a rifled
barrel carrying a bullet of fix to the pound ; but in-
ftead of its leaden bullet I ufed a wooden one of the
fame fize, made of a foft fpringy wood, which bent
itfelf eafily into the rifles without breaking. And fi¬
ring the piece thus loaded againft a wall at fuch a di¬
ftance as the bullet might not be ihivered by the blow,
I always found, that the fame furface vtrhich lay fore-
moft in the piece continued foremoft without any fen-
fible defle&ion during the time of its flight. And this
was eafily to be obferved, by examining the bullet;
as both the marks of the rifles, and the part that im¬
pinged on the wall, were fufficiently apparent. Now,
as thefe wooden bullets were but the 16th part of the
weight of the leaden ones ; I conclude, that if there
had been any unequal refiftance or defle&ive power,
its effects muft have been ex-remely fenfible upon this
light body, and confequently in fome of the trials
I made the furface which came foremoft from the
piece muft have been turned round into another fitu-
, ation.
“ But again, I took the fame piece, and, loading it
now with a leaden ball, I fet it nearly upright, floping it
only three or four degrees from the perpendicular in the
dite&ion of the wind; and firing it in this fituation, the
bullet generally continued about half a minute in the air,
it rifing^y computation to near three quarters of a mile
perpendicular height. In thefe trials I found that the
bullet commonly came to the ground to the leeward
of the piece, and at fuch a diftance from it, as nearly
correfponded to the angle of its inclination, and to the
effort of the wind; it ufually falling not nearer to the
piece than 100, nor farther «from it than 150, yards.
And this is a ft'rong confirmation of the almoft fteady
flight of this bullet for about a mile and a half: for
were the fame trial made with a common piece, I
doubt not but the deviation w'ould often' amount to
half a mile, or perhaps confiderably more ; though
this experiment would be a very difficult one to exa¬
mine, on account of the little chance there would be
37 of difcovering where the ball fell.
Balk from « jt muq be obferved, however, that though the
will'atieCeS bullet impelled from a rifle-barrelled piece keeps for a
length de- time to its regular track with fufficient nicety ; yet if
viate from its flight be fo far extended that the track becomes
cou-ferUe ' conf’dtrably incurvated, it wi’l then undergo cordi-
derable defleclions. This, according to my expe¬
riments, arifes from the ^ngle at laft made by the
axis on which the bullet turns, and the direftion in
which it flies : for that axis continuing nearly parallel
to itfelf, it muft _ neceffarily diverge. from the line of
the flight of the bullet, when that line is bent from Pracftice.
its original diredtion ; and when it once happens that * J*
the bullet whirls on an axis which no longer coincides
wuth the line of its flight, then the unequal reliftande
formerly defcribed will take place, and the deflefting
power hence anftflg rvill perpetually increafe as the
track of the bullet, by having its range extended, be¬
comes more and more incurvated.—This matter I have
experienced in a fmall rifle-barrelled piece, carrying a
leaden ball of near half an ounce weight. For this piece,
charged with one drachm of powder, ranged about 550
yards at an angle of 1.2 degrees with fufficient regula¬
rity ; but being afterwards elevated to an angle of 24:
degrees, it then ranged very irregularly, generally de¬
viating from the line of its direction to the left,,and in
one cafe not lefs than too yards. This apparently
arofe from the caufe above mentioned, as was confirm¬
ed from the conftant deviation of the bullet to the left;
for by confidering how the revolving motion was con¬
tinued with the progreffive one, it appeared that a de¬
viation that way was to be expetfted.
“ The bed remedy I can think of for this defect is
the making ufe of bullets of an egg-like form inftead
of fpherical ones. For if fuch a bullet hath its ftiorter
axis made to fit the piece, and it be placed in the bar¬
rel with its fmaller end downwards, then it will ac¬
quire by the rifles a rotation round its larger axis; and
its centre of gravity lying nearer to its fore than its
hinder part, its longer axis will be conftantly forced
by the refiftance of the air into the line of its flight;
as we fee, that by the fame means arrows conftantly
lie in the line of. their dire&ioo, however that line be
incurvated.
“ But, befides this, there is another circumftance
in the ufe of thefe pieces, which renders the flight of
their bullets uncertain when fired at a confiderable
elevation. For I find by my experiments, that the
velocity of a bullet fired with the fame quantity of
powder frorrt a rifled barrel, varies much more from
itfelf in different trials than when fired from a com¬
mon piece.—This, as I conceive, is owing to the great
quantity of friftion, and the irnpoffibility of rendering
it equal in each experiment. Indeed, if the rifles are
not deeply cut, and if the bullet is nicely fitted to the
piece, fo as not to require a great force to drive it
down, afid if leather or fuftian well greafed is made
ufe of between the bullet and barrel, perhaps, by a
careful, attention to all thefe particulars, great part of
the inequality in the velocity of the bullet may be pre¬
vented, and the difficulty in queftion be in fome mea-
fure obviated : but, till this be done, it cannot be
doubted, that the range of the fame piece, at an ele¬
vation, will vary confiderably in every trial; although
the charge be each time the fame. And this I have
myfelf experienced, in a number of diverfified trials,
with a rifle-barrelled piece loaded at the breech in the
Englilh manner. For here the rifles being indented
very deep, and the bullet fo large as to fill them up
completely, I found, that though it flew with fufficient
exadlnefs to the diftance of 400 or 500 yards; yet
when it was raifed to an angle of about 12 degrees
(at which angle, being fired with one-fifth of its weight
in powder, its medium-range is nearly 1000 yards); in
this cafe, I fay, I found that its range was variable, .
although the greateft care was taken to prevent any
inequalities s
GUNN
inequalities in the quantity’of powder, or in the man- i
ner of charging. And as, in this cafe, the angle was
too fmall for the firft-mentioned irregularity to produce
the obferved effe&s; they can only be imputed to the
different velocities which the bullet each time received
by the unequal a&ion of the friftion.”
Thus we fee, that it is in a manner impofllble en¬
tirely to corredf the aberrations ariiing from the re¬
finance of the atmofphere ; as even the rifle-barrelled
pieces cannot be depended upon for more than one-
half of their actual range at any confiderable elevation-
It becomes therefore a problem very difficult of folu-
tion to know, even within a very confiderable diftance,
how far a piece will carry its ball with any probability
of hitting its mark, or doing any execution. The beft
rules hitherto laid down on this fubjedt are thofe of
Mr Robins. The foundation of all his calculations is
the velocity with which the bullet flies off from the
mouth of the piece. Mr Robins himfelf had not op¬
portunities of making many experiments on the velo¬
cities of cannon-balls, and the calculations from fmaller
ones cannot always be depended upon. In the 68th
volume of the Phil. Tranf. Mr Hutton hath recited a
expe number of experiments made on cannon carrying balls
riments on fr0m one to three pounds weight. His machine for
the velocity ^((covering the velocities of thefe balls was the fame
balls.8110” vv't^ t^at Robins, only of a larger fize. His
charges of powder were two, four, and eight ounces;
and the refults of 15 experiments which feem to have
been the mod accurate, are as follow.
Velocity with two Velocity with Velocity with
ounces. fgur ounces. eight ounces,
yea feet in l" 1068 feet in 1'1 1419 feet in 1"
68z 1020 1352
695 948 l-)43
703 973 1360
725 957 14'*
38
Mr Hut-
5)3507
5)4966
5)6986
Mean velocities jot 993 1397
In another courfe, the mean velocities, with the fame
charges of powder, were 61 3, 873, 1162. “ The mean
velocities of the balls in the firft courfe of experiments
(fays Mr Hutton) with two, four, and eight ounces of
powder, areas the numbers 1, 1.414, and t.993; but
the fubduplicate ratio of the weights (two, four, and
eight) give the numbers 1, 1.414, and 2, to which the
others are fufficiently near. - It is obvious, however,
that the greatdl difference lies in the laft number,
which anfwers to the greateft velocity. It will ftill be
a little more in defedt if we make the allowance for the
weights of the balls; for the mean weights of the balls
with the two and four ounces is i8-£ ounces, but of
the eight ounces it is 18-)-: diminifhing therefore the
number 1.99^ in the reciprocal fubduplicate ratio of
i8f to i8|, it becomes 1.985, which falls (horcof the
number 2 by .015, or the 133d part of itfelf. A fi-
milar defedf was obferved in the other courfe of expe¬
riments •, and both are owing to three evident caufes,
inz. 1. The lefs length of cylinder through which the
ball was impelled ; for with the eight-ounce charge it
lay three or four inches nearer to the muzzle of the
piece than with the others. 2. The greater quantity
of elaftic fluid which efcaped in this cafe than in the
others by the windage. This happens from jts moving
E R Y. Sea. Ilf.
with a greater velocity; in confequence of which, a Pradtice
greater quantity efcapes by the vent and windage than v—“J
in fmaller velocities. 3. The greater quantity of powder
blown out unfired in this cafe than in that of the leffer
velocities ; for the ball which was impelled with the
greater velocity, would be fooner out of the piece than
the others, and the more fo as it had a lefs length of the
bore to move through ; and if powder fire in time,
which cannot be denied, though indeed that time is
manifeftly very fhort, a greater quantity of it muft; re¬
main unfired when the ball with the greater velocity
iffues from the piece, than when that which has the
lefs velocity goes out, and ftill the more fo as the bulk
of powder which was at firft; to be inflamed in the one
cafe fo much exceeded that in the others.
“ Let us now compare the correfponding velocities
in both cafes. In the one they are 701, 993, 1397 ;
in the other, 613, 873, 1162. Now the ratio of the
firft two numbers, or the velocities with two ounces of
powder, is that of 1 to 1.1436, the ratio of the next
two is that of 1 to 1.1375, and the ratio of the laft
is that of 1 to 1.2022. But the mean weight of the
fhot for two and four ounces of powder, was 28-f oun¬
ces in the firft courfe and 18^ in this; and for eight
ounces of powder, it was zS-f- in the firft and i8j in this.
Taking therefore the reciprocal fubduplicate ratios of
thefe weights of ftiot, we obtain the ratio of i to 1.224
for that of the balls which were fired with two ounces and
four ounces of powder, and the ratio of 1 to 1.241 for
the balls which were fired with eight ounces. But the
real ratios above found are not greatly different from
thefe ; and the variation of the adtual velocities from
this law of the weights of lhot, inclines the fame way in
both courfes of experiments. We may now colledt into
one view the principal inferences that have refulted
from thefe experiments.
1. “ It is evident from them, that powder fires almoft
inftantaneoufly.
2. “ The velocities communicated to balls or (hot
of the fame weight with different quantities of powder,
are nearly in the fubduplicate ratio of .thefe quantities}
a very fmall variation in defedt taking place when the
quantities of powder become great.
3. “ When ftiot of different weights are fired with
the fame quantity of powder, the velocities communi¬
cated to them are nearly in the reciprocal fubduplicate
ratio of their weights.
4. “ Shot which are of different weights, and im¬
pelled by different quantities of powder, acquire velo¬
cities which are diredtly as the fqnare roots of the
quantities of powder, and inverfely as the fquare roots
of the weights of the (hot nearly.*’
The velocities of the bullets being thus found as ^irRo-
nearly as pofiible, the ranges may be found by the fol- hins’s me-
lowing rules laid down by Mr Robins.
1. “ Till the velocity of the proje&ile furpaffes that
of x 100 feet in a fecond, the refiftance may be reckon-
ed to be in the duplicate proportion of the velocity,
and its mean quantity may be reckoned about half an
ounce avoirdupoife on a 12-pound ftibt, moving with a
velocity of about 25 or 26 feet in a fecond.
2. “ If the velocity be greater than that of 1100 or
1200 feet in a fecond, then the abfolute quantity of
the refiftance in thefe greater velocities will be near
three times as great as it fhouid be by a comparifon
with
jefiile.
0.0100
0.0201
0.040 J
O.0612
0.0822
O.IO34
O.I249
o. 1468
O.I578
O.214O
0.2722
°*332+
Q-3947
!0 4J91
45 10.5258
I 0.5949
55 0.6664
| 0.7404
65 ; 0 8 r 70
I08964
75 | o 9787
1.0638
85; 1.1521
.2436
95 j I-3383
'1.4366
1-5384
1.64^9
1-7534
1.8669
I-5845
2.1066
2.2332
2.3646
2.5008
Sea, lit. GUNNERY. 22 5.
Practice, with the frrtaller velocities.—Hence then it appears, fnall be flvown in a corollary to be annexed to the firlt Praaice.
that if a projeflile begins to move with a velocity lefs propoiition. f
than that of noofeet in X", its whole motion may
be fuppofed to be confidered on the hypothefis of a
refiftance in the duplicate ratio of the velocity. And -■xprcr-
if it begins to move with a velocity greater than this
laft mentioned, yet if the fir ft part of its motion, till
its velocity be reduced to near 1100 feet in i', be con-
.fidered feparately from the remaining part in which
the velocity is lefs than 1100 feet in i''; it is evident,
that both parts may be truly affigned on the fame
liypothefis; only the abfolute quantity of the refin¬
ance is three times greater in the firft part than irt the
laft. Wherefore, if the motion of a projeftile on the
hypotbefis of a refiftance in the duplicate ratio of the
velocity be truly and generally afligned, the aftual mo¬
tions of refilled ftiodies may be thereby determined,
notwithftariding the increafed refiftances in the great
Velocities. And, to avoid the diviuOn of the motion
into two, I {hall (how hovy to compute the whole at
one Operation with little more trouble than if no fuch
increafed refiftance took place.
“ To avoid frequ-mt circumlocutions, the diftance
to which any projeftile would range in a vacuum on
the'horizontal plain at 450 of elevation, I (liall call the
potential random of that proje&ile ; the diftance to
which the projetlile would range in vacuo on the hori¬
zontal plane at any angle different from 450, I (hall dall
the potential range of the projeftile at that angle; and
the diftance to which a projeitile really ranges, I (hall
call its adxual range.
“ If the velocity with which a projeftile begins to
move is known, its potential random and its potential
range at any given angle are eafily de'ermined from the
* See Pro- comrpon theory of proje&iles * ; or more generally, if
2.6422
2.7890
2.9413
3.0994
3-2635
3-4338(
3.6107
3-7944
3-9851
41833
4.3893
4.6028
4.8249
5-°557
5-2955
5-5446
5 8036
6.0728
6.3526
6.6435
6.9460
7.2605,
:-5875
7.9276
82813
8.6492
9 °319
94300
3.2 12.7078
844:
2.752:
723:
1934
6761
1816
'3-2556
3.8258
,4-4I95
I5-°377
(5.6814
16.3517
; 7.0497
17.7768
i8-534i
9.3229
20 1446
.coo6
•8925
.8218
3.95 123.7901
4.0 124.7991
4.05 I25.8506
4-‘ 126.9465
4.15 '28.0887
4.2
4.25
4-3
4-35
4.4
4-45
45
4-55
29.2792
.30.5202
31-8.38
33.1625
34.5686
36- 0346
37- 5632
39-I5-i
4.6 I40.8193
4.65 42.4527
4-7 j44 36o5
4 75 ■46-2460
4.8 48.2127
4-85
4-9
4- 95
5- 0
50.2641
52.4040
>4-6363
56-9653
‘ PROP. L Given the adtual range of a given fhellor
either its original velocity, its potential random, or its
potential range, at a given angle, are known, the other
two are eafily found out.
“ To facilitate the computation of refilled bodies, it
is neeeffary, in the confideration of each refilled body,
to affign a certain quantity, which I fhr.ll denominate
F, adapted to the refillance of that particular projec¬
tile. To find this quantity F to any proje£li!e given,
we may proceed thus : Firft find, from the principles
already delivered, with w-hat velocity the projedlvle mull bullet at any fmall angle not exceeding-8° or 160, to-
move, fo that its refiftance may be equal to its gravity, determine its potential range, and eonfequently its po-
Then the height from whence a body mull defceod in tential random and original velocity,
a vacuum to acquire this velocity is the magnitude of “ Sol. Let the adlnal range given be divided by the
F fought. But the concifeft way of finding this quan- F correfponding'to the given proje&ile, and find the
tity F to any (hell or bullet is this : If it be of iolid quote in the firft column of the preceding Table; then
iron, multiply its diameter meafured in inches by 300, the correfponding number in the fecoud column mul-
the produft will be the magnitude of F expreffed in tiplied into F will be the potential range fought: and
yards. If, inftead of a folid iron-bullet, it is a fhell or thence, by the methods already explained, the potential
a bullet of fome other fubllance ;. then, as the fpecific random and the ofiginal velocity of the projedlile is
gravity of iron is to the fpecific gravity of the {hell or given.
bullet given, fo is the F correfponding to an ironrbullet “ Exam. An 18 pounder, the diameter of whofe fhot
of the fame diameter to the proper F for the (hell or is about 5 inches, when loaded with 2.1b. of powder,
bullet given. The quantity F being thus afiigned, the ranged at an elevation of 30 30' to the diftance of
neceffary computations of thefe refilled motions may ~ 975 yards.
be difpatched by the three following propofitions, al- “ The F correfpondtng to this bullet is 1500 yards,
ways remembering that thefe propofitions proceed on and the quote of the a&ual range by this number is
the hypothefis of ihe refiftance being in the duplicate 65 ; correfponding to which, in the fecond column, is
proportion of the velocity of the refilled body. How .817; whence 817 F, or 1225 yards, is the potential,
to apply this principle, when the velocity is fo great range fought; and this, augmented in the ratio of the
as to have its refiftance augmented beyond this rate, fine of twice the angle of elevation to-the radiu-v
6 gives.
GUNNERY. Sea. III.
■ gives 10050 yards for the potential random : whence other inevitable errors, which arife from the nature of IVacftice.
' it will be found, that the velocity of this projeftile was this fubjeft. y—»/
that of 984 feet in a fecond. . “ PROP. II. Given the a&ual range of a given fhell
“ Cor. 1 it. If the converfe of this propofition be de- or bullet, at any angle not exceeding 450, to determine
fired ; that is, if the potential range in a fmall angle its potential range at the fame angle ; and thence its
be given, and tljence the adtual range be fought; this potential random and original velocity,
mnv Hp filived with the fame facilitv bv the fame table: “ Sot.. Oiminith the F porrefnr.nd;i
may be folved with the fame facility by the fame table:
for if the given potential range be divided by its cor-
Son. Diminifh the F correfponding to the Ihellor
bullet given in the proportion of the radius to the co^
refpondent F, then oppofite to the quote fought in fine of ^ of the angle of elevation. Then, by means
the fecond column, there will be found in the firft
lumn a number which multiplied into F will give the
a&ual range required. And from hence it fcjllows,
of the preceding table, operate with this reduced F
in the fame manner as is prefcribed in the folution of
the lail propofition, and the refult will be the potential
that if the a&ual range be given at 6ne angle, it may be range fought; whence the potential random, and the
found at ev-.ry other angle not exceeding 8" or io°. original velocity, are eafily determined.
“ Cor. 2d. If the a£ual range at a given fmall angle “ Exam. A mortar for fea-fervice, charged with ^olb.
be given, and another aftual range be given, to which of powder, has fometimes thrown its fhell, of 12^-
the angle is fought; this will be determined by finding inches diameter, and of 231 lb. weight, to the diftance
the potential ranges correfponding to the two given of 2 miles, or 5450 yards. This at an elevation of 450.
1 MM v-wvAii a *• ll <3 1-1 frl'l O •'ll'l n-1 <3 C ft ai IT 4- 4 h, , n <3! 1 « f" « »■ ITJ - « ^ O _   1
aftual ranges ; then the angle cofrefponding to one of
thefe potential ranges being known, the angle corre¬
fponding to the other will be found by the common
theory of proje&iles.
“ Cor. 3d. If the potential random deduced from the
a£tual range by this propofition exceeds 13000 yards;
“ The F to this fhell, if it were folid, is 3825 yards;
but as the fhell is only £ of a folid globe, the true F
is no more than 3060 yards. This, diminifhed in the
ratio of the radius to the cofine of ^ of the angle of
elevation, becomes 2544. The quote of the poten¬
tial range by this diminifhed F is 1,384; which fought
then the original velocity of the proje&ile was fo great in the firft column of the 'preceding table gives 2.280
as to be affefted by the treble refiftance defcribed a- for the correfponding number in the fecond column ;
bove ; and confequently the real potential random will and this multiplied into the reduced F, produces 580a
be greater than what is here determined. However, yards for the potential range fought, which, as the
in this cafe, the true potential random may be thus angle of elevation was 450, is alfo the potential ran-
nearly afiigned. Take a 4th continued proportional dom: and hence the original velocity of this fhell ap-
to 13000 yards, and the potential random found by pears to be that of about 748 feet in a fecond.
this propofition, and the 4th proportional thus found
may be affumed for the true potential random fought.
In like manner, when the true potential random.is gi-
* The ope- ven greater t^ian •S000 yards, we muft take two mean
Cor. The converfe of this propofition, that is, the
determination of the aftual range from the potential
range given, is eafily. deduced from hence by means of
the quote of the potential range divided by the redu-
rationsdi- proportionals between 13000 and this random*; and ced F; for this quote fearched out in the fecond column
redled in the firft of thefe mean proportionals muft be affumed
this corol- inftead of the random given, in every operation de-
^erformed^ t^lefe propofitions and their corollaries. And
bytheTaldethis method will nearly allow for the increafed refift-
of loga- ance in large velocities, the difference only amounting
rithms. a few minutes in the angle of direction of the pro-
je&ed body, which, provided that angle exceeds two
or three degrees, is ufually fcarce worth attending to.
“ Of this procefs fake the following example.
will give a correfponding number in the firft column,
which multiplied into the reduced F, will be the ac¬
tual range fought.
“ Alfo, if the potential random of a proje&ile be
given, or its adfual range at a given angle of eleva¬
tion ; its adual range at any other angle of elevation,
not greater than 45°, may hence be known. For the
potential random will affign the potential range at any
given angle; and thence, by the method of this corol-
; A 24 pounder fired with x 2 pounds of powder, lary, the adfual range may be found,
when elevated at 70 15', ranged about 2500 yards. “ Exam. A fit mufquet-bullet fired from a piece of
Here the F being near 1700 yards, the quote to be the ftandard dimenfions, with f of its weight in good
fought in the firft column is 147, to which the num- powder, acquires a velocity of near 900 feet in a fe-
ber correfponding in the fecond column is 2.556 ; cond ; that is, it has a potential random of near 8400
whence the potential range is near 4350 yards, and the yards. If how the adtual range of this bullet at
potential random thence refulting 17400. But this was fought, we muft proceed thus ;
being more than 1 3000, we muft, to get the true po- “ From the given potential random it follows, that
tential random, take a 4th continued proportional to the potential range at 150 is 4200 yards; the diame-
13000 and 17400; and this 4th proportional, which ter of the bullet is \ of an inch ; and thence, as it is
is about 31000 yards, is to be efteemed the true po- of lead, its proper F is 337.5 yards, which, reduced
tential random fought; whence the velocity is nearly in the ratio of the radius to the cofme of ^ of be-
that of 1730 feet in a fecond. comes 331 yards. The quote of 4200 by this num-
“ Scholium. This propofition is confined to fmall her is 12.7 nearly ; which, being fought in the fe'cond
angles, not exceeding 8° or io°. In all poflible cafes column, gives 3.2 nearly for the correiponding nurfiber
of praftice, this approximation, thus limited, will not in the firft column ; and this mutliplied into 33'i yards
differ from the moft rigorous folution by fo much as
what will often intervene from the variation of the den-
fity of the atmofphere in a few hours time; fo that
the errors of the approximation are much ftiort of
N° 146. 4
(the reduced F) makes loypyards for the aftual range
fought.
“ Exam. II. The fame bullet, fired with its whole
weight in powder, acquires a velocity of about 2100
feet .
sea.nr.
GUNNERY.
225
Practice, feet in a fecond, to which there correfponds a potential
L- » random of about 45700 yards. But this number
greatly exceeding 13000 yards, it muft be reduced
by the method defcribed in the third corollary of the
firft propofition, when it becomes 19700 yards. If
now the adual range of this bullet at 150 was requi¬
red, we fhall from hence find, that the potential range
at 150 is 9850 yards ;which, divided by the reduced
F of the laft example, gives for a quote 2975 : and
thence following the Heps prefcribed above, the aftual
range of this bullet comes out 1396 yards, exceeding
the former range by no more than 337 yards ; where¬
as the difference between the two potential ranges is
above ten miles. Of fuch prodigious efficacy is the
refillance of the air, which hath been hitherto treated
as too infignificant a power to be attended to in laying
down the theory of proje&iles!
“ Schol. I muft here obferve, that as the denfity
of the atmofphere perpetually varies, increafing and di-
ttiinifhing often by TV part, and fometimes more, in
a ffcw hours; for that reafon I have not been over ri¬
gorous in forming thefe rules, but have confidered
them as fufficiently exaft when the errors of the ap¬
proximation do not exceed the inequalities which
would take place by a change of part in the den-
fity of the atmofphere. With this reftri£tion, the
rules of this propofition may be fafely applied in all
poffible cafes of practice. That- is to fay, they will
exhibit the true motions of all kinds of ffiells and can-
non-fhot, as far as 450 of elevation, and of all muf-
ket bullets fired with their largeft cuftomary charges,
if not elevated more than 30°. Indeed, if experi¬
ments are made with extraordinary quantities of pow¬
der, producing potential randoms greatly furpaffing
the ufual rate ; then in large angles fome farther mo¬
difications may be neceffary. And though, as thefe
cafes are beyond the limits of all pra&ice, it may be
thought unneceffary to confider them ; yet, to enable
thofe who are fo difpofed to examine thefe uncommon
Cafes, I fhall here infert a propofition, which will de¬
termine the aftual motion of a proje&ile at 450, how
enormous foever its original velocity may be. But as
this propofition will rather relate to fpeculative than
praftical cafes, inftead of fuppofing the adtual range
known, thence to affign the potential random, I fhall
now fuppofe the potential random given, and the ac¬
tual range to be thence inveftigated.
“ PROP. III. Given the potential random of a gi¬
ven fhell or bullet, to determine its a&ual range at 450.
Sol. Divide the given potential random by the F
correfponding to the fhell or bullet given, and call the
quotient q, and let 1 be the difference between the ta¬
bular logarithms of 25 and of q, the logarithm of 10
being fuppofed unity ; then the adtual range fought is
34F-|-2lF where the double fine of 2IF is
to be thus underftood; that if q be lefs. than 25, it
muft be — 2IF; if it be greater, then it muft be -f-
2IF. In this folution, q may be any number not Ifefs
than 3, nor more than 2500.
“ Cor. Computing in the manner here laid down, we
fhall find the relation between the potential randoms,
and the aftual range at 450, within the limits of this
propofition, to be as exprelfed in the following table.
Vol. VIII. Part I,
Potential Random.
3 F
6 F
10 F
20 F
30 F
40 F
50 F
100 F -
200 F
500 F
A&ual Range at 450.
-   i,S F
  2,, F
  2,6 F
-   3.2 F
   3,6 F
-   3,8 F
  4,0 F
  4,6 F
  5,1 F
  5.8 F
  6,4 F
  7,0 F
Whence it appears, that, when the potential ran¬
dom is increafed from 3^ to 2500F, the a&ual range
is only increafed from F to 7 F; fo that an increafe
of 2497F in the potential random produces no great¬
er an increafe in the aftual range than ffF, which is
not its part; and this will again be greatly dimi-
nifhed on account of the increafed refiftance, which
takes place in great velocities. So extraordinary are
the effefts of this refiftance, which we have been hi¬
therto taught to regard as inconfiderable.
“ That the juftnefs of the approximations laid down
in the 2d and 3d propofitions may be eafier examined ;
I fhall conclude thdfe computations by inferting a
table of the aftual ranges at 450 of a projeftile, which
is refilled in the duplicate proportion of its velocity.
This table is computed by methods different from thofe
hitherto defcribed, and is fufficiently exaft to ferve as
a ftandard with which the refult of our other rules
may be compared. And fince whatever errors occur
in the application of the preceding propofitions, they
will be moft fenfible at 450 of elevation, it follows,
that hereby the utmoft limits of thofe errors may be
affigned.
226
Pra&ict.
40
GUNNERY. Sea.m.
Potential iRaixloms. A anal Range at 450. “Though hrafs guns are not liable to hard, yet Practice.
jg,o F    4;8o4 F they are fooner rendered unferviceable in aaion than ~~~V
1 J O ^   ■ —   2>937 f iron- For by the foftnefs of the metal, the vent wi-
20,0 F    ——    3-196 F dens fo footi, and they are fo liable to bend at the
25,0 F —— —    3»396 F muzzle, that it would be dangeroirs to fire them ; as
3°’° ^    —    3*357 F we found by experience at Belleifle, and where we
40,0 F —— ——-   3>^c9 F were obliged to take guns from the fhips to finifh the
5-0,0 F y-    —y- 3-998_ F _ _ frege.
“ Thefe being undeniable fa£s, no polTible reafon
can be affigned agamft ufmg iron gnns in both fea and
land fervice, and thereby leflen the expences of ar¬
tillery fo confiderabiy as will appear by the following
tables.
Lengths and Weights of Iron Snip-Guns.
Old IPitCtS. Ni-:w PitCES.
Of the d’f- We have now only to confider that part of practical
ferent part* gUnnery which relates to the proportions of the diffe-
tions of^6r*rent Parts ^ cannon, the metal of which they are
guns. made, &c.
Formerly the guns were made of a very great length,
and were on that account extremely troublefome and
unmanageable. The error here was fit.11 difcovercd by
accident; for fome cannon, having been call by miftake
two feet and an half Ihorter than the common flandard,
were found to be equally efficacious in fervice with the
common ones, and much more manageable. Thisfoon
produced very confiderable alterations in the form of
the artillery throughout Europe ; but in no country
have greater improvements in this refpedt been made
than in our own. For a long time brafs, or rather a
kind of bell-metal, was thought preferable to call iron
for making of cannon. The compofition of this metal
4I is generally kept a fecret by each particular founder.
Compofi- The author of the Military Li&ionary gives the fol-
tion for lowing proportions as the moft common, viz. “ To
brals guns. 2^0 'jj?< 0f metal for calling they put 68 lb. of cop¬
per, 52 lb. of brafs, and 12 lb. of tin. To 4200 lb.
of metal fit for calling the Germans put 3687,^ lb. of
copper, 2044T lb. of brafs, and lb. of tin. Ci¬
thers ufe 100 lb. of copper, 6 lb. of brafs, and 9 lb. of
tin ; while fome make ufe of too lb. of copper, 10 lb.
of brafs, and ijlb. of tin. This compofition was both
found to be very eXpenfive, and alfo liable to great in¬
conveniences in the ufing. A few years ago, there¬
fore, a propofal was made by Mr Muller for ufing iron
guns of a lighter conftruftion than the brafs ones, by
which he fuppofed that a very great faving would be
made in the expence ; and likewife, that the guns of the
new conftru&ion would be more manageable, and even
Mr Mul- efficacious, than the old ones. “ The redu&ion of the
ler’s propo- expence (fays Mr Muller) of the very large artillery ne-
fal for re- cefiary for fea and land fervice, is to be confidered un-
weflvt oF two ^ieac'8 : onc* Fo diminifii the weight; and
the other. Not to ufe Tiny brafs field-artillery, but only
iron, to leffen the great burden of our fhips of war,
and to carry larger calibers than thofe of other nations
of the fame rate. If the weights of our guns are di-
minifhed, they will require fewer hands to manage
them, and of confequence a fmaller number will be ex-
pofed to danger at a time: and if we carry larger ca¬
libers, our rates will be a match for larger fhips.
“ The advantage of ufing Iron guns in the field in-
ftead of brafs, will be that the expences are leffened in
proportion to the coil of brafs to that of iron, which
is as 8 to 1.
“ The only obje&ion againft iron is, its pretended
brittlenefs: but as we abound in iron that is ftronger
and tougher than any brafs, this obje&ion is invalid.
This I can affert; having feen fome that cannot be
broken by any force, and will flatten like hammered
iron : if then we ufe fuch iron, there can be no danger
of the guns burfting in the moft fevere a&ion.
42_
Ftln.
4 6
6 o
7 ‘O
7 o
■9 o
9 o
<9
17 1 14I
23 2
32 3 3
44 1
•9 o 48 o o
53 3 23
55_
Ft. In!
3 6 | 3 3
4 4 7
5-011
5 !o o
5 6
6 4
7 °
7 6
8 4
8 6
50 o o
40 o
60 o o
“ Guns cfthis conftru&ion appear fufficiently ftrong
from the proof of two three-pounders made for Lord
Egmnnt, and they even may be made lighter and of
equal fervice.
Length and Weight of Battering Pieces.
Old Brass. New Iron.
weight of
guns.
1/ength.;
Ft. In.
8 ©
9 o
9 'O
25 O 'O
9 6
9_6
o. o
Weight.
9 *
29 © ©
48 o o
5100
21
Total 227. Total 151.
Diff.72.
“ That thefe guns are fufficiently ftrong, is evident
from the former trial; befides, there are feveral 32
pounders of the fame dimenfions and weight now exift-
ing and ferviceable; though caft in king Charles II.’s
time.
N. B.
5
Sea.m. GUNN
Pra&ice. N. B Thefe battering pieces may ferve in garri*
E R Y.
22;
This and other propofals for reducing the weight Pra&ice.
fons. and expence of guns have been greatly attended to of
“ It appears from thefe tables, that no proportion late; and the Carron company in Scotland have not
has been obferved in any guns hitherto made, in refpeift only greatly improved thofe of the old conftruclion,
to their length or weight, but merely by gutfs. but a gun of a new conftru&ion hath been invented
W /«>» W»< ma, be faved if Me ■ £***
Scheme.
promifes to be of more effectual fervice than any hi- CCXXV.
therto made ufe of. Fig. 6. reprefents the Form
The old Royal George carried 100 brafs guns, which and proportions of the guns made at Carron, and ProP°r-
weighed together 218.2 tons; the ton cofts 130pounds, which ferve for thofe of all iizes, from f pounders
127.8 tons
2044.8 pounds
workmanihip included.
The expence of thefe guns is then
A fet of iron guns of the fame
number and calibers, according
to my conftruftion, weighs
The ton coft 16 pounds, and the
whole fet
The Royal George carries then
90.4 tons more than is neceffary,
and the difference between the
expence is * * 26321.2 pounds
That is, 12.5 times more than the new iron fet cofts:
or 12 (hips of the fame rate may be fitted out at
lefs charge.
76.6 tons
The difference between the weight
of the old and new is
The difference between the expence
is then - - 1225.6 pounds
A fet of brafs battering pieces weighs 11.36 tons
A ton cofts 130 pounds, and the fet 1476.8 pounds
A fet of the new weighs - 7.55 tons
The ton cofts 16 pounds, and the fet 117.8 pounds
That is, the old fet cofts n times, and 632 over.
and upwards. The proportions are meafured by the made at
28366 pounds diameters of the caliber, or bore of the gun, divided Carrea.
into 16 equal parts, as reprefented in the figure.
The following are the names of the different parts of a
cannon.
AB, the length of the cannon.
AE, the firft reinforce.
EF, the fecond reinforce.
FB, the chafe.
HB, the muzzle.
Ao, the cafcabel, or pomiglion.
AC, the breech.
CD, the vent-field.
Fl, the chafe girdle,
rr, the bafe-ring and ogee.
t, the vent-aftragal and fillets.
pq, the firft reinforce-ring and ogee,
vw, the fecond reinforce ring and ogee.
x, the chafe-aftragal and fillets,
z, the muzzle-aftragal and fillets.
n, the muzzle mouldings.
m, the fwelling of the muzzle.
Ai, the breech mouldings,
TT, the trunnions.
Old
4367
3537
uc8
1091
2997
2543
2177
1881
•365
l234
963
956
593
531
421
The dotted lines along the middle of the piece (how
more than the new fet; or 11 fets of the new could the dimenfions of the caliber, and the dotted circle
be made at kfs expence than one of the old. (hows the fize of the ball. Fig. 7. (hows a cohorn
“ This table (hows what may be faved in the navy ; made alfo at Carron, and which may be medured by
and if we add thofe on board floops, the different gar- the fame feale.
rifons, and the field train, with tlie-great expence of As the breech of the cannon receives an equal im- Ufc and dc
their carriage in the field, it maybe found pretty near pulfc with the bullet from the aaion of the inflamed fcriPtion «£
gunpowder, it rhence follows, that at the moment the C3rnases"
bullet flies off, the piece itfelf pufhes backward with
very great force. This is called the recoil of the can¬
non 5 and if the piece is not of a very conliderable
weight, it would fly upwards, or to a fide, with ex¬
treme violence. If again it was firmly faftened down,
fo that it could not move in the leaft, it would be very
apt to burft, on account of the extreme violence with
which the powder would then a& upon it. For this
reafon it hath been found neceffary to allow the recoil
to take place, and eonfequently all large pieces of
artillery are mounted upon carriages with wheels,
which allow them t» recoil freely; and thus they may
be fired without any danger. There are feveral fort*
of carriages for ordnance, viz. baftard carnages, with
low wheels and high wheels; fea-carriages, made in
imitation of thofe for (hip-guns ; and carriages for
field-pieces, of which there are two kinds. The car¬
riages muft be proportioned to the pieces mounted on
them. The ordinary proportion is for the carriage to
have once and a half the length of the gun, the wheels
to be half the length of the piece in height. Four
times the diameter or caliber gives the depth of the
planks in the fore end ; in the middle 3*.
E e 2 Fig.
3-2556 o
3 2001
3! ‘827 o
0:1840 2
o 1796 2
3 1305 o
3 1185 ©
1 4935 0
2 705 O
2| 312 2
3| 45° o
2 1 435 o
2 1 285 o
3 i 255 o
2 191 i
1811 3
>536 3
1287 3
1250 2
1200 2
1258 2
972 3
846 1
660 2
922 o
5*3 3
521 2
308 2
276 3
230 1,
Diffen
9058 O
13827 3
90X4 I
40016 o
12005 9
28485 2
29.782 2
16078 3
5284 ©
8298 G
3?96 1
14602 o
7095 1
3321 o
3453 3
:e between the weights - *0.1918; 3
We get L. 257028
228 GUNNERY. Sea. HI.
Practice. Fig. 8. fliows Mr Gafcoigne’s newly-invented or right upon the upper edge of each cheek of the gun- Practice.
' ^ rather improved gun called a carronade*; and which, carriage; from thefe eye-bolts the ends of the breechin ^-v—
B fl-i tion in ^Utie was ^ t^ie an<i council inllituted rope are feized down as ufual to an eye bolt driven
of*thenar- a ftandard navy-gun, and 10 of them appointed to be into the quick-work on each fide, in a line with the
rorade. added to each (hip of war, from a firft-rate to a (loop, lower furface of the flide-carriage.
* See Car- Of this gun the Carron company have publilhed the “ The gun being mounted and ready for aftion, is
ronade. following account. > _ loaded with TVth part of the weight of its ball in fer-
“ The carronade is made fo (hort, that it is worked vice charge of powder put into a woollen cartridge,
with its carriage in the (hip’s port; the trunnions ly- and the end tied up with a worded yarn, and placed
ing immediately over the fill of the port: it is cor- next to the (hot; and with a fingle ball, well rammed
reftly bored; and the (hot being perfeftly round, fills home upon the powder, without a wadding between,
the caliber with fuch exadtnefs, that the lead polfible them: the gun being then run out in the port, is
of the impulfe of the powder efcapes, upon explofion, ranged and elevated with great facility, by means of
between the cylinder and the (hot; which lad alfo is the handle on the pommel; and, by the views, very
thereby more truly direfted in its flight. The bottom quickly pointed.—Upon difcharge, the gun attempts
of the cylinder is a hemifphere, to which the end of to kick upwards, which being prevented by the waiher
the cartridge is not; liable to dick, and in which the of the gudgeon bearing hard againd the under part of
fmalled charge of powder envelopes the (hot, exhaud- the (lide-carriage, the recoil takes place ; and the
ing nearly the whole of its impelling force upon it: gudgeon Aiding backwards in the groove (the waftier
the trunnions are placed fo as to leflen the recoil, and dill bearing againd an iron plate on the under edge
that the gun cannot red againd the fides of the,car- of the groove), till the gun i^ brought up by the
riage, and is balanced with the utmod facility. There breechin rope, as much re-aftion fucceeds as flackens
are views cad upon the vent and muzzle, to point the the rope, fo that the gun and carriage may be in¬
gun quickly to an objeft at 2so arid 500 yards di- dantly turned fore and aft by the handle, and loaded
(lance. There is an handle A fixed upon the pommel- again.
end of the gun, by which it is horizontally ranged “ This gun has many lingular advantages over the
and pointed ; and there is a ring cad upon the caf- others of light condruftion.—It is fo extremely light,
cabel, through which the breechin rope is reeved, the that the fmalled (hips can carry almod any weight of
only rope ufed about thefe guns. (hot (the 12-pounder weighing under 500 wt. and the
“ The curronade is mounted upon a carriage B, with other calibers in proportion), and that without being
a perfe&ly fmooth bottom of drong plank, without attended with the inconveniences imputed generally to
trucks; indead of which there is fixed on the bottom light guns, fince it cannot injure its carriage, or jump
of the carriage, perpendicular from the trunnions, a out of its dation in the port upon recoil ; and it will
gudgeon C of proper drength, with an iron walher never heat.
D and pin E at the lower end thereof. This gudgeon “ It can be eafily managed and worked of all cali-
is let into a correfponding groove F, cut in a fecond bers, from the 12 pounders downwards with two hands,
carriage G, called a Jlide-carriage; the -waflier fup- and the 18 and 24-pounders with three hands. It
ported by the pin over reaching the under-edges of may be readily ranged, pointed, and difeharged, twice
the groove H. This flide-carriage is made with a in three minutes, which doubles the ftrength of the
fmooth upper furface, upon which the gun-carriage (hip againft an enemy of equal force. It is wrought
is moved, and by the gudgeon always kept in its right upon an horizontal plane to windward or to leeward-
fiat ion to the port; the groove in the flide-carriage how much foever the (hip lies along under a preflure
being of a fufificient length to allow the gun to recoil of fail; and therefore, befides being hampered with
and be loaded within board. The flide-carriage, the no tackles or other roptS, except the breechin rope, it
groove included, is equally broad with the fore-part of may be worked with as much eafe and expedition in
the gun-carriage, and about four times the length ; chace or in a gale of wind as in lying to for a£tion.
the fore-part of the flide-carriage is fixed by hinge- —It can be ranged from bow to quarter, fo as to
bolts I, to the quick-work of the (hip below the port, bring a broadfide to bear in a circuit of above 10
the end lying over the fill, clofe to the outfide plank, points of the compafs on each fide.—It is no more ex-
and the groove reaching to the fore end ; the gudgeon penfive in ammunition than the old guns of two-thirds
of the gun-carriage, and confequently the trunnions of lefs weight of (hot; and it requires very few hands
the gun, are over the fill of the port when the gun above the complement fteceffary for navigating mer-
is run out; and the port is made of fuch breadth, chant-drips; and increafes the (trength of privateers
with its fides bevelled off within board, that the gun crews, by expofing few hands at the guns, and aug-
and carriage may range from bow to quarter. The menting the number at fmall arms,
flide-carriage is (upported from the deck at the hinder “ Though the carronade cannot, ftriftly fpeaking,
end, by a wedge K, or ftep-ftool; which being altered throw its (hot to an equal dillance with a longer gun;
at pleafure, and the fore-end turning upon the hinger yet, from the fitnefs of thq (hot to its cylinder, the.
bolts, the carriage can be conftantly kept upon an powers of this gun will greatly furpafs the expefta-
horizontal plane, for the more eafy and quick working tions of fuch as are not intimately acquainted with the
of the gun when the (hip lies along. effe&s of the elaftic force of fired powder, fince, with
“ The gun and carnages being in their places, the Vrth part of the weight of its ball, at very fmall ele-
breechin rope, which muff be itrong and limber, is vations, it will range its (hot to triple the diftance at
reeved through the ring on the breech, then led thro’ which (hips generally engage, with fufficient velocity
an eye-bolt drove downwards, the. eye handing up- for the greatefl. execution, and with all the accuracy in
GUN
its direftion that can be attained from guns of greater
lengths.
“ There have been two feeraing difadvantages im¬
puted to this gun, which it does not merit, viz. the
nicety of fitting the fhot to the bore of the gun, and
its incapacity to hold more than two fhot at one
charge. But as feamen have few opportunities of
confirming themfelves in juft opinions by experiments
made on fhore, and cannot, in that cafe, be fully
converfant with the fubjeft; the following loofe
hints may not be inept towards removing thefe ob¬
jections.
“ It is an axiom in proje&iJes, That a {hot cannot be
impelled from a gun to any diftance in a direction truly
N E R Y. 229
fize to the caliber of the gun, and weighed that it be Pra<Shce.^
not above or below the ftandard more than half an ’ v ^
ounce in the pound of its refpeftive caliber: good {hot
then, being of the fame importance to all guns, removes
the firft objection.
“ If the direction of the flight of a Ihot to its objeCl
is affeCted by fo many feeming trivial caufes, how much
more uncertain muft it be, when two or more (hot are
difcharged together from one gun ? for the {hot next
the powder being impelled with more celerity than that
immediately before it, ftrikes againft it after difcharge,
and fometimes {hirers itfelf to pieces, and never fails
to change obliquely the direftion of both; and this
happens with round and double-headed, See. and all
parallel to the axis of the cylinder of the piece, or what double charges; and which, from their various, figures,
is commonly ca\\c&point-blank, arifing from feveral well- cannot reach an object at the fame elevations with the
known caufes: for, however juft may be the cylinder, round (hot ; efpecially when thefe other (hots are of
and however perfeCt and fmooth may be the fphere of greater weight than the round, which is often the cafe,
its correfponding {hot, and admitting that the im-' However frightful a broadfide with double charges
pulfe of the powder aCts through the centre of gravity may appear at fea, more confufion is created by them,
of the {hot, and alfo that the {hot confequently leaves
the piece in a direction parallel to the axis of its cylinder ;
yet is the {hot no fooner difcharged, but it becomes
more or lefs infleCted by its gravity, and deflefted,
according to its velocity, by the refijlance of the air
and wind.
“ Thefe irregularities are of little importance in clofe
fea-fights, and, being the effeft of natural caufes, are
common to all. Befides thefe, the deviation of a {hot
from its true diredtion, is further augmented by the
windage between the cylinder and its,{hot ; but the
greateft uncertainty in the flight of a {hot, making al¬
lowance for the aftion of its gravity, and the air’s re-
fiftance, fprings from the defefts of the {hot itfelf.
Round-fliot for {hip-guns are feldom nicely examined;
and, unlefs they are caft folidand truly globular, and free
of all hollows, roughnefs, and other outfide blemi{hes,and
well fitted to the gun, it cannot even be difcharged
and more time loft, within board, by the ftrain and ex-
ceflive recoil, than real damage done without board
by the additional charge: for upon a trial on fltore,
where the effedt can be traced, it will be found, that,
at 100 yards diftance, more {hot will take place with¬
in a fmall compafs by fingle than by double charges ;
and the charges will be oftener repeated in a given time,
without heating the gun: and thefe fadds being efta-
bliflied, remove alfo the fecond objeddion.”
The following account of the proof of one of thefe
guns will perhaps ferve to give a more adequate idea of
the great ufefulnefs of them, than any defeription :
“ On Monday, Odd. 4. 1779, there was an experi¬
ment made at Carron, before the earl of Dunmore,.
&c. &c. with: a 68. pounder carronade, nearly of the
weight of a Britifti navy 12-pounder gun, and charged
with the fame quantity (viz. 6 lb.) of powder. The
carronade was mounted, on its proper carriages, into a
the direttion of the axis of the piece ; to the difappoint- port of the dimenfions of a 74'gun {hip’s lower-deck
ment of thofe that ufe fuch, and to the diferedit of the
gun-founder, however juftly the piece is viewed, or dif-
parted ; but, being impelled againft the furfaee of the
cylinder, bounds and rebounds from fide to fide, ac¬
quires a rotatory motion, and when caft hollow withal,
and breaking within the cylinder before difcharge,
(which fometimes happens, efpecially with double
charges), never fails to injure; and, when often repeat¬
ed, may at laft burft the very beft guns.—Round-
fhot Ihould not be taken on board a fhip, without be¬
ing examined as to its {hape and furface, gaged for its
ift {hot flruck 1 foot 7 inches below the horizontal line, and 5 feet   from the mark.
port; was pointed without elevation, at a centre of
eight inches diameter, marked on a bulk’s head of the
thicknefs of two feet five inches folid wood, at 163
yards diftance ; behind which, at 168 yards, there was
another bulk’s head of two feet four inches thick ; and
behind that again, at 170 yards diftance, a bank of
earth. The {hot pierced the bulk’s heads each 'time,
and was buried from three to four feet into the bank,
and the fplinters were thrown about to a confiderabls
diftance on all fides.
2d ditto ditto 2 feet ditto,
3d do. do. through the horizontal line
4th do. do. ditto  *  
5th do. do. ditto    
6th do. do. 2 inches below  —
7th do. do. touched the lower part of ditto
8th do. do. 2 inches below   —
9th do. do. 2 feet below —
roth do. do. 3 inches below  
“ The Carronade was laid each time by the views
without an inftrument ; and the {hot were all to the
left of the mark, owing to a fmall error in difparting
the viewsthe third, fourthj and fifth {hot, .made one
ditto, and 2 ditto from
and 3 do. 4 inches from
do. and 2 do. 4 ditto from
do.
do.
do.
■ do.
• do.
do.
do.
do.
fra&ure, as did allb iixth, feventh, and eighth, and
the fixth and eighth ftruck the fame fpot.
“ The Carronade was eafily worked with four men,
and may be readily worked and difcharged on board a
0%,
Y.
E R
Bafe-ring - -
Ogee next the bafe-ring d
The aftragal or haJf-round
Its fillet - ...
Total allragal air! fillets at the ventfieid t
Firlt reinforce ring B
Second reinforce ring C
Its ogee
Its attragal
And its fillet
The muzzle aftragal, and fillet a
Breadth of the fillet at the bafe ring
Ditlance of the fillet at the button from the
fillet at the bafe ring
Breadth of the fillet at the button
Diameter of the fillet at the button
Di fiance of the centre of the button from
230 GUNN
I’ra&iee. ftfip twice a minute with fix men.—With fix pound
weight of powder the (hot was impelled with a velocity
47 of 1400 feet a fecond.”
Defcription We have already feen of how much confequence
oidnacc rifle-barrels are in order to bring the art of gunnery
or nance. perfection ; as they enlarge the fpace in which the
ball will fly without any lateral defledtion to three or
four times its ufual quantity. This improvement, how*
ever, till very lately, only took place in mulket-barrels.
But in the beginning of the year 1774, Dr Lind, and
Captain Alexander Blair of the 69th regiment of foot,
invented a fpecies of rifled field-pieces. They are
made of caft iron; and are not bored like the common
pieces, but have the rifles moulded on the core, after
which, they are cleaned out and finifhed with proper in*
llruments.
Guns of this conftrudlion, which are intended for
the field, ought never to be made to carry a ball of its fillet
above one or two pounds weight at moft; a leaden bul- Diameter of the button E
let of that weight being fufficient to deftroy either man
or horfe.—A pound-gun, of this conftruftion, of good
metal, fuch as is now made by the Carron company,
need not weigh above an hundred pounds weight,
and its carriage about another hundred. It can,
therefore, be eafily tranfported from place to place,
by a few men ; and a couple of good horfes may
tranfport fix of thefe guns and their carriages, if put
into a cart.
But, for making experiments, in order to determine
the refiftance which bodies moving with great veloci¬
ties meet with from the air, a circumftance to which
tbefe guns are particularly well adapted, or for annoy¬
ing an enemy’s fappers that are carrying on their ap¬
proaches towards a befieged place, a larger caliber may
be ufed.
Fig 5. The length of the gun being divided into feven equal
Sea. iil
Praftice.
5>5
4.75
4’5
3-5
Diameter of its neck
18
.•e , r n • c AT,- c rent pans or rue powucr. rn me rame manner, a
parts, the lenarth of the firlt retntorce AB is two or n . r r • • r j n. 1
K r r , t>/^ j I? r . j- . muutet or fowhng-piece is found to pulh more when
-nurfc • thp Iprrtnn KC .. nnr nnn i-L nr thp n lampfpr . . . . . r . - .. . ...
10,5
The vent fhould be placed about Half an inch from
the bottom of the chamber or bore, that the cartridge
may be pricked, left fome of the bottoms of the car¬
tridges fhould be left in when the gun is fponged, a
circumfiance which might retard the firing till the {hot
he again drawn (which is no eafy matter), and the gun
he cleaned out. From fome experiments of colonel
Defaguliers and Mr Muller, it has been imagined, that
the powder never has fo ftrong an effect as when it is
fired clofe to the bottom of the bore ; yet it is found,
by the experiments of Count de la Lippe, to have the
greateft. effeft when fired near to the middle of the
charge. This he proved by firing it with tubes, intro¬
duced at a vent bored through the button and breech
of the gun, of different lengths, fo(as to reach the diffe¬
rent parts of the powder. In the fame manner.
thefe parts; the fecond BC, one and of the diameter
of the caliber ; the chafe CD, four wanting of the
diameter of the caliber.
the touch-hole is placed at fome little diftance from the
bottom of the bore ; which arifes from nothing but
the powder’s a fling with more force, by being in-
The diftance from the hind-part of the bafe-ring A flanl'd tQ r ad-ant . confequen tly,'in this cafe,
cahber and TV of JL r
to the beginning of the bore, is one
a caliber. The trunnions TT are each a calibt:
breadth, and the fatne in length ; their centres are pla¬
ced three-fevenths of the gun’s length from the hind
the fame quantity of powder will have a greater effeft,
than when the touch hole is placed at the bottom of
the bore, which may be of fome ufe in hufbanding the
ecu uirce-icvcmus ui me gun * .cugwi powder.
part of the bafe-r.tig, in fuch a manner that the axis of ^ The ab(jve dimenflon„ are taken from ^ clegant
-f pound guns, which were made for the prince of A-
fturias by the Carron company.
the trunnions paffes through the centre line of the bore,
which prevents the gun from kicking, and breaking its
carriage. The length of the cafcable is otie caliber
and -ff of a caliber.
The caliber of the gun being divided into 16 equal
parts ;
The thicknefs of metal at the bafe-ring A from
the bore, is . . 18,5
At the end of the firft reinforce ring B I 7
At the fame place, for the beginning of the
fecond reinforce - . ty
At the end of the fecond reinforce C 15
At the fame place, for the beginning of the
chafer - - - T3,75
At the end of the chafe or muzzle, the mould¬
ings a D excluded - - 9
At the fwelling of the muzzle 6 - 12
At the muzzle-fillet c - 9,5
At the extreme moulding D - 8
The rifles make one fpiral turn in the length of the
bore ; but go no nearer to the breech, in their full
fize, than two calibers ; and then terminate with a
gentle flope in half a caliber more, fo as not to prevent
the cartridge with the powder from being eafily fent
home to the bottom of the gun, which would otherwife
conftantly happen with the flannel cartridges, and even
fometimes with paper ones, if not made to enter very
loofely. The fhape of the rifles is femfeircular, their
breadth being equal to the diameter, which is ^ of a
caliber, and their depth equal to the femidiameter, or
, | of a caliber.
The bullets, fig. 10. are of lead, having fix knobs
call on them to fit the rifles of the gun. Being thus
made of foft metal, they do not injure the rifles ; and
may alfo fave an army the trouble of carrying a great
quantity of fhot about with them, fince a fupply of
lead
Sea. III.
GUNNERY.
PraSlioe. lead may be had in moft countries from roofs, &c.
v..- -^  which can be caft into balls as occafion requires. Lead
likewife being of greater fpecific gravity than cad;-iron,
flies to a much greater diftance.
Rifled ordnance of any caliber might be made to
cany iron fliot, for battering or for other purpofes;
provided holes, that are a little wider at their bottoms
than at their upper parts, be caft in a zone round the
ball, for receiving afterwards leaden knobs to fit the
rifles of the cannon ; by which means, the iron fliot
will have its intended line of dire&ion preferved, with¬
out injuring the rifles more than if the whole bail war
of lead, the rotatory motion round its axis, in the line
of its dhe&ion (which corre£fcs the aberration) being
communicated to it by the leaden knobs, following the
fpirai turn of the rifles in its progrefs ont of the gun.
I t is particularly to be obferved, that the balls mud be
made to goeafily down into the piece, fo that the car¬
tridge with the powder and the bullet may be both fent
home together, with a Angle pulh of the hand, withouf
any wadding above either powder or ball; by which
means, the gun is quickly loaded, and the ball flies
farther than when it is forcibly driven into the gun, as
was found from many experiments. The only reafon
why, in common rifled muflcets, the bullets are ram¬
med in forcibly, is this, that the zone of the ball which
is contiguous to the infide of the bore may have the
figure of the rifles imprefled upon it, in fuch a manner
as to become part of a male fcrew, exa&ly fitting the
indents of the rifle, which is not at all necefiary in the
prefeut cafe, the figure of the rifles being originally
caft.upon the ball. Thefe knobs retard the flight of
the bullet in fome degree ; but this fmall difadvantage
is fully made up by the eafe with which the gun is
loaded, its fervice being nearly as quick as that of a
common field-piece ; and the retardation and quantity
of tbe whirling motion which is communicated to the
bullet being conftantly the fame, it will not in the
leafl affeft the experiments made with them, in order to
determine the refillance of the air.
Seflor and In order to hit the mark with greater certainty than
telefcope can be done in the common random method, thefe
belonging pUns are furniftied with a feftor, the principal parts of
kind of which are, i. The limb, which is divided in fuch a
oiduance. manner as to (how elevations to 15 -or 20 degrees. The
length of tbe radius is five inches and an half, and its
nonius is fo divided as to firow minutes of -a degree.
■2. The telefcope, AB, fig. 11. an achromatic refrac¬
tor, is feven inches in length (fuch as is ufed on Had¬
ley’s quadrants, that are fitted for taking diftances of
the moon from the fun or liars, in order to obtain the
longitude at fea), having crofs hairs in it. 3. The
parallel cyiindric bar, CD, is ^ cf an inch ;n diame*
ter, having two re&angular ends EF, each half an inch
fquare and an inch long. On one fide of the end next
the limb of tbe fe<3or, is a mark correfponding to a fi-
tnilar one in the hinder cock of the gun, with which it
mull always coincide when placed on the gun. The
length of the parallel bar, together with its ends, is fe¬
ven inches. This bar is fixed to the fedlor by means
of two hollow cylinders, G, H, which allow the fcftor
a motion round the bar. There is a finger-fcrew, a, up¬
on the hollow cylinder G, which is flit, in order to
tighten it at pleafure upon the bar. 4. The circular
level X, fig. 11. and 12. for fetting the plane of the
feftor always perpendicular when placed upon the gun,
is ^ of an inch in diameter. 'There is a fmall fcrew, d,
to adjufl. the level at right angles to the plane of the
feftor. 5. The finger-fcrew, b, for fixing the index
of the feAor at any particular degree of elevation pro-
pofed.
The line of colli mat ion (that is, the line of vifion
cat by the iaterfe£h'ng point of the two crofs-hairs in
the telefccpe) mufl: be adjufted truly parallel to the bar
of the fedtor when at o degrees. This is done by
placing the fefilorfo that the vertical hair may exadtly
covet fome very diftant perpendicular line. If it again
covers it when the fedlor is inverted, by turning it half
round upon the bar, which has all the while been kept
fleady and firm, that hair is oorredi; if not, corredt
half the error by means of the fmall ficrews, cd e,
fig. 11. and 13. at the eye-end of the telefcope, and
the other half by moving the bar; place it again to co¬
ver the perpendicular line, and repeat the above opera¬
tion till the hair covers it in both pofitions of the fee-
tor. Then turn the fedlor, till the horizontal hair co¬
ver the fame perpendicular line; and turning the fedlor
half round on its bar, corredl it, if wrong, in the fame
manner as you did the vertical hair.
N. B. Of the four fmall ferews at the eye-end of
the telefcope, thofe at the tight and left hand move
whatever hair is vertical, and thofe at top or underneath
move whatever hair is horizontal.
On the fide of the gun upon the firfl reinforce, are
caft two knobs, F, fig. 9. and 14. having their middle
part diftant from each other fix inches, for fixing on
the brafs cocks. A, fig. 14. and 15. which receive the
redlangular ends of the parallel cyiindric bar of the fec-
tor, when placed on the gun.
The next adjuftment is to make tbe parallel bar, and
line of collimation of the telefcope, when fet at o de¬
grees, parallel to the bore of the gun, and confequently
to the diredtion of the fliot. The gun being loaded,
the cartridge pricked, and the gun primed, place the
fedlor in the cocks of the gun ; and having firft fet the
fedlor to what elevation you judge neceffary, bring the
interfedlion of the crofs hairs in the teiefcope upon the
centre of the mark, the limb of the fedtor being fet
vertical by means of the circular level, and then take
off the fedlor without moving the gun. Fire the gun ;
and if the bullet hits any where in the perpendicular
line, palling through the centre of the mark, the line
of collimation of the telefcope and diredlion of the fhot
agree. But if it hit to the right of the mark, fo much
do they differ. In order to corredl which, bring the
gun into the fame pofition it was in before firing, and
fecure it there. Then file away as much of the fore¬
cock, on the fide next the gun, as will let the inter¬
fedlion of the crofs-hair fall forrrewhere on the line pafs-
ing perpendicularly through the point where the {hot
fell; and it is then adjufted in that pofition, fo much
being fikd off the fide of the cock at a, fig. 14. and
18. as will allow the fide l to be ferewed clofer, that
the ends of the parallel bar may have no lhake in the
cocks. To corredl it in the other pofition, and fo to
find the true o degrees of the gun, that is, to bring the
line of colliihation of the telefcope, parallel-bar, and
bore of the gun, truly parallel to each other, repeat
the above with the trunnions perpendicular to the ho¬
rizon, the fedlor being turned a quarter round upon its
bar
Practice.
232
Practice.
riages.
Mortars
defcribed
GUNNERY.
Sea. nr.
bar, fo as to bring its plane vertical. The deviation of ing down like a (bower of hail on a circumference of a- Pra&ice.
the (hot found in this way is correfted by deepening bove 300 feet.  v—'
one of the cocks, fo that the vertical hair of the tele- Mortars are chiefly diftinguiflied by the dimenfions
fcope may be brought to cover the line palling perpen- of their bore ; for example, a 1 Jth-inch mortar is one
dicularly through the point where the bullet hits ; the the diameter of whofe bore is 13 inches, &c.—The
gun being placed in the fame pofnion it was in before land-mortars are thofe ufed in fieges, and of late in
it was fired. This adjuftment being repeated two or battles. They are mounted on beds, and both mortar
three times, and any error that remains being corre&- and bed are tranfported on block carriages. There is
ed, the gun is fit to be mounted on its carriage for fer- likewife a kind of land-mertars mounted on travelling
vice. Itds to be obferved, that this feftor will fit any carriages, invented by count Buckeburg, which may
gun, if the cocks and reftangular ends, &c. of the be elevated to any degree; whereas all the Englifli
parallel bar be of the above dimenfions, and will be mortars are fixed to an angle of 450. This cuftom,
equally applicable to all fuch pieces whofe cocks have however, does not appear to have any foundation in
been adjuited, as if it had been adjailed feparately reafon. In a fiege, (hells (hould never be thrown with
with each of them. And if the fe&or be fet at any an angle of 45 degrees, excepting one cafe only ; that
degree of elevation, and the gun moved fo as to is, when the battery is fo far off, that they cannot other-
bring the interfe&ion of the crofs-hairs on the ob- wife reach the works: for when (hells are thrown out
jedl to be fired at (the limb of the feftor being verti* of the trenches into the works of a fortification, or
cal), the bore of the gun will have the fame elevation from the town into the trenches, they (hould have as
above it, in the true diredlion of the (hot, whatever little elevation as poflible, in order not to bury them-
pofition the carriage of the gun is Handing in. A te- felves, but to roll along the ground, whereby they do
lefcope with crofs hairs, fixed to a common rifled muf- much more damage, and occafion a much greater con-
ket, and adjufted to the diredlion of the (hot, will (lernation among the troops, than if they funk into the
make any perfon, with a very little pradtice, hit an ground. On the contrary, when (hells are thrown upon
objedt with more precifion than the mod experienced magazines, or any other buildings, the mortars (hould
markfman. be elevated as high as poflible, that the (hells may ac-
For garrifon-fervice, or for batteries, the (hip or quire a greater force in their fall, and confequently do
garrifon carriage, with two iron ftaples on each fide to more execution.
put through a couple of poles to carry thefe guns from There are other kinds of mortars, called partridge-
place to place with more difpatch, are as proper as any. mortars, hand-mortars, and Jirclock-martars ; which laft
But, for the field, a carriage like that at fig. 16. where are alfo called lombards. The partridge-mortar is a
the (hafts pu(h in ujpon taking out the iron pins a b, common one, furrounded with 13 other little mortars
and moving the crofs bar A, upon which the breech of bored round its circumference, in the body of the me-
the gun refts, as far down as the (hafts were puflied tal; the middle one is loaded with a (hell, and the
in, is the propereft, fince the whole can then be car- others with grenades. The vent of the large mortar
ried like a hand-barrow, over ditches, walls, or rough being fired, communicates its fire to the reft; fo that
ground, all which may be eafily underftood from the both the (hell and grenades go off at once. Hand-
figure. mortars were frequently ufed before the invention of
The principal advantage that will accrue from the cohorns. They were fixed at the end of a ftaff four feet
ufe of rifled ordnance, is the great certainty with and a half long, the other end being (hod with iron to
which any objedt may be hit when fired at with them, ftick in the ground ; and while the bombardier with one
fince the (hot deviates but little from its intended line hand elevated it at pleafure, be fired it with the other,
of diredlion, and the gun is capable of being brought The firelock-mortars, or bombards, are fmall mortars
to bear upon the objedl, with great exadlnefs, by means fixed to the end of a firelock. They are loaded as all
of the telefcope and crofs-hairs. common firelocks are ; and the grenade, placed in the
The other pieces of artillery commonly made ufe of mortar at the end of the barrel, is difcharged by a
are mortars, howitzers, and royals. The mortars are flint-lock. To prevent the recoil hurting the bombar-
a kind of (hort cannon of a large bore, with chambers dier, the bombard refts on a kind of halberd made for
for the powder, and are made of brafs or iron,. Their that purpofe.
ufe is to throw hollow (hells filled with powder, which The chamber in mortars is the place where the pow-
falling on any building, or into the works of a fortifi- der is lodged. They are of different forms, and made
cation, bur ft, and with their fragments deftroy every varioufly by different nations ; but the cylindric feems
thing near them. Carcafes are alfo thrown out of to be preferable to any other form.
them ; which are a fort of (hells with five holes, filled The howitz is a kind of mortar mounted on a field-Howitzes
with pitch and other materials, in order te fet build- carriage like a gun : it differs from the common mor- and royab.
ings on fire ; and fometimes baflcets full of ftones, of tars in having the trunnions in the middle, whereas
the fize of a man’s fill, are thrown out of them up- thofe of the mortar are at the end. The conftruftion of
on an enemy placed in the covert-way in the time howitzes is as various and uncertain as that of mortars,
of a fiege. Of late the ingenious General Defagu- excepting that the chambers are all cylindric. They are
liers has contrived to throw bags filled with grape- diftinguiftied by the diameter of their bore; for ia-
(hot, containing in each bag from 400 to 600 (hot of dance, a ic-inch howitz is that which has a bore of
different dimenfions, out of mortars. The effe£t of 10 inches diameter, and fo of others. They were much
thefe is tremendous to troops forming the line of more lately invented than mortars, and indeed are
battle, pafling a defile, or Janding, &c. the (hot pour- plainly derived from them.
N" 146.
Royals
Sea. III. GUNN
Pracii. Royals are a kind of fmall mortars, which carry a
(hell whofe diameter is 5.5 inches. They are mounted
on beds in the fame way as other mortars.
Parts of a Fig. 17. reprefents a mortar; and the names of its
mortar. parts are as follow.
AB, the whole length of the mortar.
AC, the muzzle.
CD, chace.
DE, reinforce.
EF, breech.
GHj trunnions,
a, vent.
I, dolphin.
c d, vent-aftragal and fillets.
de, breech-ring and ogee.
fg, reinforce-ring and ogee.
ght reinforce-allragal and fillets.
i k, muzzle-aftragal and fillets.
k i, muzzle-ring and ogee.
I m, muzzle mouldings,
w, ftioulders.
Interior farts,
o, chamber.
f, bore.
q, mouth.
r, vent.
The mortar-beds are formed of very folid timber, and
placed upon very ftrong wooden frames, fixed in fuch a
E R Y. 233
7. The primer, which muft contain a pound of pow- Pra&ice.
der at leaft, to prime the pieces.
8. The quoin of mire, which are pieces of wood
with a notch on the fide to put the fingers on, to draw
them back or pulh them forward when the gunner
points his piece. They are placed on the foie of the
carriage.
9. Leaden-plates, which are ufed to cover the touch-
hole, when the piece is charged, left fome dirt Ihould
enter it and ftop it.
Before charging the piece, it is well fponged, to clean Method of
it of all filth and dirt withinfide ; then the proper,manag1DS
weight of gunpowder is put in and rammed down; care1*16111*
being taken that the powder be not bruifed in ram¬
ming, which weakens its effedl; it is then run over by
a little quantity of paper, hay, or the like ; and laftly,
the ball is thrown in.
To point, level, or diredt the piece, fo as to play
againft any certain point, is done by the help of a qua¬
drant with a plummet: which quadrant confifts of two
branches made of brafs or wood; one about a foot
long, eight lines broad, and one line in thicknefs ;
the other four inches long, and the fame thicknefs
and breadth as the former. Between thefe branches is
a quadrant, divided into 90 degrees, beginning from
the fhorter branch, and furnilhed with thread and
plummet.
The longed branch of this inftrument is placed in
manner that the bed may turn round. The fore-part of the cannon’s mouth, and elevated or lowered till the
thefe beds is an arc of a circle deferibed from the centre thread cuts the degree necelfary to hit the propofed
.  j     : j  
53 on which the whole turns.
Inftru- There are feveral inftruments employed in the load-
in^oadirr^ 'ng °f cannon. The names of thefe are as follow :
cannon. b I/ The lantern or ladle, which ferves to carry the
powder into the piece, and which confifts of two
parts, viz. of a wooden box, appropriated to the ca¬
liber of the piece for which it is intended, and of a ca¬
liber and a half in length with ii
objedt. Which done, the cannon is primed, and then
fet fire to. The method by the fe&or, however, pro¬
pofed by Dr Lind, is certainly in all cafes to be pre¬
ferred.
A 24 pounder may very well fire 90 or too Ihots
every day in fummer, and 60 or 75 in winter. In cafe
of neceffity it may fire more; and fome French officers
; and of a piece . of artillery affure, that they have caufed fuch a piece
of copper nailed to the box, at the height of a halfca- to fire every day 150 Ihots in a fiege.—A 16 and a 12
liber.—This lantern muft have three calibers and a half pounder fire a little more, becaufe they are eafier ferved.
in length, and two calibers in breadth, being rounded
at the end to load the ordinary pieces.
There have even been fome occafions where 200 fhots
have been fired from thefe pieces in the fpace of nine
. The rammetis a round piece of wood, commonly hours, and 138 in the fpace of five. In quick firing,
called a kox, faftened to a ftick 12 feet long, for the tubes are made ufe of. They are made of tin ; and
pieces from 12 to 33 pounders; and xo for the 8 and
4 pounders; which ferve to drive home the powder and
ball to the breech.
their diameter is two-tenths of an inch, being juft fuf-
ficient to enter into the vent of the piece. They are
about fix inches long, with a cap above, and cut flant-.
3. The fpunge is a long ftaff or rammer, with apiece ing below, in the form of a pen; the point is ftrength-
of Iheep or lamb-lkin wound about its end, to ferve for ened with fome folder, that it may pierce the cartridge
fcouring the cannon when difeharged, before it be char- without bending. Through this tube is drawn a quick-
ged with frefh powder ; to prevent any fpark of fire match, the cap being fitted with mealed powder moift-
from remaining in her, which would endanger the life ened with fpirits of wine. To prevent the mealed
of him who Ihould load her again.
4. Wad-fcrew cbnfifts of two points of iron turned
ferpent-wife, to extraft the wad out of the pieces when
powder from falling out by carriage, a cap of paper or
flannel fteeped in fpirits of wine is tied over it. To
range pieces in a battery, care muft be taken to recon-
one wants to unload them, or the dirt which had chan- noitre well the ground where it is to be placed, and the
ced to enter into it.
5. The botefeux are fticks two or three feet long,
avenues to it. The pieces muft be armed each with two
lanterns or ladles, a rammer, a fpunge, and two pri-
.v,:.,,,   .a _ -j - - -
and an inch thick, fplit at one end, to hold an end of ming-irons. The battery muft alfo be provided with
the match twifted round it, to fire the cannon.
carriages, and other implements, neceffary to remount
6. The priming-iron is a pointed iron-rod, to clear the pieces which the enemy flxould chance to dif-
the touch-hole of the pieces of powder or dirt; and mount.
alfo to pierce the cartridge, that it may fooner take To ferve expeditioufly and fafely a piece in a bat-
fire. tery, it is necefiary to have to each a fack of leather.
Vox-. VIII. Part I. ' F f large
234 GUNNERY. Setf. IIIU
Pradlce. large enough to contain about 20 pounds of powder tioned to it, and made like thofe which ferve to the Pradhce,
« to charge the lanterns or ladles, without carrying them carriages of cannons. v-—4
to the magazine ; and to avoid thereby making thofe Having mounted the mortar on its carriage, tlfe next
trains of powder in bringing back the lantern from the thing is to caliber the bomb by means of a great ca-
magazine, and the accidents which frequently happen liber, the two branches whereof embrace the whole
thereby. circumference of the bomb : thefe two branches are
A battery of three pieces muft have 30 gabions, be- brought on a rule where the different calibers are mark-
caiife fix are employed on each of the two fides or ed, among which that of the bomb is found,
epaulments, which make 12, aad nine for each of the If no defeft be found in the bomb, its cavity is filled,,
two merlons. by means of a funnel, with whole gunpowder ; a little
There ought to be two gunners and fix foldiers to fpace or-liberty is left, that when a fufee or wooden
each piece, and an officers of artillery. tube, of the figure of a truncated cone, is driven thro’
The gunner polled on the right of the piece muft the aperture (with a wooden mallet, not an iron one
take care to have always a pouch full of powder and for fear of accident), and faftened with a cement made
two priming irons: his office is to prime the piece, and of quicklime, afhes, brick-duft, and fteel-filings, work¬
load it with powder. The gunner on the left fetches ed together in a glutinous water, or of four parts of
the powder from the Little magazine, and fills the lan- pitch, two of colophony, one of turpentine, and one of
tern or ladle which his comrade holds; after which, he wax, the powder may not be bruifed. This tube is
takes care that the match be very well lighted, and filled with a combuftible matter made of two ounces of
ready to fet fire to the piece at the firft command of the nitre, one of fulphur, and three or more of gunpowder
officer. 1 duft well rammed. See Fuzee.
There are three foldiers on the right and three on This fufee fet on fire burps flowly till it reaches the
the left of the piece. The two firft take care to ram and gunpowder; which goes off at once, burfting the ffiell
fpunge the piece, each on his fide. The rammer and to pieces with incredible violence. Special care, how-
fpunge are placed on the left, and the lantern or ladle ever, muft be taken that the fufee be fo proportioned:
on the right. After having rammed well the wad put as that the gunpowder do not take fire ere the ffiell
over the powder and that put over the bullet, they arrives at the deftined place ; to prevent which, the
then take each a handfpike, which they pafs between fufee is frequently wound round with a wet clammy
the foremoft fpokes of the wheel, the ends whereof will thread.
pafs under the head of the carriage, to make the wheel Batteries confift,— 1. Of an epaulment to ffielter the
turn round, leaning on the other end of the handfpike, mortars from the fire of the enemy. 2. Of platforms on
towards the embrafure. which the mortars are placed. 3. Of fmall magazines
It is the office of the fecond foldier on the right to of powder. 4. Of a boyau, which leads to the great
provide wad, and to put it into the piece, as well over magazine. 5. Of ways which lead from the battery
the powder as over the bullet; and that of his com- to the magazine of bombs. 6. Of a great ditch be-
rade on the left to provide 50 bullets, and every time fore the epaulment. 7. Of a berm or rctraite.
the piece is to be charged to fetch one of them and The platforms for mortars of 12 inches mutt have 9
put it into the piece after the powder has been ram- feet in length and 6 in breadth.—The lambourds for
med. Then they both take each an handfpike, which common mortars muft be four inches thick; thofe of a
they pafs under the hind part of the wheel, to puffi it concave chamber of 81b. of powder, 5 inches; thofe of
in battery. 12 lb. 6 inches; thofe of i81b. 7 inches or thereabouts.
The officer of artillery mutt take care to have the Their length is at difcretion, provided there be enough
piece diligently ferved. to make the platforms 9 feet long.—-The forepart of
In the night he muft employ the gunners and foldiers, the platform will be fituated at two feet diftance from
Who fhall relieve thofe who have ferved 24 hours to the epaulment of the battery.—The bombardiers, to
repair the embrafures. ffielter themfelves in their battery, and not be feen from
If there be no water near the battery, care muft be the town befieged, raife an epaulment of 7 feet or more
taken to have a calk filled with it, in which to dip the high, which epaulment has no embrafures.
fpunges and cool the pieces every 10 or 12 rounds. To ferve expeditioufty a mortar in battery, there are
The carriage for a mortar of 12 inches of diameter required;—five ftrong handfpikes; a dame or rammer,of
muft be 6 feet long, the ftafks 12 inches long and jo the caliber of the conic chamber, to ram the wad and
thick. The trunnions are placed in the middle of the the earth ; a wooden knife a foot long, to place the
carriage. earth round the bomb ; an iron fcraper two feet long,
The carriage of an 18 inch mortar muft be 4 feet long, one end whereof muft be four inches broad and round-
and the flafks 11 inches high and 6 thick. wife, to clean the bore and the chamber of the mor-
To mount the mortars of new invention, they ufe tar, and the other end made in form of a fpoon to clean
carriages of call: iron. the little chamber ; a kind of brancard to carry the
Method of Germany, to mount mortars from 8 to 9 inches, bomb, a.lhovel, and pick-ax.
managing ^n(l carry t*16111 into the field, and execute them hori- The officer who is to mind the fervice of the mortar
jnortais. zontally as a piece df cannon, they make life of a piece muft have a quadrant to give the degrees of elevation.
of wood 8feet 2 inches long, with a hole in the middle Five bombardiers, or others, are employed in that
to lodge the body of the mortar and its trunnions as fervice ; the firft muft take care to fetch the powder to
far as their half diameter, and mounted on two wheels charge the chamber of the mortar, putting his primingr
four feet high, to which they join a vantrain proper- iron in the touch-hole before he charges the chamber ;
' - and'
Sea. III. GUNNERY. 235
-'Practice, and never going to fetch the powder before be has muzzle, made of copper mixed with a little brails, or .Praties.
■■y~~ allied his officer at what quantity of powder he defigns
to charge, becaufe more or lefs powder is wanted ac¬
cording to the diftance where it is fired; the fame will
take care to ram the wad and earth, which another
foldier puts in the chamber.
The foldier on the right will put again two fhovel-
ful of earth in the bottom of the bore, which Ihould be
likewife very well rammed down.
This done, the rammer or dame is returned into its
place againft the epaulment on the right of the mortar:
takes an handfpike in the fame place to poll; himfelf ferves to fix the petard.
C.
behind the carriage of the mortar, in order to help to
pufh it into battery : having laid down his handfpike,
he takes out his priming-iron, and primes the touch-
hole with fine powder.
The fecond foldier on the right and left will have by
that time brought the bomb ready loaded, which muft
'be received into the mortar by the firft foldier, and pla¬
ced very ftrait in the bore or chafe of the mortar.
The firft on the right will furniih him with earth
of lead with tin.
The petards ate not always of the fame height and
bignefs: they are commonly 10 inches high, 7 inches
of diameter a-top, and xo inches at bottom. They
weigh commonly 40, 45,, and 50 pounds.
The madrier, on which the petard is placed, and
where it is tied with iron circles, is of two feet for its
greateft width, and of 18 inches on the fides, and no
thicker than a common madrier. Under the madrier
are two iron-bars pafied croffwife, with a hook, which
To charge a petard 15 inches high, and 6 or 7
inches of caliber or diameter at the bore, the infide
muft be firft very well cleaned and heated, fo that the
hand may bear the heat; then take the beft powder
that may be found, throw over it fome fpirit of wine,
and expofe it to the fun, or put it in a frying-pan j
and when it is well dried, 5 lb.-or 61b. of this powder
is put into the petard, which reaches within three
fingers of the mouth: the vacancies are filled with tow,
to put round the bomb, which he muft take care to and flopped with a wooden tampion; the mouth being
a clofe with the knife given him by the fecond on
the left.
ftrongly bound up with cloth tied very tight with ropes;
then it is fixed on the madrier, that has a cavity cut-in
This done, each Ihall take a handfpike, which the it to receive the mouth of the petard, and faftened
two firft on the right and left fhall put under the pegs down with ropes.
-of retreat of the forepart, and the two Jrehind under
thofe of the hindpart, and they together pulh the mor¬
tar in battery.
Afterwards the officer points or dirt&sthc mortar.
During that time the firft foldier takes care to
prime the touch-hole of the mortar, without ramming
the powder ; and the laft on the right muft have the
Some, inftead of gunpowder for the charge, ufe one
of the following compofition, •viz. gunpowder fevert
pounds, mercury fublimate one ounce, camphor eight
ounces ; or gunpowder fix pounds,'mercury fublimate
three ounces, and fulphur three;.or gunpowder fix,
beaten glafs half an ounce, and camphor three quarters.
Before any of thefe pieces are appropriated for fer-
match ready to fet fire to the fufee of the bomb on the vice, it is neceflary to have each undergo a particular
right, while the firft is ready with his on the left to fet trial of its foundnefs, which is called a proof, to be
fire to the touch-hole'of the mortar, which he ought
not to do till he fees the fufee well lighted.
The foremoft foldiers will have their handfpikes ready
to raife the mortar upright as/oon as it has difeharged,
made by or before one authorifed for the purpofe, call¬
ed the proof majler.
To make a proof of the piece, a proper place is
chofen, which is to be terminated by a mount of earth
while the hindmoft on the left ftiall with the feraper very thick to receive the bullets fired againft it, that
clean the bore and chamber of the mortar. none of them may run through it. The piece is laid
The magazine of powder for the fervice of the battery on the ground, fupported only in the middle by a block
fhall be fituated 15 or 20 paces behind, and covered of wood. It is fired three times ; the firft with powder
with boards and earth over it.—The loaded bombs of the weight of the bullet, and the two others with ^
are on the fide of the faid magazine, at five or fix paces of the weight; after which a little more powder is put
diftance. in to finge the piece ; and after this, water, which is
The officer who commands the fervice of the mortar impreffed with a fpunge, putting the finger on the
muft take care to difeover as much as poffible with the touch-hole to difeover if there be any cracks ; which
eye the diftance of the place where he intends to throw done, they are examined with the cat, which is a piece
his bomb, giving the mortar the degree of elevation
according to the judgment he has formed of the di¬
ftance. Having thrown the firft bomb, he muft di-
minilh orincreafe the degrees of elevation according to
of iron with three grafps, difpofed in the form of a
triangle, and of the caliber of the piece ; then it is vifited
with a wax-candle, but it is of very little fervice in the
fmall pieces, becaufe if they be a little long the fmoke
the place upon which it fhall fall. Several make ufe extinguifhes it immediately. See Plate CCXXIV.
of tables to difeover the different diftances according to
the differences of the elevations of the mortar, efpecially
the degrees of the quadrant from 1 to 45 : but thefe, fmallgi
from the principles already laid down, muft be falla-
Beiides the large pieces already pientioned, invent- Of fmalj
ed for the deftru&ion of mankind, there are others called arms.
56
t)F the
‘tard.
pe- The petard is the next piece of artillery which de-
mufkets of ramparts, common mufkets,
fufils, carabines, mulketoons, and piftols.
A mulket, or mufquet, is a fire-arm borne on the
fhoulder, and ufed in war, formerly fired by the appli-
ferves our attention ; and is a kind of engine of metal, cation of a lighted match, but at prefent with a flint
fomewhat in (hape of a high-crowned hat, ferving to and lock. The common mulket is of the caliber of 20
break down gates, barricades, draw-bridges, or the leaden balls to the pound, and receives balls from 22
like works, which are intended to be furprifed. It is to 24 : its length is fixed to 3 feet 8 inches from the
very fhort, narrow at the breech and wide at the muzzle to the touch-pan.
rf 2
A
236 GUNNERY. Sea. III.
Pra6t!cfl. A fufil, or fire-lock, has the fame length and caliber, merly made with a match-lock, but of late only with a Praftice.
u”—and ferves at prefent inftead of a muflcet. flint-lock. 1 ■""" f
A carabine is a fmall fort of fire-arm, fhorter than The mufquetoon is of the fame length of the cara-
a fufil, and carrying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by bine, the barrel polifhed, and clean within. It carries
the light-horfe, hanging at a belt over the left flioul- five ounces of iron, or feven and a half of lead, with an
der. This piece is a kind of medium between the pi- equal quantity of powder.
ftol and the muflcet; and bears a near affinity to the The barrel of a pillol is generally 14 inches long,
arquebufs, only that its bore is fmaller. It was for-
G U N
GUNPOWDER, a compofition of faltpetre, ful-
phur, and charcoal, mixed together, and ufually gra-
^ nulated ; which eafily takes fire, and, when fired, ra-
rifies or expands with great vehemence, by means of
its elaftic force.
It is to this powder we owe all the a&ion and effedt
of guns. Ordnance, &c. fo that the modern military
art, fortification, &c. in a great meafure depend
thereon.
Invention of Gunpowder. See Gun.
Method of maleing Gunpowder. Dr Shaw’s receipt
for this purpofe is as follows: Take four ounces of
refined faltpetre, an ounce of brimfione, and fix drams
of fmall-coal: reduce thefe to a fine powder, and con¬
tinue beating them for fome time in a ftone mortar
with a wooden peftle, wetting the mixture between
whiles with water, fo as to form the whole into an uni¬
form pafie, which is reduced to grains, by paffing
it through a wire-fieve fit for the purpofe ; and in this
form being carefully dried, it becomes the common
gunpowder.
Eor greater quantities mills are ufually provided, by
means of which more work may be performed in one
day than a man can do in a hundred.
The nitre or faltpetre is refined thus : Diffolve four
pounds of rough nitre as it comes to us from the In¬
dies, by boiling it in as much water as will commodi-
oufly fuffice for that purpofe: then let it fhoot for two
or three days in a covered veffel of earth, with fticks
laid acrofs for the cryftals to adhere to. Thefe cry-
ftals being taken out, are drained and dried in the
open air.
In order to reduce this fait to powder, they diffolve
a large quantity of it in as fmall a proportion of water
as poffible; then keep it conftantly ftining over the
fire till the water exhales and a white dry powder is
left behind.
In order to purify the brimftone employed, they
diffolve it with a very gentle heat; then fcum and pafs
it through a double ftrainer. If the "brimftone (hould
happen to take fire in the melting, they have an iron
cover that fits on clofe to the melting-veffel, and damps
the flame. The brimftone is judged to be fufficiently
refined if it melts, without yielding any fetid odour,
between two hot iron-plates, into a kind of red fub-
ftance.
The coal for the making of gunpowder is either
that of willow or hazel, well charred in the ufual
manner, and reduced to powder. And thus the ingre¬
dients are prepared for making this commodity : but
as thefe ingredients require to be intimately mixed, and
as there would be danger of their firing if beat in a
dry form, the method is to keep them continually moift,
%
GUN
either with water, urine, or a folution of fal ammoniac: Gimpow-
they continue thus ftamping them together for 24 {,-£r' ,
hours; after which the mafs is fit for corning and v ’
drying in the fun, or otherwife, fo as feduloufly to
prevent its firing.
Different kinds of Gunpowder. The three ingre¬
dients of gunpowder are mixed in various proportions
according as the powder is intended for mufkets, great
guns, or mortars: though thefe proportions feem not
to be perfedtly adjufted or fettled by competent expe¬
rience.
Semienowitz, for mortars, dire&s an hundred pounds
of faltpetre, twenty-five of fulphur, and as many of
charcoal; for great guns, an hundred pounds of falt¬
petre, fifteen pounds of fulphur, and eighteen pounds
of charcoal; for mulkets and piftols, an hundred
pounds of faltpetre, eight pounds of fulphur, and te»
pounds of charcoal. Miethius extols the proportion of
one pound of faltpetre to three ounces of charcoal,
and two or two and a quarter of fulphur ; than which,
he affirms, no gunpowder can poffibly be ftronger.
He adds, that the ufual pra&ice of making the gun¬
powder weaker for mortars than guns, is without any
foundation, and renders the expence needlefsly much
greater 1 for whereas to load a large mortar, twenty-
four pound of common powder is required, and confe-
quently, to load it ten times, two hundred and forty
pound, he fhows, by calculation, that the fame effedi
would be had by one hundred and fifty pound of the
ftrong powder.
On this fubjeft Mr Thomfonf obferves, that almoftf Phir.
all thofe who have written upon gunpowder, particu-ri'rar1*-
larly thofe of the laft century, have given different re-vo*?I*'
ceipts for its compofition ; and he propofes it as a
query, Whether thefe differences have not arifen from
obferving that fome kinds of powder were better adapt¬
ed to particular purpofes than others, or from expe¬
riments made on purpofe to afeertain the fa ft ? “ There
is one circumftance (he fays) that would lead us to
fuppofe that this was the cafe. That kind of powder
defigned for mortars and great guns was weaker than
that intended for fmall arms : for if there is any foun¬
dation for thefe conjeftures, it is certain, that the
weakeft powder, or the heavieft in proportion to its-
elaftic force, ought to be ufed to impel the heavieft
bullets ; and particularly in guns that are imperfedtly
formed, where the vent is large, and the windage very
great. I am perfectly aware (adds he), that an ob-
jeftion may here be made, viz. that the elaftic fluid
generated from gunpowder muft be fuppofed to have
the fame properties very nearly, whatever may be the
proportion of its feveral ingredients; and that there¬
fore the only difference there can be in powder is, that
oae
GUN [ 237 ] GUN
Gunpow. one kind may generate more of this fluid, and another the powder had been ufed without any addition. As Gmipow-
der- lefs; and that when it is generated it afts in the fame the explofion of pulvis fulminans appears vaftly fupe- dei^
^ manner, and will alike efcape, and with the fame ve- rior to that of gunpowder, fome fait of tartar, in its ~"v—^
locity, by any paffage it can find. But to this I an- pureft date, was mixed in the proportion of 20 grains
fwer, that though the fluid may be the fame, as it un- to 145 of powder ; but on firing the piece, it was
doubtedly is, and though its denfity and elafticity ftill found that the force-of the explofion was lelfened.
may be the fame in all cafes at the inftant of its ge- Sal ammoniac was next tried,; which, under certain
neration ; yet in the explbfion, the elaftic and unelaftic circumftances, is found to produce a great quantity of
parts are fo mixed together, that I imagine the fluid air or elaftic vapour; but on mixing 20 grains of it
cannot expand without taking the grofs matter along with 145 of gunpowder, the force of the explofion
with it; and the velocity with which the flame iffues was ftill found to be diminiftied. As moft of the me¬
at the vent is to be computed from the elafticity of tals, when difiblved in acids, particularly brafs in fpirit
the fluid, and the denfity or weight of the fluid and of nitre, are found to produce much elaftic vapour, it
grofs matter taken together, and not Amply from the was thought worth while to try whether the force of
denfity and elafticity of the fluid.” powder could be augmented by this means. Twenty
Toincreafe the ftrength of powder, Dr Shaw thinks grains of brafs duft were therefore mixed with 145
it proper to make the grains confiderably large, and to grains of powder ; but ftill the force of the explofion
have it well fifted from the fmall duft. We fee that was not augmented. In our author’s opinion, how-
gunpowder, reduced to duft, has little explofive force ; ever, neither brafa duft nor Ethiops mineral diminifh
but when the grains are large, the flame of one grain the force of the explofron oth’erwife than by filling up
has a ready paffage to another, fo that the whole par- the interftices between the grains, obftrufting the paf-
cel may thus take fire nearly at the fame time, other- fage of the flame, and thus impeding the progrefs of
wife much force may be loft, or many of the grains the inflammation. Thus it appears, that little hope
go away as fhot unfired. remains of augmenting the force of gunpowder by
In the 71ft volume of the Phil. Tranf. Mr Thomfon any addition either of liquid or inflammable folids: the
gives an account of feveral attempts to augment the reafon is obvious; viz. becaufe all of them, the liquids
force of gunpowder by the addition of different ingre- efpecially, abforb great quantities of heat before they
dients. The power of fteam has by many been over- can be converted into vapour ; and this vapour, after
rated to fuch a degree, as to be fuppofed capable of it is formed, requires more heat to make it expand
anfwering the purpofes of gunpowder; but no at- more forcibly than air: hence, as the effe&s of gun-
tempts to accoroplilh this have ever fucceeded in any powder depend entirely upon the emiffion of a quan-
degree. Mr Thomfon attempted to combine the forces tity of air, and its rarefaction by vehement heat, the
of fteam and gunpowder together in the following man- power muft be greatly diminiftied by the abforption
ner. Having procured a number of air bladders of of this heat, which ought to be fpent in rarefying the
very fmall fifties, he put different quantities of water air. Even folid bodies cannot be fet on fire without
into them from the fize of a fmall pea to that of a a previous abforption of heat to convert them into va-
piftol bullet, and tying them up with fome very fine pour*; but liquids have this property ftill more than * Seei7/^!
thread, hungthem up to dry on the outfide. He then folids, as is explained under the articles Chemistry,
provided a number of cartridges made of fine paper, Evapq-ration, See. and muft; therefore diminifti the
and filled them with a quantity of gunpowder equal explofive force ftill more. Lime added to gunpowder,
to the ufual charge for a common horfeman’s piftol. however, is faid to augment the power of the explo-
He then loaded the piftol with a bullet, fired it againft fion by one third.
an oaken plank about fix feet from the muzzle, and In his experiments on gunpowder, Mr Thomfon had
obferved the recoil and penetration of the bullet. He the curiofity to compare the ftrength of aurum fulmi-
next tried the effeit of one of thefe fmall bladders, of nans, when inclofed in a gun-barrel, with that of corn-
water when put among the gunpowder, but always mon gunpowder ; but his experiment only verified
found the force of the powder very much diminiftied, what has been found by others, viz. that this powder,
and the larger the quantity of water the greater was which in the open air makes fuch a very violent re-
the diminution ; the report of the explofion was alfo port, has in clofe veffels fcarce any power, compara-
diminiftied in a ftill greater proportion than the force lively fpeaking, either of explofion or proje&ing a
of the bullet or recoil. It being fuppofed that the bullet. Mr Thomfon, however, taking it for granted
bladder had burft, and thus by wetting the gunpowder that the power of aurum fulminans would be found
prevented it from taking fire, the experiment was re- much greater than that of gunpowder, took care to
peated with highly redlifled fpirit of wine, but the have a barrel of uncommon ftrength prepared for the
diminution of the force was very little inferior to what experiment. The weight of it was 7 lb. 5 oz.; the
it had been with water. Etherial oil of turpentine length 13.25 inches, and the width of the bore
and fmall quantities of quickfilver were alfo tried, but 0.55 inches. This barrel, being charged with 27.44
with no better fuccefs than before. Thinking, how- grains of aurum fulminans and two leaden bul-
ever, that the failure of the quickfilver might be owing lets, which, together with the leather put about them,
to its having been too much in a body, the experiment to make them fit the bore without windage, weighed
was repeated with the metal difperfed in fmall particles 427 grains : it was laid upon a chaffing-difh of live
through the powder. To accomplilh this difperfion coals at the diftance of about ten feet from the pen-
the more completely, 20 grains of Ethiops mineral were dulum, and the piece was direfted againft the centre
mixed very intimately with 145 grains of powder; of the pendulum. Some minutes elapfed before the
but ftill the force of the bullet was much lefs than if powder exploded 5 but when it did fo, the explofiou
didi
GUN r 23S ] GUN
^Cur.pow- did not much exceed the report of a well charged air- In order to determine the goodnefs of powder by Gunpow*
. 1‘t-'r' gun; and it was not until he faw the pendulum in Mr Thorafon’s method, it is neceflary to have a bar-
- , ' motion, that Mr Thomfon could be perfuaded that rel fufpended by two iron rods in fuch a manner that
the bullets had been difcharged. On examination, it can eafdy move backward or forward by the vibra-
however, it was found that nothing had been left in tion of the rods ; and the fpace it moves through af-
the barrel, and that the powder had probably been all certained by marking it on a piece of ribbon. The
exploded, as a ,great many particles of the revived me- barrel being then charged with powder, and fitted with
tal were thrown about. 'From a calculation of the a proper bullet, is to be fired, and the recoil marked
motion communicated to the pendulum, it was found
that the velocity of the bullets had been about 428 feet
in a fecond ; whence it appears that the power of au-
upon the ribbon. The experiment is to be repeated
three or four times, or oftener if there is any difference
the recoil; the extremes of which may be marked
rum fulminans, compared with that of gunpowder, is with black lines on the ribbon, and the word proof
only as 4 to 13 very nearly. written upon the middle line betwixt the two. But
Method of Trying and Examining Gunpowder. There if the experiments are made with fufficient accuracy,
are two general methods of examining gunpowder ; there will commonly be very little difference in the
one with regard to its purity, the other with regard to length to which the ribbon is drawn out. Thus the
its ftrength. Its purity is known by laying two or comparative goodnefs of powder may eafily be afccr-
three little heaps near each other upon white paper, tained ; for the flronger the powder is, the greater
and firing one of them. For if this takes fire readily, will be the recoil, and confequently the greater length
and the fmoke rifes upright, without leaving any drofs to which the ribbon will be drawn out; and if care
or feculent matter behind, and without burning the is taken in proportioning the charge to the weight of
paper, or firing the other heaps, it is efteemed a fign -the bullet, to come as near as poffible to the medium
that the fulphur and nitre were well purified, that the proportion that obtains in praftice, the determination
coal was good, and that the three ingredients were of the goodnefs of gunpowder from the refult of this
thoroughly incorporated together: but if the other experiment cannot fail to hold good in aftual fervice.
heaps alfo take fire at the fame time, it is prefumed. The bullets fhould be made to fit the bore with very
that either common fait was mixed with the nitre, or little windage; and it would be better if they were
that the coal was not well ground, or the whole mafs all caft in one mould and in the fame parcel,of lead ;
not well beat and mixed together; and if either the as in that cafe their weights and dimenfions would be
nitre or fulphur be not well purified, the paper will
;be black or fpotted.
Several inftruments have been invented to try the
ftrength of gunpowder ; but they have generally been
more accurately the fame ; and the experiments would
of courfe be more conclufive. The ftated charge of
powder might be half an ounce, and it ihould always
be put up in a cartridge; and after the piece is loaded.
-complained of as inaccurate. Mr Thomfon, in the it ftiould be primed with other powder, firfi: taking
71ft volume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, gives an care to prick the cartridge by thrulting a priming wire
•account of an exact method of proving the ftrength down the vent.
of it. “ As the force of powder (fays he) arifes From feveral experiments it appears, that the effefl
from the adtion of an elaftic fluid that is generated of the charge is confiderably augmented 01; diminilhed,
from it in its inflammation, the quicker the charge according to the greater or lefs force employed in ram-
takes fire, the more of this fluid will be generated in ming it down. To prevent this inconvenience, Mr
any given fliort fpace of time, and the greater of courfe Thomfon advifes the ufe of a cylindric ramrod of wood,
will its effeft be upon the bullet. But in the common fitted with a metal ring about an • inch or an inch and
method of proving gnrrpowder, the weight by which an half in diameter ; which being placed at a proper
the powder is confined is fo great in proportion to the diftance from the end which goes up into the bore, will
quantity of the charge, that there is time quite fuf- prevent the powder from being too much comprefled.
licient for the charge to be all inflamed, even when In making experiments of this kind, however, it is
the powder is of the floweft compofition, before the neceflary to pay attention to the heat of the barrel
body to be put in motion can be fenfibly removed as well as to the temperature of the atmofphere; for
from its place. The experiment therefore may (how heat and cold, drynefs and moifture, have a very fen-
which of the two kinds of powder is the ftrongeft, fible effedt upon gunpowder to augment or diminifh
when equal quantities of both are confined in
qual fpace?, and both completely inflamed ; but
the degree of the inflammability, which is a pro-
its force. When a very great degree of accuracy
therefore happens to he requifite, it will be proper to
begin by firing the piece two or three times, merely
perty effential to the goodnefs of the powder, cannot to warm it; after which three or four experiments may
by thefe means be afcertained. Hence it appears how be made with ftandard powder, to determine the proof;
powder may anfwer to the proof, fuch as is commonly mark a fecond time., for the ftrength of powder is dif-
required, and may neverthelefs turn out very indiffe- ferent at different times, in confequence of the ftate of
rent when it comes to be ufed in fervice. But though the atmofphere. After this the experiments may be
the common powder-triers may (how powder to be made with the ponder that is to be proved, taking
better than it really is, they can never make it appear care to preferve-the rfaitne interval of time between the
to be worfe than it is ; it will therefore always he the difcharges, that the heat of the piece may be the fame
interefl. of thofe who manufa&ure the commodity to ■ in each trial.
adhere to the old method of proof, but the purchafer Having thus determined the comparative Begrees of
will find his account in having it examined in a method ftrength of two different kinds of powder, their com-
by which its goodnefs may be afcertained with greater parative value may be afcertained by augmenting the
ftrecifion.” quantity of the weaker powder till the velocity of the
2 bullets
GUN [ 239 ] GUN
Gunpow- bullets in both eafes becomes the fame. The
t d~r' ftrong powder is therefore precifely as much more va-
' ^ ' luablc than the weak, as it produces the fame effedt
with a fmaller quantity. Thus if a quarter of an
ounce of one kind of powder difcharges a bullet with
the fame velocity that half an ounce of another kind
does, it is plain that the former is twice as valuable as
the latter, and ought to be fold at double the price.—
By comparifons of this kind, Mr Thomfon found that
the befl battle powder (fo called from its being made
at the village of Battle in Kent) is ftronger than go-
verment powder, in the proportion of 4 to 3 ; but from
a comparifon of the prices, it appears that the former
is no lefs than per cent, dearer than it ought to be;
and confequently, that whoever ufes it in preference to
government powder, does it at a certain lofs of 4t|-
per cent, of the money it colls him.
There has been much talk of a white powder,
which, if it anfwered the charadter given it, might
be a dangerous compofition ; for they pretend that
this white powder will throw a ball as far as the black,
yet without making a report: but none of the white
powder we have feen, fays Dr Shaw, anfwers to this
eharadter; being, as we apprehend, commonly made
either with touchwood or camphor, inftead of coal.
Under the article Gunnery, the phylical caufe of
the explofion of powder, and the force wherewith it
expands, have been fo fully cohfidered, that it would
be fuperfiuous to add any thing here concerning them.
Only we may obferve, that though it is commonly
made ufe of for military purpofes only in fmall quan¬
tities, and confined in certain veffels ; yet when large
quantities are fired at once', even when unconfined in
the open air, it is capable of producing terrible de-
ftrudtion. The accounts of damage done by the blowing
up of magazines, powder-mills, &c. are too numerous
and well-known to be here taken notice of. The fol¬
lowing is a relation of what even a moderate quantity
of powder will accomplifh, when fired in the open air.
“ The king of Navarre took Monfegur. Captain
Milon inclofed 500 pounds of powder in a bag, which
he found means to introduce, by a drain from the town,
into the ditch between two principal gates ; the end
of the leader was hid in the grafs. Every thing being
ready to play off this machine, the king gave us leave
to go and fee its effedls ; which were furprifing. For
©ne of the gates was thrown into the middle of the
town* and the other into the field fifty paces from the
wall: all the vaults were deftroyed, and a paflage was
made in the wall for three men to enter abrealt, by
which the town was taken.”—For further accounts
of the force of large quantities of powder, fee the
article Mines.
From this and other accounts of the dreadful effedls
of gunpowder, when fired in large quantity in
the open air, it would feem, that great as its power is
in clofe veffels, it is Hill greater when the air has ac-
cefs to it; for from the quantity of powder requifite
fo charge great guns, it is by no means probable that
double the quantity of powder confined in fire arms
of any fize or capacity, and difeharged all at once
againft the walls, would have produced foch effedls;
efpecially when we confider that the power mull have
been equally great at an equal diltance all round ; fo
that had there been other walls and gates behind this
quantity of powder as well as before it, they would in Gunpow
all probability have been thrown down alfo. This con- <ler'
jedlure feems to be fomewhat confirmed by the great v
diminution of the force of pulvis fulminans and aurum
fulminans when confined in clofe v^ffels. Mr Thomfon
mentions I'ikewife a very lingular fa6l relative to gun¬
powder, which feems to be fomewhat analogous to
that jull mentioned ; and which indeed feems to ex¬
plain it; namely, that the heat communicated by gun¬
powder when llightly confined, is much greater than
when otherwife. “ I was much furprifed (fays he),
upon taking hold of the barrel immediately after an
experiment when it was fired with 330 grains of powder
without any bullet, to find it fo very hot that I
could fcarce bear it in my hand, evidently much hot¬
ter than I had ever found it before, notwithftantjing
the fame charge of powder had been made ufe of in
the two preceding experiments; and in both thefe ex¬
periments the piece was loaded with a bullet, which,
one would naturally imagine, by confining the flame,
and prolonging the time of its aftion, would heat the
barrel much move than when it was fired with pow¬
der alone. I was eonvinced that I could not be mif-
taken in the facl; for it had been my conftant prac¬
tice to take hold of the piece to wipe it out as foon as
an experiment was finifhed, and I never before had
found any inconvenience from the heat in holding it.
But in order to put the matter beyond all doubt, af¬
ter letting the barrel cool down to the proper tem¬
perature, I repeated the experiment twice with the
lame charge of powder and a bullet; and in both thefe
trials the heat of the piece was evidently much lefs
than what it was in the experiment above mentioned.
Being much ftruck with this accidental difeovery oU
the great degree of heat that pieces acquire when they
are fired with powder without any bullet, and being
defirous of finding out whether it is a circumftance
that obtains univerfally, I was very attentive to the
heat of the barrel after each of the fucceeding ex¬
periments ; and I con flan tly found the heat fenfibly
greater when the piece was fired with powder only,.
than when the fame charge was made to impel one or
move bullets.”
To account for this, our author fuppofes, that very
little of the heat acquired in firing a piece of ord¬
nance comes from the powder ; for the time that it
continues in the piece, perhaps not exceeding the
200th part of a fecond, is fo fmall, that were the flame
four hundred times, inftead of four times, as Mr Robins
fuppofes, hotter than red hot iron, it is by far too Ihoit
to communicate a fenfible degree of heat to one of our
large pieces of cannon. Befides, if the heat ofthe flame
was fufficient to communicate fuch a degree of heat
to the gun, it mutt undoubtedly be capable of burn¬
ing up all combuftible bodies that come in its way,
and of melting lead-{hot when fuch were ufed; but in¬
ftead of this, we frequently fee the fined paper difeharged
from the mouth of a gun without being inflamed, af¬
ter it has fuftained the a&ion of the fire through the
whole length of the bore ; and the fmalleft lead-lhot
is difeharged without being melted. The obje&ion
drawn from the heat of bullets taken up immediately
after being difeharged from fire-arms does not hold ;
for bullets difeharged from air-guns and even crofs-bowa
are Ukewife found hot, efpecially when they happen to >
itrike:.
GUN [ 240 ] GUN
<3unpow- ftrJke any. bard body, and are much' flattened. If a
, der' , mulket ball be difcharged into water, or againft any
*"_l' very foft body, it will not be fenfibly heated ; but if it
bits a plate of iron or any other body which it can-
r.ot penetrate, it will be broken in pieces by the blow,
and the difperfed parts will be found in a Hate little
fhort of actual fuffion. Hence our author concludes,
that bullets are not heated by the flame, but by per-
cufiion. Another obje&ion is, that the vents of brafs
guns are frequently enlarged to fuch a degree by re¬
peatedly firing them, that the piece becomes ufelefs.
But this proves only that brafs is eafily corroded by
the flame of gunpowder ; which indeed is the cafe
with iron alfo. We cannot fuppofe that in either cafe
any real folution takes place ; on the contrary, it is
very evident that it does not: for when the vents of
fire-arms are lined with gold, they will remain with¬
out enlargement for any length of time, though it is
well known that gold is much more eafily melted than
iron. As the heat communicated to bullets, therefore,
is not to be afcribed to the flame but to percuffion, fo
the heat acquired by guns is to be attributed, in our
author’s opinion, to the motion and friftion of the
internal parts of the metal among themfelves by the
violent aftion of the flame upon the infide of the bore.
To generate heat, the a&ion of the powder muft be
not only fufficient to drain the metal, and produce a
motion in its parts, but this effect muft be extremely
rapid ; and the efieft will be much augmented if the
exertion of the force and the duration of its adtion
are momentaneous: for in that cafe the fibres of the
metal that are violently ftretched will return with
their full force and velocity, and the fwift vibratory
motion and attrition above mentioned will be produced.
Now the effort of any given charge of powder upon
the gun is very nearly the fame whether it be fired
with a bullet or without; but the velocity with
which the generated elaftic fluid makes its efcape, is
much greater when the powder is fired alone than
when it is made to impel one or more bullets; the
heat ought therefore to be much greater in the for¬
mer than in the latter cafe, as has been found by ex¬
periment. “ But to make this matter ftill plainer,
(fays our author), we will fuppofe any given quantity of
powder to be confined fn a fpace that is juft capable
of containing it, and that in this fituation it is fet on
fire. Let us fuppofe this fpace to be the chamber of a
piece of ordnance, and that a bullet or any other folid
•body is fo firmly fixed in the bore, immediately upon
the charge, that the whole effort of the powder fhall
not be able to remove it; as the powder goes on to
be inflamed, and the elaftic fluid to be generated, the
preffure upon the infide of the chamber will be in-
creafed, till at length all the powder being burnt, the
ftrain upon the metal will be at its greateft height, and
in this fituation things will remain; the cohefion or
-clafticity of the particles of metal counterbalancing the
preffure of the fluid.—Under thefe circumftances very
little heat would be generated ; for the continued ef¬
fort of the elaftic fluid would approach to the nature
of the preffure of a weight; and that concuifion, vibra¬
tion, and friftion among the particles of the metal,
which in the collifion of elaftic bodies is the caufe of
the heat produced, would fcarcely take effedt. But in-
■ftead of being firmly fixed in its place, let the bullet
N° 146-
now be moveable, but let it give way with great diffi- Ounpow^
culty, and by flow degrees. In. this cafe the elaftic der-
fluid will be generated as before, and will exert its * ‘l
whole force upon the chamber of the piece ; but as the
bullet gives way to the preffure, and moves on in the
bore, the fluid will expand itfelf and grow weaker, and
the particles of the metal will gradually return to their
former fituations; but the velocity with which the me¬
tal reftores itfelf being but final], the vibration that re¬
mains in the metal after the elaftic fluid has made its
efcape will be very languid, as will the heat be which
is generated by it. But if, inftead of giving way with
fo much difficulty, the bullet is made lighter, fo as to
afford but little refiftance to the elaftic fluid in making
its efcape, or if it is fired without any bullet at all}
then, there being little or nothing to oppofe the paf-
fage of the flame through the bore, it will expand itfelf
with an amazing velocity, and its a&ion upon the gun
will ceafe almolt in an inftant; the ftrained metal will
reftore itfelf with a very rapid motion, and a fharp vi¬
bration will enfue, by which the piece will be much
heated.”
This reafoning of Mr Thomfon’s, however, feems
not to be very well founded. In the firft place, we
are by no means certain that heat is produced by the
motion or vibration of the particles of a folid body a-
mong each other. On the contrary, even in the hotteft
bodies we cannot be made fenfible of vibration exift-
ing among their particles, while certain founds will caufe
the moft folid fubftances vibrate perceptibly, and yet
without producing any heat.—From this as well as in¬
numerable other experiments, it is probable, that heat
confifts in the emiffion of a certain fubtile fluid from
the heated body, which is every moment replaced from
the atmofpherc, or from fome other fource. Hence
the more air that has accefs to any burning body, the
hotter it will become, and the more will any other that
is in its vicinity be heated. This is evident from the
contrivance of Argand’s lamp, which is neither more
nor lefs than the admiffion of a larger quantity of air
to the fame quantity of flame. The cafe is the fame
with the firing of gunpowder, when a bullet is put in¬
to the piece, the accefs of the air is much more ef-
fedtually prevented than when only a Ample wadding
is made ufe of. In confequence of this, no fooner is
the powder fired without a bullet, than the external
air rufhes down the bore, mingles with the flame, and
vehemently augments the heat, as well as the abfolute
force of the explofion. It is true, that without the ex¬
ternal air, the nitre in the gunpowder itfelf produces
as much air as to inflame it very violently ; but this
does not prove that it could not be inflamed ftill more
by the admiffion of more air. Befides, when the ex¬
ternal air is thus admitted, the flame itfelf is agitated
by its admiffion, and driven againft the fides of the
piece with a force fuperior to what it has by the mere
expanfive preffure ; whence the heat muft alfo be con-
fiderably augmented, in the fame manner that the heat
of any other body will be by the having flame blown
againft it, inftead of being blown away from it, or fuf-
fered to burn quietly by its fide. Thus, without any
recourfe to an unknown and conjeftural vibration a-
mong the particles of a folid metal, we may account
for the augmented heat of a piece charged only with
powder, and likewife in fome mcafure for the prodi-
giou#
G U N
Guhpcw- gious force of gunpowder, aurum fulminans, and pulvis
der- fulminans, when fired in the open air, compared
:i"“v * with what they have when exploded in clofe veffels.—
The force of gunpowder is manifeftly augmented in
clofe veffels, as has been already faid, by being rammed
down or comprelfed together : but this arifes from
another caufe, namely, that a greater quantity of
flame is comprefled into the fame fpace than when the
powder is not rammed; and this compreflion of the
flame is in proportion to the compreflion of the powder
in the chamber of the piece. But in this cafe the flame
is probably lefs powerful than in the former, though
the quantity inclofed in a fmall fpace may probably
make up for the quality. Mr Thomfon’s experiments
on the increafed force of gunpowder by comprefiion
are as follow:—Having put a charge of 218 grains
of powder, inclofed in a cartridge of very fine paper,
gently into the bore of the piece, the velocity of the
bullets, at a mean of four experiments, was at the rate
of 1225 feet in a fecond ; but in a medium of three
experiments, when the fame quantity of powder was
rammed down by five or fix ftrokes of the ramrod, the
velocity was 1329 feet in a fecond. “ Now (fays he)
the total force or preflure exerted by the charge upon
the bullet, is as the fquare of its velocity ; and 1329*
is to 12251 as 1,776 is to 1 ; or nearly as 6 is to 5 :
and in that proportion was the force of the given
, charge of powder increafed by being rammed. —When,
inftead of ramming the powder, or prefling it gently
together in the bore, it is put into a fpace larger than
it is capable of filling, the force of the charge is there¬
by very fenfibly leffened, as Mr Robins and others
have found by repeated trials. In my 30th experi¬
ment, the charge, confiding of no more than 165
grains of powder, was made to occupy 3.2 inches of
the bore, inftead of 1.45 inches, which fpace it juft
filled. When it was gently puflted into its place with¬
out being rammed, the confequence was, that the ve¬
locity of the bullet, inftead of being 1 too feet or up¬
wards in a fecond, was only at the rate of 914 feet,
and the recoil was leflened in proportion.—Hence we
may draw this pra&ical inference, that the powder
with which a piece of ordnance or a fire-arm is
charged, ought always to be prefled together in the
bore ; and if it is rammed to a certain degree, the ve-
' locity of the bullet will be ftill farther increafed. It
is well known that the recoil of a mufket is greater
when its charge is rammed than when it is not; and
there cannot be a ftronger proof that ramming in-
treafes the force of powder.”
To recover damaged Gunpowder. The method of
the powder-merchants is, to put part of the powder
on a fail cloth, to which they add an equal weight of
what is really good ; and with a flrovel mingle it well
together, dry it in the fun, and barrel it up, keeping
it in a dry and proper place. Others again, if it be
, very bad, reftore it by moiftening it with vinegar, wa¬
ter, urine, or brandy : then they beat it fine, fearce
it, and to every pound of powder add an ounce, an
ounce and a half, or two ounces, according as it is de¬
cayed, of melted falt-petre. Afterwards, thefe in •
gredients are to be moiftened and mixed well, fo that
nothing can be difcerned in the compofition, which
may be known by cutting the mafs; and then they
granulate it as aforefaid. In cafe the powder be in
Vol. VIII. Part I.
GUN
3 manner quite fpoiled, the only way is to extraA the Gun-
faltpetre with water according to the ufual manner, Smithei7‘.
by boiling, filtrating, evaporating, and cryftallizing ; v
and then with frefli fulphur and charcoal to make it
up anew again.
In regard to the medical virtues of gunpowder,
Boerhaave informs us, that the flame of it affords a
very healthy fume in the height of the plague, be-
caufe the explofive acid vapour of nitre and fulphur
corre&s the air ; and that the fame vapour, if received
in a fmall clofe pent-up place, kills infetfts.
It is ena&ed by 5 and 11 of Geo. I. and 5 Geo. II.
c. 20. that gunpowder be carried to any place in a
covered carriage ; the barrels being clofe-jointed; or
in cafes and bags of leather, &c. And perfons keep¬
ing more than 200 pounds weight of gunpowder at
one time, within the cities of London and Weftmin-
fter, or the fuburbs, &c. are liable to forfeitures if it
be not removed ; and juftices of peace may iffue war¬
rants to fearch for, feize, and remove the fame.
GuN-Shot Wounds. See Surgery.
GuN-Smith, a maker of fmall fire-arms, as mufkets,
fowding-pieces, piftols, &c.
GuN-Smithery, the bufintfs of a gun-fmith, or the art
of making fire-arms of the fmaller fort, as muflcets,
fowding-pieces, piftols, &c.
The principal part of thefe inftruments is the bar¬
rel, which ought to have the following properties.
1. Lightnefs, that it may incommode the perfon who
carries it as little as pofiible. 2. Sufficient ftrength
and other properties requifite to prevent its burfting by
a difcharge. 3. It ought to be conftrufted in fuch a
manner as not to recoil with violence. And, 4. It ought
to be of fufficient length to carry the (hot to as great a
diftance as the force of the powder employed is capable
of doing.
The manufatlure of fire-arms is now carried to fuch
a degree of perfe&ion by different European nations,
that it may perhaps be juftly doubted whether any far¬
ther improvement in the requifites juft mentioned can
be made. For the materials, the fofteft iron that can
be procured is to be made ufe of. The beft in this
country are formed of Jlubs, as they are called, or old
horfe-flroe-nails; wdiich are procured by the gun-
fmiths from farriers, and from poor people who fubfift
by picking them up on the great roads leading to
London. Thefe are fold at about 10 s. per cwt. and
28 pounds are requifite to form a fingle muflcet barrel.
The method of manufa&uring them from this material
is as follow's : A hoop of about an inch broad, and fix
or feven inches diameter, is placed in a perpendicular
fituation, and the (tubs, previoufly well cleaned, piled
up in it with their heads outermoft on each fide, till
the hoop is quire filled and wedged tight with them.
The whole then refembles a rough circular cake of
iron; which being heated to a white heat, and then
ftrongly hammered, coalefces into one folid lump.
The hoop is now removed, and the heatings and ham¬
merings repeated till the iron is rendered very tough
and clpfe in the grain ; when it. is drawn out into pie¬
ces of about 24 inches in length, half an inch or
more in breadth, and half an inch in thicknefs.
Four of thefe pieces are employed for one barrel?
but in the ordinary way a fingle bar of the beft loft
iron is employed. The workmen begin with ham¬
mering out this into the form of a flat ruler, having its
G g length
C 241 1
GUN L 242 '3 GUN
Gun- length and breadth proportioned to the dimenfions of
Smithery. intende(l barrel. By repeated heating and ham-
- ’ mering this plate is turned round a tempered iron rod
called a mandril, the diameter of which is confiderably
fmaller than the intended bore of the barrel. One of
the edges of the plate being laid over the other about
half an inch, the whole is heated and welded by two
or three inches at a time, hammering it brifldy, but
with moderate ftrokes, upon an anvil which has a num¬
ber of femicircular furrows in it, adapted to barrels of
different fizes. Every time the barrel is withdrawn
from the fire, the workman ftrikes it gently againft the
anvil once or twice in an horizontal diredtion. By
this operation the particles of the metal are more per¬
fectly confohdated, and every appearance of a feam in
the barrel is obliterated. The mandril being then
again introduced into the cavity of the barrel, the lat¬
ter is very ftrongly hammered upon it in one of the fe¬
micircular hollows of the anvil, by fmall portions at a
time ; the heatings and hammerings being repeated
until the whole barrel has undergone the operation,
and its parts rendered as perfectly continuous as if they
had been formed out of a folid piece. To effeCt this
completely, three welding heats are necefiary when the
very belt iron is made ufe of, and a greater number for
the coarfer kinds. The French workmen imagine,
that by giving the barrel, while in the fire, flight ho¬
rizontal ftrokes with the hammer, fo as to communi¬
cate a vibratory motion to the iron, thofe particles are
thrown off which are in a ftate of fufion and cannot
eafily be,con verted into malleable iron: but confidering
the great number of operations already defcribed which
the metal has undergone, we canfcaice fuppofe this to
be of much confequence.
The next operation in forming the barrels is the
boring of them, which is done in the following man¬
ner : Two beams of oak, each about fix inches in dia¬
meter, and fix or feven feet long, are placed horizon¬
tally and parallel to one another; having each of their
extremities mortifed upon a ftrong upright piece about
three feet high, and firmly fixed. A fpace of three or
four inches is left between the horizontal pieces, in
which a piece of wood is made to Aide by having at
either end a tenon let into a groove which tuns on the
infide of each beam throughout its whole length.
Through this Aiding piece a ftrong pin or bolt of iron
is driven or fcrewed in a perpendicular direftion, ha¬
ving at its upper end a round hole large enough to ad¬
mit the breach of the barrel, which is fecured in it by
means of a piece of iron that ferves as a wedge, and a
vertical fcrew palling through the upper part of the
hole. A chain is faftened to a ftaple in one fide of the
Aiding piece which runs between the two horizontal
beams ; and palling over a pully at one end of the ma¬
chine, has a weight hooked on to it, An upright piece
of timber is fixed above this pully and between the
ends of the beams, having its upper end perforated by
the axis of an iron crank furnilhed with a fquare focket;
the other axis being fupported by the wall, or by a
ftrong poll, and loaded with a heavy wheel of call iron
to give it force. The axes of this crank are in a line
with the hole in the bolt already mentioned.—The
borer being then fixed into the focket of the crank,
has its other end, previoufiy well oiled, introduced into
the barrel, whofe breech part is made fall in the hole
of the bolt: the chain is then carried over the- pully, Gun-
and the weight hooked on ; the crank being then turn- Snuthtrj-.
ed with the hand, the barrel advances as the borer cuts
its way, till ic has paffed through the whole length.—
The boring bit confifts of an iron rod fomevvhat longer
than the barrel, one end of which fits the focket of the
crank ; the other is adapted to a cylindrical piece of
tempered fteel about an inch and a half in length, ha¬
ving its furface cut after the manner of a perpetual
fcrew, with five or fix threads, the obliquity of which
is very fmall. The breadth of the furrows is the fame
with that of the threads, and their depth fufficient to
let the metal cut by the threads pafs through them
eafily. Thus the bit gets a very ftrong hold of the
metal ; and the threads, being fiiarp at the edges, fcoop
out and remove all the inequalities and roughnefs from
the infide of tire barrel, and render the cavity fmooth
and equal throughout. A number of bits, each a little
larger than the former, are afterwards fuccefiively paff¬
ed through the barrel in the fame way, until the bore
has acquired the magnitude intended. By this ope¬
ration the barrel is very much heated, efpecially the
firft time the borer is paffed through it, by which
means it is apt to warp. To prevent this in fomc
meafure, the barrel is covered with a cloth kept con-
ftantly wetted, which not only preferves the barrel from
an excefs of heat, but likewife preferves the temper of
the bit from being deftroyed. The borer itfelf mull
alfo be withdrawn from time to time ; both to clean it
from the fiiavings of the metal and to oil it, or repair
any damages it may have fuftained. Every time a frefii
bit has been paffed through the barrel, the latter muft
be carefully examined, to fee if it has warped ; and.
likewife if there are any fpots, by the'work men called
blacks, on its infide. When warped, it muft be itraight-
ened,,on the anvil ; for which a few fiight ftrokes ou
the convex parts will be fufficient; and this is termed
fetting up the barrel. When black fpots are perceived,
the correfponding part on the outfide muft be marked,
and driven in by gentle ftrokes with the hammer,
when they will be completely removed by paffing the
borer another time through the piece.
The equality of the bore is of the utmoft confe¬
quence to the perfe&ion of a barrel; infomuch that
the greateft poffible accuracy in every other refpedl
will not make amends for any deficiency in this refpeft.
The method ufed by gunfmiths to afeertain this is by
a cylindrical plug of tempered fteel highly polifiied,
about an inch in length, and fitting the bore exaftly.
This is fcrewed upon the end of an iron rod, and in¬
troduced into the cavity of the barrel, where it is mo¬
ved backwards and forwards ; and the places where it
paffes with difficulty being marked, the boring bit is
repeatedly paffed until it moves with equal eafe through
every part. Any perfon who wifhes to know the
merit of his piece in this refpeft, may do it with tole¬
rable accuracy by means of a plug of lead caft on a rod
of iron ; or even by a mufitet ball filed exaftly to the
bore, and pufiied through the barrel by a ramrod ; ta¬
king care, however, not to ufe much force left the ball
be flattened, and its paffage thus rendered difficult.
The laft ftep towards the perfe&ion of the infide of
the barrel is termed Jine-loring ; by which is meant the
fmoothing it in fuch a manner as to remove all marks
and inequalities left by the borer. The fine borer re-
fembles
GUN r 243 ] GUN
Onn- fembles llie other in its general conftru&ion ; but in-
'Bmithery. ftead of the piece of fteel cut in form of a fcrew which
belongs to that, it is fuvnifhed with a fquare broach
10 or 12 inches long, highly polifhed, and very (harp,
by which means it cuts the metal very fmoothly. It
is found to anfwer the purpofe beft when only two of
its edges are allowed to work; the other two are cover¬
ed with flips of oiled paper, one or more additional
flips being put on each time that the inftrument is paff-
ed through the barrel. The fine-borer is frequently
paffed through, from the muzzle to the breech, and
from the breech to the muzzle, until the whole infide
.prefents a perfectly equal and polifhed furface ; the
barrel being likewife examined and fet up, if requifite,
after each time. It is abfolutely necefiary that this in¬
ftrument (hould be perfeftly true, and not in the leaft
caft or warped in the tempering.
Befides the operations above defcribed, another,
called' poltjhmg, is ufually performed on gun-barrels,
though it is doubtful whether this laft be attended wuth
any good effed or not. It is ’performed by a cylinder
of lead, five or fix inches long, call upon a road of
iron, and filed exadly to the bore. The lead being
then covered with very fine emery and oil, is wrought
backwards and forwards through the whole length of
the barrel until the infide has acquired the requifite de¬
gree of polilh. The difadvantages of this operation are,
that it is fcarce pofiible to perform it without prefling
more upon one part than another, and thus producing
fom« degree of inequality on the infide, which is of the
very word confequence to fire-arms. The polifli thus
given is likewife very perifliable; fo that the fine-boring
may juftly be confidered as the laft operation necefiary
for the infide of a barrel; and it is then proper to give
the external form and proportions by means of a file.
For this purpofe, four faces are firft formed upon it,
then eight, then 16 ; and fo on till it be quite round,
excepting the part next the breech, called the reinfor-
tedpart, which is always left of an oftagonal form. It
being abfolutely neceflary that the barrel fhould be
equally thick on every fide, gunfmiths employ, for ac-
complifhing this purpofe, a particular tool named a
compafs. This confifts of an iron rod bent in fuch a
manner as to form two parallel branches about an inch
diftant from one another. One of thefe branches is
introduced into the barrel, and kept clofely applied to
the fide, by means of one or more (prings with which
it is furniftied : the other defcends parallel to this on
the outfide, and has feveral fcrews pafiing through it
with their points diredted to the barrel. By fcrewing
thefe until their points touch the furface of the barrel,
and then turning the inftrument round w-ithin the bore,
we perceive where the metal is too thick, and how
much it-muft be reduced, in order to render every part
perfe&ly equal throughout its circumference. It may
be made long enough to reach the whole length of the
barrel, though it will be more convenient to have it
only half as much, and to introduce it firft at one end
and then at the other. Inftead of rounding the barrel
by means of a file and compafs, however, fome people
do fo by turning it in a lathe ; which is no doubt more
expeditious, though neither fo certain nor exadt. A
fpindle as long as a gun-barrd cannot, without great
difficulty, be prevented from fpringing confiderably un¬
der the tool employed to reduce or fmooth it in turn¬
ing 5 whence it is found, that bj^ this operation barrels Gun-
are more frequently warped than by all the bbrings Smithery.
they undergo ; and there is now this farther inconve-  
nience, that they cannot be fet up as formerly, without
danger of deftroying them entirely.
The barrels being thus bored and formed extemaliy,
it is cuftomary with the gunfmiths in France to folder
on the loops and aim before they breech the barrel.
The Englifh, however, do not reftric! themfelves in this
manner: for as foft folder is fufficient for (aliening on
thefe, they never ufe any other; while the French,
who ufe hard folder, "mull of confequence employ a
great heat. Thus the infide is roughened fometimes
fo confiderably, that it is neceflary to repeat the fine bo¬
ring ; which could not be done without injuring the
threads of the fcrew formed for the breech, if the bar¬
rel were prepared for the latter without foldering on the
former.
The firft tool employed in forming the breech-fcrew
is a plug of tempered fteel, fomewhat conical, with the
threads of a male fcrew upon its furface, and by the
workman termed a fcrew tap. This being introduced
into the barrel, and worked from left to right and back
again, until it has marked out the four firft threads of
the fcrew, another lefs conical tap is introduced ; and
when this has carried the impreflion of the fcrew as far
as it is intended to go, a third one, nearly cylindrical,
is made ufe of, fcarcely differing from the plug of the
breech intended to fill the fcrcw thus formed in the
barrel. The plug itfelf has its fcrew formed by means
of a fcrew-plate of tempered fteel, with feveral female
fcrews, correfponding with the taps employed fpr
forming that in the barrel. Seven or eight threads are
a fufticient length for a plug : they ought to be neat
and (harp, fo as completely to fill the turns made in the
barrel by the tap. The breech-plug is then to be cafe-
hardened, or to have its furface converted into fteel, by
covering it with (havings of horn, or the parings of the
hoofs of horfes, and keeping it for fome time red hot;
after which it is plunged in cold water.
The only thing now requifite for convicting the
Barrels is to give them a proper colour; as a prepara¬
tion for which their outfide is firft to be neatly poliihed
with oil and emery. This being done, it was formerly
the cuftom to give fuch a degree of heat as would make
them blue throughout; but as this cannot be effe&ed
without a partial calcination of the furface, which of
confequence affeifts the infide alfo, the blue colour has
been for fome time difufed, arid a brown one fubftitu-
ted in its place. To give this colour, the pieces are
firft rubbed over with aquafortis or fpirit of fait diluted
with water ; after which they are laid by till a complete
coat of ruft is formed upon them : a little oil is then
applied ; and the furface being rubbed dry, is polilhed
by means of a hard brufh andbees-wax.
Thus the common mu(ket-barrels for the purpofes
efpecially of fportmanfhip are made; but there are fome
other methods of manufacture, by which the barrels are
made to differ in fome refpesfts from tbofe juft deferi-
bed, and are thought to be confiderably improved.
One kind of thefe are called barrels ; and by the
Englifti workmen are formed out of the plates made
of Jlubs formerly defcribed. Four of thefe, ofthefize
already mentioned, are requifite to make one barrel.
One of them heated red hot for five or fix inches is
G g 2 turned
GUN [ 244. 1 GUN
Gun ‘ turned like a cork-fcrew by means-of the hammer and
Smithery. anv;j. the,remaining parts being treated fucceffively in
~ the fame manner until the whole is turned into a fpiral,
forming a tube the diameter of which correfponds with
the bore of the intended barrel. Four are generally
fufficient to form a barrel of the ordinary length, i. e.
from 32 to. 38 inches; and the two which form the
breech or (Irongeft part, called the reinforced part, are
confiderably thicker than thofe which form the muzzle
or fore part of the barrel. One of thefe tubes is then
welded to a part of an old barrel to ferve as an handle;
after which the turns of the fpiral are united by heat¬
ing the tube two or three inches at a time to a bright
white heat, and ftriking the end of it feveral times a-
gainft the anvil in a horizontal dire&ion with confide-
rablc ftrength, which is jumping the barrel; and
the heats given for this purpofe are czAti jumping heats.
The next ilep is to introduce a mandril into the ca¬
vity, and to hammer the heated portion lightly in or¬
der to flatten the ridges or burrs raifed by the jumping
at the place where the fpirals are joined. As foon as
one piece is jumped throughout its whole length, ano-
* ther is welded to it, and treated in the fame manner,
until the four pieces are united, when the part of the
old barrel is cut off, as being no longer of any ufe. The
welding is repeated three times at lealf, and is per¬
formed exafbly in the fame manner as direfted for plain
barrels; and the piece may afterwards be finiflied ac¬
cording to the diredlions already given.
The operation for the French twilled barrels is very
different from that juft mentioned, and much more ex¬
ceptionable. It conflfts in heating the barrel by a few
inches at a time to a ftrong red heat; one end is then
ferewed into a vice, and a fquare piece of iron with an
handle like an augre is introduced into the other. By
means of thefe the fibres of the heated portion are
twilled into a fpiral diredlion, which is fuppofed to re¬
fill the effort of the inflamed powder better than the
other. To render this, operation complete, however,
it mull be obferved, that when once the feveral por¬
tions x>f the barrel have been twilled, the fubfequent
heats oughtnot to be very great, or the grain of the metal
will regain its former date, and the barrel be no better
for the twilling than before. To twill a barrel in this
manner, alfo, it will be neceffary to forge it at leall half
a foot longer than it is intended to be, that a fufficient
length may be kept cold at each end to give a fufficient
purchafe to the vice and twilling inllrument; and thefe
portions mull afterwards be cut off before the barrel is
bored, or two pieces of an old barrel may be welded to
the muzzle and breech of that which is to be twilled,
and cut off when the operation is over. Thefe pieces
may alfo be made ftronger than ufual torefifl the force
of the vice and twilling inftrument; and in order to
give the latter a firmer hold, the cavity of the muzzle
may be made of a fquare form. The Englilh workmen
are unanimoufly of opinion that this method of twill¬
ing is really injurious to the barrel, by ftraining the
fibres of the metal. At any rate, from the injudicious
methods followed by the French artills, the greateft
part of their barrels, faid to be twilled, are not fo in
reality ; there being at leaft fix or feven inches at the
muzzle, and feven or eight at the breech, which are not
affedted by the operation. ,
The French ribbon-barrels have a, great refemblance
to the Englifh twilled ones ; but the procefs for ma- Gun-
king them is much more operofe, though it feems not Smithery.
to polfefs any real advantage over that ufed by the v—
Englilh artills. A plate of iron, about the twelfth
part of an inch in thicknefs, is turned round a man¬
dril, and welded its whole length-in the fame manner
as a plain barrel. Upon this flight barrel, which is
called the lining, a plate of iron about an inch in
breadth, and bevelled off at the edges, is by means of
fucceffive heats rolled in a fpiral diredlion ; after which
it is termed the ribbon, and mull have a thicknefs cor-
refponding with that part of the barrel which it is to
form. As it would, however, be difficult to form a
ribbon of fufficient length for the whole barrel, it is
made in feveral pieces ; and when one piece is rolled
on, another is welded to its end, and the operation
continued until the lining be entirely covered. The
edges are fo much bevelled, that the one folds over the
other about a quarter of an inch. After the ribbon is
all rolled on, the barrel mull be heated by two or three
inches at a time, and the turns of the fpiral united to
each other and to the lining by being welded in the
fame manner as the twilled barrel; though, from what
has been faid of the conftrudtion of thefe barrels, it is
plain that the operation oijumping cannot be admitted
in them. The barrel is afterwards bored in fuch a
manner that almoll the whole of the lining is cut out,
and fcarce any thing left but the ribbon with which
the lining was covered.
The fuperiority of twilled and ribbon barrels over
the plain kind gave occafion to a third fort named
wired barrels. Thefe were invented by an ingenious
workman at Paris named Barrois; whole method was
as follows: Upon a thin barrel, filed and dreffed as
ufual, he rolled, as clofe as poffible, and in a fpiral di¬
redlion, a tempered iron wire about the thicknefs of a
crow-quill, the firft layer covering only the reinforced
part. The turns of the wire Were foldered to each
other and to the barrel with a compofition which he^
kept a fecret. The wired part was then filed fmooth
and bright, but not fo much as to weaken it; a fecund
layer of wire was applied over the firft, extending two-
thirds of the length of the barrel ; and this being
fmoothed and brightened like the firft, a third layer was
applied, which covered the two former and readied
quite to the muzzle.
The barrels made after this manner are fuppofed to
be much fuperior to others, though the fuppofition
feems not to be well founded. It is certain that wire
is not preferable to other iron as a material for gun-
barrels ; and the folder ufed by M. Barrois in a quan¬
tity nearly equal to the wire itfelf, mull be accounted
a defedk as far as it was ufed ; for no metal has yet
been found equal to iron for the purpofes of gun-
fmiths: fo that by the ufe of fo much of this folder in
the compofition of the barrel, it mull be undoubtedly
weaker than if it had been all made of iron. We are
not to fuppofe the wire abfolutely free from flaws;
and even though it were, there will always be fmall
cavities between its turns, which the folder cannot fill
completely. _ Befides, as the operation of wiring was
performed by M. Barrois upon a barrel that had been
previoufly bored and dreffed within, the repeated heats
to which it was afterwards fubjedled in foldering, if
they did not caufe it warp, at leaft rendered it fo
GUN [ 245 1 GUN
Gun- rough that it was necefiary to fine-bore it afterwards.
Smithery. The only advantage therefore which thefe barrels were
v found to poffefs was their beautiful appearance; which
was greatly overbalanced by the circumftances juft
mentioned, as well as by the extravagant prices at
which they were fold ; a fingle barrehbeing fold at 5I.
and a double one at twice that fum ; whence the fale of
them never anfwered the expedtation of the invent¬
or, and after his death no body-thought of making
them.
The Spanifh barrels have long been held in great
eftimation, both on account of their being formed of
better iron, than thofe of other countries, and likevvife
from an opinion of their being more perfedtly forged
and bored. Thofe made at Madrid are the belt, and
even of thefe fuch as have been made by former gun-
fmiths are in the greateft eftimation. The molt cele¬
brated Spaniih gunfmiths were Nicolas Biz, who lived
in the beginning of the prefent century, and died in
1724; and the barrels fabricated by him in the for¬
mer part of his life are held in greateft eftirnation.
Thofe of his cotemporaries, Juan Belan and Juan Fer¬
nandez, are no lefs valued ; all of their bairels felling
in France at 1000 livres,- or 451. 15 s. fterling. The
fuccefibrs of thefe-great artifts were Diego Efquibal,
Alonzo Martinez, Agoftin Ortiz, Matthias Vaera,
Luis Santos, Juan Santos, Francifco Garcia, Francifco
Targarone, Jofeph Cano, and N. Zelaya. The molt
celebrated now in life are Francifco Loper, Salvador
Cenarro, Miguel Zeguarra, Ilidoro Soler, and Juan de
Soto. The three firlt are gunfmiths to the king; and
the barrels made by all of them fell for 13I. Iterling.
Ahnoft.all the Madrid barrels are compofed of the old
Ihoes of horfes and mules, which are colledted for the
purpofe. They are manufactured firft by welding
longitudinally, and then being joined together in four
or five pieces like the Englifh barrels made from Hubs,
as already mentioned. In this, and indeed all other
operations for making gun-barrels,, an immenfe vvalte
of the iron takes place ; but that of the Spaniih iron
is by ffir the greateft, a mafs of 40 or 45 pounds be¬
ing required to make one barrel, which when rough
from the forge weighs only fix or feven pounds ; fo
that from 30 to 38 pounds are loft in the hammerings.
It may perhaps, however, be doubted, whether the iron
be really purified by this wafte ; for it is certain, that
by long continued working in the fire it may be ren¬
dered totally ufelefs and deftroyed; neither can we he
afi’ured that the other advantages pretended to refult
fiom their method of manufa&ure are of any confe-
quence. The Spanifh artifts likewife value themfelves
on giving the infide of their barrels a very high polilh;
but the advantage of this, as has already been obfer-
ved, is extremely dubious. The only thing requifite
in a gun-barrel is that it.do not lead; that.is, that the
mark of the bullet be not perceived on the infide after
it has been difeharged, by fome of the lead rubbed off
as.it paffes through. In the opinion of very, good
judges, therefore, it is better to take a barrel immedi¬
ately after it has undergone the operation of finer '
boring than to give it any higher polilh ; and.in fup-
port of this opinion, M. de Marolles, an author of great
reputation, informs us, th^t he has feen a barrel rough
from the borer throw a charge of Ihot deeper into a
quire of paper than one which was highly polilhed
within, though the" length, bore, and charge, were
the fame in both.
As the Spaniih iron is univerfally allowed to be ex¬
cellent, it has not been unreafonably fuppofed that the
fuperiority of the barrels manufa&ured in that king¬
dom is owing more to the goodnefs of the materials
than to the Ik ill of the workmen. It muft be obfer-
ved, however, that inilead of making the plates over¬
lap a little in the place where they join, they give one
of them a complete turn ; fo that every Spaniih bar¬
rel maybe faid to be double throughout its whole
length. The different portions of the iron are alfo
forged in fuch a manner, that the grain of the iron is
difpofed in a fpiral manner; whence it has the fame
effedl with a ribbon or twifted barrel. The outfide is
finilhed by turning them in a lathe ; whence probably
they are always lei's elegantly wrought than the French
and Englilh pieces. The great value put upon them
is alfo thought to be more owing to fancy than to any
real good qualities they poffefs. Formerly they were
made from three to three feet and a half long ; their
bore being fuch as to admit a bullet from 22 to 24 ire
the pound; and their weight from three to three pounds
and an half. The reinforced- part extends two-fifths
of the length; and at 10 or 12 inches from the breech
is placed a fight, fuch as is ufually put upon rifle-bar¬
rels or thofe intended only for ball. According to
Efpinas, arquebufs-bearer to Philip IV. the weight
of a Spanifh barrel ought to be four pounds and an
half when their length is 42 inches; but both weight
and length are now much reduced, they feldom ex¬
ceeding the dimenfion already mentioned. Next to
the barrels made at Madrid, the moft efteemed are
thofe of Buftindui and St Olabe at Plac'entia in Bifcay;
and of Jeun and Clement Padwefteva, Eudal Pous,
and Martin Marechal, at Barcelona ; the ufual price
of them being about 3I. 10s. fterling.
Having now deferibed the method of forging bar¬
rels, we lhall next proceed-to give an account of thofe
imperfe&ions to which they are fometimes liable, and
which render them apt to burft or recoil with'violence.
The principal of thefe are the chink, crack, and flaw.
The firft is a fmall rent in the direction of the length
of the barrel; the fecond-acrofs it; and the third is a
kind of fcale or fmall plate adhering to the barrel by
a narrow bafe, from which it fpreads out like the head
of a nail from its .ft ank, " and when feparated leaves a
pit or hollow in the metal. The chink or flaw are of
much worfe confequence than the crack in fire-arms,
the force of the powder being exerted more upon the
circumference than the length of the barrel. The
flaw is much more frequent than the chink, the latter
fcarce ever occurring but in plain barrels formed out of
a Angle plate of iron, and then only when the metal is
deficient in quality. When flaws happen on the out¬
fide, they are of no great confequence ; but in the iii-
fide they are apt to lodge mc'ifture and foulnefs which,
corrode the iron, and thus the cavity enlarges conti¬
nually till the piece burfts. This accident, however,
may arife from many other caufes befides the defedt of
the barrel itfelf.. The belt pieces will burft when the
ball is not fufficiently rammed home, fo that a fpace is
left between it and the powder. A very fmall wind,
age or paffage for the inflamed powder between the
fides of the barrel and ball will be fufficient to prevent
them
■Gen-
Smithery,
-Gun-
rSmithery.
G tr N
the accident; but if the ball has been forcibly driven
down with an iron ramrod, fo as to fill up the cavity
of the barrel very exa&ly, the piece .will almoft cer¬
tainly burft, if only a very fmall fpace be left between
it and the powder ; and the greater the fpace is, the
more certainly does the event take place. Of this
Mr Robins gives a remarkable inflance, accounting at
the fame time for the phenomenon. A moderate
charge of powder (fays he), when it has expanded it-
felf through the vacant fpace and reaches the ball, will,
by the velocity each jpart has acquired, acccumulate
itfelf behind the ball, and will thereby be condenfed
prodigioufly : whence, if the barrel be not of an extra¬
ordinary ftrength in that part, it mull infallibly burft*
The truth of this I have experienced in a very good
Tower mulket. forged of very tough iron : for char¬
ging it with 12 pennyweight of powder, and placing
the ball loofely 16 inches from the breech; on the
firing of it, the part of the barrel juft behind the
bullet was fwelled out to double its diameter like a
blown bladder, and two large pieces of two inches in
length were burft out of it.” A piece will frequently
burft from having its mouth flopped up with earth or
fnow; which accident fometimes happens to fport'fmen
in leaping a ditch, in which they have affifted them-
felves with their fowling-piece, putting the mouth of
it to the ground; and when this does not happen, it
is only to be accounted for from the ftoppage being
extremely flight. For the fame reafon a mufket will
certainly burft if it be fired with the muzzle immerfed
only a very little way in water. . It will alfo burft
from an overcharge ; but when fuch an accident hap¬
pens in other circumftances, it is moft probably to be
attributed to a defedl in the workmanfhip, or in the
iron itfelf. Thefc defedls are principally an imperfec¬
tion in the welding, a deep flaw having taken place,
.or an inequality in the bore; which laft is the moft
common of any, efpecially in the low-priced barrels.
The reafon of a barrel’s burfting from an inequality in
the bore is, that the elaftic fluid, fet loofe by the in¬
flammation of the powder, and endeavouring to expand
itfelf in every dire&ion, being repelled by the ftronger
parts, a£fs with additional force againft; the weaker
ones, and frequently burfts through them, which it
would not have done had the fides been equally thick
and ftrong throughout. With regard to defe&s a-
rifing from thek bad quality of the iron, it is impoffible
to fay any thing certain. As the choice of the mate¬
rials depends entirely on the gunfmith, the only way
to be affured of having a barrel made of proper metal
•is to purchafe it from an artift of known reputation,
and to give a confiderable price for the piece.
The recoil of a piece becomes an obje<St of import-
.ance only when it is very great; for every piece re¬
coils in fpme degree when it is difeharged. The moft
frequent caufe of an excefllve recoil is an inequality
in the bore of the barrel; and by this it will be occa-
fioned even when the inequality is too fmall to be per¬
ceived by the eye. The explanation of this upon me¬
chanical principles indeed is not very eafy: for as it is
there an invariable law, that aftion and readtion arc
equal to one another, we fhould be apt to fuppofe that
every time a piece is difeharged it fhould recoil with
the whole difference between the velocity of the bullet
and that of the inflamed powder. But were this the
GUN
cafe, no man could fire a mufket without being de- Gun-
ftroyed ; for the bullet flies out only with a velocity Snmhery.
of l yoofeet in a fecond, or not much more, while '
that of the powder, as calculated by Mr Robins, is
not lefs than 7000 feet in the fame fpace. But was
the recoil to be made with the difference of thefe ve¬
locities, or with one half of it, it is plain that no man
could bear it. The fame thing therefore muft take
place in the recoil of a mufket which Dr Prieftley
obferved in his experiments on the explolion of inflam¬
mable and dephlogifticated air, viz. that the force is
exerted much more upon the part fartheft from that
where the inflammation begins than upon that next to
k. At any rate, however, the ftrength of the recoil
will always be found proportionable to the weight of
the piece; that is, the lighter the piece is, the greater
the recoil, and vice verfa. The recoil may be increa-
fed by any thing which retards the paffage of the fhot;
whence it is alfo augmented by the foulnefs of the barrel
by repeated firing. M. de Marolles informs us alfo,
that a piece will recoil, if, from the breech-plug being
made too fhort, fome turns of the ferew remain empty ;
■as in thefe a part of the powder is lodged which forms
an obftacle to the explofion ; though in what manner
this takes place is not very apparent, as, though the
powder lodged there might contribute little or nothing
to the force of the explofion, it can fcarce be fhown to
Hand in the way of it. The fame author likewife in¬
forms us, that a barrel mounted upon a very ftraight
flock will recoil more than upon one that is confider-
ably bent. Sometimes a Iff) a fowling-piece will recoil
from the fportfman applying it improperly to his
fhoulder ; though this laft circumftance feems likewife
inexplicable. It is moft probable therefore that the
fuppofed greater recoil taken notice of in this cafe,
arifes only from the ufual recoil being more fenfibly
felt in one pofition than another.
The caufe to which too great a recoil in mufkets
has been ufuaily attributed, is the placing of the touch-
hole at fopie diftance from the breech plug ; fo that
the powder is fired about the middle, or towards its
fore-part, rather than at its bafe. To avoid this, fome
artifts form a groove or channel in the breech-plug as
deep as the fecorid or third turn of the ferew; the
touch-hole opening into this channel, and thus firing
the powder at its very loweft part. It appears, how¬
ever, from a number of experiments made upon this
fubjeft by M. le Clerc gunfmith to the king of France,
that it made very little difference with regard to the
recoil, whether the touch-hole was clofe to the breech
or an inch diftant from it. The only circumflance to
be attended to with refpeft to its fituation therefore
is, that it be not quite clofe to the breech-plug ; as in
fuch a cafe it is found to be more apt to be choaked
up than when placed about a quarter of an inch
from it.
The only other circurfiftance now to be determined
with regard to mulket-barrels is their proper length.
Formerly it was fuppofed that the longer they were
made, the greater would be the diftance to which
they carried the (hot, ind that without any limitation.
This opinion continued to prevail till about half a cen¬
tury ago, when it was firit propofed as a doubt whe¬
ther long barrels carried farther than Ihort ones. With
regard to cannon, indeed, it had long before this time
6 been
t 246 ]
GUN L 237 ] GUN
, Gun- been known that they might be made too long; and
Smithery. Balthazar Killar, a celebrated cannon-founder in the
w'"’v r«gn of Louis XIV. was able to account for it. When
afked by Monf. Suriry de St Remy, why the culverin
of Nancy, which is 22 feet long, did not carry a ball
equally far with a-ihorter piece? he replied, that “ the
powder, when inflamed, ought to quit the cavity of
the piece in a certain time, in order to exert its whole
force upon the bullet: by a longer flay, part of the
force is loft ; and the fame caufe may produce an ine¬
quality in the fhots, by giving a variation to the bullet,
fo as to deftroy its rectilineal courfe, and throw it to
one fide or other of the mark”. Mr Robins, who on
this as well as every ether queftion in gunnery has al-
moft exhaufted the fubjeCt, informs us, that “ if a
mufxet-barrel, of the common length and bore, be fired
with a leaden bullet and half its weight of powder,
and if the fame barrel be afterwards fnortened one half
and fired with the fame charge, the velocity of the
bullet in this flrortened barrel will be about one-fixth
lefs than what it was when the barrel was entire ; and
if, inftcad of fliortening the barrel, it be increafed to
twice its ufual length, when it will be near eight feet
long, the velocity of the bullet will not hereby be aug¬
mented more than one-eighth part. And the greater
the length of the barrel is in proportion to the diame¬
ter of the bullet, and the fmaller the quantity of pow¬
der, the more iuccnfiderable will thefe alterations of
velocity be.” From thefe confiderations it appears,
that the advantages gained by long barrels are by no
means equivalent to the difadvantages arifing from the
weight 2nd incumbrance of ufing them ; and from a
multitude of experiments it is now apparent, that every
one may choofe.what length he pleafes, without any
fenfible detriment to the range of his piece. The
moft approved lengths are from 32 to 38 inches.
An opinion has generally prevailed among fportf-
men, that by fome unknown manoeuvre the gunfmith
is able to make a piece, loaded with fmall (hot, throw
the contents fo clofe together, that even at the diftance
of 40 or 50 paces the whole will be confined within
the breadth of a hat. From fuch experiments as have
been made on this fubjed, however, it appears, that
theclofenefs or widenefs with which a piece throws its
fhot is liable to innumerable variations from caufes
which no fkill in the gunfmith can poffibly reach. So
variable are thefe caufes, that there is no pofiibility of
making the fame piece throw its ftiot equally clofe
twice fucceflively. In general, however, the clofer
the wadding is, the better difpofed the fhot feems to
be to fall within a fmall compafs. The clofenefs of
the (hot therefore would feem to depend in a great
meafure on pjeventing the flame of the powder from
infinuating itfelf among its particles: whence the fol¬
lowing method is faid to be praftifed with fuccefs by
thofe who (hoot fora wager at a mark with fmall fhot;
•viz. to put in the (hot by fmall quantities at a time,
jamming down a little tow or thin paper over each ;
fo as to fill the interftices of the grains, and thus pre¬
vent the flame from getting in amongft the grains and
fcattering them. In firing with fmall fhot, a curious
circumftance fometimes occurs, viz. that the grains,
inftead of being equally diftributed over the fpace they
flrike, are thrown in clufters of 10, 12, 15, or more;
wlfilft feveral confiderable fpaces are left without a
grain in them. Sometimes one-third or one half of
the charge will be colle&ed into a clufter of this kind;
nay, fometimes, though much more rarely, the whole
charge will be collefted into one mafs, fo as to pierce
a board near an inch thick at the diftance of 40 or
45 paces. Small barrels are faid to be more liable to
this cluftering than large ones; and M. de Marches
informs us, that this is efpecially the cafe when the
barrels are netv, and likewife when they' are frefh-
wafhed ; though he acknowledges that it did not al¬
ways happen with the barrels he employed even after
they were wafhed. It is probable, therefore, that the
clofenefs of the fhot depends on fome circumftance re¬
lative to the wadding rather than to the mechanrfm of
the barrel.
Some pieces are compofed of two or more barrels
joined together ; in which cafe the thicknefs of each
of the barrels is fomewhat lefs than in fingle-barrelled
pieces. After being properly dreffed, each of them is
filed flat on the fide where they are to join each other,
fo that they may fit more clofely together. Two cor-
refponding notches are then made at the muzzle and
bieech of each barrel; and into thefe are fitted two
fmall pieces of iron to hold them more ftrongly to¬
gether. Being then united by tinning the contiguous
parts, a triangular piece of iron called the rib is faften-
ed on in like manner, running the whole length on the
upper fide ; which ferves to hold them more ftrongly
together. After this they are to be polifhed and co¬
loured in the manner deferibed for Angle barrels. Great
care fhould be taken that the barrels joined in this
manner fhould be quite equal in ftrength to one an¬
other, and that both fhould be quite upright, or of an
equal thicknefs throughout. If any inequality takes
place in the ftrength of the barrels, the weaker will be
warped by the a&ion of the ftrenger; and the warping
from this caufe has fometimes been fo confiderable as
to render one of the barrels ufelefs. To bring every
part of the circumference of each barrel to an equal
ftrength as nearly as poffiblc-, fo that no part may be
ftrained by the explofion, that- fide where they touch
each other muft be fo reduced, that the partition
between the two calibers may be no thicker than ei¬
ther barrel was at the fame place before it was filed to
join in this manner. Formerly the double-barrelled
pieces were made with one barrel lying over the other,
each barrel having a feparate pan, hammer, and ham¬
mer-fpring, but only one cock for both. The barrels
were therefore made to turn round at the place where
the breeches joined. with the flock ; fo that as foon as
one was fired off, the other could be brought into its
place by prelfing a fpring moved by the guard with
the right hand, while with the left the barrels were
turned upon their common axis; and as foon as the
charged barrel was thus brought into its proper fitua-
tion, the fpring defeended into a notch and kept it
firm. But this method was found to be too compli¬
cated and embarraffed, though upon the fame plan.
three and four barrels were fometimes mounted upon
one flock; but thefe pieces were intolerably heavy,,
and have no real fuperiority over the double-barrelled
pieces which do not turn round, and which of confe-
quence are now only made ufe of.
In forging barrels of all kinds, it is of confiderable
importance to have them made at firft as near as poffi-
ble
Gun-
S tnitlieryy
GUN [ 24S ] GUN
Gunter. t,le to the weight intended when they are finifhed, fo
—'v that very little be taken away by the boring and filing :
for as the outer furface, by having undergone the ac¬
tion of the hammer more immediately than any other
part, is rendered the moft compaftand pure, we ihould
be careful to remove as little of it as pofiible ; and the
fame holds, though in a lefs degree, with the infide,
which is to be cut with the borer. Piftol-barrels are
forged in one piece, two at a time, joined by their
muzzles, and are bored before they are cut afunder ;
b>y which means there is not only a faving of time and
labour, but a greater certainty of the bore being the
fame in both.
GUNTER (Edmund), an excellent Englifh mathe¬
matician and aftronomer, was born in Hertfordihire in
1581, and ftudied at Weftminfter-fchool; from whence
he removed to Oxford, where he took the degree of
mailer of arts in 16c6, and afterwards entered into holy
orders. In 1615 he took the degree of bachelor of
divinity : but being peculiarly eminent for his know¬
ledge in the mathematics, he had two years before been,
chofen profefibr of ailronomy in Greiham-college, Lon¬
don ; where he diilinguiihed himfelf by his leftures
and writings. He invented a fmall portable quadrant;
and alfo the famous line of proportions, which, after
the inventor, is called Gunter's fcale. He likewife
publiihed Canon Triangulorum; and a work intitled Of
the Se&or, Crofs-ftaff, and other Inftruments. This
lail was publiihed, with an Engliih tranflation of his
Canon Triangulorum, in 410, by Samuel Toiler profef-
for of Greiham-college. Mr Gunter died at that col¬
lege in 1626.
Gunter’s Line, a logarithmic line, ufually graduated
upon feales, fe£tors, See.
It is alfo called the line of lines and line of numbers ;
being only the logarithms graduated upon a ruler,
which therefore ferves to folve problems inilrumentally
in the fame manner as logarithms do arithmetically.
It is ufually divided into loo parts, every tenth where¬
of is numbered, beginning with 1 and ending with 10:
•fo that if the firil great diviiion, marked 1; Hand for
one tenth of any integer, the next divifion, marked 2,
will Hand for two tenths, 3, three-tenths, and fo on ;
and the intermediate divifions will in like manner re-
prefent isodth-parts of the fame integer. If each of
the great divifions reprefent 10 integers, then will the
lefler divifions Hand for integers; and if the greater
divifions be fuppofed each 100, the fubdivifions will be
each 1 o.
Ufe of Gunter’s Line. I. To find the produB of two
numbers. From 1 extend the compafies to the multi¬
plier; and the fame extent, applied the fame way from
the multiplicand, will reach to the produfl. Thus if
the produft of 4 and 8 be required, extend the com-
paifes from 1 to 4, and that extent laid from 8 the
fame way will reach to 32, their produft. 2. To di¬
vide one number by another. The extent from the divi-
for to unity will reach from the dividend to the quo¬
tient: thus, to divide 36 by 4, extend the compaffes
from 4 to 1, and the fame extent will reach from 36
to 9, the quotient fought. 3. To three given numbers
to find a fourth proportional. Suppofe the numbers 6,
8, 9 : extend the compafles from 6 to 8 ; and this ex¬
tent, laid from 9 the fame way, will reach to 12, the
fourth proportional required. 4. To find a mean pro-
N»-I47.
portional between arty two given numbers. Suppofe 8 and Gunfif
32 : extend the compaffes from 8, in the left-hand part !l
of the line, to 32 in the right; then biffedling this Gutha!u8-,
diftance, its half will reach from 8 forward, or from ' ^
32 backward, to 16, the mean proportional fought.
5. ToextraB the fiquare-root of any number. Suppofe 25:
bifleCt the cfiltance between 1 on the fcale and the point
reprefenting 25 ; then the half of this diftance, fet off
from i, will give the point reprefenting the root y.
In the fame manner the cube root, or that of any
higher power, may be found by dividing the diftance
on the line between 1 and the given number into as
many equal parts as the index of the power expreffes;
then one of thofe parts, fet from 1, will find the point
reprefenting the root required.
Gunter’s Quadrant, one made of wood, brafs, &c.
containing a kind of ftereographic projedlion of the
fphere, on the plane of the equinodlial; the eye being
fuppofed placed in one of the poles.
Gunter’s ScaleT called by navigators fimply the
gunter, is a large plain fcale, generally two feet long,
and about an inch and a half broad, with artificial
lines delineated on it, of great ufe in folving queftions
in trigonometry, navigation, &c.
GUNWALE, or Gunnel, is the uppermoft wale
of a ihip, or that piece of timber which reaches on ei¬
ther fide from the quarter-deck to the forecaftle, being
the uppermoft bend which finilhes the upper works of
the hull, in that part in which are put the ftanchions
which fupport the wafte-trees.
GURK, an epifcopal town of Carinthia in Germany,
feated on the river Gurk, in E. Long. 14. 15. N. Lat.
47. 10.
GURNARD, in ichthyology. See Trigla.
GUST, a fudden and violent fquall of wind, burft-
ing from the hills upon the fea fo as to endanger the
{hipping near the fliore. Thefe are peculiar to fome
coafts, as thofe of South Barbary and Guinea.
GUSTAVIA, in botany; a genus of the poly-
andria order, belonging to the monadelphia clafs of
plants. There is no calyx ; the petals very numerous;
the berry multilocular ; the feeds appendaged.
GUSTAVUS I. king of Sweden, fon of Eric de
Vafa duke of Gripfholm. Ghriftian II. king of Den¬
mark having made himfelf mailer of the kingdom of
Sweden, confined Guftavus at Copenhagen ; but he
making his efcape, wandered along time in the forefts,'
till the cruelties of the tyrant having occafioned a re¬
volution, he was firft declared governor of Sweden,
and in 1513 eledtd king. This prince introduced
Lutheranifm into his dominions, which in a little time '
fpread itfelf all over the kingdom. He died in 1560;
having made his kingdom hereditary, which was before
cledlive. See Sweden.
Gustaeus Adolphus, furnamed the Great, king of
Sweden, was born at Stockholm in 1594, and fucceed-
ed his father Charles in 161 l. He elpoufed the caufe
of the Proteftants in Germany, who were oppreffed
and almoft entirely ruined by the emperor Ferdinand;
He was a great warrior, and gained many victories, of
which an account is given under the article Sweden,
He was at lall killed in the battle of Lutzen, where
his troops got -the vidtory, and defeated two of the
emperor’s armies.
GUTHALUS, or Guttalus, (anc. geog.), is
4 thought
GUY
r 249 i
GUY
Cutta thought to be the Viadrus of Ptolemy. Now the Oder; nial fcheme was renounced, and fo he built hofpitals in Guy,1
If which rifmg in Moravia, runs through Silefia, Bran- his old age. In the year 1707 he built and furnilhed Guyon,
denhurg. and Pomerania, into'the Baltic. three wards on the north fide of the outer court of ,"“JJ
GUTTA, a Latin term for what in Englifh we call St Thomas’s Hofpital in Southwark, and gave 100 I.
drop. _ - . to it annually for eleven years preceding the ere&ion of
Gutta Rofacea, in medicine, denotes a red or pimpled his own hofpital: and, fome time before his death
face; a diftemper which, though not always owing its eredted the ftately iron-gate, with the large houfes on
original to hard drinking, is neverthelefs molt incident
to tipplers of ftrong beer, wines, fpirits, &c.
Gutta Serena, a difeafe in which the patient, with¬
out any apparent fault in the eye, is deprived of fight.
See (Index fubjoinedto) MeIhcine.
Gutta, in architefture, are ornaments in the form
of little cones ufed in the Doric corniche, or on the ar¬
chitrave underneath the triglyphs, reprefenting a fort
of drops or bells.
GUTTURAL, a term applied to letters or founds
pronounced or formed as it were in the throat.
GUTTY, in heraldry, a term ufed when any thing
is charged or fprinkled with drops. In blazoning, the
colour of the drops is to be named ; as gutty of fable,
of gules, &c.
GUY (Thomas), an eminent bookfeller, founder of
the hofpilal for fick and lame in Southwark bearing
his name, was the fon of Thomas Guy lighterman and
coal-dealer in Horfley-down, Southwark. He was put
apprentice, in 1660, to a bookfeller in the porch of
Mercer’s-chapel; and fet up trade with a Hock of about
2001. in the houfe that forms the angle between Corn-
hill and Lombard-ftreet. The Englilh Bibles being at
that time very badly printed, Mr Guy engaged with
others in a fcheme for printing them in Holland and
importing them; but this being put a Hop to, he con-
trafted with the univerfity of Oxford for their privilege
of printing them, and carried on a great bible-trade
for many years to a confiderable advantage. Thus he
began to accumulate money, and his gains relied in his
hands; for being a fingle man, and very penurious,
his expenees could not be great when it was his cuftom
to dine on his Ihop-counter with no other table-cover¬
ing than an old newfpaper: he was moreover as little
each fide, at the expence of about 3000 I. He was
76 years of age when he formed thedefign of building
the hofpital contiguous to that of St Thomas’s, which
bears his name, and lived to fee it roofed in ; dying in
the year 1724. The charge of eredling this vall pile
amounted to 18,793!. and he left 219,4991. to en¬
dow it; a much larger fum than had ever been dedica¬
ted to charitable ufes in this kingdom by any one man.
He ere&ed an alms-houfe with a library at Tanworth iii
Staffordlhire (the place of his mother’s nativity, and
for which he was reprefentative in parliament) for 14
poor men and women ; and for their penfions, as well
as for the putting out poor children apprentices, be¬
queathed 125I. a-year. Lallly, he bequeathed xoool.
to every one who could prove themfelves in any degree
related to him.
Guy, a rope ufed to keep Heady any weighty body
whilft it is hoifting or lowering, particularly when the
Ihip is lhaken by a tempeftuous fea.
Guy is likewife a large flack rope, extending from
the head of the main-mall to the head of the fore-mall,
and having two or three large blocks fallehed to the
middle of it. This is chiefly employed to fullain the
tackle ufed to hoiil in and out the cargo of a merchant
Ihip, and is accordingly removed from the maft-head as
foon as the veflel is laden or delivered.
Gur’s Cliff, in Warwicklhire, a. great cliff on the
well fide of the Avon and the north fide of Warwick
where in the Britons time was an oratory, and in that
of the Saxons a'n hermitage, where Guy earl of War¬
wick, who is faid to have retired to it after his fatigues
by the toils and pleafures of the woild, built a chapel,
and cohabited with the hermit; and that from thence
it had the name. This hermitage wa^ kept up to the
nrn T—T\7T ,a•-» T?   l «
fcrupulous about the ftyle of his apparel. The bulk of reign of Henry VI. when Rich. Beauchamp earl of
his fortune, however, was acquired by purchafing fea-
mens tickets during queen Anne’s wars, and by South-
Sea. Hock in the memorable year 1720. To Ihow
what great events- Ipring from trivial caufes, it may be
obferved, that the public owe the dedication of the
greatell part of his immenfe fortune to charitable pur-
pofes, to the indifcreet officioufnefs of his maid-fervant
in interfering with the mending of the pavement be¬
fore the door. Guy had agreed to marry her ; and,
preparatory to his nuptials, had ordered the pavement
before his door, which was in a negle&ed Hate, to be
mended, as far as to a particular Hone which he point¬
ed out. The maid, while her mailer was out, inno¬
cently-looking on the paviers at work, favv a broken
place that they had not repaired, and mentioned it to
them : but they told her that Mr Guy had dire&ed
them not to go fo far. Well, fays Ihe, do you mend
it: tell him I bad you, and I know he will not be an¬
gry. It happened, however, that the poor girl pie-
fumed too much on her influence over her careful lover,
with whom a few extraordinary Ihillings expence turn¬
ed the fcale totally againll her : the men obeyed; Guy
was enraged to find his orders exceeded, his matrimo-
Vou VIII. Part I.
Warwick ellablilhed a chantry here, and in memory
of the famous Guy eredted a large ftatue of him in the
chapel eight feet in height, and railed a roof over the
adjacent fprings. The chapel is in the parilh of St
Nicholas, in the fuburbs of Warwick.
GUYON (Johanna Mary Bouriers de la Mothe), a
French lady, memorable for her writings, and for her
fufferings in the caufe of Quietifm, was defeended from
a noble family, and born at Montargis in 1648. She
gave fome extraordinary fymptoms of illumination from
her earliell infancy, and tried to take the veil before
Ihe was of age to difpofe of herfelf; but her parents
obliged her to marry a gentleman to whom they had
promifed her. She was a widow at the age of 28 ;
when diltinguilhing herfelf in, and making many con!
verts to, the way of contemplation and prayer known
by the name of Quietifm, complaints were made of her
fpiritualifm, and Ihe was confined by order of the king,
andfeverely examined foreightmonths. She wasdifehar!
ged; but was afterwards involved in the perfecution
of the archbilhop of Cambray, and thrown into the
Ballile, where Ihe underwent many examinations: but
nothing being made out againll her, fhe once more
H h obtained
G Y M [ 250 ] GYM
Gwinisd ottaincd her liberty, and lived private to her death in
II 1717. She fpent her latter years in myftical reveries;
' Sum13" cover'ng ^er Whies, ciclings, and every thing that would
. receive them, with the Tallies of a viiionary imagination.
Her pious verfes were colle&ed after her death in 5 vols,
intitled Cantiques fpirituels, ou d’Emlhmcs fur VAmour
Divin. Her publications were, Le moyen court et tres
facile dc faire Oraifons; and Le Cantique des Cantiques de
Salomon interprete felon le fens myfiique ; which were con¬
demned by the archbilhop of Paris.
GWINIAD, in ichthyology. See Salmo.
GYARUS (anc. geog.), one of the Cyclades, 12
miles in compafs, lying to the call of Delos, It was
a defart illand, and allotted for a place of banilhment
by the Romans.
GYBING, the aft of Ihifting any boom fail from
one fide of the maft to the other.
In order to underftand this operation more clearly, it
is neceffary to remark, that by a boom-fail is meant
any fail whofe bottom is extended by a boom, the fore¬
end of which is hooked to its refpeftive maft; fo as to
fwing occafionally on either fide of the veflel, deferi-
bing an arch, of which the maft will be the centre.
As the wind or the courfe changes, it alfo becomes
frequently neceffary to change the pofition of the boom,
together with its fail, which is accordingly Ihifted to
the other fide of the veffel as a door turns upon its
hinges. The boom is pufhed out by the effort of the
wind upon the fail, and is reftrained in a proper fitua-
tion by a ftrong tackle communicating with the veffel’s
ftern, and called the Jheet. It is alfo confined on the
fore-part by another tackle called the guy.
GYCiEUS^anc. geog.), called alfo Colons; a lake
of Lydia, diftant 40 ftadia, or 5 miles, from Sardes.
GYGES (fab. hift.), a Lydian, to whom Candaules
king of the country' (bowed his wife naked. The
queen was fo incenfed at this inftance of imprudence
and infirmity in her huftand, that (he ordered Gyges
either to prepare for death himfelf, or to put Candaules
to death. He chofe the latter ; and, marrying the
queen, afeended the vacant throne about 718 years be¬
fore the Chriftian era. He was the firft of the Merm-
nadte who reigned in Lydia. He reigned 38 years,
?fhd diftinguiftied himfelf by the (mmenfe prefents which
he made to the oracle of Delphi {Herod. 1. c. 8.)—
According to Plato, Gyges defeended into a chafm
of the earth, where he found a brazen horfe, whofe
Tides he opened, and faw within the body the carcafe
of a man of uncommon fize, from whofe finger he took
a brazen ring. This ring, when he put it on his finger,
rendered him invifible; and by means of its virtue he
introduced himfelf to the queen, murdered her huf-
* hand, and married her and ufurped the crown of Lydia.
(Cic.Ojf.td. c. 9.)
GYMNASIARCPI, in antiquity', the direftor of
the gymnafium. He had two deputies under him; the
one called xyjlarch, who prefided over the athletas, and
had the overlight of wrellling ; the other wasgymnajles,
who had the direftion of alt other exercifes.
GYMNASIUM, in Grecian antiquity, a place fit¬
ted for performing exereifes of the body, &c.—The
word is Greek, formed of yvy.i&-y “ naked by rea-
fon they anciently put off their clothes, to praftife with
the more freedom.
Gyranafia, according to Potter, were, firft ufed at
Lacedaimon, but were afterwards very common in all Gymna-
parts of Greece ; and imitated, very much augmented, fll)m-
and improved, at Rome. There were three principal v
gynmafia at Athens ; the academy where Plato taught;
the Lyceum, noted for Ariftotle’s leftures ; and the
Cynofarges, allotted for the populace.
Vitruvius deferibes the ftrufture and form of the
ancient gymnafia, lib. v. cap. 11. They were called
gymnafia, becaufe feveral of the exercifes were perform¬
ed naked ; and pal/rjlret, from wreftling, which was one
of the mod ufual exercifes there: the Romans fome-
times alfo called them therma, becaufe the baths and
bagnios made a principal part of the building.—It ap¬
pears that they did not perform their exercifes quite
naked fo early as the time of Homer, but always in
drawers ; which they did not lay afide before the 32d
Olympiad. One Orfippus is faid to have been the firft
who introduced the praftice : for having been worfted
by means of his drawers undoing and entangling him,
he threw them quite afide, and the reft afterwards imi¬
tated him. They were not (ingle edifices, but a knot
of buildings united, being fufficiently capacious to hold
many thoufands of people at once ; and having room
enough for philofophers, rhetoricians, and the profef-
fors of all other fciences to read their leftures,—and
wreftlers, dancers, and all others who had a mind to
exercife,—at the fame time without the leaft difturb-
ance or interruption. They confided of a great many
parts. Vitruvius recites no lefs than 12, viz. 1. The
exterior porticos, where the philofophers, rhetoricians,
mathematicians, phyficians, and other virtuofi, read
public leftures, and where they alfo difputed and re-
hearfed their performances. 2. 'I’he ephebeum, where
the youth affembled very early, to learn their exercifes
in private, without any fpeftators. 3. The coryceum,
apodyterion, or gymnafterion, a kind of wardrobe,
where they dripped, either to bathe or exercife.
4. The elteothefium, alipterion, or unftuarium, ap¬
pointed for the unftions, which either preceded or fol¬
lowed the ufe of the bath, wreftling, pancratia, &c.
5. The conifterium or coniftra, in which they covered
themfelves with fand or dud, to dry up the oil or
fweat. 6. The palaeftra, properly fo called, where
they praftifed Wreftling, the pugillate, pancratia, and
divers other exercifes. 7. The fphasrifterium or tern
nis-court, referved for exercifes wherein they ufed balls.
8. Large unpaved alleys, which comprehended the
fpace between the porticos and the walls wherewith the
edifice was furrounded. 9. (The xylii, which were
porticos for the wreftlers in winter or bad weather,
xo. Other xyftis or open alleys, allotted for fummer
and fine weather, fome of which were quite open, and?
others planted with trees, it. The baths, confiding
of feveral different apartments. 12. The ftadium, a
large fpace of a femicircular form, covered with fandr,
and furrounded with feats for the fpeftators.
For the adminiftration of the gymnafia, there were
different officers: the principal were, 1. The gymna-
fiarcha, who was the direftor and fuperintendant of the
whole. 2. The xyftarcha, who prefided in the xyllus
or ftadium. 3. The gymnafta, or mafter of the exer¬
cifes, who underftood their different effefts, and could
accommodate them to the different complexions of the
athletae. 4. The paedotriba, whofe bufinefs was me¬
chanically to teach the exercifes, without underftanding
the it-
GYM [ 25
Gymna- their theory or ufe. Under thefe four officers were a
dum, number of fubalterns, whofe names diftinguilhed their
different fun^ions.
1 * ■ The gymnaftic exercifes may be reduced to two gene¬
ral claffes; as they depend either on the a&ion of the
body alone, or as they require external agents or in-
ttruments. The latter conlifted chiefly in mounting
the horfe, driving the chariot, and fwimming. The
former were chiefly of two kinds ; orcheftice, and pa-
keftrice.
The orcheftice comprehended, 1. Dancing. 2. Cu-
biftice, or the art of tumbling. 3. Sphasriftice or
tennis, including all the exercifes with pita or ba41s.
The pataftrice comprifed all exercifes under the de¬
nomination palajire; as wreftling, boxing, pancratia,
hoplomachia, running, leaping, throwing the difeus,
the exercife of the javelin, and that of the hoop, deno¬
minated by the Greeks rpox^’ which confifted in roll¬
ing an iron hoop five or fix feet in diameter, befet with
iron rings, the noife of which apprifing the people to
give way, afforded them alfo an amulement. Both
ftrength and fkill were requilite in dire&ing this hoop,
which was to be driven with an iron rod. To thefe
rnuft alfo be added the exercifes belonging to the me¬
dicinal gymnaftics ; as, 1. Walking. 2. Vociferation,
or (homing. 3. Holding one’s breath. Hoffman
enumerates no fewer than 55 forts of exercifes that
were praftifed in the gymnalia.
GYMNASTICS, Gymnastice, or the Gym¬
nastic art, denotes the art of performing exercifes of
the body, whether for defence, health, or diverfion.
See Gymnasium.
Several modern writers have treated of this art. M.
Burette has given the hiftory of gymnaftics in the
Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Infcriptions.
On the firft eftablifhment of fociety, men, being ap-
prifed of the neceffity of military exercifes, for repel¬
ling the infults of their neighbours, inftituted games
and propofed prizes to animate their youth to combats
of divers kinds. And as running, leaping, ftrength
and dexterity of arm in throwing the javelin, driving
a ball, or tolling a quoit, together with wreftling, &c.
were exercifes fuited to the manner of fighting in thofe
days; fo the youth vied to excel in them, in the pre¬
fence of the aged, who fat as their judges, and difpen-
fed prizes to the conquerors ; till what was originally
only amufement, became at length a matter of fuch
importance, as to intereft great cities and entire nations
in its p raft ice. Hence arofe an emulation and eager-
nefs to excel, in hopes, one day, of being proclaimed
and crowned conquerors in the public games, which
was the higheft honour a mortal could arrive at: nay,
they went fo far as to imagine, that even gods and
demigods were not infenfible of what men were fo
captivated with ; and, in confequence hereof, to in¬
troduce the greateft part of thefe exercifes into their
religious ceremonies, the worftiip of their gods, and
the funeral honours done to the manes of the dead.
Though it be hard to determine the precife epocha
of the gymnaftic art, yet it appears from feveral paffageS
in Homer, and particularly the 23d book of the Iliad,
where he deferibes the games celebrated at the funeral
of Patroclus, that it was not unknown at the time of
the Trojan war. From that defeription, which is the
earlieft monument now extant of the Grecian gymna-
i 1 GyM
flics, it appears, that they had chariot-races, boxing, Gyiiuii-
wreftling, foot-races, gladiators, throwing the difeus, *tics
drawing the bow, and hurling the javelin ; and it ftiould Gyn|'110f0J
feem, from the particular account Homer gives of thefe phifts.
exercifes, that even-then the gymnaftic art wanted little —v——<
of perfection : fo that when Galen fays there was no
gymnaftic art in Homer’s days, and that it began to
appear no earlier than Plato, he is to be underftood of
the medicinal gymnaftics only. This laft, indeed, had
its rife later ; becaufe, while men continued fober and
laborious, they had nooccafion for it; but when luxu¬
ry and idlenefs had reduced them to the fad neceffity
of applying to phyficians, thefe, who had found that
nothing contributed fo much to the prefervation and
Ye-eftabli(hment of health as exercifes, proportioned to
the different complexions, ages, and fexes, did not fail
to refer them to the praftice of gymnaftics.
According to Plato, one Herodicus, prior a little
time to Hippocrates, was the firft who introduced this
art into phyfic ; and his fucceffors, convinced by ex¬
perience of its ufefulnefs, applied themfelves in earned
to improve it. Hippocrates, in his book of Regimen,
has given inftances of it, where he treats of exercife in
general, and of the particular effefts of walking, with
regard to health; alfo of the different forts of races,
either on foot or horfeback ; leaping, wreftling, the
exercife of the fufpended ball, called corycus, chirono-
my, unftions, friftions, rolling in the fand, &c. But
as phyficians did not adopt all the exercifes of the gym¬
naftic art in their praftice, it came to be divided between
them and the mafters of martial and athletic exerci^ s,
who kept fchools, the number of which was greatly in-
creafed in Greece. At length the Romans alfo caught
the fame tafte ; and, adopting the military and athle¬
tic exercifes of the Greeks, they improved and advan¬
ced them to the utmoft pitch of magnificence, not to
fay extravagance. But the declenfion of the empire in¬
volved the arts in its ruin, and, among others, gymna¬
ftics and medicine ; which laft unhappily then relin-
quiftied the title it had to the former, and has neglefted
to refume it ever finer.
GYMNOJPYRIS, in natural hiftory, a name given
by Dr Hill to the pyritae of a Ample internal ftrufture,
and not covered with a cruft. See Pyrites.
Of thefe there are only two fpecies. 1. A green va-
rioufly (haped kind. 2. A botryoide kind.
The firft fpecies is the moft common of all the pyri¬
tae, and appears under a great diverfity of fhapes. It is
very hard and heavy, very readily gives fire with fteel,
but will not at all ferment with aquafortis. The fecond
fpecies is very elegant and beautiful, and its ufual co¬
lour is a very agreeable pale green ; but what moft di-
ftinguifties it from all other pyritae is, that its furface is
always beautifully elevated into tubercles of various
fizes, refembling a duller of grapes.
GYMNOSOPHIS i S, a fet of Indian philofophers,
famous in antiquity ; fo denominated from their go¬
ing barefoot. The word is firmed of the Greek
yvuvocofts-m, q. d. a fophift or philofopher who goes
naked.
This name was given to the Indian philofophers,
whonf the exceffive heat of the country obliged to go
naked ; as that of Peripatetics was given to thofe who
philofophifed walking. The Gymnofophifts, however,
did not go abfolutely naked; but only clothed them-
H h 2 felvefc
Gymnofo- f-lvee no farther than modefty required.
fome of thefe fages in Africa ; but the moil celebrated
clan of them was in India. The African gymncfo-
phifts dwelt upon a mountain in Ethiopia, near the
Nile, without the accommodation either of houfe or
cell. They did hot form themfelves into focieties like
thofe of India ; but each had his private recefs, where
Gymnotils.
GYM I 252 ] GYM
There were belonging to the order of apodes. They have two Cymnotus,
tentacula at the upper lip ; the eyes are covered with  
the common ikin ; there are five rays in the membrane
of the gills | the body is compreffed, and carinated on
the belly with a fin. There are five fpecies, the moll
remarkable of which is the ekaricus, or ele&ric eel,
. _ called by the French dnguille tremblante. This fpecies
he ftudied and performed his devotions by himfelf. If is peculiar to Sur'nam ; and is found in the rocky partsplate
any perfon had killed another by chance, he applied to of the river, at a great diftance from the fea. The mollCoxxIi
thefe fages for abfolution, and fubmitted to whatever accurate defeription we have of this filh is in the Philo-
penances they enjoined. They obferved an extraordi- fophical TranfaCtions for 1775, where Alex. Garden
nary frugality, and lived only upon the fruits of the M. D. gives an account of three of them brought to
earth. Lucan aferibes to thefe Gymnofophills feveral Charleftown in South Carolina. The largelt was a-
new difeoveries in aftronomy. bout three feet eight inches in length, and might have
As to the Indian Gymnofophifts, they dwelt in the been from 10 to 14 inches in circumference about the
woods, where they lived upon the wild produ&sof the thickell part of its body. The head was large, broad,
earth, and never drank wine nor married. Some of flat, and fmooth; imprefled here and there with holes
them pra£tifed phyfic, and travelled from one place as if perforated with a blunt needle, efpecially towards
to another; thefe were particularly famous for their the fides, where they were more regularly ranged in a
remedies againft barrennefs. Some of them, like- line on each fide. There were two noltrils on each
wife, pretended to pradlife magic, and to foretel fu- fide ; the firft large, tubular, and elevated above the
ture events. furface; the others fmall, and level with the Ikin. The
In general, the Gymnofophifts were wife and learned eyes were fmall, flattilh, and of a bluifli colour, placed
:n : their maxims and difeourfes, recorded by hifto- about three quarters of an inch behind the nollrils.
rians, do not in the leaft favour of a barbarous educa¬
tion ; but are plainly the refult of great fenfe and deep
thought. They kept up the dignity of their charac¬
ter to fo high a degree, that it was never their cu-
ftom to wait-upon any body, not even upon princes
themfelves. They believed the immortality and tranf-
The whole body, from about four inches below the
head, was clearly diftinguifhed into four longitudinal
parts or divifions. The upper part or back was of a
dark colour, and feparated from the other parts on
each fide by the lateral lines. Thefe lines took their
rife at the bafe of the head, juft above the peftoral fins.
migration of the foul : they placed the chief happinefs and run down the Tides, gradually converging as the
of man in a contempt of the goods of fortune and the fifii grew fmaller to the tail. The fecond divifion was
pleafures of fenfe, and gloried in having given faithful of a lighter and clearer colour than the firft, inclining
and difinterefted counfels to princes andmagiftrates. It to blue. It feemed to fwell out on each fide ; but to-
is faid, that when they became old and infirm, they wards the under part it is again contracted and ftiarp-
threw themfelves into a pile of burning wood, in order ened into the third part or carina. This part is eafi-
to prevent the miferies of an advanced age. One of ly dillinguilhed from the other two by its thinnefs, its
them, named Calamus, thus burnt himfelf in the pre- apparent laxnefs, and by the reticulated fkin of a more
fence of Alexander the Great.
Apuleiusfdefcribes the Gymnofophifts thus: “They
are all devoted to the ftudy of wifdom, both the elder
mafter-s and the younger pupils ; and what to me ap-
grey and light colour, with which it is covered. The
carina begins about fix or feven inches below the bafe of
the head ; and, gradually deepening or widening as it
goes along, reaches down to the tail, where it is thin-
pears themoft amiable thing in their charafler is, that neft. The fourth part is a long, deep, foft, and wavy
they have an averfion to idlenefs and indolence: ac- fin, which takes its rife about three or four inches at
eordingly, as foon as the table is fpread, before a bit moft below the head ; and thus runs down the (harp
of victuals be brought, the youths are all called toge- edge of the carina to the extremity of the tail. The fi-
ther from their feveral places and offices, and the ma- tuation of the anus was very Angular; being an inch
fters examine them what good they have done fince more forward than the peCtoral fins. Externally it feem-
the fun-rife : here one relates fomething he has difeo- ed to be a pretty large r'una; but the formed cxcre-
vered by meditation ; another has learned fomething by ments were only the fize of a quill of a common dung-
demonftration; and as for thofe who have nothing to hill-fowl. There were two peCloral fins fituated juft
allege why they fliould dine, they are turned out to behind the head, fcarcely an inch in length; of a very
work faffing.” thin, delicate confiftence, and orbicular fliape. They
The great leader of the Gymnofophifts, according feemed to be chiefly ufeful in fupporting and raffing
to Jerome, was one .Saak/a,!-, called by Clemens Butta, the head of the fifti when he came up to breathe y
who is ranked by Suidas among the Brachmans. That which he was obliged to do every four or five minutes,
laft author makes Buddas, the preceptor of Manes the Acrofstbe body were a number of fmall bands, annular
Perfian, the founder of the Gymnofophifts. divifions, or rather ruga of the /kin. By means of
GYMNOSPERMIA, in botany, (from “ na- thefe the fi/h feemed to partake of the vermicular na¬
ked,” and o-xip/tx " fee(]the firft order in Lin- ture, had the power of lengthening or /hortening its
ikeus’s clafs of didynamia. It comprehends thofe plants body like a worm, and could fwim backwards as well
of that clafs which have naked feeds. The fertls are as forwards, which is another property of the vermicu-
conftantly four in number, except in one genus, viz. lar tribe. Every now and then it laid itfelf on one fide in
phryma, which is monofpermous. See Botany, p. 431. the water, as if to reft.—For an account of the fingu-
GYMNOTUS, in ichthyology, a genus of fifhes lar properties of this fi/h, fee Electricity, n° 255.
5 GY-
GYP [ 253 1
- GYNjECEUM, among the ancients, the apartment perftitio
GYP
and credulity. In the compafs of a very few Gypfies
•I of the women, a feparate room in the inner part of the years they gained fuch a number of idle profelytes
, Gypfies. houfe, when, they employed themfelves in fpinning,
T weaving, and needle work.
(who imitated their language and'complexion, and be¬
took themfelves to the fame arts of chiromancy, beg-.
GYNiECOCRACY, denotes the government of ging, and pilfering), that they became troublefome, and
women, or a Hate where women are capable of the fu- even formidable, to moll of the Hates of Europe.
preme command. Such are Britain and Spain.
GYNiEOOCRATUMENI, an ancient people of
Sarmatia Europsea, inhabiting the caHern banks of the
river Tanais, near its opening into the Palus Masotis;
thus called, as authors relate, becaufe they had no wo¬
men among them ; or, rather, becaufe they were under
Hence they were expelled from France in the year
1560, and from Spain in 1591. And the government
of England took the alarm much earlier : for in 1530
they are defcribed by Stat. 22. Hen. VIII. c. 10. as
“ an outlandilh people calling themfelves Egyptians,
ufing no craft nor feat of merchandize, who have come
the dominion of women. The word is formed of into this realm, and gone from Ihire to {hire, and place
,    :/t.j ~c r :     __j ..r.j  . r. ,
yv-in woman, and vanquljhed, of xf>al
overcome q. d. overcome by women.
Fa. Hardouin, in his notes on Pliny, fays, they were
thus called, becaufe, after a battle which they loH a-
gainfl. the Amazons, on the banks of the 1 hermo-
doon, they were obliged to have venereal commerce
with them, in order to get them children : Et quod vie-
tricibus obfequantur ad procurandam eis Jobolem.—Har¬
douin calls them the hulbands of the Amazons, Ama-
Konum connubia ; for, as the author obferves, the word
unde muH be retrenched from Pliny, having been foifl-
to place, in great companies, and ufed great, fubtle, and
crafty means to deceive the people ; bearing them in
hand that they by palmifiry could tell mens and wo¬
mens fortunes ; and fo many times by craft and fub-
tilty have deceived the people of their money, and alfo
have committed many heinous felonieaand robberies.”
Wherefore they are direfted to avoid the realm, and
not to return under pain of imprifonment, and forfei¬
ture of their goods and chattels ; and upon their trials
for any felony which they may have committed, they r
{hall not be intitled to a jury de medietate lingua. And
ed into the text by people who were not maHers of afterwards it is enafted, by Hatutes id and 2dPh. and
the author’s meaning, unde Amazonum connubia. See
Amazons. They who take the Amazons for a fa¬
bulous people, will conclude the fame of the Gynseco-
cratumenians.
GYNANDRIA, (from yw a “ woman;” and
«»»/’ a “ man.”) The name of the 20th clafs in Lin¬
naeus’s fexual fyllem, confiHing of plants with herma¬
phrodite flowers, in which the Hamina are placed upon
the Hyle, or, to fpeak more properly, upon a pillar-
fliaped receptacle, refembling a llyle, which rifes in
the middle of the flower, and bears both the Hamina
and pointal; that is, both the fuppofed organs of ge¬
neration. See Botany, p. 430.
Hrous appearance, arifing, as he imagines, from the
Angular and unufal fituation of the parts of fructifi¬
cation,
Mary, c. 4. and 5th Eliz. c. 20. that if any fuch per-
fons fhall be imported into the kingdom, the importer
{hall forfeit 40I. And if the Egyptians themfelves re¬
main one month in the kingdom, or if any perfon be¬
ing 14 years old, whether natural-born fubjeCt or flran-
ger, which hath been feen or found in the fellowlhip
of fuch Egyptians, or which hath difguifed him or her-
felf like them, {hall remain in the fame one month at
one or feveral times, it is felony without benefit of
clergy. And Sir M. Hale informs us, that at one
Suffolk aflizes, no lefs than 13 perfoas were executed
upon thefe Hatutes a few years before the reHoration.
But, to the honour of our national humanity, there
The flowers of this clafs, fays Linnaeus, have a mon- are no inHances more modern than this of carrying
  —i-„   c thefe laws into praClice ; and the laH fanguinary act
is itfelf now repealed by 23 Geo. III. c. 54.
In Scotland.they feem to have enjoyed fome {hare
GYPSIES, or Egyptians, an outlandifh tribe of of indulgence; for a writ of privy feal, dated 1594,.
vagabonds, who difguifing themfelves in uncouth ha- fupports John Faw, lord and earl of Little Egypt, in
bits, fmearing their faces and bodies, and framing to the execution of juHice on his company and folk, ccin-
themfelves a canting language, wander up and down, Girm *<-. tV,* la,„c
and, under pretence of telling fortunes, curing difeafes,
&c. abufe the common people, trick them of their mo¬
ney, and Heal all that they can come at.
They are a Hrange kind of commonwealth among
themfelves of wandering impoHors and jugglers, who
made their firfi appearance in Germany about the be-
form to the laws of Egypt, and in puniflring certaia
perfons there named who rebelled againit him, left
him, robbed him, and refufed to return home with
him. James’s fubje&s are commanded to afiifl in ap¬
prehending them, and in affifling Faw and his adhe¬
rents to return home. There is a like writ in his fa¬
vour from Mary Q^of Scots 1553, and in 1554 he
ginning of the 16th century. MunHer, it is true, who obtained a pardon for the murder bfNunan Small. So
• /» it 1 1 i* j 1 o 1  n. 1 :  s.v v    1 • o i i
is followed and relied upon by Spelman, fixes the time
of their firfl appearance to the year 1417 : but as he
owns that the firfi whom he ever faw were in 152.9,
it is probably an error of the prefs for 1517 ; efpecially
as other hiftorians inform us, that when Sultan Selim
conquered Egypt in the year 1517, feveral of the na¬
tives refufed to fubmit to the Turkifli yoke, and re¬
volted under one Zinganeus ; whence the Turks call
them Zinganees ; but being at length furrounded and
baniflied, they agreed to difperfe in fmall parties all
that it appears he had Haid long in Scotland, and per¬
haps fome of the time in England; and from him this,
kind of {trolling people might receive the name of
Faw Gang, which they Hill retain-
A very circumflantial account of this Angular race
of vagrants has been lately given in an exprefs Inquiry
concerning them, written in German by H. M. G.
Grellman, and tranflated by Mr Raper. It is incre¬
dible to think how this regular fwarm of banditti has
fpread itfelf over the face of the earth. They wander
over the world, where their fuppofed {kill in the black about in Afia, in the interior parts of Africa, and, like
art gave them an univerfal reception in that age of fu-
locufls* have over-run mofi of the European nations,
la
Orpfies.
GYP [ 254 ] GYP
In the reigns of Henry VIII. and queen Eliza¬
beth, as we have feen, they were fet up as a mark of
general perfecution in England ; yet their numbers do
not appear to have much diminiihed. Spain is lup-
fjpfed by Mr Twifs to contain 40,000 of thefe va¬
grants ; but by others 60,000 5 and by fome even double
that number. They are lefs numerous in France in
confequence of the ftridtnefs of the police. In Italy
they abound, efpecially in the dominions of the church,
on account of the bad police and the prevalence of fu-
perftition, which permit and entice them to deceive the
ignorant. They are fcattered, though not in great
numbers, through Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and
Rufiia ; but their chief population is in the fouth-eaft
parts of Europe, which feem to be the general ren¬
dezvous of the gypfy nation. At a moderate compu¬
tation Europe contains more than feveu hundred
thoufand of thefe vagabonds.—For near four centuries
they have wandered through the world ; and in every
region, and among every people, whether barbarous or
civilifed, they have continued equally unchanged by
the lapfe of time, the variation of climate, and the
force of example. Their Angular phyfiognomy and
particular manners are the fame in every country.
Their fwarthy complexion receives no darker fhade
from the burning fun of Africa, nor any fairer tindfure
from the temperate climates of Europe ; they contraft
no additional lazinefs in Spain, nor acquire any new
induftry in England; in Turkey they behold the
mofque and the crefcent with equal indifference as they
do the reformed and the catholic church in Europe.
In the neighbourhood of civilifed life they continue
barbarous; and, beholding around them cities and fet¬
tled inhabitants, they live in tents or holes in the earth,
and wander from place to place as fugitives and vaga-
bonds.-
They are pafiionately fond of ornaments ; in which
however they confult neither propriety nor confiilency;
they will wear an old laced coat, while the reft of the
garments fcarcely hang together. In Hungary and
Tranfylvania, their fummer habitations are tents ;
their winter ones holes 10 or 12 feet deep in the earth,
except fuch as keep inns, or exercife trades. They
are fond of plate, particularly filver cups, which they
bury under the hearth for fecurity. Their principal
occupations are, fmith’s work, or tinkers, or wooden
ware, and horfe-dealing; and in Hungary and Tran¬
fylvania they are executioners of criminals, flayers of
dead beafts, and wafhers of gold. The women deal
in old cloaths, proftitution, wanton dances, and for¬
tune-telling. Notwithftanding thefe occupations, the
majority of this people are lazy, beggars, and thieves.
They bring up their children to their own profeffions,
and are very fond of them. They have few diforders,
except the meafles and fmall-pox, and weaknefs in their
eyes, occafioncd by the fmoke, and live to an advanced
age, with a ftrong attachment to life. Their phyfic is
faffron in their foups, or bleeding.
Thefe people, however, appear to be diftinguiftied
by different lingularities in different countries. At
leaft in the following circumftances the German gyp-
ires ^differ widely from thofe we commonly meet with
in England. It is a great feaft to them, our author
fays, whenever they can procure a roaft of cattle that
died of any diftemper. It is all one to them, whether
it be carrion of a iheep, hog, cow, or other beaft, Gypfiet.
horfe-fleflr only excepted ; they are fo far from being —v—**
difgufted with it, that to eat their till of fuch a meal,
is to them the height of epicurifm. When any one
cenfurts their tafte, or (hows fipprife at it, they an-
fwer, “ The fleftr of a beaft which God kills, muft be
better than of one killed by the hand of man.” They
therefore take every opportunity of getting fuch dain¬
ties. That they take carrion from a layftall, as is af¬
firmed of the gypfies in Hungary, is by no means cer¬
tain, any more than that they eat horfe-flefti. But if
a beaft out of an herd dies, and they find it before it
becomes rotten and putrified ; or if a farmer gives them
notice of a cow dead, they proceed, without helita-
tion, to get poffefiion of this booty. Their favourite
obje& is animals that have been deftroyed by fire ;
therefore, whenever a conflagration has happened, ei¬
ther in town or country, the next day the gypfies,
from every neighbouring quarter, affemble and draw
the fuffocated half confumed beafts out of the afhes.
Men, women, and children, in troops, are extremely
bufy, joyfully carrying the flefh home to their dwel¬
ling-places ; they return feveral times, provide them-
felves plentifully with this roaft meat, and gluttonize
in their huts as long as their noble fare lafts.
The gypfies have, at leaft in Tranfylvania, a fort of
regular government, rather nominal than real or effec¬
tive. They have their leaders or chiefs, whom they
diftinguiflr by the Sclavonian title, IVaywode. To
this dignity every perfon is eligible who is of a family
defeended from a former waywode ; but the preference
is generally given to thofe who have the heft clothes
and the moft wealth; who are of a large ftature, and
not paft the meridian of life.—Of teligion, however,
they have no fenfe ; though, with their ufual cunning
and hypocrify, they profefs the eftabliihed faith of e-
very country in which they live. They alfo fpeak the
languages of the reipe&ive countries, yet have a lan¬
guage of their own ; from whence derived, authors
differ. The only fcience which they have attained
is mufic. Their poetry is ungrammatical indecent
rhyme.
Their general charafter and capacities are thus de-
feribed : Imagine people of a childifti way of thinking;
their minds filled with raw, undigefted conceptions;
guided more by fenfe than reafon; ufing underftanding
and reflexion fo far only as they promote the gratifi¬
cation of any particular appetite ; and you have a per¬
fect (ketch of the gypfies character. They are lively,
uncommonly loquacious and chattering; fickle in the
extreme, confequently inconftant in their purfuits; faith-
lefs to every body, even their own caft; void of the
leaft emotion of gratitude, frequently rewarding bene¬
fits with the muft infidious malice. Fear makes them
flaviftily compliant when under fubjection; but having
nothing to apprehend, like other timorous people, they
are cruel. Defire of revenge often caufes them to take
the moft defperate refoluti-ms. To luch a degree of
violence is their fury fometimes excited, that a mother
has been known, in the excefs of paflion, to take her
fmali infant by the feet, and therewith ftriks the ob-
je& of her anger, when no other inftrament has readily
prefented- itfelf. They arc fo adJi<3ed to dunking, as
to facrifice what is tnoft neceffary to them, that they
may feaft their palate with fpirits. They have, too,
what
GYP [ «55 ] GYP
Oypfies what one would little expeft, an enormous Chare of va- ed, they all got together in a circle, their feg* 4crofs, Gyy&e*.
—v—“• Tiity, which (hows itfelf in their fondnefs for fine facing the fun, and chattered. Thus they cannot pof- v ™
clothes, and their gait and deportment when dreffed in fibly earn more, indeed hardly fo much, as would find
them. One might imagine, that this pride would have them bread, although very cheap with us; for the
the good effedl to render a gypfy cautious not to be bread I give them does not fiand me in half a kreutzer
guilty of fuch crimes as fubjeCt him to public Chame ; the pound. Even in winter they cannot bear a hat on
but here comes in the levity of character, for he never their head nor (hoes on their feet. The boys run like
looks to the right nor to the left in his tranfa&ions. In wild things wherever they are fent, either on foot or
an hour’s time he forgets that he is juil untied from the on horfeback ; but they fpOil horfes unmercifully, beat
whipping poft. But their pride is grounded on mere them on the head, jerk the bits in their mouths, fo as
idle conceit, as appears plainly from their making it a to make them run down with blood They cannot be
point of honour to abufe their companions, and put brought by Jtny means whatever to drefs horfes. Cloath
on a terrible appearance in the public market, where them as you will, they always fell or lofe their cloaths.
they are fure to have many fpe&ators; they cry out, In a word, one cannot but confider them as void of
'make a violent noife, challenge their adverfary to fight, reafon ; it is really Chocking to fee even well grown
but very feldom any thing comes of it. Thus the gip- children put whatever they find into their mouths, like
fy feeks honour, of which his ideas coincide very little infants before they can,fpeak ; wherefore they eat every
with thofe of other people, and fometimes deviate en- thing, even carrion, let it Clink never fo much. Where
tirely from, propriety. a mortality happens among the cattle, there thefe
“ Nothing (continues our author) can exceed the wretched beings are to be found in the greatdl num-
unreflraincd depravity of manners exifting among thefe hers.’
people, 1 allude particularly to the other fex. Un- The origin of this people, as we have feen, has been
checked by any idea of Chame, they give way to every generally believed to be Egyptian ; and that belief is as
defire. The mother endeavours, by the mod fcandalous old as their exidence in Europe. Thomafius, Salmon
arts, to train up her daughter for an offering to fen- the EngliCh geographer, and lately Signior Grifelini,
fuality; and this h fcarce grown up before Che becomes have endeavoured to prove it by fatisfa&ory evidence,
the feducer of others. Lazinefs is fo prevalent among This theory, however, according to our author, is
them, that were they to fubfid by their own labour without foundation. The Egyptian defeent of thefe
only, they would hardly .have bread for two of the fe- people, he thinks, is not only deffitute of proofs, hut
veu days in the week. This indolence increafes their the mod pofitive evidence is found to contradict it.
propenfity to dealing and cheating, the common attend- Their language differs entirely from the Coptic ; and
ants on idlenefs. They feek to avail themfelves of their cudoms are very different from thofe of the E-
every opportunity to fatisfy their lawlefs defires. Their gyptians. They are indeed to be found in Egypt; but
univerfal bad chara&er therefore for ficklenefs, infide- they wander about there as drangers, and form a di-
lity, ingratitude, revenge, malice, rage, depravity, la- ftind people, as in other countries. The expreflions of-
zinefs, knavery, thieviChnefs, and cunning, though not Bellonius are drong and decifive: “ No part of the
deficient in capacity and clevernefs, render thefe people world, I believe, is free from thofe banditti, wander-
of no ufe in fociety, except as foldiers to form maraud- ing about in troops, whom we by midake call Egyp-
ing parties. Perfons in their company, and under their tians and Bohemians. When we were at Cairo, and in
diCguife, have formed dangerous defigns againd cities the villages bordering on the Nile, we found troops of
and countries. They have been bauifhed from almod thefe drolling thieves fitting under pilm-trees ; and
all civilized dates, in their turn, except Hungary and they are efieemed foreigners in Egypt as well as a-
Tranfylvania, and to little purpofe. Our author is of mong us.”
opinion, that as Turkey would allow them toleration. The Egyptian defeent of the gypfies being rejefted,
it would be better for the European dates to take fome our author next endeavours to Chow that they come-
deps for cultivating and civilizing them, and making from Hindodan. The chief balls of his theory, how-
them ufeful. But while they are infenfible of religion ever, is no other than that very dubious one, a fimila-
and drongly attached to their own manners, it is to be rity of language. He adds a long vocabulary of the
feared the attempt will be impracticable. This ap- gipfy and the Hjndodanic languages; in which, it
pears from a very intelligent Hungarian lady’s expe- mud be confeffed, many words are the fame ; but many
rience on the fubjeCt, communicated in a letter as fol- are different. A principal proof which he adduces on
lows: * There are a great number of them on my this head is from the relation of Captain Szekely von
edates, but I have permitted two families in particular Doha, to whom a printer in 1763 related, that a
to edabliCh themfelves at the place of my own relidence, preacher of the Reformed church, when a dudent
under the exprefs condition that no others Chall come at Leyden, being intimately acquainted with three
here and join them. I took all pofllble pains to make young Malabar (Indents, took down 1000 of their
them reafonafcle creatures. I fet the elder ones to work; words, which he fancied correfponded with the gipfy
the younger ones tend the cattle. I obferved that they language ; and they added, that a trad of land in
were more fond of horfes than any thing elfe; for which their ifiand was named Ozigania. He repeated thefe
reafon I placed a gypfy under each groom. 1 had their words to the Raber gypfies, who explained them with-
children clothed, that none of them might be running out trouble or hefitation. This account was publiChed
about naked, according to their ufual practice. It ap- in the Vienna Gazette. Suppofing thefe three young
peared, however, that cuftom was become nature with men to be fons of Bramins, who ufe the Sanfcrit, the:
them. The old ones worked diligently fo long as any bo- common language of Hindoftan comes as near to that
dy flood over them ; the. moment their back was turn- as- modern Italian to pure Latin. The comparifon of
the-
GYP [ 256 ] GYP
Gyjifies. the two languages takes up above 30 pages; and Mr
 V-—' Grellvnan thinks it eftabliihes his fyftetn. The fame
opinion is maintained by Mr Marfden, in a paper upon
this fubjeft in the 7th volume of the Archeologia. The
numerals, however, both in Hindoilanic and gipfy, dif¬
fer greatly as dated by the two authors. And here, as
in other fuch comparifons, one is aftonifhed at the cre¬
dulity of the comparers of orthoepy and orthography
(as a periodical critic obferves), which can have no con¬
nection in languages with which we are not perfectly fa¬
miliar, even were both languages reduced to writing by
their refpeCtive people : how much lefs, then, where one
of the two languages is never reduced to writing, as is
the cafe of the gipiy, but is blended with the languageof
the country where the clan refides ? This appears from
the correfpondence of feveral words in all languages
with the gipfy- Mr Grellman acknowledges the two
gipfy verdons of the Lord’s. Prayer, at different pe¬
riods, differ fo widely, that one would almoft be in¬
clined to doubt whether they were really the fame lan¬
guage. We think we can difcern a few words differ¬
ently indeed written, but probably pronounced alike.
Nor can we, in all the languages in which Cham-
berlayne gives the Lord’s Prayer, perceive the leaft re-
femblance to the gipfy name of father, Dade and
Dad, except in the Welfh, Taad. In profecuting his
argument, Mr Grellman does not infill on the fimilarity
of colour between the two people, nor on the cowar¬
dice common to both, nor on the attachment of the
Indians to tents, or letting their children go naked; all
thefe being traits to be met with in other nations : but
he dwells on the word Polgar, the name of one of the
firll gipfy leaders, and of the Indoftanic god of mar¬
riage ; alfo on the correfpondence between the travel¬
ling fmiths in the two people, who carry two pair of
bellows ; the Indian’s boy blows them in India, the wife
or child of the gipfy in Europe: As if every travelling
tinker, in every nation where tinkers travel, had not
the fame journeymen. In lafcivious dances and chiro¬
mancy the two people agree ; nor are thefe uncommon
in other parts of the globe. The exceffive loquacity of
the two people is produced as fimilar; as if no other
nations in the world were loquacious. Fainter refem-
blances are, a fondnefs for faffron, and the intermarry¬
ing only with their own people. The laft pofition in
the author’s theory is, that the gipfies are of.the loweft
clafs of Indians, namely, Farias, or, as they are called
in Hindoftan, Suders. He compares the manners of
this clafs with thofe of the gipfies, and enumerates many
circumftances in which they agree : fome of the com¬
parifons are frivolous, and prove nothing. As an in-
ftance of which we may take the following: ‘ Giplies
are fond of being about horfes; the Suders in India
likewife, for which reafon they are commonly employ¬
ed as horfe-keepers by the Europeans refident in that
country.’ This reafoning does not prove that the gip¬
fies are Suders, any more than that they are Arabians
or Yorkfhiie Farmers.
The obje&ions, however, to which this learned and
induftrious author’s theory is liable, are fuch as only
{how it to be by no means fatisfa&ory ; but do not
prove that it is wrong. It may poffibly be right; and
upon this fuppofition the caufe of their emigration
from their country, he conje&ures, not without proba¬
bility, to be the war of Timur Beg in India. In the
N° 147-
years 1408 and 1409 this conqueror ravaged India; Gypfo>.
and the progrefs of his arms was attended with deva- rp,II(ia,
ftation and cruelty. AH who made refiftance were de- _ . '
ftroyed; t'hofe who fell into the enemy’s hands were made
flaves ; of thefe very flaves too,000 were put to death.
As on this occafion an univerfal panic took place, what
could be more natural than that a great number of ter¬
rified inhabitants fliould endeavour to fave themfelves
by flight ?—In the laft place, the author endeavours to
trace the route by which the gipfies came from Hin¬
doftan to Europe : but here he juftly acknowledges
that all that can be faid on the fubjedl is mere furmife;
and, upon the whole, after perufing all the preceding
details, the reader will probably be of opinion that
there ftill hangs a cloud over the origin of this extraor¬
dinary race.
GYPSOPHILA, in botany : A genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants $
and in the natural method ranking under the 22d or¬
der, Caryophyllei. The calyx is monophyllous, campa-
nulated, and angulated 5 the petals are five in number,
ovate, and feffile ; the capfule globofe and unilocular.
GYPSUM, PirAster.-stone, or Alabajler; a na¬
tural combination of the calcareous earth with vitriolic *
acid. See Alabaster.
The properties of gypfum, according to Cron-
ftedt, are, 1. It is loofer and more friable than a
calcareous earth. 2. It does not effervefce with acids
either in its crude or calcined (late ; or at moft but in a
very flight degree, in proportion to what it wants of
the vitriolic acid for the complete faturation of its bafe.
3. It falls into powder in the fire very readily. 4. When
burnt without being made red-hot, its powder readily
concretes with water into a mafs which foon hardens ;
but without any fenfible heat being excited in the ope¬
ration. 6. According to our author, it is nearly as
difficult of fufion as limeftone; and (hows almoft the
fame effedfts upon other bodies with limeftone, tl/bugh
the acid of vitriol feem to promote the vitrification. M.
Magellan, however, informs us, that he has found moft
of the gypfeous kind, particularly the fibrous, to melt
in the fire pretty eafily by themfelves. 7. When melt¬
ed in the fire with. borax, it puffs and bubbles very
much, and for a longtime during the fufion. Accord¬
ing to M. Magellan, when a fmall quantity of any gyp-
fum is melted together with borax, the glafs becomes
colourlefs and tranfparent; but fome forts of alabafter
and fparry gypke, when melted in quantity with borax,
yield a fine yellow tranfparent coloured glafs, refem-
bling that of the fyeft topazes ; but if too much of the
gypfum is ufed in proportion to the borax, the glafs
becomes opaque, juft as it happens with the pure lime-
ftome. 8. When burnt with any inflammable matter
it emits a fulphureous fmell, and may thus be decom¬
pounded, as well as by either of the fixed alkaline falts;
but if this laft method is followed, there, ought to be
five or fix times as much fait as there is of gyplum.
9. On being decompounded in this manner the refi-
duum commonly (hows fome figns of iron. The fpe-
cies are,
1. Friable jjypfeous earth of a white colour, found
in Saxony.
2. Indurated gypfum of a folid texture, the particles
of which are not vifible, commonly called alabajler.
This is fometimes found unfaturated with vitriolic acid j
in
1
GYP i: *57 1 G Y S
GypTum. Jn which cale only it will effervefce with a<Juaforti«, as
it is faid to do under the article Alabaster. It is
very eafily fawed or cut, and takes a dull polifh. It is
of feveral kinds ; as, white ; clear and tranfparent from
Perfia, opaque from Italy and Trapans in Sicily; of
a yellow colour, of which there are likewife two krtids,
tranfparent and opaque; the former being met with in
the eaftern countries, the latter in Spain. Brunnick
informs us, that in this country there are a great many
fine varieties of the fpecies we treat of; and front hence
he fuppofes that the ancients obtained the beautiful
alabafters they ufed. Fabroni tells us, that a great va¬
riety of fine alabafters are met with in Italy. Twenty-
four quarries of them, each of a different colour, are
now worked out at Volterra ; but he is of opinion that
the Romans brought the greateft part of the alabafters
they made ufe of from Greece.
3. Gypfum of a fcaly texture, or common plafter of
Paris. This is found in many different countries, of
two kinds; viz. white with coarfe fcales,or with fmall
fcales yellowifh or greyilh. According to Bergman,
"plafter contains of vitriolic acid, T35^ of pure calca¬
reous earth, and 22 of water. It is foluble in 500
times its weight of warm water, or 450 times its
weight of boiling water. It is well known by its pro¬
perty of forming an hard mafs with water after being
{lightly burned ; and during this confolidation a flight
degree of heat is produced, though lefs than when lime
is flaked. It is often employed in building ; and may
"be taken off and ufed again and again for the fame pur-
pofe.
4. Fibrous gypfum, or plafter ftone, has likewife two
^varieties, viz. with coarfe or with fine fibres. It is of a
white colour.
5. Selenites, or fpar-like gypfum, by fome alfo call¬
ed glacies mana, and confounded with the clear and
tranfparent mica. It is found of two kinds, clear and
tranfparent, or yellowilh and opaque.
6. Cryftallized gypfum, or gypfeous drufen. This
is found compofed of ;wedge-fliaped and fometimes
of capillary cryttals, fometimes white and fometimes
yellowifh.
7. Stala&itical gypfum is found of a great many dif¬
ferent forms and colours. When found in large pieces
it commonly varies between white and yellow, and like¬
wife in its tranfparency in different parts of the fatne
mafs. It is ufed as alabafter in feveral works.
Befides the countries already mentioned, England
abounds with fubftances of a gypfeous nature. There
are plenty in Derbyfhire and Nottirtghamfhhr, fb fine Grf
as to be ufed like alabafler, that is, to take a fine po- II '
lifh. In the counties juft mentioned there are lar^e
pits of this kind, alfo in irtoft of the cliffs of the Se- J
vern, efpecially at the Old Paffage in Somerfetfhire. A
very fine femipellucid folid alabafter is found in Derby¬
fhire. Very fine fibrous talcs are alfo found in the
above mentioned pits of ftone, and many other places.
Selenites every where abound, fo that it is impoffible tcs
enumerate the different places. Ve;ry fine gypfeous
drufen are found in Sheppey Ifle, and fome exceedingly
beautiful, large and clear as cryftal, have been dug from
the falt-rocks at Nantvvich in Chefhire. The felenites
rhomboidales is found in plenty in England, tho’ rare
in other countries. Shotaver hill in Oxfordfhire is re¬
markable for them. The Ifle of Sheppey affords a kind
of fpar-like gypfa, of a fibrous nature, and always ac¬
creting like the radiations of a ftaron the feptaria, and
thence called jlclla fcptarii.
The principal ufe of gypfum is as a material for fmali
ftatues and figures of various kinds, alfo for moulds fot
calling wax-work. Sec. It has lately been introduced
as a manure in France and America, though its fuccef#
in this refpeft has not yet been fufficiently experienced.
GYR-falco, in zoology, the name of a large and
fierce fpecies of falcon, called in Englifti the jer-falcon.
See Falco.
It is a very bold and daring bird, attacking all other
fowl without referve, particularly the heron and ftork
kinds. The other falcons are all afiaid of this.
GYRINUS, in zoology ; a genus of mfefts of the
coleoptera order. The generic characters are: The
antennae are cylindrical, ftiff, and (horter than theppvvnr
head; and the eyes are four, two on the upper and1, *
two on the under part of the head. Mr Barbut, how¬
ever, fays that the eyes only appear on the upper and
under parts of the head, but that they are not four.
The natator, or common water-flea, is of a bright
black colour ; the feet *tre yellow, fiat, and large ; the
infed is in length one-third of an inch. It runs
with great celerity in circles on the furfacc of the wa¬
ters, &nd is very difficult to catch, plunging down in-
ftantaneoufly when attempted to be taken. There arc
eight other fpecies, which frequent the waters in diffe¬
rent parts of the globe.
GYSHORN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Lunenburgh, fituated on the river After, in E. Long.
10. 45. N. Lat. 52. fo.
H-
BThe eighth letter and fixth csmfohant in our al- the organs of fpcech, at leaft in bur language : wit-
’ phabet; though fome grammarians will have it nefs the words eat and heat, arm and harm, ear and
to be only an afpiration, or breathing. But nothing hear, at and hat. See. as pronounced with or without
can be more ridiculous thatt tO difpute its being a di- the h.
ftinCl found, and formed rti 'a particular manner by It is pronounced by a ftrong exfpiration of the breath
Vol. VIII. Pan I. r li ^ between
H A B [ 258 ] H A B
Haag between the lips, clMngyas it were, by a gentle motion
II of the lower jaw to the upper, and the tongue nearly
Habdala. appr0aching the palate.
* There feems to be no doubt, but that our h, which
is the fame with that of the Romans, derived its figure
from that of the Hebrew n- And, indeed, the Phoe¬
nicians, moft ancient Greeks and Romans, ufed the
fame figure with our H, which in the feriesof all thefe
alphabets keeps its primitive place, being the eighth
letter.
H, ufed as a numeral, denotes 200 j and with a daih
over it, H, 200,000.
As an abbreviation, H was ufed by the ancients to
denote homo, hares, hora. See. Thus H. B. ilood for
hares lonorum ; and H. S. corruptly for L L S. fe-
flerce ; and H. A. for Hadrianus.
HAAG, or Hag, a town of the duchy of Bavaria
in Germany, feated on a hill on the weft fide of the
river Inn, in E. Long. 12. 23. N. Lat. 48. 16.
HABAKKUK, one of the twelve lefier prophets,
whole prophecies are taken into the canon of the Old
Teftament. The name is written in the Hebrew with
n hheth ; and fignifies “ a wreftler.” There is no pre-
cife time mentioned in Scripture when this Habakkuk
lived ; but from his predicting the ruin of the Jews by
the Chaldeans, it may be concluded that he prophefied
before Zedekiah, or about the time of Manafleh. He
is reported to have been the author of feveral prophe¬
cies which are not extant: but thofe that are indifpu-
tably his, are contained in three chapters. In thefe the
prophet complains very pathetically of the diforders
which he obferved in the kingdom of Judasa. God re¬
veals to him, that he would fhortly punilh them in a
very terrible manner by the arms of the Chaldaeans.
He foretels the conquefts of Nebuchadnezzar, his me-
tamorpholis, and death. He foretels, that the vaft de-
figns of Jehoiakim would be fruftrated. He fpeaks
againft a prince (probably the king of Tyre) who built
with blood and iniquity ; and he accufes another king
(perhaps the king of Egypt) of having intoxicated his
friend, in order to difeover his nakednefs. The third
chapter is a fong or prayer to God, whofe majefty he
deferibes with the utmoft grandeur and fublimity of ex-
preffion.
HABAT, a province of Afia, in Barbary, and in
the kingdom of Fez.. It is furrounded by the Medi¬
terranean, the Straits of Gibraltar, and the Atlantic
Ocean. The principal towns are Arzilla, Tetuan, and
Ceuta ; which laft is in pofleflion of the Spaniards.
HABDALA, a ceremony of the Jews obferved on
the evening of the fabbath, when every one of the fa¬
mily is come home. At that time they light a taper
or lamp, with two wicks at leaft. The mafter of the
family then takes a cup, with fome wine, mixed with
fragrant fpices, and naving repeated a pafiage or two
of feripture, as for example, “ I will take the cup of
falvation,” &c. Pfal. cxvi. and “ The Jews had light
and gladnefs,” 3tc. Efth. viii. he bleffes the wine and
fpices. Afterwards he blefies the light of the fire; and
then cafts his eyes on his hands and nails, as remem¬
bering that he is going to work. The whole is in¬
tended to fignify, that the fabbath is over, and is from
that moment divided from the day of labour which
follows. For this reafon the ceremony is called Hab¬
dala, which fignifies- “ diftin&icn.” After the cere¬
mony is over, and the company breaks up, they wifh Habeas
one another, not “ a good night,” but “ a good CorPu*-
week.” ’
HABEAS corpus, in law, is the great remedy in
cafes of Falfe Imprisonment. The incapacity of the
three other remedies referred to under that article, to
give complete relief in every cafe, hath almoft entirely
antiquated them, and hath caufed a general recourfe
to be had, in behalf of perfons aggrieved by illegal
imprifonment, to the prefent writ, the moft celebra¬
ted in the Englifh law. Of this there are various
kinds made ufe of by the courts at Weftminfter, for
removing prifoners from one court into another for the
more eafy adminiftration of juftice. Such is the ha¬
beas corpus ad refpondendum, when a man hath a caufe
of adtion againft one who is confined by theprocefs of
fome inferior court ; in order to remove the prifoner,
and charge him with this new adtion in the court
above. Such is that ad fatisfaciendum, when a prifo¬
ner hath had judgment againft him in an aftion, and
the plaintiff is defirous to bring him up to fome fupe-
rior court to charge him with procefs of execution.
Such alfo are thofe ad profequendum, tejlijicandum, de¬
liberandum, See. ; which iffue when it is neceffary to
remove a prifoner, in order to profecUte or bear tefti-
mony in any court, or to be tried in the proper jurif-
didtion wherein the fadt was committed. Such is,
laftly, the common writ ad faciendum et recipiendum,
which iffues out of any of the courts of Weftminfter-
hall, when a perfon is fued in fome inferior jurifdidlion,
and is defirous to remove the adtion into the fuperior
court; commanding the inferior judges to produce the
body of the defendant, together with the day and caufe
of his caption and detainer (whence the writ is fre¬
quently denominated an habeas corpus cum caufaj, to
do and receive whatfoever the king’s court (hall confi-
der in that behalf. This is a writ grantable of com¬
mon right, without any motion in court; and it in-
ftantly fuperfedes all proceedings in the court below.
But, in order to prevent the furreptitious difeharge of
prifoners, it is ordered by ftatute 1 & 2 P. & M. c. 13..
that no habeas corpus fhall iffue to remove any prifoner
out of any goal, unlefs figned by fome judge of the
court out of which it is awarded. And, to avoid vexa¬
tious delays by removal of frivolous caufes, it is ena&ed
by ftatute 21 Jac. I. c. 23. that, where the judge of
an inferior court of record is a barrifter of three years
Handing, no caufe Ihall be removed from thence by
habeas corpus or other writ, after iffue or demurrer de¬
liberately joined : that no caufe, if once remanded to
the inferior court by writ of procedendo or otherwife,
ihall ever afterwards be again removed: and that no
caufe ihall be removed at all, if the debt or damages
laid in the declaration do not amount to the fum of
five pounds. But an expedient having been found out
to elude the latter branch of the ftatute, by procuring
a nominal plaintiff to bring another a&ion for five
pounds or upwards (and then by the courfe of the
court the habeas corpus removed both aftions together),
it is therefore enafted by ftatute 12 Geo. I. c. 2g..
that the inferior court may proceed in fuch aftions as
are under the value of five pounds, notwithfianding..
other a&ions may be brought againft the fame defend¬
ant to a greater amount.
But the great and efficacious writ, in all manner of
illegal
H A B [ 259 ] H A B
Habeas illegal confinement, is that of habeas corpus ad fubjici- juft caufe, and therefore hath a right to be delivered, Habeas
t Corpus, endutn; directed to the perfon detaining another, and the writ of habeas corpus is then a writ of right, Corpus. ^
conunanding him to produce the body of the prifoner, which “ may not be denied, b«t ought to be granted * " ^
with the day and caufe of his caption and detention,
ad faciendum, fubjiciendum, et recipiendum, to do, fub-
mit to, and receive whatfoever the judge or court
awarding fuch writ (hall confider in that behalf. This
is a high prerogative writ, and therefore by the com¬
mon law iffuing out of the court of king’s bench, not
to every man that is committed, or detained in pri-
fon, or otherwife reftrained, though it be by the
command of the king, the privy-council, or any o-
ther.”
In the articles Liberty and Rights, we expatiated
at large on the perfonal liberty of the fubjeft. This
only in term-time, but alfo during the vacation, by a was fhown to be a natural inherent right, which could
fat from the chief juftice, or any other of the judges, not be furrendered or forfeited unlefs by the commif-
anrl rnnnincr into all nnrts of the kincr’s dominions : lion of fome crreat
and running into all parts of the king’s dominions
for the king is at all times intitled to have an account
why the liberty of any of his fubjefts is reftrained,
wherever that reftraint may be inflifted. If it iffues
in vacation, it is ufoally returnable before the judge
lion of fome great and atrocious crime, and which
ought not to be abridged in any cafe without the fpe-
cial permifiion of law. A dodrine coeval with the
firft rudiments of our conftitution ; and handed down
to us from the Anglo-Saxons, notwithftanding all theiT'
himfelf who awarded it, and he proceeds by himfelf ftruggles with the Danes, and the violence of the
thereon •; unlefs the term Ihould intervene, and then it Norman conqueft : aflerted afterwards and confirmed
may be returned in court. Indeed, if the party were by the conqueror hi,mfdf and his defcendants : and
privileged in the courts of common pleas and exche- though fometimes a little impaired by the ferocity of
quer, as being an officer or fuitor of the court, an ha- the times, and the occafional defpotifm of jealous or
leas corpus adfuhjiciendum might alfo have been award- ufurping princes, yet eftabliflred on the firmeft bafis by
fcd from thence; and, if the caufe of imprifonment were the provifions of magna charta, and a long fucceffion
palpably illegal, they might have difcharged him : but of ftatutes ena&ed under Edward III. To affert an
if he were committed for any criminal matter, they abfolute exemption from imprifonment in all cafes, is
could only have remanded him, or taken bail for his inconfiftent with every idea of law and political focie-
appearance in the court of king’s bench ; which occa- ty ; and in the end would deftroy all civil liberty, by
honed the common pleas to difcountenance fuch ap- rendering its proteftion impoffible : but the glory of
plications. It hath alfo been faid, and by very re- the Englilh law confifts in clearly defining the times,
fpeftable authorities, that the X\V<e habeas corpus wwf the caufes, and the extent, when, wherefore, and to
iffue out of the court of chancery in vacation : but, what degree, the imprifonment of the fubjedt may be
upon the famous application to lord Nottingham by lawful. This it is which induces the abfolute ntcef-
Jenks, notwithftanding tfie moft diligent fearches, no fity of expreffing upon every commitment the reafon
precedent could be found where the chancellor had if- for which it is made ; that the court, upon an habeas
fued fuch a writ in vacation ; and therefore his lordlhip corpus, may examine into its validity ; and according
refufed it. to the circumftances of the cafe may difcharge, ad-
In the court of king’s-bench it was, and is ftill, mit to bail, or remand the prifoner.
neceffary to apply for it by motion to the court, as in And yet, early in the reign of Charles I. the court
the cafe of all other prerogative writs (certiorari, pro- of king’s-bench, relying on fome arbitrary precedents
hibition, mandamus, &c.) which do not iffue as of (and thofe perhaps mifunderftood), determined * that *
mere courfe, without ffiowing fome probable caufe why they could not upon an habeas corpus either bail or ^rials, viui
the extraordinary power of the crown is called in to deliver a prifoner, though committed without any1^6’
the party’s affiftance. For, as was argued by lord caufe affigned, in cafe he was committed by the fpe-
chitf juftice Vaughan, “ it is granted on motion, be- cial command of the king, or by the lords of the privy-
- caufe it cannot be had of courfe ; and there is there- council. This drew on a parliamentary inquiry, and
fore no necejjity to grant it: for the court ought to produced the petition of right, 3 Car. I. which recites
be fatisfied that the party hath a probable caufe to this illegal judgment, and enadis that no freeman here-
be delivered.” And this feems the more reafonable, after (hall be fo imprifoned or detained. But when
becaufe, when once granted, the perfon to whom it in the following year, Mr Selden and others were
is diredted can return no iatisfa&ory excufe for not committed by the lords of the council, in purfuance of
bringing up the body of the prifoner. So that, if it his majefty’s fpecial command, under a general charge
affued of mere courfe, without (bowing to the court of “ notable contempts and ftirring up fedition againft
or judge fome reafonable ground for awarding it, a the king and government,” the judges delayed for
traitor or felon under fentence of death, a foldier or two terms (including alfo the long vacation) to deliver
mariner in the king’s fervice, a wife, a child, a relation, an opinion how far fuch a charge was bailable ; and
pr a domeftic, confined for infanity or other pruden- when at length they agreed that it was, they how-
tial reafons, might obtain a temporary enlargement ever annexed a condition of finding fureties for the
by fuing out an habeas corpus, though fure to be re- good behaviour, which ftill protradled their imprifon-
manded as foon as brought up to the court. And ment; the chief juftice Sir Nicholas Hyde, at the fame
therefore Sir Edward Coke, when chief juftice, did not time declaring ||, that “ if they were again remanded fi/v/
fcruple, in 13 Jac. I. to deny a habeas corpus to one for that caufe, perhaps the court would not after-' ' ‘2419’
confined by the court of admiralty for piracy; there wards grant a habeas corpus, being already made ac-
appearing, upon his own (bowing, fufficient grounds quainted with the caufe of the imprifonment.” But
to confine him. On the other hand, if a probable this was heard with indignation and aftoniffiment
ground be (hown, that the party is imprifoned without by every lawyer prefent; according to Mr Selden’s
' . I i 2 own
Habeas
H A B [ 260 T H A B
own account of the matter, whofe refentment was proper court of judicature. 4. That officers and 1
not cooled at the diftance of four and twenty years. keepers neglecting to make due returns, or not deli-
Thefe pitiful evalion's gave rife to the ftatute 16 vering to the prifoner or hi§ agent within fix hours '
Car. I. c. 10. §. 8. whereby it is ena&ed, that if any after demand a copy of the warrant of commitment,
perfon be committed by the king himfelf in perfon, or (hifting the cuttody of a prifoner from one to arm¬
or by his privy council, or by any of the members ther without fufficient reafon or1 authority (fpecified
thereof, he (hall have granted unto him, without any in the aft), fhall for the firlt offence forfeit ico 1. and
delay upon any pretence whatfoever, a writ of habeas for the fecond offence zoo 1. to the party grieved,
corpus, upon demand or motion made to the court of and be difabled to hold his office. 5. That no per-
king’s bench or common-pleas ; who fhall thereupon, fon, once delivered by habeas corpus, fhall be re-
within three court-days after the return is made, exa- committed for the fame offence, on penalty of
mine and determine the legality of fuch commitment, 5001. 6. That every perfon committed for trea-
and do what to juftice fhall appertain, in delivering, fon or felony fhall, if he requires it the firft week
bailing, or remanding fuch prifoner. Yet ftill in the of the next term, or the fo ft day of the next feffion
cafe of Jenks, before alluded to, who in 1676 was of oyer and terminer, be indifted in that term or
committed by the king in council for a turbulent feffion, or elfe admitted to bail-; unlefs the king’s
fpeech at Guildhall, new fhifts and devices were made witnefles cannot be pioduced at that time : and if ac-
ufe of to prevent his enlargement by law ; the chief quitted, or if not indifted and tried in the fecond term
juftice (as well as the chancellor) declining to award or ftffion, he fhall be difcha.rged from his imprifon-
a writ of habeas corpus ad fubjiciendum in vacation, meat for fuch imputed offence : but that no perfonj
though at lall he thought proper to award the ufual after the affifes fhall be opened for the county in which
writs ad deliberandum. See. whereby the prifoner was he is detained, fhall be removed by habeas corpus, till
difeharged at the Old Bailey. Other abufes had alfo after the affifes are ended ; but fhall be left to the
crept into daily praftice, which had in fome meafure juftice of the judges of affife. 7. That any fuch pri-
defeated the benefit of this great conftitutional re foner may move for and obtain his habeas corpus, as.
medy. The party imprifoning was at liberty to de- well out of the chancery or exchequer as out of the
lay his obedience to the firft writ, and might wait till king’s bench or common pleas ; and the lord chan-
a fecond and a third, called an alias and a pluries, cellor or judges denying the fame, on fight of the
were iffued, before he produced the party: and many warrant, or oath that the fame is refufed, forfeit feve-
©ther vexatious fhifts were praftifed to detain ftate- rally to the party grieved the fum of 5001. 8. That
prifoners in cuftody. But whoever will attentively the writ of habeas corpus fhall run into the counties
eonfider the Englifh hiftory, may obferve, that the palatine, cinque ports, and other privileged places,
flagrant abufe of any power, by the crown or its mi- and the iflands of Jerfey and Guernfey. 9. That no
Hitlers, has always been produftive of a flruggle ; inhabitant of England (except perfons contrafting, or
which either difeovers the exercife of that power to convifts praying to be transported; or having com¬
be contrary to law, or (if legal) reflrains it for the mitted fome capital offence in the place to which
future. This was the cafe in the prefent inflance. they are fent) (hall be fent prifoner to Scotland, Ire-
The oppreffion of an obfoure individual gave birth to land, Jerfey, Guernfey, or any places beyond the
the famous habeas corpus aft, 31 Car. II. c. 2. which feas, within or without the king’s dominions: on pain
is frequently confidered as another magna carta of the that the party committing, his advifers, aiders, and
kingdom ; and by confequence has alfo in fubfequent affiftants, fhall forfeit to the party grieved a fum not
times reduced'the method of proceeding on thefe writs lefs than 500I. to be recovered with treble cofts ; fhall
( though not within the reach of that ftatute, but iffu- be difabled to bear any office of truft or profit; fhall
ing merely at the common law) to the true ftandard of incur the penalties of pramumre ; and fhall be incapable
law and liberty. of the king’s pardon.
Tire ftatute itfelf enafts, 1. That the writ fhall be This is the fubftance of that great and important
returned and the prifoner brought up, within a limited ftatute : which extends (we may obferve) only to the
time according to the diftance, not exceeding in any cafe of commitments for fuch criminal charge as can
cafe twenty days. 2. That fuch writs fhall be endor- produce no inconvenience to public juftice by a tern-
fed, as granted in purfuance of this aft, and figned by porary enlargement of t;he prifoner; all other cafes of
the perfon awarding them. 3. That on complaint and unjuft imprifonment being left to the habeas corpus at
requeft in writing by or on behalf of any perfon com- common law. But even upon writs at the commoa ^
milted and charged with any crime (unlefs committed law it is now expefted by the court, agreeable to an-
for treafon or felony expreffed in the warrant, or for cient precedents and the fpirit of the aft of parlia-
fufpicion of the fame, or as aceeffary thereto before ment, that the writ fhould be immediately obeyed,
the faft, or comitied or charged in execution by le- without waiting for any alias or pluries; otherwife an.
gal procefs), the lord chancellor, or any of the twelve attachment will iffue. By which admirable regula-
judges in vacation, upon viewing a copy of the war- tions, judicial as well as parliamentary, the.remedy is
rant, or affidavit that a copy is denied, fhall (ualefs now complete for removing the injury of unjuft and -
the party has neglefted for two terms to apply to any illegal confinement. A remedy the mere neceffary,
court for his enlargement) award a habeas corpus for becaufe the oppreffion does not always arife from the
fuch prifoner, returnable immediately before himfelf ill-nature, but fometimes from the mere inattention, of.
or any other of the judges and upon the return made government. For it frequently happens in foreign
fliall difeharge the party, if bailable, upon giving fe- countries (and has happened in England during the
curity to appear and aafwer to the accufatien ia tjie temporary Jufpenfioui of the ftatute), that perfons ap¬
prehended?:
gx
H A B r 261 ] H A C
Hiber- prehended upon fufpiclon have fuIFered a long itrvpri-
;daflier fonment, merely becaufe they were forgotten.
H b' HABERDASHER, in commerce, a feller of hata
. ^ 1' and other fmall wares.—The mailer and wardens of
the company of haberdaftters in London, calling to
their affiltance one of the company of cappers, and an¬
other of the hat-makers, and mayors, &c. of towns,
may fearch the wares of all hatters who work hats with
foreign wool, and who have not been apprentices to
the trade, or who dye them with any thing but cop¬
peras and galls, or woad and madder; in which cafes
they are liable to penalties by ftat. $i Eliz. cap. 7.
and 5 Geo. II. cap. 22.
For the etymology of this denomination, fee Ber-
D-AS H.
HABERGION, or Ha u be am on, Habergbtum,
a coat of mail ; an ancient piece of defenlive armour,
in form of a coat, dtfcending from the neck to the
middle, and formed of little iron rings or malhes, link¬
ed into each other.—Tire word is alfo written
hartlerge, haubere,. haubert, haul her, houtbert, and hauberk.
Spelman takes it to have been formed from the ancient
French hault, “high,” and berg, “ armour, covering;5'
as ferving to defend the upper part of the body. Du
Gange and Skinner choofe to derive it from the Bel-
gic hah, or Teutonic haltz, “ neck,” and her gen, “ to
cover as if it were a peculiar defence for the neck.
Others will have it formed of al, a!la,.(\. d. all, and ber-
gen, “ to cover as importing it a cover for the whole
body.
HABICOT (Nicholas), a celebrated furgeon, born
at Bonny in Gatinois, acquired great reputation by
his Ikill in his proftflion, and by his writings ; and died
in 1624. He wrote a treatile on the plague, and fe-
veral other curious works.
HABINGTON (William), an Englilh poet and
hillorian, was the fon of Thomas Habington, Efq.
He was born in 1605, at Hendlip in Worcefter fhire ;
and was educated at St Omcrs and at Paris. He
died in 1654 and left feveral manufcripts in the hands
of his fon. His printed works are, 1. Poems under
the title oi.Caflura. 2. The queen of Arragon, a
tragic-comedy. 3. Gbfervations upon Hillory. 4. The
hillory of Edward IV. king of England, written and
publiilied at the defire of Charles I. This work is
qompofed in a very florid flyle.
HABIT, in philofophy, an aptitude or difpofition
either ot mind or body, acquired by a frequent repe¬
tition of the fame ad. See Custom and Habit.
Habit is alfo ufed for a drefs or garb, or the com-
pofition of garments, therewith a perfon is covered.
The principal part of the drefs worn by the Jews and
Greeks was the ‘aalM and the The invlw was
an upper garment, confifting of a loofe fquare piece of
cloatb wrapped round the body ; the x,ru' was an un¬
der garment, or tunic, which wasTaftened round the
body and embraced it clofdy, falling down to the mid¬
thigh. It is proper in-this place to obferve that a per-
fon divefted of this upper garment or in the ea-
ftern language, is ftyled naked, and-in this fenfe David
danced naked before the ark.
The feveral forts of garments in ufe with both fexes,
amopgft the Romans, were the toga, tunica, peluna,
lacerna, chlamys, paludamentum, Isena, ftola, pallium
or palla. See Toga, &c.
For the habits of the priefts amongd the Jews, Habit
Greeks, and Romans, fee the article Priests. II
^ Habit is particularly ufed for the uniform garments Hacket.
of the religious, conformable to the rule and order ^
whereof they make profeflion : as the habit of St Bene¬
dict, of St Auguftrne, &c.
In this fenfe we fay abfolutely, fuch a perfon has
taken th& habit; meaning he has entered upon a no¬
viciate in a certain order. So he is faid to quit the ha¬
bit, when he renounces the order. See Vow.
The habits of the feveral religious are not fuppofed
to have been calculated for Angularity or novelty : the
founders of the orders, who were at firft chiefly inha¬
bitants of deferts and folitudes, gave their monks the
habit ufual among the country people. Accordingly,
the primitive (labits of St Anthony, St Hilarion, St
BenediA, &c. are defcribed by the ancient writers
as confiding chiefly of ftieep Ikins, the common drefs
of the peafants, fltepherds, and mountaineers, of that
time ; and the fame they gave to their difciples.
The orders ellablifhed in and about cities and inha¬
bited places took the habit worn by other ecclefiaftics
at the time of their inliitution. Thus, St Dominic-
gave his diiciples the habit of regular canons, which he
himfelf had dways worn to that time. And the like
may be faid of the Jefuits, Barnabites, Theatins, Ora-
tbrians, See. who took the common habit of the eccle-
fiaflics at the time of their foundation. And what
makes them differ fo much from each other, as well as
from the ccclefiaftical habit of theprefent times, is, that
they have always kept invariably to the fame form $
whereas the ecclefiaftics and laics have been changing
their mode on every occafion.
HABITE and Repute, in Scots law, the com¬
mon opinion of the people, among whom a perfon
lives, with refpedi to any circumftance relating tc*
him.
HABITUDE, among fchoolmen, the refpeft or
relation one thing bears to another. See Relation.
HABSBURG, or Hapsburg, an ancient caftle
of Svvifferland, in the canton of Bern. It is the place
where the ancient counts of Haplburg refided, and is
feated near the lake of Lucern, and to the eaft of
the town of that name. . E. Long. 8. 10. N. Lat. -
47. 22.
HACHA, a fea-pert town of South America, in
Terra Firma, feated at the mouth of a river of the fame
name. Here the Spanifh galleons touch at -their arrival
in South America, from whence expreffes are fent to
all the fettlements to give them notice of it. W.Long. -
72. 8. N. Lat. 11. 30.
HACKET (John), bifhdp of Litchfield and Co¬
ventry, was born in 1592* In 1623, he was made
chaplain to James I. and prebendary of Lincoln : and ’
foon after obtained the reftory of St Andrew’s Hoi-
born, with that of Cheam in Surry ; his patron tell¬
ing him, he intended Holborn for wealth, and Cheam
for health. In 1642 he was prefented to a prebendary
and refidentiary ; but was deprived of the enjoyment of
them, as well as of St Andrew’s, by the enfuing troubles.
Fie then lived retired at Cheam with little difturbance,
until he recovered his preferments by the reftoration of
Charles II. by whom he was preferred to the fee of
Litchfield and Coventry in 1661. Finding the beau-
Uful cathedral of Litchfield almoft battered to the
ground, ,
H A C [ 262 1 HAD
Hackney, ground, he in eight years finifhed a complete church not exceeding a mile and a half; or above is. 6d. for Hadding-
■"'v—”- fuperior to the former, at his own expence of 20,000 1. any diftance not excetding two miles. Where hack- ton
excepting locol. he had from the dean and chap- ney coachmen refufe to go at, or exaft more than, ^
ter, with what he could procure from private benefac- their limited hire, they are fubjeft to a forfeit not un-
tors. He laid out 1000 1. on a prebendal houfe, his der 10s. nor exceeding 3 1. and which the commifiion- > g"t" ■
palaces at Litchfield and Eccleihall having been de- ers have power to determine. Every hackney-coach
molilhed during the civil wars: and befide thefe aftsof mull; be provided with check firings, and every coach-
munificence, left feveral other benefadions at his man plying without them incurs a penalty of 5s 
death in 1670 He publifhed, before he entered into Drivers of hackney-coaches are to give way to perfons
orders, a comedy intitled Zqyo/a, which was twice ad- of quality and gentlemens coaches, under the penalty
ed before king James I. After his death there appear- of 5 1.
ed a “ Century of his fermons on feveral remarkable. The duty arifing from licences to hackney-coaches
fubjeds,” in folio ; and “ The life of archbifhop Wil- and chairs in London, forms a branch of the king’s
hams,” in folio, which was abridged in .1 700 by Am- extraordinary and perpetual revenue *. This revenue * See-Se-
brofe Philips. is governed by commiflioners of its own, and is inw"“e*
HACKNEY, a parilh of Middlefex, on the north- truth a benefit to the fubjed:; as the expence of it is
eaft. fide of London,'containing no lefs than 12 ham- felt by no individual, and its neceffary regulations have
lets. At the bottom of Hackney-Marfh, through which eftablilhed a competent jurifdidion, whereby a very re-
the river Lea runs, between Old-Ford and the Wyck, fradoryrace of men may be kept in fome tolerable order,
there have been difcovered the remains of agreatftone HADDINGTON, a borough-town of Scotland,
caufeway, which, by the Roman coins, &c. found in Eaft Lothian, which fends one member to parlia-
there, was no doubt one of the famous highways made ment. It is furrounded with many feats of nobility and
by the Romans. The church here is of a very ancient gentry. It is about 16 miles eaft of Edinburgh. W.
foundation, fo old as Edward II. and the number of Long. 2. 25. N. Lat. 55. 50.
houfes near 800. That part next London is called HADDOCK, the Englilh name of a fpecies of
JHare Street; the middle Church Street ; and the north Gadus.
part Clapton; Dorlefton and Shaklewell are on the weft, HADDON (Dr Walter), a great reftorer of the
and Hummerton, which leads to the Marih, on the eaft. learned languages in England, was born in 1516. He
Here are three meeting-houfes and feveral boarding- diftinguiftied himfelf particularly by writing Latin in
fchools, befides the free fchool in the church-yard, a a fine ftyle, which he acquired by a conftant ftudy of
charity-fchool, and 17 almlhoufes. It was from this Cicero. He was a ftrenuous promoter of the reforma-
place that the coaches let to the people-in London firft tion under king Edward ; and was therefore thought
received their name; for in the laft century, many a proper perfon to fucceed bifnop Gardiner in the ma-
people having gone on vifits to fee their friends at fterlhip of Trinity-hall, Cambridge, on his deprivation.
Hackney, it occafioned them often to hire horfes or He lay concealed during the reign of queen Mary; but
carriages, fo that in time it became a common name acquired the favour of Elizabeth, who conftituted him
for fuch horfes, coaches, and chairs, as were let to the one of the mafters of the court of requefts, and fent
people of London ; and the name has now diffufed it- him one of the three agents to Bruges in 1566, to re-
felf not only throughout Britain, but likewife Ireland, ftore commerce between England and the Netherlands.
HACKNEr-Coacbes, thofe expofed to hire in the He wasalfo engaged with Sir John Cheke in drawing up
ftreets of London, and fome other great cities, at rates in Latin that ufeful code of ecclefiaftical law, publifhed
fixed by authority. See Coach.—Thefe firft began to in 1571 by the learned John Fox, under the title of
ply in the ftreets of London, or rather W’aited at inns. Reformatio legum ecclefiajlicarum; his other works are
in the year 1625, and were only 20 in number; but in colle&ed and publilhed under the title of Lucubrations.
1635 they were fo much increafed, that king Charles He died in 1572.
iffued out an order of council for reftraining them. In HADERSLEBEN, a fea-port town of Denmark,
1637,he allowed 50 hackney-coachmen, each ofwhom in the duchy of Slefwick, with a ftrong citadel, built
might keep 12 horfes. In 1652, their number was li- upon a fmall ifland. It is feated on a bay of the Baltic
mited to 200 ; and in 1654, it was extended to 300. Sea, and has a well-frequented harbohr. E. Long. 9.
In 1661, 400 were licenfed, at 5 1. annually foreach. 35. N. Lat. 55. 24.
In 1694, 700 were allowed, and taxed by the 5 and HADES, in the fcriptures, is ufed in various fen-
6 of W. & M. at 41. per annum each. By 9 Anne fes. Sometimes it fignifies the invifible regions of the
cap. 23. 800 coaches were allowed in London and dead, fometimes the place of the damned, and fome-
Weftminfter; but by 8 Geo. III. cap. 24. the num- times the grave. In Greek authors it is ufed to figni-
ber is increafed to 1000, which are to be licenfed by fy in general the regions of the dead. See Hell.
commiflioners, and to pay a duty of 5 fti. per week HADLEY, a town of Suffolk, feated in a bottom
to the king. On Sundays there were formerly only on the river Prefton. It confifts of about 600 houfes ;
j 75 hackney-coaches to ply, which were to be ap- with a very handfome church, a chapel of eafe, and a
pointed by commiffioners; but their number is now Prefbyterian meeting-houfe. The ftreets are pretty
unlimited. broad, but not paved. Large quantities of yarn are
The fare of hackney coachmen in London, or with- fpun here for the Norwich manufacture ; and this
in ten miles of the city, is 12 fhillings and fixpence per town had once a confiderable woollen manufacture,
day, allowing 12 hours per day. By the hour it is which is now decayed. E. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 52. 7.
is. 6d. for the firft, and is. for every hour after; and HADRIAN. See Adrian.
cone are obliged to pay above is. for any diftance HvEMAGOGOS, among phyficians, a compound
H A E [2
Hainan medicine, confiding of fetid and'aromatic fimplea mix-
thus ed with black hellebore, and preferibed in order to pro-
11 mote the menftrua and hemorrhoidal fluxes; as alfo to
Hsemato- away the lochia.
^ p"s' HiEMANTHUS, the blood-flower: A genus
^ of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the ninth order, Spathace*. The involucrum is hexa-
phyllus and multiflorous; the corolla fexpartitc fuperior;
the berry trilocular.
Species. 1. The coccineus, with plain tongue-ftiaped
leaves, rifes about a foot high, with a ftalk fupporting
a duller of bright red tubulous flowers. It hath a large
bulbous root, from which in the autumn comes out
two broad flat leaves of a flefhy confiHence, fhaped
like a tongue, which turn backward on each fide, and
fpread on the ground, fo that they have a ftrange ap¬
pearance all the winter. In the fpring thefe decay ; fo
that from May to the beginning of Auguft they are
deftitute of leaves. The flowers are produced in the
autumn juft before the leaves come out. 2. The cari-
natus, with keel-lhaped leaves, has a taller ftalk and pa¬
ler flowers than the former; its leaves are not flat, but
hollowed like the keel of a boat. 3. The puniceus,
with largefpear-lhaped waved leaves, grows about a foot
high, and hath flowers of a ycllowilh red colour. Thefe
are fucceeded by berries, which are of a beautiful red
colour when ripe.
Culture. All thefe plants are natives of the Cape
of Good Hope, and do not propagate very fall in Eu¬
rope, their roots feldom putting forth many off-fets.
The bell method of managing them is to have a bed of
good earth in a bricked pit, where they may be cover¬
ed with glafles, and in hard frofts with mats and ftraw.
The earth in the frame fhould be two feet deep, and
the frame (hould rife two feet above the furface, to al¬
low height for the flower-ftems to grow. The roots
ftiould be planted nine or ten inches afunder ; and in
winter, if they are protefted from froft, and not fuf-
fered to have too much wet, but in mild weather expo-
fed to the air, they will flower every year, and the
flowers will be much ftronger than with any other ma¬
nagement. The third fort reqiu'res to be conftantly
kept in a dry ftove.
HAEMATITES, or blood-stone, a hard mineral
fubftance, red, black, or purple, but the powder of
which is always red. It is found in mafles fometimes
fpherical, femi-fpherical, pyramidal, or cellular, that ia
like a honeycomb. It contains a large quantity of iron.
Forty pounds of this metal have been extradled from a
quintal of ftone ; but the iron is of fuch a bad qua¬
lity, that this ore is not commonly fmelted. The great
hardnefs of haematites renders it fit for burnifhing and
polifhing metals.
HjEMATOPUS, the sea-eye, in ornithology, a ge¬
nus belonging to the order of grallae. The beak is com-
prefled, with an equal wedge-lhaped point ; the noftrils
are linear; and the feet have three toes without nails.
There is but one fpecies, viz. the oftralegus, or oyfter-
catcher, a native of Europe and America. It feeds upon
CCXXXIV near tl16 fea-fhore, particularly oyfters, andflim-
pets. On obferving an oyfter which gapes wide enough
for the infertion of its bill, it thrufts it in, and takes out
the inhabitant: it will alfo force the limpets from their
3
63 1 H A E
adhefion to the rocks with fufficient eafe. In turn it
feeds on marine infers and worms. With us thefe birds
are often feen in confiderable flocks in winter: in the
fummer they are met with only in pairs, though chiefly
in the neighbourhood of the fea or fait rivers. The fe¬
male lays four or five eggs, on the bare ground, on the
fhore, above high-water mark : they are of a greenifh
grey, blotched with black. The young are faid to be
hatched in about three weeks. Thefe birds are pretty,
wild when in flocks; yet are eafily brought up tame,
if taken young.
HaEMATOXYLUM, logwood, or Campeachy
Wood: A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to
the decandria clafs of plants ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking-under the 33d order, Lomentacea. The ca¬
lyx is quinquepartite ; the petals five ; the capfule lan-
ceolated ; unilocular, and bivalved ; the valves navicu¬
lar or keeled like a boat.
Of this genus there is only one fpecies, viz. the cam-
pechianum, which grows naturally in the bay of Cam-
peachy at Honduras, and other parts of the Spaniih
Weft Indies, where it rifes from 16 to 24 feet high.
The Items are generally crooked, and very deformed
and feldom thicker than a man’s thigh. The branches,,
which come out on each fide, are crooked, irregular,
and armed with ftrong thorns, garnifhed with winged,
leaves, compofed of three pair of obfeure lobes indent¬
ed at the top. The flowers come in a racemus from the
wings of the leaves, Handing eredt, and are of a pale-
yellowifh colour, with a purple empalement. They are
fucceeded by flat oblong pods, each containing two or
three kidney-feeds.—Dr Wright informs us, that this-,
tree was introduced into Jamaica from Honduras in
tyij ; and is at this time too common,, as it has over¬
run large trads of land, and is very difficult to root out.
It makes a beautiful and ftrong fence againft cattle* If
pruned from the lower branches, it grows to a fizeable
tree, and, when old, the wood is as good as that from
Honduras. The trees are cut up into billets or junks,
the bark and white fap of which are chipped off, and
the red part, or heart, is fent to England for fale.
Logwood is ufed in great quantities for dyeing
purple, but efpecially black colours. All the colours,,
however, which.can be prepared from it, are of a fading
nature, and cannot by any art be made equally durable
with thofe prepared from fome other materials. Of all*
the colours prepared from logwood, the black is the mod
durable. Dr Lewis recommends it as an ingredient in.
making ink. “ In dyeing cloth (fays he), vitriol-
and galls, in whatever proportions they are ufed, pro¬
duce only browns of different ftiades: I have often
been furprifed that with thefe capital materials of the
black dye I never could obtain any. true blacknefs in
white cloth, and attributed the failure to fome un¬
heeded mifmanagement in the procefs, till I found it
to be a known fad among the dyers. Logwood is the -
material which adds blacknefs to the vitriol and gall-
brown ; and this black dye, though not of the mod
durable kind, is the moft common. On blue cloth a
good black may be dyed by vitriol and galls alone; but
even here, an addition of logwood contributes, not a-
little to improve the colour.”- Mr Delaval, how¬
ever, in his Effay on Colours, informs us, that with an
infufion of galls and iron-filings, he not only made an*
exceeding^
Hasma-
toxylum.
H A E [ 264 ] 'HA G
HaEtnnp- exceeding black and durable ink, but alfo dyed linen
. cloth of a very deep black. See Colour- Making,
v~l" n° 11, 13, 14.; Dyeing, n° 17.; and Ink. Log¬
wood is alfo found to have a confiderable aftringent vir¬
tue as a medicine, and an extraA of it is fometimes
given with great fuccefs in diarrhoeas.
HAEMOPTYSIS, Hjkmaptysis, ox Hcsmoptae; a
fpitting of blood. See (Index fubjoined to) Medi-
■ CINE,
H/EMORRHAGY, (compounded of « blood,*’
•and I burft forth,)” in medicine, a fktx of
blood at any part of the body ; arifing either from a
rupture of the veffela, as when they are too full or
too much preffed; or from an erofion of the fame, as
■ vhen the blood is too (harp and corrofice.—The hse-
morrhagy, properly fpeaking, as underftood by the
Greeks, was only a flux of blood at the nofe; but the
moderns extend the name to any kind of flux of blood,
whether by the nofe, mouth, lungs, ftomach, inteftines,
fundament, matrix, or whatever part. See Medicine
and Surgery.
HAEMORRHOIDAL, an appellation given by
anatomifts to the arteries and veins going to the inte-
flinum redhim.
HAEMORRHOIDS, or IYles, an haemorrhage
or iflue of blood from the haemorrhoidal veffels. See
(Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HAEMUS, (anc. -geog.), a vaft. ridge, running
from Illyricum towards the Euxine, (Pliny) ; fo high
as to afford a profpeft both of the Euxine and Adriatic.
Here, in after ages, was condituted a province called
Hemimons, or Hamimontus.
HAERETICO comburendo, a writ which ancient¬
ly lay againft an heretic, who, having once been con-
vi&ed of herefy by his bifliop, and having abjured it,
afterwards falling into it again, or into fome other, is
thereupon committed to the fecular power. This writ
is thought by fome to be as ancient as the common
law itfelf; however, the conviftion of herefy by the
common law was not in any petty ecclefiaftical court,
■3)ut before the archbilhop himfelf in a provincial fynod,
and the delinquent was delivered up to the king to do
with him as he pleafed : fo that the crown had a con¬
trol over the fpiritual power. But by 2 Hen. IV.
cap. 15. the diocefan alone, without the intervention
of a fynod, might convift of heretical tenets; and un-
lefs the convict abjured his opinions, or if after abju¬
ration he relapfed, the flier iff was bound ex ojjicio, if
required by the bifliop, to commit the unhappy vidtim
to the flames, without waiting for the confent of the
crown. This writ remained in force, and was actually
executed on two Anabaptifts in the feventh of Eliza¬
beth, and on two Arians in the ninth of James I.-—Sir
Edward Coke was of opinion, that this writ did not lie
in his time ; but it is now formally taken away by fta-
tute 29 Car. II. cap. 9. But this ftatute does not ex¬
tend to take away or abridge the jurifdi&ion of Prote-
ftant archbifliops or bilhops, or any other judges of any
ecclefiaftical courts, in cafes of atheifm, blafphemy, he¬
refy, or fchifm, and other damnable doctrines and opi¬
nions ; but they may prove and punilh the fame accord¬
ing to his majefty’s ecclefiaftical laws, by excommunica¬
tion, deprivation, degradation, and other ecclefiaftical
cenfures, not extending to death, ia fuch fort and no
■N° 147.
other, as they might have done before the making oT Haeriem
this adt. Sec. 2. See Heresy. 1|
HAERLEM. See Harlem. Haggai.
HAG, in zoology. SccMyxine. <—-v—j
HAGARENS, thedefcendants oflflimael. They
are called alfo Ifhmaelites and Saracens; and laftly, by
the general name of Arabians.
As to the Hagarens, they dwelt in Arabia the Hap¬
py, according, to Pliny. Strabo joins them with the
Nabathaians, and Chavloticans, whofe habitation was
rather in Arabia Deferta. Others think their capital
was Petra, otherwife Agra, and confequently they
fliould be placed in Arabia Petrsea. The author of the
Ixxxiii. Pfalm, ver. '6. joins them with the Moabites;
and in the Chronicles it is faid (1 Chr. v. 10.), that
the fons of Reuben, in the time of Saul, made war
againft the Hagarens, and became mafters of their
country eaftward of the mountains of Gilead. This
therefore was the true and ancient country of the
Hagarens. When Trajan came into Arabia, he be-
fieged the capital of the Hagarens, but could not take
it. . The fons of Hagar valued themfelves of old upon
their wifdom, as appears by Baruch iii. 23.
HAGEDORN (Frederick de), a celebrated Ger¬
man poet, was born at Hamburg, where his fathee
was refident for the king of Denmark, in 1708. He
fmifhed his ftudies at Jena; and, in 1728, publilhed a
number of poetical pieces in Germany, which were
well received. He afterwards came to England, where
he obtained the friendlhip of many of the learned ;
and, at his return, was made fecretary to the Englifh
Hamburgh company, a lucrative employment that
left him fufficient time for cultivating the mufes. In
1738, he publilhed his Fables and Tales, the firft
colle&ion of the kind of which Germany can boaft.
He afterwards publilhed other pieces of poetry of dif¬
ferent kinds, as Moral Poems, Epigrams, and five
books of Songs: which of all his poetical pieces arc
moft efteemed. He died in 1754.
HAGENAU, a town of Germany, and capital of
a bailiwick of the fame name, which was formerly
imperial, but now belongs to the French. It was
taken by them in 1673 '• t^ie Imperialifts retook it in
1702; after which it was feveral times taken and re¬
taken by both parties; but at laft the French got
poffeffion of it in 1706. It is divided by the river
Motter into two parts; and is feated near a foreft of its
own name, in E. Long. 7. 53. N. Lat. 48.49.
HAGGAI, the tenth of the fmall prophets, was
born, in all probability, at Babylon, in the year of the
world 3457, from whence he returned with Zerubba-
bel. It was this prophet who by command from God
(Ezra v. 1, 2, &c.) exhorted the Jews, after their re¬
turn from the captivity, to finilh the rebuildifl>r of the
temple, which they had intermitted for 14 years. His
remonftrances had their effect; and to encourage them;
to proceed in the work, he allured them from God,
that the glory of this latter houfe Ihould be greater
than the glory of the former houfe* which was ac¬
cordingly fulfilled, when Chrift honoured it with his
prefence : for with refpeft to the building, this latter
temple was nothing in comparifon of the former.
We know nothing certain of Haggai’s death. The
Jews pretend, that he died in the laft; year of the
reiga
s
HAG [ 265 ] HAG
Hagiogra- reign of Darius, at the fame time with the prophets
phia, Zechariah and Malachi, and that thereupon the fpirit
. a^ue' of prophecy ceafed among the children of Ifrael. Epi-
phanius will have it, that he was buried at Jeru-
falem among the priefts. The Greeks keep his fef-
tival on the 16th of December, and the Latins on the
4th of July.
HAGIOGRAPHA, a name given to part of the
books of fcripture, called by the Jews Cetuv'm. The
vmrd is compounded of “ holy and “ I
write.” The name is very ancient: St Jerom makes
frequent mention of it: before him, St Epiphanius
called thefe books Amply Vpafux
The Jews divide the facred writings into three claf-
fes : The Law, which comprehends the five books of
Mofes : The Prophets, which they call Neviim : Arid
the Cetuvim DOim, called by the Greeks, &c. Hagio-
grapha ; comprehending the book of Pfalms, Proverbs,
Job, Daniel, Ezra, including alfo the book of Ne-
bemiah, Chronicles, Canticles, Ruth, the Lamenta¬
tions, Ecclefiaftes, and Either.
The Jews fometimes call thefe books the Writings,
by way of eminence, as being written by immediate
infpiration of the Holy Spirit. Thus fays Kimchi, in
his preface to the Pfalms, Maimonides in More Ne--
voch, and Elias Levita in his Thifbi, under the word ana.
They diftinguiih the hagiographers, however, from
the prophets ; in that the authors of the former did
not receive the matters contained in them by the way
called Prophecy, which confifts in dreams, vifions, whif-
pers, ecftalies, &c. but by mere infpiration and di-
rcdtion of the Spirit.
HAGUE, a town of the United Provinces, in
Holland, fituated in E. Long. 4. 10. N. Lat. 48. 49.
—In Latin it is called Haga Comitis; in French, La
Haye; in Dutch, der Haag, or ’S-Graavenbage, i. e.
the Earl’s Grove or Wood, from the wood near which
it is built, and in which the earls of Holland had a
country-houfe. Though it fends no deputies to the
ftates, it is one of the mold confiderable towns in Hol¬
land, pleafantly fituated, and exceeding beautiful. It
may indeed compare with almoft any city in Europe,
though geographers account it but a village. The in¬
habitants alfo breathe a better air than thofe of the
other cities, as it Hands on a dryr foil, fomewhat
higher than the reft of the country. It has no gates
or walls, but is furrounded by a moat over which
there are many draw-bridges. Two hours are required
to walk round it, and it contains about 40,000 or
50,000 fouls. It is a place of much fplendor and
bufinefs, being the feat of the high colleges of the
republic and province of Holland, and the refidence
of the ftadtholder and foreign ambaffadors; and tljere
are a great many fine ftreets and fquares in it. In the
inner court all the high colleges and courts of juftice
hold their aflemblies: there alfo the foot-guards do du¬
ty, as the horfe-guards in the outer, when the ftates
are fitting. De PI a ate is an open airy place, in form
of a triangle, adorned with neat and beautiful build¬
ings : the Vyverberg is an eminence, laid out into fe-
veral fine (hady walks, with the Vy ver, a large bafon of
water, at the bottom : the Voorhout is the moft cele¬
brated part of the Hague, and confifts of the mall,
and three ways for coaches on each fide, planted with
trees, being much the fame as St James’s park at Lon-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
don: the palace *of Opdam, or Waftenaar, is built in
a very elegant tafte : the prince and princefs grafts are
fine ftreets: the plan, in Dutch Het Phyn, is a beau¬
tiful grove, laid out in feveral crofs walks, and fur-
rounded with ftately houfes. The Jewifti fynagogue
is well worth being feen by a curious traveller; and al¬
fo the palaces of the prince of Orange, the hotel of
Spain, the new Woorhout, the maufoleum of the ba¬
ron of Opdam in the great church, and the feveral
hofpitals. The environs of the Hague are exceedingly
pleafant. Among other agreeable obje&s are the
wood, with the palace of Orange at the extremity of
it, called the houfe in the wood; the village of Sche-
veling; and the fand-hills along the north fea ; with
the village of Voorburg, and the charming feats and
fine gardens round it. Two miles from the Hague is
Ryfwick, a village : and, a quarter of a mile from
that, a noble palace belonging to the prince of O-
range, famous for the treaty of peace concluded there
in 1697. Loofduynen, where Margaret, countefs of
Henneburg, and daughter of Florence IV. count oft
Holland and Zealand, is faid to have been delivered of
365 children at a birth in 1276, is about five miles
from the Hague. Five miles beyond Loofduynen,
and not far from the beautiful village of Gravefande,
is Honfiardyck, another palace belonging to the.
prince of Orange, and one of the fineft ftructures in
the Low-Countries.
HAHN (Simon Frederick), a celebrated German
hiftorian. At ten years of age he was not only far
advanced in the Latin, but underftood feveral living
languages. Four years after, he pronounced a fpeech
on the origin of the cloyfter at Bergen, the place of
his birth, which was printed with fome other pieces;
and in 1708 he publilhed a Continuation of Meibo-
mius’s Chronicle of Bergen. After having for feve-
ral years given public ledures at Hail, he became, at
the age of 24, profeflbr of hiftory at Helmftadt; and
was at length counfellor, hiftoriographer, and libra¬
rian, to -the king of Great Britain, eledor of Hanover.
He died in 1729, aged 37.—Befides the above, and
fome other works, he wrote, 1. The firft volume of the
Hiftory of the Empire. 2. Colkaio monumentorum re-
terumet recentium ineditormn, 2 vols 8vo.
HAI-nan. See Hainan.
HAi-Tang, a beautiful Chinefe fhrub, originally
brought from the bottom of the rocks which border
the fea-coaft. It has been cultivatetfin China for mofe
than 14 centuries; and is celebrated as often in the
works of the Chinefe poets, as rofes and lilies are in
thofe of ours. Painters and embroiderers ornament
almoft all their works with its foliage and flowers.
The ftalk of the hai-tang is of a cylindric form, and
fhoots forth a number of branches -of a purple tint
towards their bafes, and full of knots, which are alfo
of a purple colour round the edges. It produces a
number of fhoote, the talleft of which are about two
feet and a half in height. Its leaves (which are much
indented, of an oval form towards the ftalk, pointed
at their upper extremities, and full of fmall prickles)
grow almoft oppofite one another on the branches, and
at the fame diftance as the knots. Their colour above
is a deep-green ; that below is much lighter, and al¬
moft eftaced by their fibres, which are large, and of
a delicate purple : all thefe leaves together have a beau-
K k tiful
HAG [ 266 1 HAG
ilai-Tang.tifuleffeft to the eye. The flowers grow in bunches At Lifle in Flanders, in 1686, fell hailftones of a
, Hai1 at the extremities of the branches. Each flower is very large fize; fome of which contained in the middle ■
compofed of four petals, two great and two fmall,
fembling in colour the bloom of a peach-tree, and
which have almoft the fame figure as the bloffom of
our cherry-trees. The two large are cemented one
upon the other, in the form of a purfe; and when they
blow, the two fmall blow alfo in their turn ; and then
the whole four reprefent a crofs. The piftil is com¬
pofed of very bright yellow grains, which feparate
gradually one from another by the lengthening of the
filaments to which they adhere ; they then open into
little bells, and compofe a fmall yellow tuft, fupported
by a flender ftalk, which rifes above the petals. The
calyx, which fuftains each of the flowers, is compofed
a dark brown matter, which, thrown on the fire, gave
a very great report. Phil. Tranf. N° 203.
Dr Halley and others alfo relate, that in Chefhire,
DancaPnke, &c. April 29, 1697, a thicli black cloud,
coming from Carnarvonfhire, difpofed the vapours to
congeal in fuch a manner, that for about the breadth of
two miles, which was the limit of the cloud, in its pro-
grefs for the fpace of 60 miles, it did inconceivable
damage ; not only killing all forts of fowls and other
fmall animals, but fplitting trees, knocking down horfes
and men, and even ploughing up the earth ; fo that
the hailftones buried themfelves under ground an inch
inch and a half deep. The hailftones, many of
of two purple-coloured leaves, united in form of a which weighed five ounces, and fome half a pound,
purfe. In proportion as the flowers grow and increafe and being five or fix inches about, were of various fi-
in fize, the two leaves of the calyx open, become pale gures ; fome round, others half round ; fome fmootb,
and dry, and drop off. The flowers, fupported by fmall others emboffed and crenated : the icy fubftance of
flalks, feparate one from the other, and produce of them- them was very tranfparent and hard, but there was a
felves other flowers, which rife up from a new calyx. fnowy kernel in the middle of them.
This plant is propagated from feed, but with In Hertfordfhire, May 4. the fame year, after a fe-
difficulty. It thrives beft in a fandy foil; dung or vere ftoyn) of thunder and lightning, a Ihower of hail
mould deftroy it ; and great care mull be taken to fucceeded, which far exceeded the former : fome per-
refrefh it only with the pureft water. As it cannot
endure the fun in any feafon, it is always planted be¬
low walls that are expofed to the north. It generally
begins to flower about the end of Auguft. After it
has produced feed, all its brandies are cut; and it
commonly Ihoots forth new ones before the fpring fol¬
lowing; but it is neceffary to heap up gravel and
fons were killed by it, their bodies beat all black and
blue; vaft oaks were fplit, and fields of rye cut down
as with a fcythe. The ftones meafured from jo to
13 or 14 inches about. Their figures were various,
fome oval, others picked, fome flat. Philofoph. Tranf.
N° 229.
It is remarkable, that, fo far as we know, hail is a
pieces of brick round its roots, to prevent them from meteor which never produces any beneficial effedl.. The
rotting. Notwkhftanding all the care that is taken rain and dew invigorate and give life to the whole vege-
to cultivate this tree at Peking, it does not thrive fo table tribe; the froft, by expanding the w'ater contained
well there as in the fouthern provinces. The fmell of in the earth, pulverifes and renders the foil fertile;
it# leaves has an affinity both to that of the rofe and fnow covers and preferves the tender vegetables from
the violet; but it is weaker, and never extends to any being deflroyed by too fevere a froft. But hail does
great diftance. none of all thefe. In winter, it lies not fufficiently
HAIL, in natural hiftory, a meteor generally de- clofe to cover vegetables from the nipping frofts; and
fined frozen rain, but differing from it in that thd in fpring and fummer it not only has a chilling and
hailftones are not formed of fingle pieces of ice, but of blafting effefl from its coldnefs, but often does great
many little fpherules agglutinated together. Neither damage to the more tender plants by the weight of the
are thefe fpherules all of the fame confidence; fome of ftones, and in great hail-ftorms the damage done in
them being hard and folid like perfe& ice; others foft, this manner is prodigious.
and moftly like fnow hardened by a fevere froft. Some- Hail is one of the natural phenomena for which
times the hailftone hath a kind of core of this foft it is almoft impoffible to account in any fatisfa&ory
matter; but more frequently the core is folid and hard, manner. It is certain, that on the tops of mountains
while the outfide is formed of a fofter matter. Hail- hailftones, as well as drops of rain, are very fmall,
ilones affume various figures, being fometimes round, and continually increafe in bulk till they reach the low-
at other times pyramidal, crenated, angular, thin, and er grounds. It would feem, therefore, that during
flat, and fometimes ftellated, with fix radii like the their paffage through the air, they attraft the con-
fmall cryftals of fnow. gealed vapour which increafes them in fize. But
Natural hiftorians furnifti us with various accounts here we are at a lofs how they come to be folid
of furprifing fliowers of hail, in which the hailftones hard bodies, and not always foft, and compofed of
were of extraordinary magnitude. Mezeray, fipeaking many fmall ftars like fnow. The flakes of fnow,
of the war of Louis XII. in Italy, in the year 1510, no dqubt, increafe in fize as they defcend, as well
relates, that there was for fome time an horrible dark- as the drops of rain or hailftones ; but why ftiould.
nefs, thicker than that of night; after which the clouds the one be in foft cryftals, and the other in large,
broke into thunder and lightning, and there fell a hard lumps, feeing both are produced from congeaL
(bower of hailftones, or rather (as he calls them) peb-
ble-ftones, which deftroyed all the fi(h, birds, and
beafts of the country—It was attended with a ftrong
fmell of fulphur; and the ftones were of a bluiflr colour,
fome of them weighing an hundred pounds. Hiji. de
Fmnce, Tom. II. p. 339.
ed vapour ? Some modern philofophers afcribe the
formation of hail to ele&ricity. Signior Beccaria fupr
pofes hail to be formed in the higher regions of the
air, where the cold is intenfe, and where the eledtrio
matter is very copious. In thefe circumftances, a great
number of particles of water, are brought near toge-,
tberj.
H A I [ a57 ] H A I
Hailing ther, where they are frozen, and in their defcent col-
;l left other particles, fo that the denfity of the fub-
Ha‘‘ian~ fiance of the hailfione grows lefs and lefs from the
* centre ; this being formed firft in the higher regions,
and the furface being collefted in the lower. Agree¬
able to this,it is obferved, that, in mountains,hail-ftones,
as well as drops of rain, are very fmall, there being
but little fpace through which they can fall and in-
creafe their bulk. Drops of rain and hail alfo agree in
this, that the more intenfe the eleftricity that forms
them, the larger they are. Motion is known to pro¬
mote freezing, and fo the rapid motion of the eleftri-
fied clouds may produce that effeft. A more intenfe
eleftricity alfo, he thinks, unites the particles of hail
more clofely than the more moderate eleftricity does
thofe of fnow. In like manner we fee thunder-clouds
more denfe than thofe that merely bring rain ; and
the drops of rain are larger in proportion, though they
fall not from fo great a height.
HAILING, the falutation or accofting of a fhip at
a diftance, either at fea, or in a harbour. The ufual
cxprtfiion is, “ Hoa, the fliip ahoay !” To which fire
anfwers, “ Holloa ! Whence came ye ? Where are
ye bound ? Good voyage i What cheer ? All well!
How fare ye ?” See.
HAILLAN (Bernard de Girard, lord of), a ce¬
lebrated Trench hiftorian. After having made fome
figure in the literary world, and as a tranfiator, he
applied himfelf to hiftory with fuch' fuccefs, that in
1571, Charles IX. made him hiftoriographer of France.
His hiftory of France extends from Pharamond to the
death of Charles VII. and is the firft complete hiftory
of that kingdom compofed in the French tongue. He
was honoured by Henry III. wu'th feveral marks of fa¬
vour; and propofed to continue his hiftory to the reign
of Henry IV. but did not perform his promife. He
died at Paris in 1610.
HAIMSUCKEN. See Hamesecken.
FI A IN AN, a confiderable ifland of Alia, fitua-
ted in between i8°and 20° N. Lat. It is fubjeft
to China, and belongs to the province of Quang-ton.
It has on the north the province of Quang-fi ; on the
fouth the channel formed between the bank Paracel
and the eaftern coaft of Cochinchina ; on the weft,
the fame kingdom and part of Tong-king; and on
the eaft, the Cbinefe fea. Its extent from eaft to weft,
is between 60 and 70 leagues, and from north to
fouth 45 ; this ifland therefore is about 160 leagues in
circumference. Kiun-tcheou-fou, its capital, Hands
on a promontory, and {hips often anchor at the bot¬
tom of. its walls. Two different kinds of mandarins
command here, as in all the other provinces of China:
the firft are called literati; the fecond, mandarins of
arms, or military officers. Its jurifdiftion extends
over thi ee cities of the fecond clafs and ten of the
third. The greater part of the ifland is under the do¬
minion of the emperor of China; the reft is indepen¬
dent, and inhabited by a free people, who have never
yet been fubdued. Compelled to abandon tlreir plains
and fields to the Chinefe, they have, retreated to the
mountains in the centre of the ifland, where they are
iheltered from the infults of their neighbours.
Thefe people formerly had a free and open corre-
fpondence with the Chinefe. Twice a year they ex-
pofed, in an appointed place, the gold which they dug
from their mines, with their eagle-wood and calamba, Hainan,
fo much efteemed by the Orientals. A deputy was Hamauit.
fent to the frontiers, to examine the cloths and other v
commodities of the Chinefe, whofe principal traders
repaired to the place of exchange fixed on ; and after
the Chinefe wares were delivered, they put into their
hands with the greateft fidelity what they had agreed
for. The Chinefe governors made immenfe profits by
this barter.
The emperor Kang-hi, informed of the prodigious
quantity of gold which paffed through the hands of
the mandarins by this traffic, forbade his fubjefts, un¬
der pain of death, to have any communication with
thefe iflanders: however, fome private emiffaries of
the neighbouring governors ftill find the means of
having intercourfe with them ; but what they get at
prefent by this clandeftine trade is little, in comparifon
of that which they gained formerly. The natives of
this ifland are very deformed, fmall of fixture, and of a
copper colour: both men and women wear their hair
thruft through a ring on their forehead; and above
they have a fmall firaw-hat, from which hang two
firings that are tied under the chin. Their drefs con-
fifts of a piece of black or dark-blue cotton cloth,
which reaches from the girdle to their knees : the wo¬
men have a kind of robe of the fame fluff, and mark
their faces from the eyes to the chin with blue ftripes
made with indigo.
Among the animals of this ifland are a curious fpe-
cies of large black apes, which have the ftiape and fea¬
tures of a man ; they are faid to be very fond of wo¬
men : there are alfo found here crows with a white
ring round their necks; ftarlings which have a fmall
crefcent on their bills ; black-birds of a deep blue co¬
lour, with yellow ears rifing half an inch ; and a multi¬
tude of other birds, remarkable for their colour or
fong. Befides mines of gold and lapis lazuli, which
enrich the ifland of Hainan, it produces in abundance
various kinds of curious and valuable wood. The pre-
deceffor of the prefent emperor caufed fome of it to be
tranfported to Peking, at an immenfe expence, to
adorn an edifice which he intended for a maufoleum.
The moft valuable is called by the natives boali, and
by the Europeans rofe or violet-wood from its fmell; it
is very durable, and of a beauty which nothing can
equal; it is therefore referved for the ufe of the em¬
peror.
Hainan, on account of its fituation, riches, and ex¬
tent, deferves to be ranked among the moft confider¬
able iflands of Afia. Not far from thence is another
fmall ifland, commonly called San-cian. It is celebra¬
ted by the death of St Francis Xavier: his tomb is ftill
to be feen on a fmall hill, at the bottom of which is a
plain covered on one fide with wood, and on the other
ornamented with feveral gardens. This ifland is- not
a defert, as fome travellers have pretended: it con¬
tains five’villages; the inhabitants of which are poor
people, who have nothing to fubfift on but rice and the
filh which they catch.
HA IN AULT, a province of the Netherlands, be¬
longing partly fo France and partly to the houfe of
Aultria. It is bounded to the fouth by Champagne
and Picardy; to the north by Flanders; to the eaft by
the duchy of Brabant, the county of Namur, and the
bilhopric of Liege; and to the weft by Artois and
Kk 2 Flanders.
II A I I 268 1 H A I
Kahiault, Flanders. Its extent from north to fouth is about 4J
, Hair* miles, and about 48 from eaft to welt. The air is
,r~“ pleafant and temperate, and the foil fruitful: it abounds
in rich paltures, corn-fields, woods, and forefts, coal,
iron, lead, beautiful marble, flatc, and other ufeful
Hones : it is well watered by rivers and lakes, and
breeds abundance of black cattle, and flreep whofe
•* wool is very fine. Its principal rivers are the Schelde,
the Seile, and the D'ender. This province is reckon¬
ed to contain 24 walled towns, 950 villages, one du¬
chy, and feveral principalities, earldoms, peerdoms,
and baronies. The abbeys in it are 27. For fpiritu-
al matters, the greater part of it is fuhjedt to the arcli-
bilhop of Cambray, and the reft to the bifhops of
Liege and Arras. The ftates of the province con-
fift of the clergy, nobility, and commoners. The cler¬
gy are the abbots, deputies of the chapters, and rural
deans; but the chapters of St Waudru and St Ger¬
main, in Mons, fend no deputies, as they contribute
nothing to 'the public taxes. The nobility con fill of
the calls and barons, and all thofe who by their birth
have a right to a feat in the aflembly of the ftates.
The commoners are compofed of the deputies of the
towns. The clergy in this county are uncommonly
rich. The ftates meet only when they are fummoned
by the fovereign ; but there is a Handing committee
at Mons which meets weekly. This county had counts
of its own, till the year 1436; when Philip the Good,
dulce of Burgundy, arrived to the pofieffion of it, up¬
on the death of Jaqueline, the heirefs, without iffue.
The French acquired that part of it which they p;;f-
fefs, partly by the peace of the Pyrenees, and partly
by thofe of Nimeguen and Refwick. The arms of
this county are quartered, and contain four lions, in
a field or. For the government of it, there is a fo¬
vereign council, at the head of which is the high bai¬
liff, who has very great authority ; he reprefents the
fovereign, is governor of Mons, and captain-general
of the province.
FI AIR, fmall filaments iffuing out of the pores of
the Ik ins of animals; and ferving moft of them as a
• See Ana- tegument or covering *. In lieu of hair, the naked¬
ly, n° 82. nefs of fome animals is covered with feathers, wool,
feales, &c.
Hair, is found on all parts of the human body, ex¬
cept the foies of the feet' and the palms of the hands.
—But it grows longeft on the head, chin, breaft, in
the arm-pits, and about the privities.
The ancients held the hair a fort of excrement, fed
only with excrementitious matters, and no proper part
of a living body.—They fuppofed it generated of the
fuliginous parts of the blood, exhaled by the heat of
the body to the furface, and there condenfed in palling
-through the pores.—Their chief reafons were, that the
~hair being cut, will grow again apace, even in extreme
old age, and when life is very low: that in hedlic and
confumprive people, where the reft of the body is con¬
tinually emaciating and attenuating, the hair (hall
^ thrive : nay, and that it will grow again in dead car-
cafes.—They added, that hair does not feed and grow
like the other parts, by introfufeeption, i. e. by a juice
circulating within it; but, like the nails, by juxtapofi-
tion, each part next the root thrufting forward that
immediately before it.
But the modern? are •’greed, that every hair does
properly and truly live, and receive nutriment to fill
and diftend it like the other pa*fcs : which they argue "
hence, that the roots do not turn grey in aged perfons
fooner than the extremities, but the whole changes
colour at once, and the like is obferved in boys, See.;
which Ihows that there is a direft communication, and
that all the parts are affe&ed alike.
It may be obferved, however, that, in propriety, t{je
life and growth of hairs is of a different kind from that
of the reft of the body ; and is not immediately de¬
rived therefrom, or reciprocated therewith. It is ra¬
ther of the nature of vegetation. They grow as plant s
do out of the earth ; or as fotne plants (hoot from
the parts of others; from which though they draw
their nourifhment, yet each has, as it were, its feveral
life and a’diftindl economy. They derive their food
from feme juices in the body, but not from the nutri¬
tious juices of the body; whence they may live, tho’
the body be itarved.—Walferus, in the Ph'dofophkat
CclleBionS) gives an account of a woman buried at No-
rimberg, whofe grave being opened 43 years after her
death, there was hair found iffuing forth plentifully
through the clefts of the coffin; infomuch, that there
was reafon to imagine the coffin had fomc time been
covered all over with hair. The cover being removed,
the whole corps appeared in its perfett fhape ; but,
from the crown of the head to the foie of the foot,
covered over with a thick-fet hair, long and curled.
The fexton going to handle the upper part of the head
with his fingers, the whole ftrudlure fell at once, lea¬
ving nothing in his hand but an handful of hair: there
was neither fkull nor any other bone left ; yet the hair
was folk! and ftrong enough.—Mr Arnold, in the fame
colledlion, gives a relation of a man hanged for theft,
who, in a little time, while he yet hung upon the gal¬
lows, had his body ftrangely covered over with hair 
Some moderns, however, deny the authenticity of thefe
and other fimilar inftances.
The hairs ordinarily appear round or cylindrical ;
but the microfcope alfo difeovers triangular and fquare
ones; which diverfity of figure arifes from that-of the
pores, to which the hairs always accommodate them-
felves. Their length depends on the quantity of tha
proper humour to feed them, and their colour on the
quality of that humour: whence, at different ftages of
life, the colour ufually differs. Their exrtemities fplit
into two or three branches, efpecially when kept dry,
or fuffered to grow too long ; fo that what appears,
only a Angle hair to the naked eye, feems a bruih to
the microfcope.
The hair of a moufe, viewed by Mr Derham with a.
microfcope, feemed to be one fingle tranfparent tube,
with a pith made up of fibrous fubftances, running in
dark lines, in fome hairs tranfverfely, in others fpirally.
The darker medullary parts or lines, he obferves, were
no other than fmall fibres convolved round, and lying
clofer together than in the other parts of the hair.
They run from the bottom to the top of the hair; and
he imagines, may ferve to make a gentle evacuation of
fome humour out of the body. Hence the hair of
hairy animals, this author fuggefts, may not only ferve
as a fence againft cold, &c. but as an organ of infen-
fible perfpiration.
Though the external furface of the body is the na¬
tural place for hairs, we have many well-attefted in¬
ftances
II A I
ftances of their being found alfo on the internal fur-
face. Amatus Lufitanus mentions a perfon who had
hair upon his tongue. Pliny and Valerius Maximus
concur in their teftimonies, that the heart of Arifto-
menes the Meffenian was hairy. Cxlius Rhodiginus
relates the fame of Hermogenes the rhetorician ; and
Plutarch, of Leonidas the Spartan.—Hairs are faid
to have been frequently found in thebreails of women,
and to have occalioned the ditlemper called trichlafis ;
but fome authors are of opinion, that thefe are fmall
worms and not hairs. There have been, however, va¬
rious and indisputable obfervations of hairs found in
the kidneys, and voided by urine.
Plippocrates is of opinion, that the glandular parts
are the moft fubjeft to hair ; but bundles of hair have
been found in the mufcular parts of beef, and in fueh
parts of the human body as are equally firm with that.
— Hair has been often found in abfeeffes and impofthu-
mations. Schultetus, opening the abdomen of a wo¬
man, found- 12 pints of water, and a large lock or
bundle of hair fwimmipg loofe in it. But of all the
internal parts, there is none fo much fubjedl to an un¬
natural growth of hair as the ovaries of females, and
that as well of the human fpecies as of other animals.
Of this Dr Tyfon relates three remarkable inftances ;
two of-thefe were young women, and the other was a
bitch. The animal had been much emaciated in its
hinder parts ; the hair was about an inch and an half
long ; but the moll remarkable particular was, that
hair was alfo found lying loofe in the cavities of the
veins. We have feveral inftances of mankind being
affected in the fame manner. Cardan relates, that he
found hair in the blood of a Spaniard ; and Slonatius
in that of a gentlewoman of Cracovia; and Schultetus
declares from his own obfervation, that thofe people
who are afflidled with the plica polonica, have very
often hair in their blood.
Difeafes of the Hair, Almoft the only difeafe of
the hair, befides the remarkable one called plica polo-
nira, is its falling off, or hahlnefs. For this many re¬
medies have been recommended, but fcarce any of them
can be depended upon. The juice of burdock, and
the lixivial faitsof vine-afhes, are faid to be efficacious;
alfo the powder of hermodadlyls, and the decodlion of
boxwood. A remarkable inflance of the efficacy of
this laft is given under the article Buxus.—Some
authors give inftances of the hair changing its colour
in a fhort time, through grief, or by reafon of a
fright, &c.
Hair as an Ornament, or as an Enftgn of Dignity or of
Religion. By the Jews hair was worn naturally long,
juft as it grew ; but the priefts had theirs cut every
fortnight, while they were in waiting at the temple ;
they made ufe of no razors, however, but feifl’ars only.
The Nazarites, while their vow continued, were for¬
bidden to touch their heads with a razor. See Na-
ZARITE.
The falling of the hair, or a change of its colour,
was regarded amongft the Hebrew s as a fign of the le-
profy. Black hair was e(teemed by them as the moft
beautiful. Abfalom’s hair was cut once a-year, and
is faid to have weighed 200 ftiekels, by the king’s
weight, which is about 31 ounces. The law of God
hath left no particular ordinances with refpedt to the
hair.
H a 1
The hair of both Jewifti and Grecian women enga¬
ged a principal (hare of their attention, and the Roman
ladies feem to have been no lefs curious with refpect to
theirs. They generally wore it long, and drelfed it in
a variety of ways, ornamenting it with gold, filver,
pearls, iac. On the contrary, the men amongft the
Greeks and Romans, and amongft the later Jews, wore
their hair ffiort, as may be colle&ed from books, me¬
dals, ftatues, &c. This formed a principal diltinftiou
in drefs betwixt the fexes. This obfervation illuftrates
a paffage in St Paul’s epiftle to the Corinthians (1 Cor.
xi. 14, 15.)
St Paul forbids the Corinthian women, when pray¬
ing by divine infpiration, to have their hair diftievclled y
probably becaufe this made them refemble the heathen
prieftefl'es, when actuated by the pretended influence
of their gods.
Amongft the Greeks, both fexes, a few days before
marriage, cut off and confecrated their hair as an offer¬
ing to their favourite deities. It was alfo cuftomary
among them to hang the hair of the dead on the doors
of their houfes previous to interment. They likewife
tore, cut off, and fometimes fhaved their hair, when
mourning for their deceafed relations or friends, which
they laid upon the corpfe or threw into the pile, to be
confumed together with the body. The ancients ima¬
gined that no perfon could die till a lock of hair was
cut off; and this aft they fuppofed was performed by
the inviiible hand of death, or Iris, or fome other mef-
fenger of the gods. This hair, thus cut p.ff, they
fancied confecrated the peifou to the infernal deities,
under whofe jurifdiftion the dead were fuppofed to
be. It was a fort of firft fruits which fandtified the
whole. (See Virg. JEn. 4. 694.)
Whatever was the falhion, with refpedt to the hair,
in the Grecian ftate*, flaves were forbidden to imitate
the freemen. The hair of the flaves was always cut
in a particular manner, Called ^ which
they no longer retained after they procured their
freedom.
It was efteemed a notable honour among the ancient
Gauls to have long hair, and hence came the appella¬
tion Gallia comata. For this reafon Julius Cajfar,
upon fubduing the Gauls, made them cut off their hair
as a token of fubmiffion.—It was with a view to this,
that fuch as afterwards quitted the world to go and
live in cloifters, procured their hair to be ftiaven off y
to fhow that they bid adieu to all earthly ornaments,
and made a vow of perpetual fubjedlion to their fupe-r
riors.
Greg, of Tours affures us, that in the royal family
of France, it was a long time the peculiar mark and
privilege of kings and princes of the blood to wear
long hair, artfully dreffed and curled : every body elfe
was obliged to be polled, or cut round, in fign of in¬
feriority and obedience. Some writers affine us, that
there were different cuts for all the diffirent quali¬
ties and conditions; from the prince who wore it at
full length, to the (lave or villain who was quite cropt.
—To cut off the hair of a fon of France, under the
firft race of kings, was to declare him excluded front
the right of Jucceeding to the crown, and reduced la¬
the condition of a fubjeft.
In the eighth century, it was the cuftom of people
of quality to have their childrens hair cut the firlt time
by
[ 269 ]
H A I [ 270 I H A I
by perfons they had a particular honour and efteem
for; who, in virtue of this ceremony, were reputed a
fort of fpiritual parents or godfathers thereof: Tho’
this practice appears to have been more ancient; inaf-
much as we read, that Conftantine fent the pope the
hair of his fon Heraclius, as a token that he defired
him to be his adoptive father.
The parade of long hair became ftill more and more
obnoxious in the progrefs of Chriilianity, as fomething
utterly inconliftent with the profcfiion of perfons who
bore the crofs. Hence numerous injun&ions and ca¬
pons to the contrary.—Pope Anicetus is commonly
fuppofe J to have been the firft who forbade the clergy
to wear long hair: but the prohibition is of an older
Handing in the churches of the eaft ; and the letter
wherein that decree is written, is of a much later date
than that pope.—The clerical tonfure is related by Ili-
dore Hifpalenfxs, as of apoftolical inftitution.
Long hair was anciently held fo odious, that there
is a canon ftill extant of the year 1096, importing, that
fuch as wore long hair fhould be excluded coming in¬
to church while living, and not be prayed for when
dead. We have a furious declamation of Luitprand
againft the emperor Phocas, for wearing long hair,
after the manner of the other emperors of the eaft, all
except Theophilas, who being bald, enjoined all his
fubjc&s to (have their heads.
The French hiftorians and antiquaries have been
very exa& in recording the head of hair of their feveral
kings, Charlemagne wore it very Ihort, his fon Ihorter;
Charles the bald had none at all. Under Hugh Capet
it began to appear again: this the ecclefiaftics took in
dudgeon, and excommunicated all who let their hair
grow. Peter Lombard expoftulated the matter fo
warmly with Charles the Young, that he cut off his
hair; and his fucceffors for fame generations wore it
very ftiort.—A profeffor of Utrecht, in 1650, wrote
exprefsly on the queftion, Whether it be lawful for men
to wear long hair ? and concluded for the negative.—
Another divine, named Reves, who had written for the
affirmative, replied to him.
The ancient Britons were extremely proud of the
length and beauty of their hair, and were at much
pains in dreffing and adorning their heads. Some of
them carried their fondnefs for and admiration of then-
hair to an extravagant height. It is faid -to have been
the laft and moft earneft requeft of a young warrior,
who was taken prifoner and condemned to be beheaded,
that no Have might be permitted to touch his hair,
which was remarkably long and beautiful, and that it
might not be ftained with his blood. We hardly ever
meet with a defeription of a fine woman or beautiful
man, in the poems of Offian, but tlieir hair is men¬
tioned as one of their greateft beauties. Not con¬
tented with the natural colour of their hair, which was
commonly fair or yellow, they made ufe of certain
wafties to render it ftill brighter. One of thefe waffies
was a compcfition of lime, the affies of certain vege¬
tables, and tallow. They made ufe of various arts
alfo to make the hair of their heads grow thick and
long; which laft was not only efteemed a great beauty,
but was confidered as a mark of dignity and noble
birth. Boadicia, queen of the Iceni, is deferibed by
Dio with very Jong hair, flowing over her ftioulders,
and reaching down below the middle of her back.
The Britons (haved all their beards, except their up¬
per lips; the hair of which they, as well as the Gauls,
allowed to grow to a very inconvenient length.
In after-times, the Anglo Saxons and Danes alfo
confidered fine hair as one of the greateft beauties and
ornaments of their perfons, and were at no little pains
in dreffing it to advantage. Young ladies before mar-
riage wore their hair uncovered and untied, flowing in
ringlets over their flioulders; but as foon as they were
married, they cut it (horter, tied it up, and put on
a head-drefs of fome kind or other according to the
prevailing falhion. To have the hair entirely cut off
was fo great a difgrace, that it was one of the greateft:
punilhments inflidfed on'thofe women who were guilty
of adultery. The Danilh foldiers who were quartered
upon the Engliflr, in the reigns of Edgar the Peaceable
and of Ethelred the Unready, were the beaux of thofe
times, ana were particularly attentive to the dreffing
of their hair ; which they combed at leaft unce every
day, and thereby captivated the affections of the Englifh
ladies. The clergy, both fecular and regular, were
obliged to ihave the crowns of their heads, and keep
their hair fliort, which diitinguilhed them from the
laity ; and feveral canons were made againft their con¬
cealing their tonfure, or allowing their hair to grow
long. The ffiape of this clerical tonfure was the fub-
je£l of long and violent debates between the Engliffi
clergy on the one hand, and thofe of the Scots and
Pidts on the other; that of the former being circular,
and that of the latter only femicircular. It appears
very plainly, that long flowing hair was univerfally
efteemed a great ornament; and the tonfure of the
clergy was confidered as an adl of mortification and
felf-denial, to which many of them fubmitted with
reluftance, and endeavoured to conceal as much as
poffible. Some of them who affe&ed the reputation
of fuperior fanftity inveighed with great bitternefs
againft the long hair of the laity; and laboured earneft-
ly to perfuade them to cut it Ihovt, in imitation of the
clergy. Thus the famous St Wulftan bifliop of Wor-
cefter, is faid to have declaimed with great vehemence
againft luxury of all kinds, but chiefly againft long hair
as moft criminal and moft univerfal. “ The Englifh
(fays William of Malmlbury in his life of St Wulftan)
were very vicious in their manners, and plunged in
luxury,^through the long peace which they had enjoyed
in the reign of Edward the Confeffor. The holy pre¬
late Wulftan reproved the wicked of all ranks with
great boldnefs; but he rebuked thofe with the greateft
feverity who were proud of their long hair. When
any of thofe vain people bowed their heads before him
to receive his bleffing, before he gave it, he cut a lock
of their hair with a little fharp knife, which he carried
about him for that purpofe; and commanded them, by
way of penance for their fins, to cut all the reft of
their hair in the fame manner. If any of them refufed
to comply with this command, he denounced the moft
dreadful judgments upon them, reproached them for
their effeminacy, and foretold, that as they imitated
women in the length of tlieir hair, they would imitate
them in their cowardice when their country was in¬
vaded ; which was accomplifhed at the landing of the
Normans.”
This continued to,be long a topic of declamation
among the clergy, who even reprefented it as one of
the
H A I [27
the greateft crimes, and moft certain marks of repro¬
bation. Anfelm archbifhop of Canterbury went fo
far as to pronounce the then teirible fentence of ex¬
communication againft all who wore long hair, for
which pious zeal he is very much commended. Serlo,
a Norman bifhop, acquired great honour by a fermon
which he preached before Henry I. A.D. 1104, againft
long and curled hair, with which the king and all his
courtiers were fo much affedted, that they confented
to refign their flowing ringlets, of which they had been
fo vain. The prudent prelate gave them no time to
change their minds, but immediately pulled a pair of
fhears out qf his fleeve, and performed the operation
with his own hand. Another incident happened about
25 years after, which gave a temporary check to the
prevailing fondnefs for long hair. It is thus related
by a contemporary hiftorian : “ An event happened,
A. D. 1129, which feemed very wonderful to our
young gallants; who, forgetting that they were men,
had transformed themfelves into women by the length
of their hair. A certain knight, who was very proud
of his long luxuriant hair, dreamed that a perfon fuffo-
cated him with its curls. As foon as he awoke from
his fleep, he cut his hair to a decent length. The re¬
port of this fpread over all England, and almoft all
the knights reduced their hair to the proper ftandard.
But this reformation was not of long continuance ;
for in lefs than a year all who wifhed to appear fafhion-
able returned to their former wickednefs, and contend¬
ed with the ladies in length of hair. Thofe to whom
nature had denied that ornament fupplied the dtfeft
by art.”
The Greeks, and, after their example, the Romans,
wore falfe hair.
. Commerce of Hair. Hair makes a very confiderable
article in commerce, efpecially fince the mode of
perukes has obtained. The hair of the growth of the
northern countries, as England, &c. is valued much
beyond that of tW more fouthern ones, as Italy, Spain,
the fouth parts of France, &c. The merit of good hair
confifts in its being well fed, and neither too coarfe
nor too flender; the bignefs rendering it lefs fufeep-
tible of the artificial curl, and difpofing it rather to
frizzle, and the fmallnefs making its curl of too Ihort
duration, Its length fhould be about 25 inches; the
more it falls fhort of this the lefs value it bears.
There is no certain price for hair ; but it is fold
from five {hillings to five pounds an ounce, according
to its quality.
The fcarcenefs of grey and white hair has put the
dealers in that commodity upon the methods of redu¬
cing other colours to this. This is done by fpreading
the hair to bleach on the grafs like linen, after firft
wafhing it out in a lixivious water. This lye, with the
force of the fun and air, brings the hair to fo perfeeft
a whitenefs, that the moft experienced perfon may be
deceived therein ; there being Scarce any way of detedl-
ing the artifice, but by boiling and drying it, which
leaves the hair of the colour of a dead walnut-tree
leaf.
There isalfoa method of dyeing hair with bifmuth,
which renders fuch white hair as borders too much
upon the yellow of a bright filver colour: boiling is
the proof of this too, the bifmuth not being able to
Hand it*.
4
1 ] H A I
Hair may be alfo changed from a red, grey, or other
difagreeable colour, to a brown or deep black, by a
Solution of filver. The liquors fold under the name
of hair waters, are at bottom no more than folutions
of filver in aquafortis, largely diluted with water, with
the addition perhaps of other ingredients, which con¬
tribute nothing to their efficacy. The folution fiiould
be fully faturated with the filver, that there may be
no more acid in it than is necefiary for holding the
metal diffolved ; and befides dilution with water, a
little fpirit of wine may be added for the further dul-
cification of the acid. It mull be obferved, that for
diluting the folution, diftilled water, or pure rain-water,
m'uft be ufed ; the common fpring-waters turning it
milky, and precipitating a part of the diffolved filver..
It is to be obferved alfo, that if the liquor touches the
fkin, it has the fame effedl on it as on the matter to
be ftained, changing the part moiftened with it to an
indelible black.—Hair may alfo be dyed of any colour
in the fame manner as wool. See Dyeing.
Hair which does not curl or buckle naturally is
brought to it by art, by firft boiling and then baking
it in the following manner: After having picked-and
forted the hair, and difpbfed it in parcels according
to lengths, they roll them up and tie them tight down,
upon little cylindrical inftruments, either of wood or
earthen ware, a quarter of an inch thick, and hollow¬
ed a little in the middle, called pi'es; in which ftate
they arc put in a pot over the fire, there to boil for
about two hours. When taken out, they let them
dry ; and when dried, they fpread them on a (beet of
brown paper, cover them with another, and thus fend
them to the paftry-cookj who making a cruft or coffin
around them of common palte, fets them in an oven
till the cruft is about three-fourths baked.
1 he end by which a hair grew to the head is called the
head of the hair'; and the other, with which they begin to
give the buckle, the point. Formerly the peruke-makers
made no difference between the ends, but curled and
wove them by either indifferently: but this made them-,
unable to give a fine buckle ; hair woven by the point
never taking a right curl. Foreigners own themfelves
obliged to the Englifh for this difeovery, which was
firft carried abroad by a peruke-maker of our country.
Hair is alfo ufed in various other aits and manufac¬
tures.— In particular, the hair of beavers, hares, conies,.
&c. is the principal matter whereof hats are made.
Spread on the ground, and left to putrefy on corn-
lands, hair, as all other animal fubftances, vi%. horns,,
hoofs, blood, garbage, &c. proves good, manure..
Hair, in farriery, is generally called the coat; and,
with regard to horfes, deferves particular confideration..
The hair growing on the fetlock ferves as a defence
to the prominent part of it in travelling iti ftoney ways
or in frofty weather. If the hair of a horfe’s neck,,
and the parts moft uncovered, be clofe, fmooth, and
fleek, it is an indicatition of his being in health and
good cafe. In order to make the hair of an horfe foft.
and fleek, he mult be kept warm at heart, for the leaft
inward cold willcaufe the hair to flare; alfo fweat him
often, for that will loofen and raife the duff and filth
that renders his coat foul; and when he is in the heat
of a fweat, ferape off all the white foam, fweat, and-
filth, that is raifed up with an old fword-blade; and
alfo when he. is blooded, if you rub him all over with.
hi&
H A I [ 272 ] H A I
his own hlcod, repeating It two or three days, and
curry and drefs him well, it will make his coat Ihine as
if covered with a fine varnifii.
Hair falling from the mane or tail is caufed either
by his having taken fome heat, which has engendered
a dry mange; or from fome furfeit, which caufes the
evil humours to refort to thofe parts. To cure this,
anoint the horfe’s mane and creft with black foap ;
make a ftrong lee of aihes, and wafh it all over with
it. But if a canker fhould grow on a horfe’s tail, which
will eat away both fkfh and bone ; then put fome oil
of vitriol to it, and it will confume it: and if you
find that the vitriol corrodes too much, you need
only to wet it with cold water, and it will put a flop
to it.
If you would take away hair from any part of a
horfe’s body, boil half a pound of lime in a quart of
water, till a fourth part is confumed, to which add an
ounce of orpiment; make this into a plalter, and lay
it on.
Hair, or Down, of Plants; a gent.al term expref-
five of all the hairy and glandular appearances on the
furface of plants, to which they are fuppofed by natu-
ralifts to ferve the double purpofe of defenfive weapons
and veifels of fecretion.
Thefe hairs are minute threads of greater or lefs
length and folidity; fome of them vifible to the naked
eye ; whilft others are rendered vifible only by the help
of glaffes. Examined by a microfcope, almoft all the
parts of plants, particularly the young {talks or Items,
appear covered with hairs.
Hairs on the furface of plants prefent themfelves
under various forms: in the leguminous plants, they are
generally cylindric; in the mallow tribe, terminated in
a point; in agrimony, draped like a fifh-hook; in nettle,
awl-draped and jointed; and in fome compound dowers
with hollow or funnel-draped dorets, they are terminated
in two crooked points.
Probable as fonre experiments have rendered it, that
the hairs on the furface of plants contribute to fbme
organical fecretion, their principal ufe feems to be to
preferve the parts in which they are lodged from the bad
effefts of violent fri<£fions, from winds, from extremes
of heat and cold, and fuch like external injuries.
M. Guettard, who has edablifired a botanical me¬
thod from the form, fituation, and other circumdances
of the hairy and glandular appearances on the furface
of plants, has demonftrated, that thefe appearances are
generally conftant and uniform in all the plants of the
fame genus. The fame uniformity feems to charadierife
all the different genera of the fame natural order.
The different forts of hairs which form the down
upon the furface of plants were imperfedlly diftinguilhed
by Grew in 1682, and by Malphigiin 1686. M. Guet-
tard juft mentioned was the firft who examined the
lubjedl both as a botanift and a philofopher. His ob-
fervations were publifhed in 1747.
H/ur-Cloths, in military affairs, are large pieces of
doth made with half hair. They are ufed for cover¬
ing the powder in waggons, or upon batteries; as alfo
for covering charged bombs or hand-grenades, and
many other ufes in magazines.
Hair-Powder. See Starch.
Hair-Worm. See Gordius.
HAKE, in ichthyology, the Englifh name of a
N° 147.
filh common in the Englifh and fome other feas, and
called by authors the merlucius and lucius marinus. This
fifh was ufed of old dried and failed. Hence the pro¬
verb obtains in Kent, Hs dry as a hake.
HAKLUYT (Richard), a naval hi ftorian, is fuppo¬
fed to have been born in London about the year 1553,
and defeended of a genteel family in Herefordfhire, as
the name frequently occurs in the lift of high ftieriffs for
that county in former reigns. He was educated at Weft-
minfter-fchool; and thence, in 1570, removed to Chrift-
church, Oxford; where he applied himfelf particularly
to the itudy of cofmography, and read public lettures in
that fcience. SirEdward Stafford being fent ambaffador
to France in 1583,Mr Hakluyt was one of hisattendants,
probably in the capacity of chaplain. He was at this
time mafter of arts and profeffor of divinity. In 1585
he obtained the royal mandate for the next vacant pre¬
bend of Briitol, to which preferment he fucceeded da¬
ring his refidence at Paris. Conftantly attentive to his
favourite col'mographical inquiries, in fearching the
French libraries, he found a valuable hiftory of Florida,
which had been difeovered about 20 years before by
Captain Loudonniere and others: this he caufed to be
publilhed, at his own expence, in the French language,
and foon after revifed and republiftied Peter Martyr’s
book De orbenovo. After five years refidence in France,
Mr Hakluyt returned to England in company with
lady Sheffield, fifter to the lord admiral Howard. In
the year 1589 he publilhed his Colledfion of Voyages
in one folio volume, which in 1598 was republilhed in
three. In 1605 our author was made prebendary of
Weftminfter ; which, with the re&ory of Wethering-
fet in the county of Suffolk, feems to have been the
fummit of his preferment. He died in 1616, and was
buried in Weitminfter-abbey ; bequeathing to his fon
Edmund his manor of Bridge-Place, and feveral houfes
in Tothil ftreet, Weftminfter. He was an indefati¬
gable and faithful hiftorian. His works are, 1. A
Collection of Voyages and Difcoveriss, a fmall volume.
2. Hiftory of Florida, above mentioned. 3. The
principal Navigations, Voyages, and Difcoveries of the
Englilh Nation, made by Sea or over Land to the
fartheft diftant Quarters of the Earth, at any time
within the compais of thefe 1500 years, in three vols
folio. 4. The Difcoveries of the World, from the firlt
Original to the Year lyyy, written in the Portugal
tongue by Ant. Galvano ; corre&ed, much amended,
and tranflated into Englifh, by Richard Hakluyt.
5. Virginia richly valued, by the Defcription of the
Main Land of Florida, her next Neighbour, &c.
written by a Portugal gentleman of Elvas, and tranf¬
lated by Richard Hakluyt. Befides thefe, he left fe¬
veral manuferipts, which were printed in Purchases
colle&ion.
HALBERSTADT, a fmall principality of Ger¬
many, bounded on the north-eaft by the duchy of
Magdeburg, on the fouth by the principality of An¬
halt, on the weft by the diocefe of Hildftieim, on the
call by part of the ele&orate of Saxony, and on the
north by Brunfwic Wolfenbuttle. It is near 40 mile$
in length and 30 in breadth. The foil in general is
fertile in corn and flax; and there are fome woods,
though in general fuel is fcarce. There are three large
towns in it which fend reprefentatives to the diet, to¬
gether with 10 fmall ones, and 91 county-towns and
6 villages.
HAL [ 273 ] HAL
villages. The number of the inhabitants is computed
at about 200,000: the greateit part of them are Lu¬
therans ; but there are alfo Calvinifts, Jews, and Ro¬
man Catholics. The manufactures are chiefly woollen
(for the country produces a great number of fheep) ;
the exports are grain, and a kind of beer called
The annual revenue ariling from this principality, and
the incorporated counties and lordlhips, is faid to
amount to 500,000 rix-dollars. Till the treaty of
Weftphalia in 1648 this country was a diocefe, but
was then transferred to the electoral houfe of Branden¬
burg as a temporal principality. It is intitled to a vote
both in the diet of the empire and that of the circle.
The principal places are Halberliadt, Groningen, Of-
cherfleben, Olterwick, &c.
Halberstadt, a city of Germany, in the circle of
Lower Saxony, feated near the river Hothein. It is a
neat uniform place ; and has fome good churches and
t)ther handfome buildings, of which the cathedral is
the chief. There is an inn in this place, which is look¬
ed upon to be the largeft and to have the bell accom¬
modations of any in Europe. Before the Reforma¬
tion, it was a bifliop’s fee. E. Long. n. 29. N.
Lat. 52. 6.
HALBERT, or Halbard, in the art of war, a
well-known weapon carried by the fergeants of foot
and dragoons. It is a fort of fpear, the ihaft of which
is about five feet long, and made of afli or other wood.
Its head is armed with a fteel point, not unlike the
point of a two-edged fword. But, befides this lharp
point which is in a line with the fhaft, there is a crols
piece of Heel, flat and pointed at both ends ; but ge¬
nerally with a cutting edge at one extremity, and a
bent lharp point at the other; fo that it ferves equally
to cut down or to pufh withal. It is alfo ufeful in
determining the ground between the ranks, and ad-
jufting the files of a battalion. The word is formed
of the German hal, “ hall,” and bard, “ an hatchet.”
Vofiius derives it from the German hallebaert, of he!,
“ clarus, fplendens,” and baert, “ ax.”
The halbert was anciently a common weapon in the
army, where there were companies of halbardiers. It
is faid to have been ufed by the Amazons, and after¬
wards by the Rhsetians and Vindelicians about the
year 570.
It was called the Dan't/h ax, becaufe the Danes bore
an halbert on the left fhoulder. From the Danes it
was derived to the Scots, from the Scots to the Englifh
Saxons, and from them to the French.
HALCYON, in ornithology, a name given by the
ancients to the alcedo or king’s filher. See Alcedo.
Halcton Days, in antiquity, a name given to feven
days before and as many after the winter folilice ; by
reafon the halcyon, invited by the calmnefs of the
weather, laid its eggs in nefts built in the rocks, clofe
by the brink of the fea, at this feafon.
HALDE (John Baptift du), a learned French Je-
fuit, born at Paris in 1674. was extremely well
verfed in Afiatic geography; and we have of his com¬
pilation a work intitled Grand defcription de la Chine
& de la Tarlarie, from original memoirs of the Jcfui-
tical mifiionaries, in 4 vols folio. He was alfo con¬
cerned in a colledlion of letters begun by father Gobien,
called D.es letlres ed'ifiantes, in Ib vols; and publilhed
fome Latin poems and orations. He died in 1743.
Vox.. VIII. Part I.
HALE, in the fea language, fignifiespull; as, to Hale,
hale up, is to pull up ; to hale in or out, is to pull in
or out. To over-hale a rope, is to hale it too ftiif, or
to hale it the contrary way.
Keel-HAin. See Ducking.
Hale (Sir Matthew), lord chief. juftice of the
king’s-bench in the reign of Charles II. was the fon
of Robert Hale, Efq; a barrifterof Lincoln’s Inn, and
was born in 1609. He was educated at Oxford, where
he made a confiderable progrefs in learning ; but was
afterwards diverted from his lludies by the levities of
youth. From thefe he was reformed by Mr John
Glanvill ferjeant at law; and applying to the ftudy of
the law, entered into Lincoln’s Inn. Noy the attor¬
ney-general took early.notice of him, and dire&ed
him in his ftudies. Mr Selden alfo took much notice
of him ; and it was this acquaintance that firft fet Mr
Hale on a more enlarged purfuit of learning, which he
had before confined to his own profelfion. During
the civil wars, he behaved fo well as to gain the efteem
of both parties. He was employed in his pra&iee by
all the king’s party ; and was appointed by the par¬
liament one of the commiffioners to treat with the
king. The murder of king Charles gave him very fen-
fible regret. However, he took the engagement; and
was appointed, with feveral others, to confider of the
reformation of the law. In 1653 he was by writ
made fergeant at law, and foon after appointed one of
the juftices of the Common Pleas. Upon the death of
Oliver Cromwell he refufed to accept of the new com-
miflion offered him by Richard his fucceffor. He was
returned one of the knights of Gloucefterfhire in the
parliament which called home Charles II. Soon
after he was made lord chief baron of the exchequer;
but declined the honour of knighthood, till lord chan¬
cellor Hyde, fending for him upon bufinefs when the
king was at his houfe, told his majefty, that “ there
was his modeft chief baron ;” upon which he was un-
expe&edly knighted. He was one of the principal
judges that fat in Clifford’s Inn about fettling the dif¬
ference between landlord and tenant, after the ’fire of
London, in which he behaved to the fatisfa&ion of all
parties concerned, and alfo in his poft of chief baron
a died with inflexible integrity. One of the firfl peers
went once to his chamber, and told him, “ That ha¬
ving a fuit in law to be tried before him, he was then
to acquaint him with it, that he might the better un-
derftand it when it fhouhl come to be tried in court.”
Upon which the lord chief baron interrupted him, and
faid, “ He did. not deal fairly to come to his cham¬
bers about fuch affairs; for he never received informa¬
tion of fuch caufes but in open court, where both par¬
ties were to be heard alike.” Upon which his grace
(for it was a duke) went away not a little diflatisfied,
and complained of it to the king as a rudenefs that was
not to be endured : but his majefty bid him content
himfelf that he was ufed no worfe; and faid, “ That
he verily believed he would have uied him no better
if he had gone to folicit him in any of his own caufes.”
Another remarkable incident happened in one of his
circuits. A gentleman who had a trial at the affizes
had fent him a buck for his table. When judge Hale
therefore heard his name, he afked “ if he was not the
fame perfon who had fent him the venifon? ’ and find¬
ing that he was the fame, told him, that “ he could
L1 not
1
HAL .[ 274 1 HAL
Hales- not fuflfer the trial to go on till he had paid him for his
—v buck.” The gentleman anfwered, that “ he never
fold his venifon; and that he had done nothing to him
which he did not do to every judge who had gone that
circuitwhich was confirmed by feveral gentlemen
prefent. The lord chief baron, however, would not
fnffer the trial to proceed till he had paid for the pre¬
fent: upon which the gentleman withdrew the record.
In fhort, he was in 1671 advanced to be lord chief
juftice of the king’s bench; but about four years after
this promotion, his health declining, he refigned his
poll in February 1675-6, and died in December fol-’
lowing. This excellent man, who was an ornament
to the bench, to his country, and to human nature,
wrote, i. An Effay on the Gravitation and Non-gra¬
vitation of Fluid Bodies. 2. Obfervations touching the
Torricellian Experiment. 3. Contemplations, moral and
divine. 4. The Life of Pomponius Atticus, with po¬
litical and moral Reflexions. 5. Obfervations on the
Principles of natural Motion. 6. The primitive Ori¬
gination of Mankind. He alfo left a great number of
manufcripts, in Latin and Englifli, upon various fub-
jeXs ; among which are, his Pleas of the Crown, fince
publiflted by Mr Emyln in two volumes folio; and his
Original Inftitution, Power, and JurifdiXion of Par¬
liaments.
Hales (Stephen), D. D. a celebrated divine and
philofopher, was born in 1677. He was the fixth fen
of Thomas Hales, Efq; the eldeft fon of Sir Robert
Males, created a baronet by king Charles II. and
Mary the heirefs of Richard Langley of Abbots-Wood
in Hertfordlhire. In 1696 he was entered a penfioner
at Bennet-college, Cambridge; and was admitted a
fellow in 1703, and became bachelor of divinity in
1711. He foon difcovered a genius for natural philo-
fophy. Botany was his fir ft ftudy ; and he tifed fre¬
quently to make excurfions among Gogmagog hills,
in company with Dr Stukely, with a view of profecu-
ting that ftudy. In thefe expeditions he likewife col¬
lected fofiils and infeXs, having contrived a curious in-
itrument for catching fuch of the latter as have wings.
In company with this friend he alfo applied himfelf
to the ftudy of anatomy, and invented a curious me¬
thod of obtaining a reprefentation of the lungs in lead.
They next applied themfelves to the ftudy of chemiftry;
in which, however, they did not make any remarkable
difcoveries. In the ftudy of aftronomy Mr Hales was
equally affiduous. Having made himfelf acquainted
with the Newtonian fyftem, he contrived a machine
for ftrowing the phenomena on much the fame principles
with that afterwards made by Mr Rowley, and, from
the name of his patron, called an Orrery.
About the year 1710 he was prefented to the per¬
petual cure of Teddington near Twickenham, in
Middlefex ; and afterwards accepted of the living of
Porlock in Somerfetfture, which vacated his fellowfhip
in the college, and which he exchanged for the living
of Faringdon in Hampftrire. Soon after, he married
Mary, the daughter and heirefs of Dr Newce, who
was reXor of Haliftiam in Suffex, but refided at
Much-Haddam in Hertfordfhire. On the 13th of
March 1718, he was eleXed member of the Royal
Society; and on the 5th of March, in the year
following, he exhibited an account of fome experi¬
ments he had lately made on the effeX of the
fun’s warmth in raifing the fap in trees. This pro- Haletk.
cured him the thanks of the fociety, who alfo requefted ——y—«
him to profecute the fubjeX. With this requeft he
complied with great pleafure ; and on the 14th of
June 1725 exhibited a treatife in which he gave an
account of his progrefs. This treatife being highly
applauded by the fociety, he farther enlarged and
improved it; and in April 1727 he publiftied it under
the title of Vegetable Statics. This work he dedicated
to his late majefty king George II. who was then
prince of Wales ; and he was the fame year chofen one
of the council of the Royal Society, Sir-Hans Sloan
being at the fame annual elcXion choftn their prefident.
The book being well received, a fecond edition of it
was publiftied in 1731. In a preface to this edition
Mr Hales promifed a fequel to the work, which he
publiftied in 1733 under the title of Statical EJfays, &c.
In 1732 he was appointed one of the truftees for
tftablilhing a new colony in Georgia. On the 5th of
July 1733 the univerfity of Oxford honoured him
with a diploma for the degree of doXor in divinity; a
mark of diftinXion the more honourable, as it is
not ufual for one univerfity to confer academical
honours on thofe who were educated at another.
In 1734, when the health and morals of the lower
and middling clafs of people were fubverted by the
exceffive drinking of gin, he publiftied, though with¬
out his name, A friendly Admonition to.the Drinkers
of Brandy and other fpirituous Liquors; which was
twice reprinted. The latter end of the fame year he
publiftied a fermon which he preached at St Bride’s
before the reft of the truftees for eftabliftiing a new
colony in Georgia. His text was, “ Bear ye one ano¬
ther’s burthens, and fo fulfil the law of Chrift;” Gala¬
tians vi. 2. In 1739 he printed a volume in 8vo, in-
titled, Philofophical Experiments on Sea-water, Corn,
Flefti, and other Subftances. This work, which con¬
tained many ufeful inftruXions for voyagers, was dedi¬
cated to the lords of the admiralty. The fame year
he exhibited to the Royal Society an account of fome
farther experiments towards the difcovery of medicines-
for diffolving the ftone in the kidneys and bladder, and
preferring meat in long voyages; for which he recei¬
ved the gold medal of Sir Godfrey Copley’s donation-
The year following he publiftied fome account of Ex.-
periments and Obfervations on Mrs Stephens’s Medi¬
cines for diffolving the Stone, in which their diffolvent
power is inquired into and demonftrated.
In 1741 he read before the Royal Society an ac¬
count of an inftrument which he invented, and called
a ventilator, for conveying frefti air into mines, hof-
pitals, prifons, and the clofe parts of ftu’ps: he had
communicated it to his particular friends fome months
before; and it is very remarkable, that a machine of
the fame kind, for the fame purpofe, was in the fpring
of the fame year invented by one Martin Triewald, an
officer in the fervice of the king of Sweden, called
captain of mechanics, for which the king and fenate
granted him a privilege in OXober following, and or¬
dered every ftiip of war in the fervice of that ftate to
be furniftied with one of them ; a model alfo of this
machine was fent into France, and all the (hips in the
French navy were alfo ordered to have a ventilator of
the fame fort. It happened alfo, that about the fame
time one Sutton, who kept a coffeehoufe in Aldtrfgate-
ftreet.
HAL r 275 ] HAL
Hales, ftreet, invented a ventilator of another conftru&ion to
— y1 draw off the foul air out of (hips by means of the cook-
room fire: but poor Sutton had not intereft enough to
make maukind accept the benefit he offered them; tho*
its fuperiority to Dr Hales’s contrivance was evident,
and among others Dr Mead and the late ingenious
Mr Benjamin Robins gave their teftimony in its favour:
(See Am-Pipes.) The public, however, is not lefs in¬
debted to the ingenuity and benevolence of Dr Hales,
whofe ventilators came more eafily into ufe for
many purpofes of the greateft importance to life, par¬
ticularly for keeping corn fweet, by blowing through
it frefh fhowers of air; a pra(Slice very foon adopted
by France, a large granary having been made, under
the direction of Duhamel, for the prefervation of corn
in this manner, with a view to make it a general
practice.
In 1743, Dr Hales read before the Royal Society
a defcription of a method of conveying liquors into
the abdomen during the operation of tapping, and it
was afterwards printed in their Tranfadtions. In
1745, he publilhed fome experiments and obfervations
on tar-water, which he had been induced to make by
the publication of a work called Siris, in which the
late learned and molt excellent Dr Berkley, bifhop of
Cloyne, had recommended tar-water as an univerfal
medicine : on this occafion feveral letters paffed be¬
tween them on the fubjedl, particularly with refpedl
to the ufe of tar-water in the difeafe of the horned cat¬
tle. In the fame year he communicated to the public,
by a letter to the editor of the Gentleman’s Magazine,
a defcription of a back-beaver, which will winnow and
clean corn much fooner and better than can be done
by the common method. He alfo, at the fame time,
and by the fame channel, communicated to the public
a cheap and eafy way to preferve corn fweet in facks;
an invention of great benefit to farmers, efpecially to
poor leafers, who want to keep fmall quantities of
corn for fome time, but have no proper granary or re-
pofitory for that purpofe. He alfo the fame year took
the fame method to publilh dire&ions how to keep corn
fweet in heaps without turning it, and to fweeten it
when mufty- He publilhed a long paper, containing
an account of feveral methods to preferve corn by ven¬
tilators ; with a particular defcription of feveral forts
of ventilators, illuftrated by a cut, fo that the whole
mechanifm of them may be eafily known, and the ma¬
chine conllrudled by a common carpenter. He pub¬
lilhed alfo in the fame volume, but without his name,
a detection of the fallacious boafts concerning the effi¬
cacy of the liquid Ihell in diflblving the Hone in the
bladder. In 1746 he communicated to the Royal So¬
ciety a propofal for bringing fmall palfable Hones foon,
and with eafe, out of the bladder; and this was alfo
printed in their Tranfa&ions. In the Gentleman’s
Magazine for July 1747, he publilhed an account of a
very confiderable improvement of his back-heaver, by
which it became capable of clearing corn of the very
fmall grain, feeds, blacks, fmut-balls, &c. to fuch per-
feftion as to make it fit for feed-corn. In 1748 he
communicated to the Royal Society a propofal for
checking, in fome degree, the progrefs of fires, occa-
iioned by the great fire which happened that year in
Cornhill; And the fubftance of this propofal was
printed in their Tranfadlions. In the fame year he
alfo communicated to the Society two memoirs, Hale*,
which are printed in their Tranfadlions; oiie on ■'v—-
the great benefit of ventilators, and the other on
fome experiments in eledtricity. In 1749 his ven¬
tilators were fixed in the Savoy prifon, by order
of the right hon. Henry Fox, Efq; then fecretary
at war, afterwards lord Holland; and the benefit
was fo great, that though 50 or 100 in a year of¬
ten died of the gaol-diftemper before, yet from the
year 1749 to the year 1752 inclufive, no more than
four perfons died, though in the year 1750 the num¬
ber of prifoners was 240 ; and of thofe four, one died
of the fmall-pox, and another of intemperance. In
the year 1750 he publilhed fome confiderations on the
caufes of earthquakes ; occafioned by the flight Ihocka
felt that year in London. The fubftance of this
work was alfo printed in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. The fame year he exhibited an examination of
the ftrength of feveral purging waters, efpecially of the
water of JeJfop’s well, which is printed in the Philofo¬
phical Tranfadtions.
Dr Hales had now been feveral years honoured with
the efteem and friendlhip of his royal highnefs Frede¬
rick prince of Wales; who frequently vifited him at
Teddington, from his neighbouring palace at Kevv,
and took a pleafure in furprifing him in the midft of
thofe curious refearches into the various parts of nature
which almoft incefiantly employed him. Upon the
prince’s death, which happened this year, and the fet-
tlemeht of the houfehold of the princefs-dowager, he
was, without his felicitation, or even knowledge, ap¬
pointed clerk of the clofet or almoner to her royal
highnefs. In 1751 he was chofen by the college of
phyficians to preach the annual fermon called Crowne’s
lecture: Dr William Crowne having left a legacy for a
fermon to be annually preached on “ the wifdom and
goodnefs of God difplayed in the formation of man.”
Dr Hales’s text was, iVilh the ancient is ivifdom, and in
length of days underjlanding. Job xii. 12. This fermon,
as ufual, was publilhed at the requeft of the college.
In the latter end of the year 1752, his ventilators,
worked by a windmill, were fixed in Newgate, with
branching trunks to 24 wards; and it appeared that
the difproportion of thofe that died in the gaol before
and after this eftabliftiment was as 16 to 7. He pub¬
lilhed alfo a farther account of their fuccefs, and fome
obfervations on the great danger arifing from foul air,
exemplified by a narrative of feveral perfons feized
with the gaol-fever by working in Newgate.
On the death of Sir Hans Sloane, which happened
in the year 1753, Dr Hales was elefted a member of the
Academy of Sciences at Paris in his room. The fame
year he publilhed in the Gentleman’s Magazine fome
farther confiderations about means to draw the foul air
out of the fick rooms of occafional army-hofpitals,
and private houfes in town. He alfo publilhed many
other curious particulars relative to the ufe and fuc¬
cefs of ventilators. The fame year a defcription of a
fea-gage, which the doftor invented to meafure un¬
fathomable depths, was communicated to the public in
the fame mifcellany : this paper was drawn up about
the year 1732 or 1733, by the doftor, for the late Co¬
lin Campbell, Efq; who employed the ingenious Mr
Hawkfbee to make the machine it deferibes, which
was tried in various depths, and anfwercd with great
L l 2 exa&ncfs,
1
HAL [ 276 ] HAL
Hales, exallnefs, yet was at laft loft near Bermuda. In fecond wife, the firft being dead, and by the fir ft ven-’Haft-'nerfc
Half blood 175^' con^n^inicated to the Royal Society fome ter he has a fon, and by his fecond venter has likewife lj >
t.a 00 experiments for keeping water and fifh fweet with a fon ; the two brothers, in this cafe, are but of half- HailfaiC'.
lime-water, an account of which was publifhed in the blood. See Consanguinity and Descent.
Philofophical Tranfactions. He alfo continued to en¬
rich their memoirs with many ufeful articles from this
time till his death, particularly a method of forward¬
ing the diftillation of frefh from fait water by blowing
(bowers of frefli air up through the latter during the
Half-Afer/f ; a noble, or 6s. 8d.
Half ilfoon,in fortification; an outwork compofed
of two faces, forming a faliant angle, whofe gorge is
in form of a crefcent or-half-moon, whence the name.
HALFPENNY, a copper coin, whofe value is ex-
©peration. In 1757 he communicated to the editor of preffed by its name, in reference to the penny,
the Gentleman’s Magazine an eafy method of purifying HALI-BEIGH, firft dragoman or interpreter at
the air, and regulating its heat in melon-frames and the Grand Signior’s court in the 17th century, was
green-houfes ; alfo further improvements in his method born of Chriftian parents in Poland ; but having been
of diftilling fea-water.
taken by the Tartars when he was young, they f
His reputation and the intereft of his family and him to the Turks, who brought him up in their reli-
friends might eafily have procured him farther pre¬
ferment : but of farther preferment he was not de-
gion in the feraglio. His name, in his native country,
was Bobowlki. He learnt many languages, and Sir
lirous; for being nominated by his late Majefty to a Paul Ricaut owns he was indebted to him for feveral
canonry of Windfor, he engaged the princefs to re- things which he relates in his Prcfent Jlate of the Otto-
queft his majefty to recal his nomination. That
a man fo devoted to philofophical rtudies and employ-
man empire. He held a great correfpondence with the
Englifti, who perfuaded him to tranflate fome books
merits, and fo confcientious in the difeharge of his into the Turkifh language ; and he had a mind to r
duty, fhould not defire any preferment which would turn into the bofom of the Chriftian church, but died
reduce him to the dilemma either of neglefting his before he could accomplifh the defign. Dr Hyde pub-
duty, or foregoing his amufement, is not ftrange :
but that he would refufe an honourable and profitable
appointment, for which no duty was to be done that
would interrupt his habits of life, can fcarce be im¬
puted to his temperance and humility without im¬
peaching his benevolence ; for if he had no wilh of any
thing more for himfelf, a liberal mind would furely
lifted his book Of the liturgy of the Turks, their pilgri¬
mages to Mecca, their clrcumcifion and vifitlng of the fick.
He tranflated the catechifm of the church of England,
and the bible, into, the Turkift language. The MS.
is lodged in the library of Leyden. He wrote like¬
wife a Turkift'grammar and di&ionary.
HALICARNASSUS, (anc. geog.) a principal
have been highly gratified by the diilribution of fo town of Caria, faid to be built by the Argives, and
eonfiderable a fum as a canonry of Windfor would fituated between two bays, the Ceramicus and Jalius.
have put into his power, in the reward of induftry,
the alleviation of diftrefs, and the fupport of helplefs
indigence. He was, however, remarkable for focial
It was the royal refid ence, (called Zephyr a formerly) ;
efpecially of Maufolus, made more illuftrious by his
monument. This monument was one of the fe-
virtue and fweetnefs of temper ; his life was not only ven wonders, and eretled by Artemifia. Halicarnaf-
blamelefs, but exemplary in a high degree ; he was feus, or Halicarnaffenfis, was the gentilitious name of
happy in himfelf, and beneficial to others, as appears Herodotus and Dionyfius. The former was called the
by this account of his attainments and purfuits ; the Father of Hiftory ; and the latter
conftant ferenity and gheerfulnefs of his mind, and hiftorian but alfo a critic,
the temperance and regularity of his life, concurred, xj a r r a^wito :« —l
s not only a jjood
with a good conftitution, to preferve him in health
and vigour to the uncommon age of fourfeore and four
years. He died at Teddington in 1761 ; and was bu¬
ried, purfuant to his own dire&ions, under the tower
©f the parift-church, which he built at his own expence
not long before his death.—Her royal highnefs the
princefs of Wales eredled a monument to his memory
in Weftminfter abbey.
HALESIA, in botany .- A genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking under the 18th or¬
der, Bicornes. The calyx is quadridentated, fuperior;
the corolla quadrifid; the nut quadrangular and dif-
permous.
HALESWORTH, a town of Suffolk in England,
feated on a neck of land between two branches of the
river Blith, 101 miles from London. It is a well fre¬
quented thriving place, and has a trade in linen-yarn
and fail-cloth. It has one large church, and about
700 good houfes ; but the ftreets are neither wide nor
paved. About the town is railed a great deal of hemp.
E. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat. 52. 30.
H&LF-blood, in law, is where a man marries a
HALIvETUS, in ornithology. See Falco.
HAL1EUTICS, Halieutica, aaiettika}formed
of aMivs, fjhcrman, which, is derived from fea;
books treating of fifties, or the art of fifting.—We
have ftill extant the halitutics/>f Oppian.
HALIFAX, the capital of the province of Nova
Scotia in America, fituated in W. Long. 64, 30. N.
Lat. 44. 45. It was founded in 1749, in qrder to fe-
cure the Britift fettlements there from the attempts of
the French and Indians. It was divided into 35
fquares, each containing 16 lots of 40 by 60 feet;
one eftablifted church, and one meeting-houfe, and a-
fmall number of houfes out of the regular ftreets.
The town was furrounded by pickettings, and
guarded by forts on the outftde; but fince the
commencement of the American troubles, it has
been very ftrongly foitified. Along the river Che-
budto, to the fouthward of the town, are buildings
and fift-flakes for at lead two miles, and to the north¬
ward on the river for about one mile. The plan,
however, has been greatly improved by the earl of
Halifax, who was the original contriver. The pro¬
clamation iffued for this fettlement, offered 50 acres of
land to every foldier and failor who would fettle in that
part
HAL [ 277 ] HAL
Halifax, part of America, without paying any rent, or doing
——v—- any fervice for ten years, and no more than one {hil¬
ling per annum for each 50 acres ever afterwards : to
every foldier and failor who had a wife and children,
ten acres^rfonTwere added for every individual of his
family, and for every increafe that fho-uld afterwards
happen in the fame proportion : To each fubaltern
officer 80 acres, and 15 for each of his family ; 200
acres to each enfign ; 300 to each lieutenant; 400 to
each captain ; 600 to every officer in rank above a
captain, and 30 for each of his family. The govern¬
ment alfo engaged to tranfport and maintain the new
fettlers for one year at its own expence, and to furniih
them with fuch arms, provifions, utenfils, implements,
&c. as (hould be neceffary to put them in a way to cul¬
tivate their lands, to build habitations, and to com¬
mence a fifhery. The fame conditions were likewife
offered to all carpenters and other handicraftfmen ;
and furgeons were offered the fame conditions with the
enfigns.—This proclamation was publifhed in March,
and by the month of May 3700 peifons had offered
thcmfelves. They accordingly embarked, and efta-
blifhed themfelves in the bay of Chebu&o; calling their
city Halifax, from the title ^of their patron. Before
the end of Oidober the fame year, 350 comfortable
wobden houfes were built, and as many more during
the winter.—The fame year in which the fettlers em¬
barked, the government granted them 40,0001. for
their expences. In 1750, they granted 57,582!. 17s.
3^-d. for the fame purpofe ; in 1751, 53,927!. 14s.
4d.; in 1752, 61,492!. 19s. 4-^.; in 1753, 94>6l5h
12s. 4d. ; in 1754, 58,447!. 2s. ; and in 1755,
49,418 1. 7 s. 8d.—The place has at length attained a
degree of fplendor that bids fair to rival the firft ci¬
ties in the revolted colonies; for which it has been
equally indebted to the late war, to the great increafe
of population from the exiled loyalifts, and the fofter-
ing care of Great Britain ; infomuch, that the number
of inhabitants has been more than doubled during the
laft ten years.
The harbour is perfectly {heltered from all win Is
. at the diftance of 12 miles from the fea, and is fo fpa-
cious, that a thoufand fail of {hips may ride in it with¬
out the leafl danger. Uponrit there are built a great
number of commodious wharfs, which have from 12
to 18 feet water at all times of the tide, for the con¬
venience of loading and unloading {hips. The ftreets
of the town are regularly laid out, and crofs each other
at right angles; the whole rifing gradually from the
water upon the fide of a hill, whofe top is regularly
fortified, but not fo as to be able to withftand a regu¬
lar attack. Many confiderable merchants refide at
this place, and are poffefled of {hipping to the amount
of feveral thoufand tons, employed in a flourilhing trade
both with Europe and the Weft Indies. There is a fmall
but excellent careening yard for {hips of the royal na¬
vy that are upon this ftation, or that may have occa-
fion to come in to retit, and take water, feuel, or frelh
provifions on board, in their pafiage to and from the
Weft Indies. It is always kept well provided with
naval ftores; and {hips of the line are hove down and
repaired with the greateft eafe and fafety. Several
batteries of heavy cannon command the harbour, par¬
ticularly thofe that are placed upon George’s Ifiand,
which being very fteep and high, and fitpated in mid¬
channel, a little way below the town, is well calculated Halifax,
to annoy vefiels in any direftion, as they mud of ne- 'r~~m
ceffity pafs very near it before they are capable of do-
ing any mifchief. Above the careening yard, which
is at the upper end of the town, there is a large bafon,
or piece of water, communicating with the harbour
below, near 20 miles in circumference, and capable of
containing the whole navy of England, entirely Ihel-
tered from all winds, and having only one narrow en¬
trance, which, as we obferved before, leads into the
harbour. There are a number of detached fettlements
lately formed by the loyalifts upon the bafon ; the
lands at a fmall diftance from the water being general¬
ly thought better than thofe near to Halifax; but what
fuccefs may attend their labours, will require feme time
to determine. An elegant and convenient building has
been erefted near the town for the convalefcence of
the navy ; but the healthinefs of the climate has as
yet prevented many perfons from becoming patients,
fcarcely any {hips in the world being fo free from com¬
plaints of every kind, in regard to health, as thofe that
are employed upon this ftation. There is a very fine
light-houfe, Handing upon a fmall ifland, juft off the
entrance of the harbour, which is vifible, cither by
night or day, fix or feven leagues off at fea.
Halifax, earl of. See Saville.
Halifax, a town in the weft riding of Yorklhire
in England, feated on the river Calder, in W. Long.
2. o. N Lat. 53. 45. It has the title of an earldom,
and is very eminent for the clothier trade. The parifti
is faid to be the moft populous, if not the molt ex-
tenfive, in England : for it is above 30 miles in cir¬
cumference; and, befides the mother church at Halifax,
and 16 meeting-houfes, has i 2 chapels, two of which
are parochial. What is a little Angular, all the meet¬
ing-houfes here, except the quakers, have bells and
burying-grounds. The woollens principally manu¬
factured here are kerfeys and {balloons. Of the for¬
mer it is affirmed, that one dealer hath fent by com-
mifiion 60,000 pounds worth in a year to Holland and
Hamburgh ; and of the latter, it is faid, 100,COO
pieces are made in this parifti yearly. The inhabi¬
tants here and in the neighbouring towns are fo en¬
tirely employed in thefe manufaCUii es, that agriculture
is but little minded. Moft of their provifious of all
forts are brought from the north and call ridings,
and from Lancafhire, Chefhire, Nottinghamftiire, and
Warwicklhire. The markets are very much crowded
for the buying and felling provifions and manufactures.
The cloths, at the firtt ereCting of the woollen manu¬
factures in thefe parts, having been frequently ftolen
off the tenters in the night, a law was made, by which
the magiftrates of Halifax were empowered to pafs
fentence on, and execute all offenders, if they were ta¬
ken in the faCt, or owned it, or if the ftolen cloth was-
found upon them, provided alfo the crime was com¬
mitted, and the criminal apprehended, within the liber¬
ties of the foreft of Hardwick. Thofe found guilty
were executed in the following manner : an axe was
drawn by a pally to the top of a wooden engine, and
faftened by a pin, which being pulled out, the axe fell
down in an inftant, and did its work. If they had-
ftole an ox, horfe, or any other beaft, it was led with
them to the fcaffold, and there faftened by a chord to-
the pin, that held up the axe; and when the fignal was;
give®
HAL [ 278 1 HAL
given by the jurors, who were the firft burghers with- England, was born in 1574, and educated at Cam- Hail
in the feveral towns of the foreft, the beail was driven bridge. He became profeffor of rhetoric in that uni-
awav, and the pin plucked out, upon which the axe verfity, and then fuccefiively was made reftor of Hal- ^
fell and did its office. This fevere and'fummary courfe (led in Suffolk, prefented to the living of Waltham
of juftice gave occafion to a litany, which is Hill in Effex, made prebendary of Wolverhampton, dean
much more frequent in the mouths of the beggars of Worcefter, bifhop of Exeter, and laftly of Nor¬
and vagrants of thefe parts, than is the common wich. His works teftify his zeal againft Popery, and
prayer, viz. are much efteemed. He lamented the divifions of the
“From Hel!, Hull, and Halifax, good Lord deliver usProteftants, and wrote fomething concerning the means
though neither the engine, nor manner of proceeding of putting an end to them. July 1616, he attended
againft them, are now in ufe. the embaffy of lord Doncafter into France, and upon
HALIOTIS, the ear-shell, a genus ofinfe&s his return was appointed by his majefty to be one of
belonging to the order of vermes teftacea. This is an the divines who ffiould attend him into Scotland. In
animal of the fnail-kind, with an open (hell refembling 1618 he was fent to the fynod of Dort with other di-
an ear. There are feven fpecies, diftinguifhed by the vines, and pitched upon to preach a Latin fermon be-
figure of their (hells. See Plate CCXXXIV. fore that affembly. But being obliged to return from
&HALITZ, a town of Poland, and capital of a ter- thence before the fynod broke up, on account of his
ritory of the fame name, in Red Ruffia, with a caftle. health, he was by the dates prefented with a gold me¬
lt is feated on the river Neifter. E. Long. 26. o. dal. He wrote, 1. Mifcellaneous epiftles. 2. Mun-
N. Lat. 49. 20. dus alter et idem. 3. A juft cenfure of travellers.
HALL, in archite&ure, a large room at the en- 4. The Chriftian Seneca. 5. Satires, in fix books,
trance of a fine houfe and palace. Vitruvius mentions 6. A century of meditations ; and many other works,
three kinds of halls; the tetraftyle, with four columns which, befides the above fatires, make in all five vo-
fupporting the platfond or ceiling; the Corinthian, lumes in folio and quarto. He died in 1656.
with columns all round let into the wall, and vaulted Hall (John), a poet of diftinguifned learning, wa*
over; and the Egyptian, which had a perillyle of in- born at Durham, and educated at Cambridge, where
Mated Corinthian columns, bearing a fecond order he was efteemed the brighteft genius in that univerfi-
with a ceiling. ty. In 1646, when he was but 19 years of age, he
The hall is properly the fined as well as firft mem- publilhed his Horee Vaciva, or Effays ; and the fame
ber of an apartment: and in the houfes of miniftcrs of year came out his poems. He tranflaied from the
date, magiftrates, &c. is the place where they difpatch Greek “ Hierocles upon the golden verfes of Pythago-
bufinefs, and give audience. In very magnificent ras;" before which is an account of the ingenious tranf-
buildings, where the hall is larger and loftier than or- lator and his works, by John Davies of Kidwelly. He
dinary, and placed in the middle of the houfe, it is died in 1656, aged 29.
Called a faloon. HALLAGE, a fee or toll paid for cloth brought
The length of a hall ffiould be at lead twice and a to be fold in Blackwell-hall, London,
quarter its breadth ; and in great buildings, three HA LLAMAS, in our old writers, the day of all¬
times its breadth. As to the height of halls, it may hallows, or all-faints, viz. November 1. It is one of
be two-thirds of the breadth ; and, if made with an the crofs quarters of the year which was computed, in
arched ceiling, it will be much handfomer, and lefs ancient writings, from Hallamas to Candlemas,
liable to accidents by fire. In this cafe, its height is HALLAND, a country of Sweden, in the ifland
found by dividing its breadth into fix parts, five of of Schonen, lying along the fea-coaft, at the entrance
which will be the height from the floor to the under of the Baltic Sea, and oppofite to Jutland. It is 60
fide of the key of the arch. miles along the coaft, bftt is not above 12 in breadth.
Hall is alfo particularly ufed for a court of juftice; Halmftadt is the capital town,
or an edifice wherein there is one or more tribunals. HALLATON, a town of Leicefterffiire, in Eng-
In Weftminfter-hall are held the great courts of land. It is feated on a rich foil, 12 miles fouth eaft
England, viz. the king’s bench, chancery, common 0f Leicefter, in E. Long. o. 50. N. Lat. 52. 35.
pleas, and exchequer. In adjoining apartments is like- HALLE, a little difmantled town of the Auftrian
wife held the high court of parliament. Netherlands, in Hainault. The church of Notre
Weftminfter-hall was the royal palace or place of Dame contains an image of the Virgin Mary, held in
Yefidence of our ancient kings ; who ordinarily held great veneration. E. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 50. 44.
their parliaments, and courts of judicature, in their Halle, a handfome and confiderable town of
dwelling-houfes (as is dill done by the kings of Spain), Germany, in the circle of Upper Saxony, and in the
and frequently fat in perfon in the courts of judicature, duchy of Magdeburg, with a famous univerfity and
as they dill do in parliament. A great part of this palace fait-works. It belongs to the king of Pruflia ; and 19
was burnt under Henry VIII. what remains is dill re- feated in a pleafant plain on the river Sale, in E. Long,
ferved for the faid judicatories. The great l\all, where- 12. 33. N. Lat. 51. 36.
in the courts of king’s bench, &c. are kept, is faid to Halle, a free and imperial town of Germany, in
have been built by William Rufus; others fay by Suabia, famous for its falt-pits. It is feated on the
Richard I. or II. It is reckoned fuperior, in point of river Kocher, among rocks and mountains, in E. Lon.
dimenfions, to any hall in Europe; being 300 feet 10. 50. N. Lat. 49. 6.
long and too broad. HALLEIN, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Hall (Jofeph), an eminent prelate of the church of Bavaria, and archbiffiopric of Saltlburg ; feated on
HAL [ 279 1 HAL
Hallelujah, the river Saltza, among the mountains, wherein are
Ha*!er- mines of fait, which are the chief riches of the town
and country. E. Long. 12. 15. N. Lat. 47. 33.
HALLELUJA, a term of rejoicing, fometimes
fung or rehearfed at the end of verfes on fuch occafions.
The word is Hebrew ; or rather, it is two Hebrew
words joined together : one of them hallelu, and
the other ^ jah ; an abridgement of the name of God,
'n'iri., gehovah. The firft fignifies laudate, “ praife ye
and the other, Dominum, “ the Lord.”
St Jerome firft introduced the word hallelujah into
the church fervice : for a confiderable time it was only
ufed once a year in the Latin church, viz. at Eafter;
but in the Greek church it was much more frequent.
St Jerome mentions its being fung at the interments
of the dead, which ftill continues to be done in that
church, as alfo on fome occafions in the time of
Lent.
In the time of Gregory the Great, it was appointed
to be fung all the year round in the Latin church,
which railed fome complaints againft that pope ; as
giving too much into the Greek way, and introducing
the ceremonies of the church of Conftantinople into
that of Rome. But he excufed himfelf by alleging,
that this had been the ancient ufage of Rome ; and
that it had been brought from Conftantinople at the
time when the word hallelujah was firft introduced un¬
der pope Damafcus.
HALLER (Albert Van), an eminent phyfician,
was born at Bern, on the i6th of Oclober 1 708. He
was the fon of an advocate of confiderable eminence
in his profeffion. His father had a numerous family,
and Albert was the youngeft of five fons. From the
firft period of his education, he Ihowed a very great
genius for literature of every kind : to forward the
progrefs of his ftudies, his father took into his family
a private tutor, named Abraham Billodz,; and fuch was
the difeipline exerted by this pedagogue, that the acci¬
dental fight of him, at any future period of life, ex¬
cited in Haller very great uneafinefs, and renewed all
his former terrors. According to the accounts which
are given us, the progrefs of Haller’s ftudies, at the
earlieft periods of life, was rapid almoft beyond belief.
When other children were beginning only to read, he
was ftudying Bayle and Moreri; and at nine years of
age he was able to tranflate Greek, and was beginning
the ftudy of Hebrew. Not long after this, however,
the courfe of his education was fomewhat interrupted
by the death of his father; an event which happened
when he was in the 13th year of his age. After this
he was fent to the public fchool at Bern, where he ex¬
hibited many fpecimens of early and uncommon genius:
He was diftinguifhed for his knowledge in the Greek
and Latin languages; but he was chiefly remarkable
for his poetical genius : and his effays of this kind,
which were publiftied in the German language, were
read and admired throughout the whole empire. In the
16th year of his age he began the ftudy of medicine
at Tubingen, under thofe eminent teachers Duvernoy
and Camerarius ; and continued there for the fpace of
two years, when the great reputation of the jultly ce¬
lebrated Boerhaave drew him to Leyden. Nor was this
diftinguilhed teacher the only man from whole fupe-
rior abilities he had there an opportunity of profit¬
ing. Ruyfch was flill alive, and Albfnus was riling Haller,
into fame. Animated by fuch examples, he fpent a!!v—
the day, and the greateft part of the night, in the mod
intenfe ftudy; and the proficiency which he made,
gained him univerfal dfteetn both from his teachers and
fellow-ftudents. From Holland, in the year 1727, he
came to England. Here, however, his flay was but
fhort; and it was rather his intention to vifit the illu-
ftrious men of that period, than to profecute his ftu¬
dies at London. He formed connexions with fome of
the moft eminent of them. He was honoured with the
friendlhip of Douglas and Chefelden ; and he met with
a reception proportioned to his merit from Sir Hans
Sloane, prefident of the Royal Society. After his vi¬
fit to Britain, he went to France; and there, under
thofe eminent mailers, Winflow and Le Dran, with
the latter of whom he refided during his ftay in Paris,
he had opportunities of profecuting anatomy, which
he had not before enjoyed. But the zeal of our young
anatomill was greater than the prejudices of the people
at that period, even in the enlightened city of Paris,
could admit of. An information being lodged againll
him to the police for dilfeXing dead bodies, he was
obliged to cut Ihort his anatomical inveftigations by a
precipitate retreat. Still, however, intent on the farther
profecution of his ftudies, he went to Bafil, where he
became a pupil to the celebrated Bernoulli.
Thus improved and inllruXed by the leXures of the
moft diftinguilhed teachers of that period, by uncom¬
mon natural abilities, and by unremitting induftry, he
returned to the place of his nativity in the 26th year of
his age. Not long after this, he offered himfelf a can¬
didate, firft for the office of phyfician to an hofpital,
and afterwards for a profefforffiip. But neither the cha-
raXer which he had before he left his native country,
nor the fame which he had acquired and fupported
while abroad, were fufficient to combat the intereft op-
pofed to him. He was difappointed in both; and it
was even with difficulty that he obtained, in the fol¬
lowing year, the appointment of keeper of a public li¬
brary at Bern. The exercife of this office was indeed
by no means fuited to his great abilities: but it was
agreeable to him, as it afforded him an opportunity for
that extenfive reading by which he has been fojuftly
diftinguilhed. The negleX of his merit which marked
his firft outfet, neither diminilhed his ardour for medi¬
cal purfuits, nor detraXed from his reputation either
at home or abroad. And foon after he was nominated
a profeffor in the univerfity of Gottingen, by king
George II. The duties of this important office he dif-
charged, with no lefs honour to himfelf than advantage
to the public, for the fpace of 17 years ; and it afforded
him an ample field for the exertion of thofe great talents
which he poffeffed. Extenfively acquainted with the
fentiments of others refpeXing the economy of the
human body, ftruck with the diverfity of opinions
which they held, and fenfible that the only means of
inveftigating truth was by careful and candid experi¬
ment, he undertook the arduous talk of exploring the
phasnomena of human nature from the original fources
In thefe purfuits he was no lefs induftrious than fuccefs-
ful, and there was hardly any funXion of the body on
which his experiments did not refleX either a new or a
ftronger light. Nor was it long neceffary for him, in
5 this
HAL [ 280 ] HAL
HaUer. this arduous undertaking, to labour alone. The ex-
■—v—* ample of the preceptor infpired his pupils with the fpi-
rit of induftrious exertion. Zinn, Zimmerman, Cal-
dani, and many others, animated by a generous emu¬
lation, laboured w.ith indefatigable induftry to profe-
fecute and to perfeft the difcoveries of their great ma¬
tter. And the mutual exertion of the teacher and his
Undents, not only tended to forward the progrefs of
medical fcience, but placed the philofophy of the
human body on a more fure, and an almoft entirely new,
bafis. But the labours of Dr Haller, during his refi-
dence at Gottingen, were by no means confined to any
one department of fcience. He was not more anxious
to be an improver himfelf, than to inftigate others to
fimilar purfuits. To him, the Anatomical Theatre,
the School of Midwifery, the Chirurgical Society, and
the Royal Academy of Sciences at Gottingen, owe
their origin. Such dittinguilhed merit could not fail
to meet with a fuitable reward from the fovereign un¬
der whofe prote&ion he then taught. The king of
Great Britain not only, honoured him with every mark
of attention which he himfelf could beftow, but pro¬
cured him alfo letters of nobility from the emperor.
On the death of Dillenius, he had an offer of the pro-
fefforihip of botany at Oxford ; the ftates of Holland
invited him to the chair of the younger Albinus ; the
king of Pruffia was anxious that he fhould be the fuc-
ceffor of Maupertius at Berlin. Marfiial Keith wrote
to him in the name of his fovereign, offering him the
chancellorttiip of the univerfity of Halle, vacant by the
death of the celebrated Wolff. Count Orlow invited
him to Ruflia, in the name of his miftrefs the emprefs,
offering him a diftinguifhed place at St Peterfburgh.
The king of Sweden conferred on him an unfolicited
honour, by raifing him to the rank of knighthood of
the order of the polar flar ; and the emperor of Ger¬
many did him the honour of a perfonal vifit t during
which he thought it no degradation of his charadter
to pafs fome time with him in the moft familiar con-
verfation.
Thus honoured by fovereigns, revered by men of
literature, and efteemed by all Europe, he had it in
his power to have held the higheft rank in the republic
of letters. Yet, declining all the tempting offers
which were made to him, he continued at Gottingen,
anxioufly endeavouring to extend the rifing fame of
that medical fchool. But after 1 7 years refidence in
that univerfity, an ill ftate of health rendering him lefs
fit for the duties of the important office which he held,
he folicited and obtained permiffion from the regency
of Hanover to return to his native city of Bern. His
fellow-citizens, who might at firtt have fixed him
among themfelves, with no lefs honour than advantage
to their city, were now as fenlible as others of his fu-
perior merit. A penfion was fettled upon him for life,
and he was nominated at different times to fill the moft
important offices in the ftate. Thefe occupations, how-
ver, did not diminilh his ardour for ufeful improve¬
ments, He was the firft prefident, as well as the
greateft promoter, of the Oeconomical Society at Bern;
and he may be coniidered as the father and founder of
the Orphan Hofpital of that city. Declining health,
however, reftrained his exertions in the more adtive
feenes of life, and for many years he was confined en-
. N° H7
tirely to his own houfe. Even this, however, could Hallerta,
not put a period to his utility : for, with indefatigable Halley,
induilry, he continued his favourite employment of wri- ^
ting till within a few days of his death ; which hap¬
pened in the 70th year of his age, on the 12th of De¬
cember 1777. His Element a Phtftologia and Bibliotheca
Mediana, will afford, to lateft pofterity, undeniable
proofs of his indefatigable induttry, penetrating genius,
and folid judgment. But he was not lefs diftinguiflied
as a philofopher than beloved as a man ; and he was
not more eminent for his improvement in every depart¬
ment of medical fcience, than for his piety to God, and
benevolence to all mankind.
HALLERIA, in botany : A genus of the angio-
fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
40th order, PerfonaU. The calyx is trifid ; the co¬
rolla quadrifid; the filaments longer than the corolla;
the berry inferior and bilocular, (the fruit not yet fully
deferibed.)
HALLEY (Dr Edmund), an eminent aftronomer,
was the only fon of a foap-boiler in London, and was
born in 1656. He firft applied himfelf to the ftudy of
the languages and fciences, but at length gave himfelf
up wholly to that of aftronomy. In 1676 he went to
the ifland of St Helena to complete the catalogue of
fixed ftars, by the addition of thole who lie near the
fouth pole ; and having delineated a planifphere in
which he laid them all down in their exa£t places, he
returned to England in 1678. In the year 1680 he
took what is called the grand tour, accompanied by his
friend the celebrated Mr Nelfon. In the midway be¬
tween Calais and Paris, Mr Halley had a fight of a re¬
markable comet, as it then appeared a fecond time that
year, in its return from the fun. He had the Novem¬
ber before feen it in its defeent; and now haftened to
complete his obfervations upon it, in viewing it from
the royal obfervatory of France. His defign in this
part of his tour was, to fettle a friendly correfpond-
ence between the two royal aftronomers of Greenwich
and Paris; and in the mean time to improve himfelf
under fo great a matter as Caffini. From thence he
went to Italy, where he fpent great part of the year
168 t ; but his affairs calling him home, he returned to
England. In 1683, he publilhed his Theory of the va¬
riation of the magnetical compafs; in which he fuppofes
the whole globe of the earth to be a great magnet, with
four magnetical poles, or points of attraction : but af¬
terwards thinking that this theory was liable to great
exceptions, he procured an application to be made to
king William, who appointed him commander of the
Paramour Pink, with orders to fetk by obfervations
the difeovery of the rule of variations, and to lay down
the longitudes and latitudes of his majefty’s fettlements
in America.—He fet out' on this attempt on the 24th
of November it98: but having croffed the line, his
men grew fickly ; and his lieutenant mutinying, he re¬
turned home in June 1699. Hiving got the lieutenant
tried and cafniered, he fet fail a fecond time in Sep¬
tember following, with the fame Ihip, and another of
lefs bulk, of which he had alfo the command. He now
traverfed the vaft Atlantic ocean from one hemifphere
to the other, as far as the ice would permit him to
go ; and having made his obfervations at St Helena,
Brazil,
HAL [ 281 ] HAL
Halley Brazil, CapeVerd, Barbadoes, the Madeiras, the Ca¬
ll t naries, the coafl of Barbary, and many other latitudes,
, Halmo‘e. an.jw^ jn September 1700 ; and the next yearpublilh-
, ed a general chart, Ihowing at one view the variation
of the compafs in all thofe places. Captain Halley, as
he was now called, had been at home little more than
half a year, when he was fent by the king, to obferve
the courfe of the tides, with the longitude and latitude
of the principal head-lands in the Britifh channel;
which having executed with his ufual expedition and
accuracy, he publilhed a large map of the Britifh chan¬
nel. Soon after, the emperor- of Germany refolving to
make a convenient harbour for (hipping in the Adria¬
tic, Captain Halley was fent by queen Anne to view
the two ports on the coaft of Dalmatia. He embarked
on the 22d of November 1702 ; palled over to Hol¬
land ; and going through Germany to Vienna, he pro¬
ceeded to Iftria: but the Dutch oppofing the deiign,
it was laid, afide ; yet the emperor made him a prefent
of a rich diamond-ring from his finger,' and honoured
him with a letter of recommendation, written with his
own hand, to queen Anne. Prefently after his return,
he was fent again on the fame bufinefs; when palling
through Hanover, he flipped with king George 1. then
electoral prince, and his filler the. queen of Pruffia. On
his arrival at Vienna, he was the fame evening prefent-
ed to the emperor, who fent his chief engineer to at¬
tend him to Iflria, where they repaired and added new
fortifications to thofe of Trielte. Mr Hailey returned
to England in 1703 ; and the fame year was made pro-
felfor of geometry in the univerlity of Oxford, in the
room of Dr Wallis, and had the degree of doftbr of
laws conferred on him by that univerfity. He is faid
to have loft the profeflbrfliip of aftronomy in that city,
becaufe he would not profefs his belief of the Chriftian
religion. He was fcarcely fettled at Oxford, when he
began,to tranllate into Latin from the Arabic, Apollo¬
nius de fedione rdtionis ; and to reftore the two books
De fedione fpatii of the fame author, which are loft, from
the account given of them by Pappius; and he publilh-
ed the whole work in 1706. Afterwards he had a lhare
in preparing for the prefs Apollonius’s Conics; and
ventured to fupply the whole eighth book, the original
of which is alfo loft. He likewife added Serenus on
the feftion of the cylinder and cone, printed from the
original Greek, with a Latin tranllation, and publifh-
ed the whole in folio. In 1713, he was made fecre-
tary of the Royal Society; in 1 720, he was appointed
the king’s aftronomer at the royal obfervatory at Green¬
wich, in the room of Mr Flamftead ; and, in 1729,
was chofen as a foreign member of the Academy of
Sciences at Paris. He died at Greenwich in 1742.
His principal works are, 1. Catalogiis Jlellarum aujlra-
Hum. 2. Tabula aftronomica. 3. An abridgment of
the aftronomy of comets, &c. We are alfo indebted
to him for the publication of feveral of the works of the
great Sir Ifaac Newton, who had a particular friendftiip
for him, and to whom he frequently communicated his
difcoveries.
Halley’s Quadrant. See Quadrant.
HALLIARDS, the ropes or tackles ufually em¬
ployed to hoift or lower any fail upon its refpeftive
maft or day. SccJears.
HALMOTE, or Halimote, is the fame with
Vod.VIII. Parti.
what we now call a court-baron, the word implying a HdmftaJt
meeting of the tenants of the fame hall or manor. The , N
name is dill retained at Lufton, and other places in Haiten
Plerefordfnire. See Mote.
HALMSTADT. See Helmstadt.
HALO, or Corona, in natural hiftory, a colour¬
ed circle appearing round the body of the fun, moon,
or any of the large liars. See Corona.
HALORAGUS, in botany : A genus of the tetra-
gynia order, belonging to the odtandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is quadrifid above; there are four petals; a
dry plum, and a quadrilocular nut.
HALSTEAD, a town of Efiex in England, feated
en the river Coin, 45 miles from London. It has an old
church, the fteeple of which was once burnt down by
lightning, but rebuilt at the expence of an individual,
(Robert Fiflce, Efq;). The town confifts of about
600 pretty good houfes, and is fituated on a rifing
ground, but the ftreets are not paved. The inhabitants
are about 4000 in number. Here is a good manufac¬
tory of fays, bays, callimancoes, &c. alfo a good
free fchool for 40 boys, and a very antique Bridewell.
Its market on Friday is noted for corn.
HALT, in war, a paufe or flop in the march of a
military body.—Some derive the word from the Latin
halitus, “breath;” it being a frequent occafion of halt¬
ing to take breath : others from alto, becaufe in halt¬
ing they raifed their pikes on end, &c.
HALTER, in the manege, a head-ftall for a horfe,
of Hungary leather, mounted with one, and fometimes
two (traps, with a fecond throat-band, if the horfe is
apt to unhalter himfelf.
Halter Cajl, is an excoriation of the pattern, occa-
fioned by the halter’s being entangled about the foot,
upon the horfe’s endeavouring to rub his neck with his
hinder feet. For the cure of this, anoint the place,
morning and evening, with equal quantities of linfeed
oil and brandy, well mixed.
HALTERIST2E, in antiquity, a kind of players
at difcus; denominated from a peculiar kind of dif-
cus called by the Greeks *xr»£, and by the Latins hal¬
ter. See Discus.
Some take the difcus to have been a leaden weight
or ball which the vaulters bore in their hands, to fe-
cure and keep themfelves the more fteady in their leap¬
ing. Others will have the halter to be a lump or mafs
of lead or done, with an hole or handle fixed to it, by
which it might be carried; and that the halteriftae were
thofe who exercifed themfelves in removing thefe maffes
from place to place.
Hier. Mercurialis, in his treatife De arte gymnaflica,
1. ii. c. 12. diftinguifties two kinds of halterilla;; for
though there was but one halter, there were two ways
of applying it. The one was to throw or pitch it in a
certain manner; the other only to hold it out at arm’s-
end, and in this pofture to give themfelves divers mo¬
tions, Twinging the hand backwards and forwards, ac¬
cording to the engraven figures thereof given us by
Mercurialis.—The halter was of a cylindrical figure,
fmaller in the middle, where it was held, by one dia¬
meter, than at the two ends. It was above a foot longi
and there was one for each hand : it was either of iron,
done, or lead.
Galen, De tuend. valetud. lib. i. v. & vi. fpeaks of
M m -this
HAM [ 282 ] HAM
Hakon this exercife, and (hows of what ufe it is in purging the
Ham k0(ty of peccant humours ; making it equivalent both to
r- ‘ purgation and phlebotomy.
HALTON, or Haulton, i. e. High-Town, a
town of Chefliire, 186 miles from London. It ftands
on a hill, where a cattle was built anno 1071, and is a
member of the duchy of Lancatter ; which maintains a
large jurifdiftion in the county round it, by the name
of Halton-Fee, or the honour of Haltan., having a court
of record, prifon, &c. within themfelves. About Mi¬
chaelmas every year, the king’s officers of the duchy
keep a law-day at the cattle, which ftill remains a (late¬
ly building ; once a fortnight a court is kept here, to
determine all matters within their jurifdi&ion ; but fe¬
lons and thieves are carried to the feffions at Chefter, to
receive their fentence. By the late inland navigation,
it has communication with the rivers Merfey, Dee,
Kibble, Oufe, Trent, Darwent, Severn, Humber,
Thames, Avon, &c. which navigation, including its
windings, extends above 500 miles, in the counties of
Lincoln, Nottingham, York, Lancafter, Weftmore-
land, Stafford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Wor-
cefter, &c.
HALTWHISTLE, a town of Northumberland in
England, fituated in E. Long. 2. O. N. Lat. 5;. o.
It is pretty well built, and affords good entertainment
for travellers.
HALYMOTE, properly fignifies an holy or eccle-
fiaftical court. SeeHaLMOTE.
There is a court held in London by this name before
the Lord Mayor and (heriffs, for regulating the bakers.
It was anciently held on Sunday next before St Tho¬
mas’s day, and for this reafon called the Halymote, or
Holy-court.
HALYS, (anc. geog.) the nobleft river of the
Hither Alia, through which it had a long courfe, was
the boundary of Crcefus’s kingdom to the eaft. Run¬
ning down from the foot of mount Taurus, through
Cataonia and Cappadocia, it divided almoft the whole
of the Lower Afia, from the fea of Cyprus down to
the Euxine, according to Herodotus; who feems to
extend its courfe too far. According to Strabo, him-
£elf a Cappadocian, it had its fprings in the Great Cap¬
padocia. It feparated Paphlagonia from Cappadocia ;
and received its name “*« ™v axor, from fait, becaufe
its waters were of a fait and bitter tafte, from the nature
of the foil over which they flowed. It is famous for the
defeat of Croefus king of Lydia, who was milled by
the ambiguous word of this oracle :
XpiHffOf «Au» J>a£af niya\r,)i fiaWtrti.
If Crcefus pattes over the Halys he (hall deftroy a great eir.
pire.
That empire was his own. See Croesus and Lydia.
HALYWERCFOLK, in old writers, were per-
Ibns who enjoyed land, by the pious fervice of repair¬
ing fome church, or defending a fepulchre.
This word alfo fignified fuch perfons in the diocefe
®f Durham, as held their lands to defend the corps of
St Cuthbert, and who from thence claimei the privi-
Jcge of not being forced to go out of tire bilhopric.
HAM, or Cham (anc. geog.), the country of the
Zuzims (Gen.xiv. 5.), the tttuation whereof is not
known.
Ham, the youngeft fon of Noah. He was the fa¬
ther of Ciifh, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan 5 each Ham
whereof had the feveral countries peopled by them. II "
With refpea to Ham, it is believed that he had all Han)adtT'
Africa for his inheritance, and that he peopled it with 1
his children. As for himfelf, it is thought by fome
that he dwelt in Egypt ; but M. Bafnage is rather of
opinion, that neither Ham nor Mizraim ever were in
Egypt, but that their pofterity fettled in this country,
and called it by the name of their anceftors. And as.
to Ham’s being wor(hipped as a god, and called jupi-
ter. Hamnton, he thinks people may have been led into
this mittake by the fimilitude of names; and that Ju¬
piter Hammon was the fun, to which divine honours
have been paid at all times in Egypt. However that
may be, Africa is called the land of Ham, in feveral
places of the pfalms, (Pfal. Ixxvii. 51. civ. 23. cv. 22.).
In Plutarch, Egypt is called Chernia ; and there are
fome footfteps of the name of Ham or Cham obferved
in Pfochemmis, Plitta-chemmis, which are cantons of.
Egypt.
Ham, a Saxon word ufed for “ a place of dwell¬
ing a village or town: hence the termination of
fome of our towns, Nottingham, Buckingham, &c. Al¬
fo a home clofe, or little narrow meadow, is called a
Ham, is alfo a part of the leg of an animal; being
the inner or hind part of the knee, or the ply or angle
in which the leg and thigh, when bent, incline to each •
other.
Ham, ip commerce, &c. is ufed for a. leg or thigfv
of pork, dried, feafoned, and prepared, to make it keep,
and to give it a bride agreeable flavour.
Weftphalia hams, fo much in vogue, are prepared
by falling them with faltpetre, preffing them in a
prefs eight or ten days, then deeping them in juni¬
per-water, and drying them by the fmoke of juniper-
wood.
A ham may be failed in imitation of thofe of Well-
phalia, by fprinkling a ham of young pork with fait
for one day, in order to fetch out the blood; then,
wiping it dry, and rubbing it with a mixture of a pound
of brown fugar, a quarter of a pound of faltpetre, half
a pint of bay fait, and three pints of common fait,
well ftirred together in an iron pan over the lire till
they are moderately hot : let it lie three weeks in this
falling, and be frequently turned, and then dry it in a
chimney.
Ham, a city of Germany, in the circle of Wed.
phalia, capital of the county of Mark, and fubjeft to
the king of Pruffia. It is feated on the river Lippe, on
the frontiers of Munfter. The adjacent country abounds
in corn, hemp, and flax ; and the inhabitants get a
good deal of money by travellers. It was formerly a
Hanfe-town, but is now reduced. E. Long. 7. 53.
N. Lat. 51 - 42.
Ham, a town of Picardy, in France, feated on tbs
river Somme, among marlhes. It has three pariflies,
and there is here a round tower whofe walls are 3$
feet thick. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1557,
but reftored by treaty. E. Long. 3. 9. N; Lat. 49. 45.
HAM AD AN. See Amadan.
HAMADRYADES (formed of together, and
Spvx; dryad, of <!>vf oak), in antiquity, certain fabulous
deities revered among the ancient heathens, and be¬
lieved to greltde over woods and foreits? and to be in-
clofei-
HAM [ 283 ] HAM
^Hamah, clofcd under the bark of oaks. The hamadryades
^meHs” vvere f"PP°fe^ t0 ^ve an<^ ^'e w’t^1 l^e trees they were
> mc ‘i>' attached to; as is obferved by Servius on Virgil,
Eelog. x. ver. 62. after Mnefimachus, the fcholiaft of
Apollonius, &c. who mentions other traditions rela¬
ting thereto.
The poets, however, frequently confound the Ha¬
madryads with the Naiads, Napaeae, and rural nymphs
in general; witnefs Catullus, Carm. Ixviii. ver. 23.
Ovid, Fall. iv. 229. Met. i. ver. 695. xiv. ver. 628.
Propertius, Eleg. xx. 32. Virg. Eel. x. ver. 64. Georg,
iv. ver. 382, 383. Feltus Calls them Shierqueiulante, as
being iffued or fprung from oaks. An ancient poet,
Pherenicus, in Athenaeus, lib. iii. calls the vine, fig-
tree, and other fruit-trees, hamadryades, from the name
of their mother the oak.
This common idea among the ancients, of nymphs
or intelleftual beings annexed to trees, will account for
their worlhipping of trees; as we find they did, not
only from their poets but their hiftorians. Livy fpeaks
of an ambafiador’s addrefling himfelf to an old oak, as
to an intelligent perfon and a divinity. Lib. iii. § 25.
HAMAH, a town of Turkey in Afia, in Syria, ii-
tuated in E. Long. 36. 15. N. Lat. 35. 15. By fome
•travellers it is corruptly called Amarl and Am ant. Some
miftake it for the ancient Apamea ; but this is now
called Afamiyah, and is fituated a day’s journey from
Hamah. Hamah is fituated among hills, and has a
caftle feated on a hill. It has all along been a con-
fiderable place, and in the 13th century had princes
of its own. It is very large, and being feated on the
afeent of a hill, the houfes rife above one another, and
make a fine appearance. It is however, like moft
other towns under the Turkilh government, going to
decay. Many of the houfes are half ruined ; but
thofe which are ftill {landing, as well as the mofques
and caftle, have their walls built of black and white
Hones, difpofed in fuch manner as to form various fi¬
gures. The river Affi, the ancient Orontes, runs by
the fide of the caftle, and fills the ditches round it,
which are cut very deep into the rock. This river,
leaving the caftle, paffes through the town fiom fouth
to north, and has a bridge over it, though it is pretty
broad. In its courfe through the town it turns 18
great wheels, called by the natives fold, which raife
great quantities of water to a confiderable height, and
throw it into canals fupported by arches, by which
means it is conveyed into the gardens and fountains.
There are fome pretty good bazars or market-places
in Hamah, where there is a trade for linen, which is
manufa&ured there, and fent to Tripoli to be export-
>ed into Europe.
HAMAMELIS, witch hazel: A genus of the
•digynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The involucrum is
IriphyUous, the proper calyx tetraphyllous ; there are
four petals ; the nut horned and bilocular. There is
but one fpeeies, a native of Virginia. It hath a
fhrubby or woody ftem, branching three or four feet
high; oval, indented, alternate leaves, refembling thofe
-of common hazel; and flowers growing in clufters
.ftom the joints of the young branches, but not fuc-
•ceedtd by feeds in this country.—The plant is hardy,
and is admitted as a variety in our gardens; but its
flowers are more remarkable for their appearing in
November and December, when the leaves are fallen,
than for their beauty.—It may be propagated either
by feeds or layers.
HAMAM Leef, a town 12 miles eaft from Tu¬
nis, noted for its hot baths, which are much reforted
to by the Tunifeans, and are efficacious in rheumatifm
and many other complaints. Here the Bey has a very
fine bath, which he frequently permits the confuls and
other perfons of diftin&ion to ufe.
HAMxATH, a city of Syria, capital ofa province of
the fame name, lying upon the Orontes. “ The enter¬
ing into Hamath,” which is frequently fpOken of in
feripture, (Jofh. xiii. 5. Judges iii. 3. 2 Kings xiv. 25.
and 2 Chr. vii. 8.) is the narrow pafs leading from
the land of Canaan through the valley which lies be¬
tween Libanus and Antilibanus. This entrance into
Hamath is fet down as the northern boundary of the
land of Canaan, in oppofition to the fouthern limits,
the Nile or river of Egypt. Jofephus, and St Jerom af¬
ter him, believed Hamath to beEpiphania. ButTheo-
doret and many other good geographers maintain it
to be Emefa in Syria. Joffiua (xix. 35.) afiigns the
city of Hamath to the tribe of Naphtali. Toi king of
Hamath cultivated a good underftanding with David,
( 2 Sam. viii. 9.) This city was taken by the kings of
Judah, and retaken from the Syrians by Jeroboam the
fecond, (2 Kings xiv. 28.) The kings of AfTyria made
themfelves mailers of it upon the declenfion of the king¬
dom of Ifrael, and tranfplanted the inhabitants of Ha¬
math into Samaria, (2 Kings xvii. 24. and xviii. 34.
&c.)
HAMAXOBII, Hamaxobians, in the ancient
geography, a people who had no houfes, but lived in
carriages. The word is formed from a carriage
or chariot, and life.
The Hamaxolii, called alfo Hamaxobitee, were an an¬
cient people of Sarmatia Europaea, inhabiting the fou¬
thern part of Mufcovy, who inftead of houfes had a
fort of tents made of leather, and fixed on carriages to
be ready for (hifting and travel.
HAMBDEN (John), a celebrated patriot, defeend-
ed of the ancient family of Hambden in Buckingham-
fhire, was born in 1594. From the univerfity he went
to the inns of court, where he made a confiderable
progrefs in the ftudy of the law. He was chofen to
ferve in the parliament which began at Weftminfter
February 5. 1626; and ferved in all the fucceeding
parliaments in the reign of Charles I. In <636 he
became univerfally known, by his refufal to pay Ihip-
money, as being an illegal tax ; upon which he was
profecuted, and his carriage throughout this tranfa&ipn
gained him a great charadfter. When the long parlia¬
ment began, the eyes of all men were fixed on him as
their pater palrie. On January 3. 1642, the king
ordered articles of high treafon and other mifdemea*
nours to be prepared againft Lord Kimbolton, Mr
Hambden, and four other members of the Houfe of
Commons, and went to that houfe to feize them : but
they were then retired. Mr Hambden afterwards
made a fpeech in the houfe to clear himfelf of the
charge laid againft him. In the beginning of the wars
he commanded a regiment of foot, and did good fer-
M m 2 vice
Hamara
Hambden.
TH A m [ 2&4 1 HAM
Hamburg. vice to' the parliament at the battle of Edge-hill. He
receiTed a mortal wound In an engagement witli Prince
Rupert, in Chalgrav^-field in Oxfordflrire, and died in
1643. He is faid to have had the art of Socrates to a
great degree, of interrogating, and under the notion
of doubts, infinuating objedtions, fo that he infufed
his own opinions into thofe from whom he pretended
to learn and receive them. He was, fay his panegyrifts,
a very wife man and of great parts; and poffefied of
the moft abfolute fpirit of popularity to govern the
people, that ever was in any country : He was matter
over all his appetites and pafiions, and had thereby a
very great afeendant over other mens: He was of an
induftry and vigilance never to be tired out, of parts
not to be iropofed upon by the moft fubtile, and of
courage equal to his beft parts.
HAMBURG, an imperial city of Germany, feated
in E. Long. 9. 40. N. Lat. 54. o. Its name is deri¬
ved from the old German word Hamme, fignifying a
wood, and Burg, a cattle; and ftands on the north-fide
of the river Elbe. This river is not lefs than four
miles broad oppofite the city. It forms two fpacious
harbours, and likewife runs through moft part of it
in canals. It flows above Hamburg many miles; but
when the tide is accompanied with north-weft winds,
a great deal of damage is done by the inundations oc-
cafioned thereby. There are a great many bridges
over the canals, which are moftly on a level with the
ftreets, and fome of them have houfes on both fides.
In the year 833, Ludovicus Pius erefted Hamburg
firft into a bifhopric, and afterwards into an archbi-
fliopric ; and Adolphus III. duke of Saxony, among
many other great privileges, granted it the right of
fiflung in the Elbe, eight miles above and below the
city. The kings of Denmark, fmee they have fuc-
ceeded to the counts of Holftein, have continually
claimed the fovereignty of this place, and often com¬
pelled the citizens to pay large fums to purchafe the
confirmation of their liberties. Nay, it has more than
once paid homage to the king of Denmark; who, not-
withftanding, keeps a minifter here with credentials,
which is a fort of acknowledgment of its independency
and fovereignty. Though Hamburg has been con-
ftantly fummoned to the diet of the empire ever fince
the year 1618,- when it was declared a free imperial
city by a decree of the aulic council; yet it waves
this privilege, in order to keep -fair with Denmark.
By their fituation among a number of poor princes, the
Hamburghers are continually expofed to their rapa-
eioufnefs, efpecially that of the Danes, who have ex¬
torted vail fums from them. The city is very popu¬
lous in proportion to its bulk; for though one may
walk with eafe round the ramparts in two hours, yet
'X contains, exclufive of Jews, at leaft 100,000 inhabi¬
tants. Here are a great many charitable foundations,
the regulations of which are greatly admired by fo¬
reigners. All perfons found begging in the ftreets are
committed to the houfe of correction to hard labour,
fuch as the rafping of Brazil and other kinds of wood.
TL here Is an hofpital into which unmarried women
may be admitted for a- fmall fum, and comfortably
maintained during the refidue of their lives. The
aumber of hofpitals in this place is greater in propor¬
tion to its. bigntfs than in any other Proteftant city
in Europe. The revenue of the orphan-houfe alone Hambui*g,
is faid to amount to between 50 and 60,0001. There V
is a large fumptuous hofpitai for receiving poor tra¬
vellers that fall fick. In one of their work-houfes or
houfes of correction, thofe who have not performed
their talk are hoifted up in a bafket over the table in
the common-hall while the reft are at dinner, that
they may be tantalized with the fight and fmell of
what they cannot tafte. The eftablilhed religion of
Hamburg is Lutheranifm; as for the Calvinifts and
the Roman-catholics, they go to the ambafiadors cha¬
pels to celebrate their divine fervice and worlhip.
They have here what they call a private confeffton,
previous to the holy communion, which differs in no¬
thing from that of the church of England, and the
abfolution is the fame, only the pooreft of the people
here are forced to give a fee to the priefts on thefe oc-
cafions. Their churches, which are ancient large fabrics,
■ are open thoroughfares, and in fome of them there are
bookfellers fliops. The pulpit of St Catherine’s is of
marble, curioufly carved and adorned with figures ami
other ornaments of gold; and its organ, reckoned one
of the beft in Europe, has 6600 pipes. The cathedral
is very ancient, and its tower leans as if juft going to -
fall; yet, on account of the Angularity and beauty of
its architefiure, the danger attending it has been hi-,
therto overlooked. There is ftill a dean and chapter
belonging to this church, though fecularized; from
whofe court there lies no appeal, but to the imperial
chamber at Wetzl^r. The chapter confifts of a pro-
vott, dean, 13 canons, eight minor canons, and 30 w-
carii tmmunes, befides others who are under the jurif-
di&ion of the city. The cathedral, with the chapter,,
and a number of houfes belonging to them, are under
the immediate proteftion of his Britannic majefty as
duke of Bremen, who difpofes of the prebends that fall
in fix months of the year, not fucceffively, but alter¬
nately with the chapter. Hamburg is almoft of a
circular form, and fix miles in compafs. It lias fix
gates, and three entrances by water, vi%. two from
the Elbe and one from the Alfter, being divided into
the old and new, which are ftrongly fortified with
moats, ramparts, baftions, and out-works. The ram¬
parts are very lofty, and planted with trees; and of
fuch a breadth, that feveral carriages may go a-breaft.
In the New town, towards Altena, are feveral ftreets
of mean houfes inhabited by Jews. Through that en¬
trance from the Elbe, called the lower Baum, pafs all
fhips going to or coming from fea. Every morning,
at the opening of it, is feen a multitude of boats and
fmall barks, whofe cargoes confift of milk, fruits, and
all kinds of provifions, milling in at the fame time.
There are fome fine chimes here, efpecially thofe of
St Nicholas, which play every morning early, at one
o’clock in the afternoon, and on all feftivals and fo-
lemnities. The other public ftru&ures in this city,
befides the churches, make no great appearance: how¬
ever, the yard, arfenal, and two armories, are well
worth feeing. There are feveral convents or cloifiers
ftill remaining; which having been fecularized, are
now poffeffed by the Lutherans. One of them holds
its lands by this tenure, “ That they offer a glafs of
wine to every malefa&or who is carried by it for ■ xe-
cution.” There is a fine exchange, though inferior
a to
HAM l 285 1 HAM
Hamburg, to that of London. It is the cuftom ef Hamburg,
“•“-v*-— that a citizen, when he dies, muft leave the tenth of
his eftate to the city'; and foreigners, not naturalized,
rtiuft pay a certain fum annually for liberty to trade.
The common carts here are only a long pulley laid
upon an axle-tree between two wheels, and drawn not
by horfes, but by men, of whom a dozen or more
are fometimes linked to thefe machines, with flings
acrofs their {boulders. Such of the fenators, principal
elders, divines, regular phyflcians, and graduates in
law, as afiift at funerals, have a fee. The hangman’s
houfe is the common prifon for all makfadtors ; on
whom fentence is always pafled on Friday, and on
Monday they are executed. As, by their laws, no
criminal is punifliable unlefs he plead guilty, they have
five different kinds of torture to extort fuch confeflion.
The government of this city is lodged in the fenate
and three colleges of burghers. The former is vefted
with almoft every adl of fovereignty, except that of
laying taxes and managing the finances, which are the
prerogatives of the latter. The magiftracy is com-
pofed of four burgomafters, four fyndics, and 24 aider-
men, of whom fome are lawyers and fame merchants.
Any perfon elected into the magiflracy, and declining
the office, muft depart the place. No burgher is ad¬
mitted into any of the colleges, unlefs he dwells in a
houfe of his own within the city, and is poflefled of
jooo rixdollars in fpecie, over and above the fum for
which the houfe may be mortgaged ; or 2000 in move-
able goods, within the jurifdiftion of the fame. For
the adminiftration of juftice, here are feveral inferior
courts, from which an appeal lies to the Obergericht,
or high-court, and from that to the aulic council and
other imperial colleges. For naval caufes here is a
court of admiralty, which, jointly with the eity-trea-
fury, is alfo charged with the care of the navigation
of the Elbe, from the city to the river’s mouth. In
confequence of this, 100 large buoys, fome white,
others black, are kept conftantly floating in the river
in fummer: but in winter, inftead of fome of them,
there are machines, like thofe called ice-beacons, to point
out the flioals and flats. Subordinate to the admiralty
is a company of pilots ; and at the mouth of the Elbe
is, or atleaft ought to be, a veffel always riding, with
pilots ready to put on board the fhips. At the mouth
of the river alfo is a good harbour, called Cuxhcrom,
belonging to Hamburg; a light-houfe; and feveral
beacons, fome of them very large. For defraying the
expence of thefe, certain, tolls and duties were formerly
granted by the emperors to the city. Befides the
Elbe, there is a canal by which a communication is
opened with the Trave, and thereby with Lubeck and
the Baltic, without the hazard, trouble, and expence,
of going about by the Sound. Th? trade oFHamburg
is exceeding great, in exporting all the commodities
and manufa&ures of the feveral cities and ftates of
Germany, and fupplying them with whatever they
want from abroad. Its exports confift of linens of fe¬
veral foils and countries; as lawns, diapers, Ofnaburgs,
dowlas, &c. linen-yarn, tin-plates, iron, brafs, and
fleel-wire, clap-board, pipe-ftaves, wainfcot-boards,
oak-plank, and timber, kid-fkins, corn, beer in great
quantities, with flax,honey, wax, anifeed, linfeed, drugs,
wine, tobacco, and metals. Its principal imports are
the woollen manufactures and other goods of Great
Britain, to the amount of fevcral hundred thoufand Hamhurj.
pounds a year: they have alfo a great tiade with Spain, ~—V-—
Portugal, and Italy, which is carried on moftly in
JSnglilh bottoms, on account of their Mediterranean
pafles. Their whale-fithery is alfo very confiderable,
$0 or 60 {hips being generally fent out-every year in
this trade. Add to thefe a variety of manufactures,
which are performed here with great fuccefs; the chief
of which are, fugar-baking, calico-printing, the wea¬
ving of damafles, brocades, velvets, and other rich filks.
The inland trade of Hamburgh is fuperior to that of
any in Europe, unkfs perhaps we ftiould except that
of Amfterdam and London- There is a paper publifir-
ed here at Hated times called the Preifcourant, fpecify-
ing the courfe of exchange, with the price which every
commodity and merchandife bore laft upon the ex¬
change. There is alfo a board of trade, ereCted on
purpofe for the advancing every projeCt for the im¬
provement of commerce. Another great advantage to
the merchants is, the bank eftablilhed. in 1619, which
has a flourifhing credit. To fupply the poor with
corn at a low price, here are public granaries, in which
great quantities of grain are laid up. By-charters from
feveral emperors, the Kamburghers have a right of
coinage, which they a&ually exercife. The Englifly
merchants, or Hamburg company, as it is called, enjoy
great privileges; for they hold a court with particular
powers, and a jurifdi&ion among themfelves, and have .
a church and minifter of their own.—This city has a
diftrift belonging, to it of confiderable extent, which
abounds with excellent paftures, intermixed with feve¬
ral large villages and noblemens feats. A fmall baili-
wic, called Bergedcrf, belongs to this city and Lubeck.
—Though Hamburg has an undoubted right to a
feat in the diet of the empire, yet as {he pays no con¬
tributions to the military cheft in time of war, and is
alfo unwilling to draw upon herfelf the refentment of
Denmark, flie makes no ufe of that privilege. There
is a fchola illujlrh or gymnafium here, well endowed,
with fix able profeffors, who read le&ures in it as at the
univerfities. There are alfo feveral free fchools, and a
great number of libraries, public and private. The
public cellar of this town has always a prodigious ftoek
and vent of old hock, which brings in a confiderable
revenue to the ftate. Befides th® militia or trained
bands, there is an eftabliftment of regular forces, con¬
fining of 12 companies of infantry, and one troop of
, dragoons, under the commandant, who is ufually a fo¬
reigner, and one who has diftinguiftied himfelf in the
fervice. There is alfo an artillery company, and a
night-guard; the laft of which is polled at night all over
the city, and calls the hours.
HAMEL (John Baptifte du), a very learned
French philofopher and writer in the 1 7th century.
At 18 he wrote a treatife, in which he explained in a
very fimple manner Theodofius’s three books of
Spherics; to which he added a tradl upon tiigono-
metry, extremely perfpicuous, and defigned as an in •
trodudlion to allronomy. Natural philofophy, as it
was then taught, was only a colle&ion of vague, knotty,
and barren queftions; when our author undertook to
eftablilh it upon right principles, and publilhed his
AJlronomia Phyftca. In 1666 Mr Colbert propofed to
Louis XIV. a fcheme, which was approved of by his
Biajefty, for eftablifhing a royaj. academy of feiences 5,
aud;
HAM [ 236 ] HAM
Hamelin an{] appointed our author fecretary of it. He pub-
11 , lifhed a great many books; and died at Paris in 1706,
11 of mere old age, being almoft 83. He was regius
^ ~ profeflbr of philofophy, in which poll he was fuc-
ceeded by M. Varignon. He wrote Latin with pu¬
rity and elegance-
HAMELIN, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
•duchy o'f Calemberg in Lower Saxony. It is fituated
at the extremity of the duchy of Brunfwick, to which
it is the key, near the confluence of the rivers Hamel
-and Wefer, in E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat, 52. 13.
HAMELLIA, in botany: A.genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thofeof which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is quinquefid ; the
berry quinquelocular, inferior, polyfpermous.
HAMESECKEN. Burglary, or NoUurnalHoufe-
Irealing, was by the ancient Engliflr law called Hame-
fecken, as it i® in Scotland to this day.—Violating the
privilege of a manrs houfe in Scotland is as feverely
puniftied as raviftiing a woman.
HAMI, or Ha-mi, a country of Alia, fubjeft to
•the Chinefe. It-is fituated to the north-eaft of China,
at the extremity of that defert which the Chinefe call
Chamo, and the Tartars Gobi; and is only 90 leagues
diftant from the moft wefterly point of the province of
Chenfi. This country was inhabited in the early ages
by a wandering people, named long. About the year
950 before the Chriltian era, they fent deputies to pay
bomage to the emperor of China, and prefented fome
fabres by way of tribute. The civil wars by which
China was torn about the end of the dynafty of Tcheou
having prevented afliftance from being fent to thefe
people, they fell under the dominion of the Hiong-
nou, who appear to have been the fame as the Huns,
and who at that time were a formidable nation. The
Chinefe feveral times loft and recovered the country of
Hami. In 131 (the fixth year of the reign of Chun-
ty, of the dynafty of the eaftern Han), the emperor
kept an officer there in quality of governor. Under
the following dynafties, the fame viciffitudes were ex¬
perienced : Hami was fometimes united to the pro¬
vince of Chenfi, fometimes independent of it, and
fometimes even of the whole empire. The fituation
of thefe people (feparated by vaft deferts from China,
to which, belides, they had no relation, either in lan¬
guage, manners, or cuftoms) muft have greatly contri¬
buted to facilitate thefe revolutions. All the tributary
Hates of the empire having revolted in 610, that of
Hami followed their example; but it again fubmitted
to the yoke, under Tai-tfong, fecond emperor of the
dynafty of Tang, who had fent one of his generals
with an army to reduce it. This great prince paid
particular attention to his new conqueft. He divided
ic into three diftri&s, and connefted its civil and mi¬
litary government in fuch manner to that of the pro¬
vince of Chenfi and other neighbouring countries, that
tranquillity prevailed there during his reign and feveral
of thofe that followed. Through Hami all the cara¬
vans which went from the weft to China, or from
China to the weft, were obliged to pafs. The empe¬
rors, predecefibrs of Tai-tfong, were fatisfted with cau-
15ng wine to be tranfported from Hami in fkins car¬
ried by camels ; but “ Tai-tfong (fays the Chinefe
jaiftory) having fubdued the kingdom of Hami, or¬
dered fome vine-plants of the fpecies called majaa, to be Hami -
brought him, which he caufed to be planted in his v“**
gardens ; he, befides, learned the manner of making
wine, the ufe of which proved both ferviceable and
hurtful to him.,, Luxury and efTeminacy having weak¬
ened the dynafty of Tang, the Mahometans (who
had made a rapid progrefs in all the countries that are
fituated between Perfia, Gobi, and the Cafpian fea)
advanced as far as Hami, which they conquered. It
appears, that this country afterwards had princes of its
own, but dependent on the Tartars, who fucceffively
ruled thefe immenfe regions. The Yuen or Mogul
Tartars again united the country of Hami to the pro¬
vince of Chenfi; and this reunion fubfifted until 1360,
at which time the emperor formed it into a kingdom,
on condition of its princes doing homage and paying
tribute. The king of Harm was honoured with a
new title in 1404, and obtained a golden feal. After
a conteft of feveral years for the fucceffion to the
throne, the kingdom of Hami fell a prey to the kincr
of Tou-eulh-fan. This yoke foon became uneafy to
the people of Hami: they revolted from their new
mafters, and made conquefts from them in their turn.
The new king whom they made choice of, did not
long poflefs the throne : he was conquered and killed
in a bloody battle which he fought with the king of
Tou-eulh-fan, who alfo periftied fome time after.
Since this epocha, the country of Hami has been fuc¬
ceffively expofed to anarchy, or governed by its own
princes. The prince who filled the throne in 1696,
acknowledged himfelf a vaflal of the empire, and fent
as tribute to Peking camels, horfes, and fabres. Kang-
hi received his homage with the ufual ceremonies, and
publiflied a diploma, which eftablifhed the rank that
the king of Hami fhould hold among the tributary
princes, the time when he fhould come to render ho¬
mage, the nature of the prefents neceffary for his tri¬
bute, the number of auxiliaries he was bound to fur-
nifti in time of war, and the manner of his appointing
a fucceffor. All thefe regulations have fubfifted till
this time.
The country of Hami, though furrounded by de¬
ferts, is accounted one of the moft delightful in the
world. The foil produces abundance of grain, fruits,
leguminous plants, and pafture of every kind. The
rice which grows here is particularly efteemed in Chi¬
na ; and pomegranates, oranges, peaches, raifins, and
prunes, have a moft exquifite tafte ; even the jujubes
are fo juicy, and have fo delicious a flavour, that the
Chinefe call them perfumed jujubes. There is no fruit
more delicate or more in requeft than the melons of
Hami, which are carried to Peking for the emperor’s
table. Thefe melons are much more wholefome than
thofe of Europe ; and have this Angular property, that
they may be kept frefti during great part of the win¬
ter—But the moft ufeful and moft efteemed produc¬
tion of this countiy is its dried raifins. Thefe are of
two kinds : The firft, which are much ufed in the
Chinefe medicine, feem to have a perfedl refemblance
to thofe known in Europe by the name of Corinthian.
The fecond, which are in much greater requeft for the
table, are fmaller and more delicate than thofe of Pro¬
vence. The Chinefe authors perfe&ly agree with
Meffrs Lemery and Geoffroy, refpe&ingthe virtue and
qualities of thefe dried grapes or raifins ; but they at
2 tribute
HAM [ 287 } HA M
tribute fo much more efficacy to thofe of Hami than
' to thofe of China, that they prefcribe them in fmaller
dofes. They obferve, that an infufion of the lirft is
of great fervice in facilitating an eruption of the fmali-
pox about the fourth day, when the patient either is
or feems to be too weak; and to promote a gentle
perfpiration in fome kinds of pleuriiies or malig¬
nant fevers. The dofe muft be varied according to
the age, habit of body, and flrength of the patient;
great care muit be taken to adminifter this remedy
feafonably and with judgment. The emperor caufed
plants to be tranfported from Hami to Peking, which
were immediately planted in. his gardens. As thefe
plants were cultivated with extraordinary care, under
his own eyes, they have perfectly fucceeded. The
raifins produced by them are ' exceedingly fweet, and
have a molt exquifite flavour.
Although the country of Hami. (the latitude of
which is42°53' 20") Ires farther towards the north
than feveral of the provinces of France, we are allured
that its climate is more favourable to the culture of
vines, and that it gives a fuperior degree of quality to
the grapes. It never rains at Hami ; even dew and
fogs are fcarcely ever feen there ; the country is wa¬
tered only by the fnow which falls in winter, and by
the water of this fnow when melted, which is colle&ed
at the bottoms of the mountains, and preferved with
great care and induftry. The method of drying grapes
in Hami is much Ampler than that pra&ifed in the
provinces of China. The people of Cheufi hold them
oyer the fleam of hot wine, and eyen fometimes boil
them a few feconds in wine in which a little clarified
honey has been diluted, In the kingdom of Hami
they wait until the grapes are quite ripe ; they then
expofe them to the fcorching rays of the fun ;. after¬
wards pick them, and leave them in that manner un¬
til they are quite dry. 1 However dry thefe grapes may
be, they become Ihrivelled, without lofing any of their
fubftance, and without, growing flat: good raifins
ought to be almoft as crifp as fugar-candy.
The kingdom of Hami contains a great number of
villages and hamlets ; but it has properly only one
city, which is its capital, and has the fame name. It
is furrounded by. lofty walls, which are half a league in
circumference, and has two gates, one of which fronts
the eaft, and the other the weft. Thefe gates are ex-,
ceedingly beautiful, and make a fine appearance at a
diftance. The ftreets are flraight, and well laid out;
but the houfes (which contain only a. ground-floor,
and which are. almoft: all conftru&ed of earth) make
very little ftiow : however, as this city enjoys a ferene
Iky, and is fituated in a beautiful plain, watered by a
river, and furrounded by mountains which fnelter it
from the north, winds, it is a moft agreeable and de¬
lightful refidence. On whatever fide one approaches
it, gardens may be feen which contain every thing
that a fertile and cultivated foil can produce in the
mildeft climates. All the furrounding fields are en¬
chanting : but they do not extend far; for on feveral
fides they terminate in dry plains, where a number of
beautiful horfes are fed, and a fpecies of excellent
fheep, which have large flat tails that fometimes weigh
three pounds. The country of Hami appears to be
very abundant in foffils and valuable minerals : the
Chinefij have for a.long, time procured d«inond» and a
great deal of gold from it; at prefent it fupplies them
with a kind of agate, on which they fet a great value.
With regard to the inhabitants of this fmall ftate, they
are brave, capable of enduring fatigue, very dexterous
in all bodily exercifes, and make excellent foldiers ; bat
they are fickle and foen irritated, and when in a paffioa
thev arc extremely ferocious and fanguinary.
HAMILTON, a town of Scotland, in Clydefdale,
feated on the river Clyde, eleven miles fo-uth eaft of
Glafgow; from whence the noble family of Hamilton-
take their name, and title of duke. The town is feated
in the middle of a very agreeable plain; and on the weft
of the town this family has a large park, which is near
(even miles in circumference, inelofed with a high wall,
full of deer and other game. The rivulet called Avon
runs through the park, and falls into the river Clyde,-
over which laft there is a bridge of free-ftone. W.
Long. 3. 50. N. Lat. 55. 40. The original name of
this place, or the lands about it, was Cadzow or Cad-
yotv, a barony granted to an anceftor of the noble
owner, on the following occafion. In the time of Ed¬
ward II. lived Sir Gilbert de Hamilton, or Hampton^ an
Englifhman of rank; who happening at court to fpeak
in praife of Robert Bruce, received on the occafion an
infult from John de Spenfer, chamberlain to the king,
whom he fought and flew. Dreading the refentmentr
of that potent family, he fled to the Scottifh monarch;
who received him with open arms, and eftabliftied him
at the place poffeffed by the duke of Hamilton. In
aftertimes the name was changed from Cadzow to Ha¬
milton ; and in 1445 the lands were erefted into alord-
fhip, and the then owner Sir James-fat in parliament'
as lord Hamilton. The fame nobleman founded the
collegiate church at Hamilton in 1451, for a provofl
and feveral prebendaries. The endowment was rati¬
fied at Rome by the pope’s bull, which he went in
perfon to procure.—-Hamilton-houfe or palace is at the
end of the town ; a large difagreeable pile,, with tv?o
deep wings at right angles with the centre : the gal¬
lery is of great extent; and furniftied, as well as fome
other rooms, with moft excellent paintings.'
Hamilton (Anthony, count), defeended from a :
noble family in Scotland, was born-in Ireland, and ’
fettled in France. He wrote feveral poetical pieces 4;
and was the firft who compofed. romances in an agree¬
able tafte, without imitatingthe burlefqu,e of Scar;.
ron. Fie is alfo faid to be the author of the Memoirs
of the couni de Grammont, one of the beft written pieces
in the French language. His works were printed ih
6 .vols 12mo. He died , at St Germaine-en-Laye, in
1720.
Hamilton (George), earl of Orkney, and a brave
warrior, was the fifth fon of William earl of Selkirk;
and early betook himfelf to the profeffion of arms.
Being made colonel in 1689-90, he diftinguifhed him¬
felf by his bravery at the battle of the Boyne; and
foon after, at thofe of Aghrim, Steinkirk, and Landen,
and at the fieges of Athlone, Limerick, and Namur.
His eminent fervices in Ireland and Flanders, through
the whole courfe of that war, recommended him fo
highly to king William III. that, in 1696, he ad¬
vanced him to the dignity of a peer of Scotland, by
the title of earl of Orkney; and his lady, the filter of
Edward vifeount Villiers, afterwards earl of Jerfey4
had a grant made to her, undfr the great feal of Ire-
Ha-
H A M [ *88 1 HAM
iHamlltoi!, land, of aim oft all the private eftates of the late king and hamletam; and Stow expounds it to be the feat of Hamkt.
^Hamlet. jame3> 0f very confiderable value. a freeholder. Several county-towns have hamlets, as -v—“
u—y—— Upon the acceffion of queen Anne to the throne, there may be feveral hamlets in a parifli ; and fome
he was promoted to the rank of majof-general'in 1702, particular places may be out of a town or hamlet,
and the next year to that of lieutenant-general, and though not out of the county.
was likewife made knight of the thiftle. His lord- Hamlet, a prince celebrated in the annals of Den-
fhip afterwards ferved upder the great duke of Marl- mark ; and whofe name has been rendered familiar in
borough ; and contributed by his bravery and con- this country, and his ftory interefting, by being the
dudf to the glorious viftories of Bleinhim and Mai- fubjedt of one of the nobleil tragedies of our immortal
plaquet, and to the taking feveral of the towns in Shakefpeare.—Adjoining to a royal palace, which ftands
Flanders. about half a mile from that of Grohborg in Elfineur;
In the beginning of 1710, his lordfhip, as one of the is a garden, which, Mr Coxe informs us, is called
16 peers of Sccdand, voted for the impeachment of Hamlet’s Garden, and is faid by tradition to be the
Dr Sacheverel; and the fame year was fworn of the very fpot where the murder of his father was perpe-
privy-council, and made general of the foot in Flan- trated. The houfe is of modern date, and is lituated
ders. In 17s2, he was made colonel of the royal at the foot of a fandy ridge near the fea. The
regiment of fuzileers, and ferved in Flanders under garden occupies the fide of the hill, and is laid out in
the duke of Ormond. In 1714, he was appointed terrafles riiing one above another. Elfineur is the
gentleman-extraordinary of the bed-chamber to king fcene of Shakefpeare’s Hamlet ; and the original hi-
George I. and afterwards governor of Virginia. At ftory from which our poet derived the principal inci-
length he was appointed conftablc, governor, and cap- dents of his play is founded upon fafts, but fo deeply
tain of Edinburgh caftle, lord-lieutenant of the county buried in remote antiquity that it is difficult to difcri-
of Clydefdale, and field-marffiall. He died at his houfe minate truth from fable. Saxo-Grammaticus, who
in Albemarle-ftreet, in 1737. flourifhed in the 12th century, is the earlieft hiftorian
Hamilton (John), the 24th bifliop of St Andrew’s, of Denmark that relates the adventures of Hamlet,
to which he was tranfiated from Dunkeld. He was His account is extra&ed, and much altered, by Belle-
natural fon of James the firft earl of Arran, and was foreft a French author; an Englifh tranflation of whofe
in great favour at court whilft his friends remained in romance was publiftied under the title of theHiftorye of
power. He was one of queen Mary’s privy council, Hamblet: and from this tranflation Shakefpeare formed
and a fteady friend to that unfortunate princefs. He the ground-work of his play, though with many alte-
performed the ceremony of chriftening her fon, and rations and additions. The following fhort /ketch of
was at different times lord privy feal and lord treafu- Hamlet’s hiftory, as recorded in the Dani/h annals, will
rer. The queen had reafon to lament her not follow- enable the reader to compare the original charafter
ing the advice of this prelate, after the fatal battle of with that delineated by Shakefpeare.
Langfide, Diz. not to truft her perfon in England. By Long before the introduction of Chriftianity into
the regent earl of Murray, he was declared a traitor, Denmark, Horwendillus, prefect or king of Jutland,
and obliged to feek fhelter among his friends. He was married to Geruthra, or Gertrude, daughter of
was unfortunately in the caftle of Dumbarton when Ruric king of Denmark, by whom he had a fon called
that fortrefs was taken by furprife, from whence he Amltttus, or Hamlet. Fengo murders his brother Hor-
was carried to Stirling, where on April 1. 1570 he wendillus, marries Gertrude, and afcends the throne,
was hanged on a live tree. The two following farcaftic Hamlet, to avoid his uncle’s jealoufy, counterfeits
verfes were written upon this occafion : folly ; and is reprefented as fuch an abhorrer of falfe-
Vive diu,felix arbor, femperque v Ire to hood, that though he conftantly frames the moft eva-
Fromllbui, ut nobis ialia pomaferas. five and even abfurd anfwers, yet artfully contrives never
HAMLET, Hamel, or Hampfel, (from the Saxon to deviate from truth. Fengo, fufpedling the reality
bam, i. e. domus, and the German/e/, i.e. inembrum), of his madnefs, endeavours by various methods (a),to
fignifies a little village, or part of a village or parifti; difcover the real ftate of his mind : amongft others, he
of which three words the firft is now only ufed, though departs from Elfineur, concerts a meeting between
Kitchen mentions the two laft. By Spelman there is Hamlet and Gertrude, concluding that the former
a difference between villam integram, ’villam dimidiam, would not conceal his fentiments from his own mother;
N° 148. and
(a) Among other attempts, Fengo orders his companions to leave him in a retired fpot, and a young wo¬
man is placed in his way, with a view to extort from him a confeffion that his folly was counterfeited. Hamlet
would have fallen into the fnare, if a friend had not fecretly conveyed to him intelligence of this treachery. He
carries the woman to a more fecret place, and obtains her promife not to betray him ; which /he readily con-
fents. to, as /he had been brought up with him from her infancy. Being aflted, upon his return home, if he
had indulged his paffion, he anfwers in the affirmative ; but renders himfelf not believed by the moft artful
fubterfuges, which, though true, feemed evidently to mark a difordered underftanding, and by the pofitive
denial of the woman. “ Upon this woman,” as Capell obferves, “ is grounded Shakefpeare’s Ophelia; and
his deliverance from this fnare by a friend fuggefted his Horatio —“ the rude outlines,” as Mr Malone re¬
marks, “ of thofe charafters. But in this piece there are no traits of the chara&er of Polonius: there is in¬
deed a counfellor, and'he places himfelf in the queen’s chamber behind the arras; but this is the whole. The
gboft of the old Hamlet is likewife the offspring of our author’s creative imagination.” See Capelfs School tf
Shakefpeare, vol. iii. p. 20.; and Malone's Supplement, p. 353.
HAM [ 289 ] HAM
and orders a courtier to conceal himfelf, unknown to
both, for the purpofe of overhearing their converfation.
The courtier repairs to the queen’s apartment, and
hides himfelf under a heap of ftraw (b). Hamlet, up¬
on entering the cabinet, fufpedting the prefence of
fome fpy, imitates, after his ufual affectation of folly,
the crow of a cock, and, fhaking his arms like wings,
jumps (c) upon the heap of ftraw ; till, feeling the
courtier, he draws his fword* and inftantly difpatches
him. He then cuts the body to pieces, boils it* and
gives it to the hogs. He then avows to his mother
that he only perfonated a fool, reproaches her for her
inceftuous marriage with the murderer of her hufband;
and concludes his remonftrances by faying, “ Inftead,
therefore, of condoling my infanity, deplore your own
infamy, and learn to lament the deformity of your own
mind(D).” The queen is filent; but is recalled to
virtue by thefe admonitions. Fengo returns to Elfi-
neilr, fends Hamlet to England under the care of two
courtiers, and requefts the king by a letter to put him
to death. Hamlet difcovers and alters the letter; fo
that, upon their arrival in England, the king orders
the two courtiers to immediate execution, and betroths
his daughter to Hamlet, who gives many aftonifhing
proofs of a moft tranfcendant underftanding. At the
end of the year he returns to Denmark, and alarms
the court by his unexpected appearance ; as a report
of his death had been fpread, and preparations were
making for his funeral. Having re-affumed his affeCted
infanity, he purpofely wounds his fingers in drawing
his fword, which the byftanders immediately faften to
the fcabbard. He afterwards invites the principal
nobles to an entertainment, makes them intoxicated,
and in that ftate covers them with a large curtain,
which he faftens to the ground with wooden pegs : he
then fets fire to the palace; and the nobles, being in-
Vol.VIII. Parti.
veloped in the curtain, perilh in the flames. During
this tranfaftion he repairs to Fengo’s apartment; and,
taking the fword which lay by the fide of his bed, puts
his own in its place: he inftantly awakens and informs
him, that Hamlet is come to revenge the murder of
his father. Fengo ftartsfrom his bed, feizes the fword;
but, being unable to draw it, falls by the hand of
Hamlet. The next morning, when the populace were
affembled to view the ruins of the palace, Hamlet fum-
tnons the remaining nobles ; and in a mafterly fpeech,
which is too long to infert in this place, lays open the
motives of his own conduft, proves his uncle to have
been the affaffin of his father; and concludes in the fol¬
lowing words: “ Tread upon the afhes of the monfter,
who, polluting the wife of his murdered brother, join¬
ed inceft to'parricide ; and ruled over you with the
moft oppreffive tyranny. Receive me as the minifter
of a juft revengd, as one who felt for the fufferings of
his father and his people- Confider me as the perfon
who has purged the difgrace of his country ; extin-
guifhed the infamy of his mother; freed you from the
defpotifm of a monfter, whofe crimes, if he had lived,
would have daily increafed, and terminated in your
deftru&ion. Acknowledge my fervices; and if I have
deferved it, prefent me with the crown. Behold in me
the author of thefe advantages: no degenerate perfon,
no parricide ; but the rightful fucceffor to the throne,
and the pious avenger of a father’s murder. I have
refeued you from flavery, reftored you to liberty, and
re-eftablilhed your glory : I have deftroyed a tyrant,
and triumphed over an aflaflin. The recompence is in
your hands: you can eftimate the value of my fervices,
and in your virtue I reft my hopes of reward.” This
fpeech has the defired effeft: the greater part of the
affembly ftied tears, and all who are prefent unani-
moufly proclaim him king amid repeated acclamations.
N n Hamlet
(b) The reader will recolledt, that ftraw ufed formerly to be fpread over the floors as an article of great
luxury.
(c) This part ftands thus in the Englilh account : “ The counfellor entered fecretly into the queene’s
chamber, and there hid himfelfe behind the arras, and long before the queene and Hamlet came thither: who
being craftie and politique, as foone as he was within the chamber, doubting fome treafon, and fearing if he
ftiould fpeak feverely and wifely to his mother touching his fecret pra&ifes hee ftiould be underftood, and by
that means intercepted, ufed his ordinary manner of diffimulation, and began to come (r. crow) like a cocke,
beating with his arms (in fuch manner as cockes ufed to ftrike with their wings) upon the hangings of the
thanabers ; whereby feeling fomething ftirring under them, he cried, A rat! a rat! and prefently drawing his
fworde, thruftit into the hangings; which done, he pulled the counfellor (half deade) out by the heels, made
an end of killing him; and, being flain, Cut his body in pieces, which he caufed to be boiled, and then call
it into an open vault or privie.” Malone's Supplement, vol. i. p. 357.
(d) The elofet-feene, which is fo beautiful in Shakefpeare’s Hamlet, is thus concifely, but not lefs finely,
deferibed by the Daniflt hiftorian : “ Cumque mater magno ejulatu quefta praefentis filii focordiam deflere
csepiffet: ‘ Quid (inquit) mulierum turpifiima graviflimi criminis difiimulationem falfo lamenti genere expetis,
quae fcorti more lafeiviens nefariam aC deteftabilem thori conditionem fecuta viri tui interfe&orem pleno incefti
finu ampledterish et ei qui prolis tuae parentem extinxerat obfcceniffimis blandimentorum illecebris adularis.
Ita nempe equae conjugum fubrum vidtoribus maricantur. Brfttorum natura haec eft ; ut in diverfa pafiim con«
lugia rapiantur : hoc tibi exemplo prioris mariti memoriam exoleviffe conftat. Ego vero non ab re ftolidi fpe-
ciem gero, cum baud dubitem quin is qui fratrem opprelterit, in affines quoque pari crudelitate debacchaturus
fit: unde ftoliditatis quae induftrjas habitum ampledti prxftat, et incolumitatis praefidium ab extrema delira-
mentorum fpecie mutuari. In animo tarhen paternae ultibnis ftudium perfeverat; fed rerum occafiones aucupor,
temporum opportunitates opperior. Non idem omnibus locus competit. Contra obfeurum immitemque ani-
mum ahioribus ingenii modis uti convenit. Tibi vCro fapervacuum fit meam lamentari dtfipientiam, quae tuam
:uftius ignominiam deplorare debueras. ■ Itaque non aliene fed propriae mentis vitium defleas neceffe eft. Caetera
filere'nitmineris.’ Tali convitio laceratam matrem ad excoleiidum viitutis habituro revocavit, praeteritofque
ignes prxfentibus illecebris praeferre docuit.”
H A M [ 290 1 HAM
Harr.wer Hamlet faon after his elevation fails to England,
II and orders a (hield to be made on which the principal
Hammock. aaioris of his life are reprefented. The king receives
him with feigned demonftrations of joy, falfely alfures
him that his daughter is dead, and recommends him to
repair to Scotland as his ambaffador, and to pay his
addreffes to the queen Hermetruda. He gives this in-
iidious advice with the hopes that Hamlet may perifh
in the attempt; as the queen, who was remarkable for
her chaftity and cruelty, had fuch an averlion to all
propofals of marriage, that not one of her fuitors had
efcaped falling a facrifice to her vengeance. Hamlet,
in oppoiition to all difficulties, performs the embaffy;
and, by the affiftance of his (hield, which infpires the
lady with a favourable opinion of his wifdom and cou¬
rage, obtains her in marriage, and returns with her to
England. Informed by the princefs to whom he had
been betrothed that her father meditates his affaffina-
tion, Hamlet avoids his fate by wearing armour under
his robe ; puts to death the king of England ; and
fails to Denmark with his two wives, where he is foon
afterwards killed in a combat with Vigletus fou of
Ruric. Hamlet, adds the hiftorian, was a prince,
who, if his good fortune had been equal to his deferts,
would have rivalled the gods in fplendor, and in his
a&ions would have exceeded even the labours pf
Hercides.
HAMMER, a well-known tool ufed by mechanics,
confiding of an iron head, fixed croflwife upon a handle
of wood. There are feveral forts of hammers ufed by
blackfmiths; as, 1. The hand-hammer, which is of
fuch weight that it may be wielded or governed with
one hand at the anvil. 2. The up-hand (ledge, ufed
with both hands, and feldom lifted above the head.
3. The about-(ledge, which is the bigged hammer of
all, and held by both hands at the farthed end of the
handle; and being fwung at arms length over the head,
is made to fall upon the work with as heavy a blow as
poffible. There is alfo another hammer ufed by fmiths,
called a rivetting hammer; which is the fmalled of all,
and is fddom ufed at the forge unlefs upon fmall work.
—Carpenters and joiners have likewife hammers accom¬
modated to their feveral purpofes.
HAMMERING, the aft of beating or extending
and fafhioning a body under the hammer. When it is
performed on iron heated for the purpofe, the fmiths
ufually call it forging.
Hammering, in coining. A piece of money or a
medal is faid to be hammered when druck, and the
impreffion given with a hammer and not with a mill.
HAMMERSMITH, four miles wed from London,
is a hamlet belonging to Fulham, has two charity-
fchools, a workhoufe, a Prefbyterlan meeting-houfe,
2nd a fair May 1. There are a number of handfome
feats about it, efpecially towards the Thames; among
which the“mod remarkable is the late lord Melcombe’s,
which is a very elegant houfe, and contains a marble
gallery finiffied at a very great expence.
HAMMOCK, or Hamac, a kind of hanging bed,
fufpended between two trees, pods, hooks, or the like,
much ufed throughout the Wed Indies, as alfo on
board of (hips. The Indians hang their hammocks to
trees, and thus fecure themfelves from wild beads and
infefts, which render lying on the ground there very
dangerous. According to F. Plumier, who has often Himmer-
made ufe of the hammock in the Indies, it confids of
a large drong coverlet or flieet of coarfe cotton, about
fix feet fquare : on two^oppofite fides are loops of the ' ^
fame duff, through which a dring is run, and thereof
other loops are formed, all which are tied together
with a cord; and thus is the whole fattened to two
neighbouring trees in the field, or two hooks inhoufes.
This kind of couch ferves at the fame time for bed,
quilts, (beets, pillow, &c.
The hammock ufed on board of (hips is made of a
piece of canvas fix feet long and three feet.wide, ga¬
thered or drawn together at the two ends. There are
ufually from fourteen to twenty inches in breadth al¬
lowed between decks for every hammock in a (hip of
war; but this fpace mud in fome meafure depend on
the number of the crew, &c. In time of battle the
hammocks and bedding are firmly corded and fixed in
the nettings on the quarter-deck, or wherever the
men are too much expofed to the view or fire of the
enemy.
HAMMOND (Henry), D. D. one of the mod
learned Engliffi divines in the tyth century, was bom
in 1605. He dudied at Oxford, and in 1629 entered
into holy orders. In 1633 he was induced into the
re&ory of Pendiurd in Kent. In 1643 he was made
archdeacon of Chicheder. In the beginning of 1645
he was made one of the canons of Chrid-church, Oxford,
and chaplain in ordinary to king Charles I. who was
then in that city; and he was alfo chofen public orator
of the univerfity. In 1647 he attended the king in
his confinement at Wooburn, Cavefham, Hampton-
Court, and the Hie of Wight, where he continued till
his majedy’s attendants were again put from him. He
then returned to Oxford, where he was chofen fub-dean;
and continued there till the parliament-vifitors firft
ejefted him, and then imprifoned him for fevtral weeks
in a private houfe in Oxford. During this confinement
he began his Annotations on the'New Tedament. At
the opening of the year 1660, when every thing vifibly
tended to the redoration of the royal family, the do61 or
was defired by the bifhops to repair to London to affid
there in the compofure of the breaches of the church,
his dation in which was defigned to be the biffiopric of
Worceder; but on the 4th of April he was feized by
a fit of the done, of which he died on the 25th of that
month, aged 55. Befides the above work, he wrote
many others; all of which have been publilhed together
in four volumes folio.
Hammond (Anthony, Efq;), an ingenious Eng-
lifh poet, defeended from a good family of Somerffiam
Place in Huntingdonffiire, was born in 1668. After
a liberal education at St John’s college, Cambridge, he
was chofen member of parliament, and foon didinguifh-
ed himfelf as a fine fpeaker. He became a commiffioner
of the royal navy, which place he quitted in 1712. He
publidied A Mifcellany of original Poems by the mod
eminent hands ; in which himfelf, as appears by the
poems marked with his own name, had no inconfider-
able (hare. He wrote the life of Walter Moyle, Efq;
prefixed to his works. He was the intimate friend of
that gentleman, and died about the year 1726.
HAMMOND(James), known to the world by the Love-
Eleeies which, fome years after his death, were pub-
B liffied
HAM [ 291 1 HAM
Hampfhire. llfhed by the earl of Chefterfield, was the fon of Anthony is to pafs through in particular; to carry which into Humpfli ire*
— Hammond above mentioned, and was preferred to a execution above L. 86,000 have been raifed amongA
place about the perfon of the late prince of Wales, which 150 proprietors in 1789, audit will extend 53 miles
he held till an unfortunate accident deprived him of when completed.
his fenfes. The caufe of this calamity was a paflion New Hampshire, a province of North America, in
he entertained for a lady, who would not return it: New England. It is bounded on the north by Que-
upon which he wrote thofe love-elegies which have been bee ; noith-eaft by the province of Main ; fouth-eaft by
fo much celebrated for their tendernefs. The editor the Atlantic Ocean ; fouth by Maflachufets ; well and
obferves, that he compofed them before he was 21 years north-wTeft by Connedicut river, which divides it from
of age: a period, fays he, when fancy and imagination
commonly riot at the ex pence of judgment and corred-
nefs. He was fincere in his love as in his friendfhip;
and wrote to his millrefs, as. he fpoke to his friends,
nothing but the genuine fentiments of his heart. Ti¬
bullus feems to have been the model our author judi-
cioufly preferred to Ovid ; the former writing diredly
from the heart to the heart, the latter too often yield¬
ing and addrefiing himfelf to the imagination. Mr
Vermont. The fliape of New Hamplhire refembles
an open fan; Connedicut river being the curve, the
fouthern line the fhortell, and the eallern line the
longeft fide. It is divided into five counties, viz.
Rockingham, Stafford, Hillfborough, Chefhire, Graf¬
ton. In 1776, there were 165 fettled townfhips in
this Hate. Since that time the number has been greatly
increafed. The chief town is Portsmouth. Exeter,
15 miles fouthwefterly from Portfmouth, is a pretty
Hammond died in the year 1743, at Stow, the feat of town on the fouth fide of Exeter
lord Cobham, who, as well as the earl of Chefterfield,
honoured him with a particular intimacy.
HAMPSHIRE, or Haunts, a county of England,
bounded on the weft by Dorfetfhire and Wiltfhire, on
the north by Berkfhire, on the eaft by Surry and Suf-
And Con¬
cord, fituated on the weft fide of Merrimak r
a pleafant flourifhing town, which will probably, on
account of its central fituation, foon be the permanent
feat of government. There are two great rivers, the
Pifcata and the Merrimak. The former has four
fex, and on the fouth by the Englifh channel. It ex- branches, Berwick, Cochechy, Exeter, and Durham,
tends 55 miles in length from north to fouth, and 40 which are all navigable for fmall veffels and boats, fome
in breadth from eaft to weft, and is about 220 miles
in circumference. It is divided into 39 hundreds, and
contains 9 forefts, 29 parks, one city, 20 market-
towns, 253 parifhes, above 36,000 houfes, and by the
moft modeft computation ) 8c,coo inhabitants, who
eleft 26 members of parliament, two for the county,
15 others 20 miles from the fea. Thefe rivers unite
about eight miles from the mouth of the harbour, and
form one broad, ■ deep, rapid ftream, navigable for
Ihips of the largeft burden. This river forms the only
port of New Hampfhire. The Merrimak bears that
name from its mouth to the confluence of I’emigewaf-
two for the city of Vv inchefter, and two for each of fet and Winnifipiokee rivers; the latter has its fource
the following towms, Southampton, Portfmouth, Pe- in the lake of the fame name. In its courfe, it re-
tersfield, Yarmouth, Newport, Stockbridge, Andover, ceives numberlefs fmall ftreams iffuing from ponds and
Whitchurch, Lymington, Chrift-church, and Newton, fwamps in the valleys. It tumbles over two confider-
•—The air is very pure and pleafant, efpecially upon able falls, Amalkaeg and Pantucket great falls. From
the downs, on which vaft flocks of flieep are kept Haveril the river runs winding along, through a plea-
and bred. In the champaign part of the county, where fant rich vale of meadow, and palling between New-
it is free of wood, the foil is very fertile, producing all bury Port and Salilbury empties itfelf into the ocean,
kinds of grain. The country is extremely well wooded The land next to the fea is generally low; but as you
and watered ; for befides many woods on private e- advance into the country, it rifes into hills. Some
Hates, in which there are vaft quantities of well-grown parts of the ftate are mountainous. The White moun-
tirnber, there is the new foreft of great extent, belong- tains are the higheft part of a ridge which extends
ing to the crown, well ftored with venerable oaks. In northeaft and fouthweft to a length not yet afeertained.
thefe woods and forefts, great numbers of hogs run at The whole circuit of them is not lefs than 50 miles,
large, and feed on the acorns; and hence it is that the The height of thefe mountains above an adjacent mea-
Hampthire bacon fo far excels that of moft other dow, is reckoned to be about 5500 feet, and the mea-
countries. The rivers are the Avon, Anton, Arle, dow is 3500 feet above the level of the fea. The
Teft, Stowre, and Itchin ; befides feveral fmaller fnow and ice cover them nine or ten months in the
ftreams, all abounding in fifh, tfpecially trout. As its year ; during which time they exhibit that bright ap-
fea-coaft is of a confiderable extent, it pofi'efies many pearance from which they are denominated the white
good ports and harbours, and is well fupplied with mountains. From this fummit in clear weather is ex-
falt-water fifh. Much honey is produced in the conn- hibited a noble view, extending 60 or 70 miles in
try, and a great deal of mead and metheglin made, every diredion. Although they are more than 70
Here is alfo plenty of game, and on the downs is moft miles within land, they are feen many leagues off at
delightful hunting. The maiiufadure of cloth and fea, and appear like an exceeding bright cloud in the
kedies in this county, though not fo extenfive as that horizon. Thefe immenfe heights, being copioufly re¬
ef fome others, is yet far from being inconfiderable, plenifhed with water, afford a variety of beautiful caf-
and employs great numbers of the poor, as well as cades. Three of the largeft rivers in New England
contributes to the enriching of the manufadurers by receive a great part of their waters from thefe moun-
what is fent abroad. The new intended canal in this tains. Amanoofuck and Ifrael rivers, two principal
county, from Bafingftoke to the Wye in Surry, and branches of Connedicut, fall from their weftern fide,
from thence to the Thames, cannot but be a great ad- Peabody river, a branch of the Amarifcogen, falls
vantage to the county in general, and the parilhes it from the northeaft fide; and almoft the whole of the
N n 2 Saco
HAM [ 292 ] HAM
Hampftiire. Saco defcends from the fouthern fide. The higheft
■''““■'Y'"-"' fummit of thefe mountains is about latitude 440.
The air in Nqw Hampfhire, is ferene and healthful.
The weather is not fo fubjeft to change as in more
fouthern climates. This ftate embosoming a number
of very high mountains, and lying in the neighbour¬
hood of others whofe towering fummits are covered
with fnow and ice three quarters of the year, is in-
tenfely cold in the winter feafon. The heat of fum-
mer is great, but of Ihort duration. The cold braces
the conllitution, and renders the labouring people
healthful and robuft.
On the fea coaft, and many places inland, the foil is
fandy, but affords good pafturage. The intervals at
the foot of the mountains are greatly enriched by the
freihets, which bring down the foil upon them, form¬
ing a fine mould, and producing corn, grain, and her¬
bage, in the moft luxuriant plenty. The back lands
which have been cultivated are generally very fertile,
and produce the various kinds of grain, fruits, and ve¬
getables, which are common to the other parts of New
England. The uncultivated lands are covered with
extenfive forefts of pine, fir, cedar, oak, walnut, See.
This ftate affords all the materials neceffary for fhip-
building.
No aftual cenfus of the inhabitants has been lately
made. In the convention at Philadelphia, in 1787,
they were reckoned at 102,000. There is no cha-
radteriftical difference between the inhabitants of this
and the other New England ftates. The ancient in¬
habitants of New Hampfhire were emigrants from
England. Their pofterity, mixed with emigrants from
Maffachufets, fill the lower and middle towns. Emi¬
grants from Connefticut compofe the largeft part of
the inhabitants of the weftern towns adjoining Con-
nedticut river. Slaves there are none. Negroes, who
were never numerous in New Hampfhire, are all free by
the firft article of the bill of rights.
In the townfhip of Hanover, hi the weftern part of
this ftate, is Dartmouth College, fituated on a beau¬
tiful plain, about half a mile eaft of Conne&ieut river,
in latitude 430 33'. It was named after the right ho¬
nourable William Earl of Dartmouth, who was one of
its principal benefaflors. It was founded in 1769,
.for the education and inftru&ion of youth, of the In¬
dian tribes, in reading, writing, and all parts of learn¬
ing which fliould appear neceffary and expedient for
civilizing and chriftianizing the children of Pagans, as
well as in all liberal arts and fciences, and alfo of Englifh
youths and any others. Its fituation, in a frontier
country, expofed it during the late war to many in¬
conveniences, which prevented its rapid progrefs. It
flourifhed, however, amidft all its embarraffments, and
is now one of the moft growing feminaries in the li¬
nked States. In has in the four claffes about 130
Undents, under the diredlion of a prefident, two pro-
feffors, and two tutors. It has 12 truftees, who are
a body corporate^ in veiled with the powers neceffary
for fuch a body. The library is elegant, containing
a large colleftion of the moft valuable books. Its ap¬
paratus confifts of a competent number of ufeful inftru-
ments, for making mathematical and philofophical ex¬
periments. There are three buildings for the ufe of
the ftud.ertts, Such , is the falubrity of the air, that
4
no inftance of morta’ity has happened among the flu- Hampftead
dents fince the firfl eftablifhment of the college. II
At Exeter there is an academy; at Portfmouth a Hampton,
grammar fchool; and all the towns are bound by law *
to fupport fchoois. The inhabitants of New Hampfhire
are chiefly congregationalifts. The other denominations
are Prefbyterians, Baptifts, and Epifcopalians.
The firft difeovery made by the Englifh of any part
of New Hampfhire was in 16(4, by Captain John
Smith, who ranged the fhgre from Penobfcot to Cape
Cod ; and in this route difeovered the river Pifcata-
qua. On his return to England, he publifhed a de-
feription of the country, with a map of the coaft,
which he prefented to prince Charles, who gave it the
name of New England. The firft fettlement was made
in 1623. ^
New Hampfhire was for many years under the ju-
rifdidlion of the governor of Mafiachufets, yet they
had a feparate legiflature. They ever bore a propor¬
tionable fhare of the expences and levies in all enter-
prifes, expeditions, and military exertions, whether
planned by the colony or the crown. In every flage
of the oppoiition that was made to the encroachments
of the Britilh parliament, the people, who ever had a
high fenfe of liberty, cheerfully bore their part.
HAMPSTEAD, a pleafant village of Middlefex,
four miles northwefl of London, ftands in a healthy
air, on a fine rife, at the top of which is a heath of
about a mile every way, that is adorned with feveral
pretty feats, in a moll irregular romantic fituation,
and has a moft extenfive profpeft over London, into
the counties all round it, viz. Bucks and Hertford-
fhire, and even Northamptonfhire, Effex, Kent, Surry,
Berks, &c. with an uninterrupted view of Shooter’s
Hill, Banfted-Downs, and Windfor-Caftle. Its church
was anciently a chapel of eafe to Hendon, till about
1478. This village ufed to be reforted to formerly
Lor its mineral waters, which have lately been negledl-
ed; but the wells are ftill frequented- It is now
crowded with good buildings, even on the very fleep
of the hill, where there is no walking fix yards to¬
gether without meeting a hillock ; but in the reign of
Henry VIII. it was chiefly inhabited by the laundref-
fes who wafhed for the Londoners. Its old ruinous
church, the lord of the manor’s chapel, was lately
pulled down, and a new one erefted in its room.
There is, befides, a handfome chapel near the wells,
built by the contribution of the inhabitants, who are
chiefly citizens and merchants of London.
HAMPTON, a town of Gloucefterfhire in England,
feated on the Cotfwold hills, and had formerly a nun¬
nery. W. Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 51- 38.
Hampton, a tdwn of Middlefex in England, feated
on the river Thames, 12 miles weft of London, and
two from Richmond and Kingflown. It is chiefly fa¬
mous for the royal palace there, which is the fineft in
Britain. It was built by cardinal Wolfey, who had
280 filk beds for flrangers only, and furnifhed it rich¬
ly with gold and filver plate. The buildings, gar¬
dens, and the two parks, to which William III. mlde
confiderable additions, are about four miles in circum¬
ference, and are watered on three fides by the Thames..
The inward court, built by king William, forms a
piazza, the pillars of which are fo low, that it looks
taejo.
HAN [ 293 ] HAN
Hamefoken more like a cloyfter than a palace ; however, the apart-
II ments make ample amends, being extremely magnifi-
Hanau. cent, and more exa&ly difpofed than in any other pa-
'r lace in the world, and adorned with moft elegant fur¬
niture. Since the acceffion of his prefent majefty,
however, this palace hath been much neglefted, as the
king has generally made choice of Windfor for his
fummer retreat. Thofe inimitable paintings by Ra¬
phael Urbin called the cartoons, which were placed
there by king William, have been removed to the
queen’s palace at Weilminfter. For thefe pieces
Louis XV. is faid to have offered ioo,oool.
HAMESOlvEN, or Hamesecken. See Hame-
SECKEN.
HANAPER, or Hamper, an office in chancery,
.under the direction of a mailer, his deputy and clerks,
anfwering, in fome meafure, to the ffcus among the
Romans.
Hanaper, {clerk of the) fometimes ftyled warden of
the hanaper, an officer who receives all money due to the
king for feals of charters, patents, commiffions, and
writs, and attends the keeper of the feal daily in term
time, and at all time of fealing, and takes intd his
cuflody all fealed charters, patents, and the like, which
he receives into bags, but anciently, it is fuppofed, in¬
to hampers, which gave denomination to the office.
There is alfo an officer who is comptroller of the ha¬
naper.
HANAU, a town of Germany, and capital of a
county of the fame name, is pleafairtly fituated on the
river Kenzig near its confluence with the Mayne. The
river divides it into the old and new towns, both of
which are fortified. The new town, which was built
at firft by French and Flemiih refugees, who had great
privileges granted them, is regular and handfome. The
cattle, in which the counts ufed to refide, and which
flands in the old town, is fortified, and has a fine
flower-garden with commodious apartments, but makes
no great appearance. The Jews are tolerated here,
and dwell in a particular quarter. The magiftracy of
the new town, and the difpofal of all offices in it, be¬
long to the French and Dutch congregrations. Here
is an univerfity, with feveral manufadlures, particularly
of that of roll tobacco, and a very confiderable traffic.
E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 49. 58.
Hanau-Munzenlerg, a county of Germany. The
greateft part of it is furrounded by the deflorate of
JVlentz, the bifhopric of Fulda, the lordftiips of Rei-
neck, Ifenburg, and Solms ; as alfo by the territories
of Hefle-Homburg, Burg-Friedburg, and Frankfort.
Its length is near 40 miles, but its greateft. breadth
not above 12. It is exceeding fertile in corn, wine,
and fruits; yielding alfo fait fprings, with fome cop¬
per, filver, and cobalt. The chief rivers are, the
Mayne, the Kinzeg, and the Nidda. The prevailing
religion is Calvinifm, but Lutherans and Catholics are
tolerated. The country is populous, and trade and
manufaflures ftourifh in it. In 1736, the whole male
line of the counts of Hanau failing in John Reinard,
William VIII. landgrave of Heffe Caffel, by virtue
of a treaty of mutual fucceffion between the families
of Hanau and Hefle Caffel, took paffeffion of the
county, fatisfaflion having been firft made to the houfe
of Saxony for their claims; and in the year 1754
transferred it ter prince William, eldeft fon to the then
hereditary "prince Frederic, afterwards landgrave. The Hand,
revenues of the laft count, arifing from this and other V"*“
territories, are faid to have amounted to 500,000 flo¬
rins. The principal places are Hanau, Bergen, Stei-
nau, and Glenhaufen.
HAND, a part or member of the body of man,
making the extremity of the arm. See Anatomy,
n°53, &c.
The mechanifm of the hand is very curious; 'ex¬
cellently contrived to fit it for the various ufes and oc-
cafions we have for it, and the great number of arts
and manufaflures it is to be employed in. It confifts
of a compages of nerves, and little bones joined into
each other, which give it a great degree of ftrength,
and at the fame time an unufual flexibility, to enable
it to handle adjacent bodies, lay hold of them, and
grafp them, in order either to draw them toward us
or thruft them off. Anaxagoras is reprefented by an¬
cient authors, as maintaining, that man owes all his
wifdom, knowledge, and fuperiority over other ani¬
mals, to the ufe of his hands. Galen reprefents the
matter otherwife: man, according to him, is not the
wifeft creature, becaufe he has hands; but he had
hands given him becaufe he was the wifeft creature
for it was not our hands that taught us arts, but our
reafon. The hands are the organs of reafon, &c.
In feripture, the word hand was varioufly applied.
To pour water on any one’s hand, fignifies to ferve
him. To wafh the hands was a ceremony made ufe of
to denote innocency from murder or manflaughter. To
kifs the hand was an aft of adoration. To fill the
hand fignified taking poffeffion of the priefthood, and
performing its funflions. To lean upon any one’s hand
was a mark of familiarity and fuperiority. To give the
hand fignifies to grant peace, fwear friendlhip, promife
fecurity, or make alliance. The right hand was the
place of honour and refpeft.—Amongft the Greeks
and Romans it was cuftomary for inferiors to walk on
the left hand of fuperiors, that their right hand might
be ready to afford proteflion and defence to their left,
fide, which was, on account of the aukwardnefs of the
left hand, more expofed to danger.
Impojition or laying on of Hands, fignifies the con¬
ferring of holy orders ; a ceremony wherein the hands
are laid on the head of another, as a fign of a miffion, or
of a power given him to exercife the funflions pf the
miniftry belonging to the order.
The apoftles began to appoint miffionaries by theim-
pofition of hands. See Imposition.
Hand, in falconry, is ufed for the foot of the hawk.
To have a clean, ftrong, flender, glutinous hand, well
clawed, are fome of the good qualities of a hawk or
falcon.
Hand, ih the manege,, fometimes ftands for the
fore-feet of a horfe. It is alfo ufed for a divifioir
of the horfe into two parts, with refpeft to the ri¬
ders hand. The fore-hand includes the head, neck,
and fore-quarters ; the hind-hand is all the reft of the
horfe.
Hand is likewife ufed for a meafure of four inches,
or of a clenched fift, by which the height of a horfe
is computed.
Hand is alfo figuratively ufed in painting, fculp-
ture, &c. for the manner or ftyle of this or that
mailer,.
Hand*:.
HAN [ 294 ] HAN
Hands are borne in coat-armour, dexter andftnifter ;
that is, right and left, expanded or open ; and after
other manners. * A bloody hand in the centre of the
efciitcheon is the badge of a baronet of Great Britain.
Hand-Breadth, a meafure of three inches.
HANDEL (George Frederic), a moft eminent ma¬
tter and compofer of mufic, was born at Hall, a city
of Upper Saxony in Germany. His father was a phy.-
fician and furgeon of that place, and was upwards of
60 years of age when Handel was born. During his
infancy young Handel is faid to have amufed himfelf
with mufical inftruments, and to have made confider,
able progrefs before he was feven years of age, without
any inftruftions. His propenfity for mufic at laft be¬
came fo ftrong, that his father, who defigned him for
the ftudy of the civil law, thought proper to forbid
him, even at this early period of life, to touch a mufi¬
cal inttrument, and would fuffer none to remain in his
houfe. Notwithftanding this prohibition, however,
Handel found means to get a little clavichord privately
-conveyed to a room in the-uppermoft ftory of the
houfe, to which room he conftantly Hole when the fa¬
mily were afieep ; and thus made fuch advances in his
aft, as enabled him to play on the harpfichord. He
was firft. taken notice of by the duke of Saxe Weifen-
fels on the following occafion. His father went to pay
a vifit to another fon by a former wife, who was valet
de chambre to the duke, and refided at his court.
Young Handel, being then in his feventh year, ear-
nettly defired permiffion to go along with him ; but
being refufed, he followed the chaife on foot, and over¬
took it, the carriage being probably retarded by the
roughnefs of the way. His father at firft chid him for
his difobedience, but at laft took him into the chaife
along with him. While he was in the duke’s court,
he fiill continued to ttrow the fame inclination for mu¬
fic : it was impoffible to keep him from harpfichords ;
and he ufed fometimes to get into the organ-loft at
church, and play after fervice was over. On one of
thefe cccafions, the duke happening to go out later
than ufual, found lomething fo uncommon in Handel’s
manner of playing, that he inquired of his valet who
it was; and receiving for anfwer that it was his bro¬
ther, he defired to fee him. This nobleman was fo
much taken with the mufical genius fhown by young
Handel, that he perfuaded his father to let him follow
the bent of his inclination. He made the boy a pre-
fent 5 and told him, that if he minded his ftudies, no
encouragement fhould be wanting.
On his return to Hall, Handel was placed under
one Zackaw, the organift of the cathedral church ; and
our young mufician was even then able to fupply his
mafter’s place in his-abfence. At nine years of age he
begun to compofe church-fervices for voices and inftru-
ments, and continued to compofe one fuch fervice every
week for three years fuccettively. At the age of 14,
he far excelled his mafter, as he himfelf owned ; and he
was fent to Berlin, where he had a relation in feme
place about the court, on whofe care and fidelity his
parents could rely. The opera was then in a flouriih-
ing condition, being encouraged by the grandfather
of the late king of Pruffia, and under the direction
of many eminent perfons from Italy, among whom
were Buononcini and Attilio. Buononcini, being
of a haughty difpofition, treated Handel with con¬
tempt; but Attilio behaved to him with great kind-
nefs, and he profited much by his inftru&ions. His
abilities foon recommended him to the king, who fre¬
quently made him prefenis, and at laft propofed to fend
him into Italy under his own patronage, and to take
him under his immediate proteftion as foon as his ftu¬
dies fhould be completed. But Handel’s parents not
thinking proper to fubmit their child to the caprice of
the king, declined the offer; upon which it became ne-
ceflary for him to return to Hall.
Handel having now obtained ideas in mufic far ex¬
celling every thing that could be found in Hall, con¬
tinued there very unwillingly, and it was refolved to
fend him into Italy: but as the expence of this journey
could not then be fpared, he went to Hamburg, where
the opera was little inferior to that of Berlin. Soon
after his arrival in this city, his father died ; and
his mother-being left in narrow circumftances, her
fon thought it neceffary to procure fome fcholars, and
to accept a place in the orcheftra ; by which means,
inftead of being a burden, he became a great relief
to her.
At this time, the firft harpfichord in Hamburg was
played by one Kefer, a man who alfo excelled in com-
pofition; but he, having involved himfelf in fome debts,
was obliged to abfeond. Upon this vacancy, the per-
fon who had been ufed to play the fecond harpfichord
claimed the firft by right of fucceflion ; but was oppo-
fed by Handel, who founded a claim to the firft harpfi¬
chord upon his fuperior abilities. After much difpute,
in which all who fupported or direfted the opera enga¬
ged with much vehemence, it was decided in favour of
Handel; but this good fuccefs had almoft coft him his
life. His antagonift refented the fuppofed affront fo
much, that, as they were coming out of the oicheftra
together, he made a pufh at Handel’s bread with a
fword, which muft undoubtedly have killed him, had
there not fortunately been a mufic-book in the bofom
of his coat.
Handel, though yet but in his 15th year, became
compofer to the houfe 5 and the fuccefs of Almeria. his
firft opera, was fo great, that it ran 30 nights without
interruption. Within lefs than a twelvemonth after
this, he fet two others, called Florinda and Norcne,
which were received v/ith the fame applaufe. During
his ftay here, which was about four or five years, he al¬
fo compofed a confiderabte number of fonatas, which
are now loft. Here his abilities procured him the ac¬
quaintance of many perfons of note, particularly the
prince of Tufcany, brother to John Gallon de Medi-
cis the grand duke. This prince preffed him to go
with him to Italy, where he affured him that no con¬
venience fhould be wanting ; but this offer Handel
thought proper to decline, being refolved not to give
up his independency for any advantage that could be
offered him.
In the 19th year of his age, Handel took a journey
to Italy on his own bottom; where he was received
with the greatefl kindnefs by the prince of Tufcany,
and had at all times accefs to the palace of the grand
duke. His Serene Highnefs was impatient to Lave
fomething compofed by fo great a mafler; and not¬
withftanding the difference between the flyle of the
Italian mufic and the German, to which Handel had
hitherto been accuftomed, he fet an opera called Rode-
HAN [ 295 ^ HAN
Handel, rigo, ‘which pleafed fo well, that he was regarded with never, and remained In Britain till the death of the Handel.
v  100 fequins and a fervice of plate. After ftaying queen In 1714. On the arrival of king George I.  r—>
about a year in Florence, he went to Venice, where Handel, confcious of his ill behaviour, durfl. not ap-
he is faid to have been firft dlfcovered at a mafque- pear at court ; but he was extricated from his dilemma
rade. He was playing on a harpfichord in his vifor, by the baron Kilmanfeck. Having engaged feveral of
when Scarlatti, a famous performer, cried out, that the Engliih nobility in his behalf, the baron perfuaded
the perfon who played could be none but the famous the king to a party of pleafure on the water. Handel
Saxon or the devil. But a ftory iimilar to this is was apprifed of the defign, and ordered to prepare fome
reported of many eminent perfons whofe abilities have mufic for the occafion. This he executed with the ut-
been difeovered in difguife. Here he compofed his moft attention, and on the day appointed it was per-
opera called Agr:pp\nat which was performed 27 nights formed and conduced by himfelf. The king with plea*
fucceffively, with the moil extravagant applaufe. fure and furprife inquired whofe it was, and how the
From Venice cur mufician proceeded to Rome, entertainment came to be provided without his know-
vvhere he became acquainted wnth cardinal Ottoboni ledge. The baron then produced the delinquent; and
and many other dignitaries of the church, by which allced leave to prefent him to his majefty as one too fen-
means he was frequently attacked on account of his re- fible of his fault to attempt an excufe, but fincerely de-
ligion ; but Handel declared he would live and die in firous to atone for it. This interceffion was accepted,
the religion in which he had been educated, whether it Handel was reltored to favour, his water mufic was
was true or falfe. Here he compofed an oratorio call- honoured with the higheft approbation, and the king
ed RefurreSione, and 150 cantatas, befides fome fona- added a penfion of L.200 a-year to that .formerly be- .
tas, and other mufic. Ottoboni alfo contrived to have flowed on him by queen Anne ; Xvhich he foon after
a trial of fkill between him and Dominici Scarlatti, increafed to L.400, on his being appointed to teach the
who was confidered as the greatefl mafter on that young princeffes mufic.
inftrument in Italy. The event is differently report- In the year 1715, Handel compofed his opera of A-
ed. Some fay th.:t Scarlatti was vi&orious, and others madige ; but from that time to the year 1720 he com-
give the vidfory to Handel; but when they came to pofed only Tefeo and Paftor Fido, Buononcini and At-
the organ, Scarlatti himfelf aferibed the fuperiority to tilio being then compofers for the operas. About this
Handel. time a projeft was formed by the nobility for erefting
From Rome, Handel went to Naples; after which, a kind of academy at the Hay Market, with a view to
he paid a fecond vifit to Florence ; and at lafl, having fecure to themfelves a conftant fupply of operas to be
fpent fix years in Italy, fet out for his native country, compofed by Handel, and performed under his direc-
In his way thither, he was introduced at the court of tion. No lefs than L, 50,000 was fubferibed for this
Hanover with fo much advantage by the baron Kil- fcheme, of which the king himfelf fubferibed L. 1000,.
manfeck, that his Ele&oral Highnefs offered him a and it was propofed to continue the undertaking for 14
penfion of 1500 crowns a-year as an inducement for him years, ? Handel went over to Drefden, in order to en -
to continue there. This generous offer he declined on gage fingers, and returned with Senefino and Duri-
account of his having promifed to vifit the court of the flanti. Buononcini and Attilio had flill a flrong party
Eledlor Palatine, and likewife to come over to Eng- in their favour, but not equal to that of Handel; and
land in compliance with the repeated invitations of the therefore in T720 he obtained leave to perform his ope-
duke of Manchefter. The eleftor, however, being ra of Radamtflo. The houfe was fo crowded, that many
made acquainted with this objedlion, generoufly order- fainted through excefiive heat ; and 40 s. were offered
ed him to be told, that his acceptance of the penfion by fome for a feat in the gallery, after having in vain
fhould neither reftrain him from his promife nor refolu- attempted to get one elfewhere. The contention, how-
tion : but that he fhould be at full liberty to be abfent ever, flill ran very high between Handel’s party and
a year or more if he chofe it, and to go wherever he that of the two Italian mafters; and at lafl it was de¬
thought fit. Soon after, the place of mailer of the termined that the rivals fhould be jointly employed in
chapel was bellowed upon Handel; and our mufician making an opera, in which each fbould take a dillin£t
having vifited his mother, who was now extremely aged aft, and he who by the general fuffrage was allowed to
and blind, and his old mailer Zackaw, and llaid fome have_given the befl proof of his abilities fhould be put
time at the court of the Eleftor Palatine, fet out for in pofleffion of the houfe. This opera was called Mu-
England, where he arrived in 1710. zio Scavola, and Handel fet the lafl aft. It is faid that
At that time operas were a new entertainment in Handel’s fuperiority was owned even in the overture
England, and were condufted in a very abfurd man- before it ; but when the aft came to be performed,,
ner : but Handel foon put them on a better footing ; there remained no pretence of doubt or difpute. The
and fet a drama called Rinaldo, which was performed academy was now therefore firmly eflablifhed, and Han-
with uncommon fuccefs. Having flaid a year in Eng- del condufted it for nine years with great fuccefs ; but
land, he returned to Hanover; but in 1712 he again about that time an irreconcileabk enmity took place
came over to England ; and the peace of Utrecht be- between Handel himfelf and Senefino. Senefino ac-
ing concluded a few months afterwards, he compofed a cufed Handel pf tyranny, and Handel accufed Senefi-
grand Te Deum and Jubilate on the occafion. He now no of rebellion. The merits of the quarrel are not
found the nobility very defirous that he fhould refume known : the nobility, however, became mediators for
the direftion of the opera houfe in the Hay Market ; fome time ; and having failed in that good defign, they
and the queen having added her authority to their fo- became parties in the quarrel. Handel was refolved ta
licitations, and conferred on him a penfiorrof L.200 difmifs Senefino, and the nobility feemed alfo refol-
a year, he forgot his engagements to the eleftor of Ha- ved not to permit him to do fo. The haughtinefs of
Handel’s
HAN [ 296 ] HAN
flandel. Handel’s temper would not allow him to yield, and
‘—V 1 the affair ended in the total diffolution of the aca¬
demy.
Handel now found that his abilities, great as they
Were, could not fupport him againft the powerful op-
ofition he met with. After the difmiffion of Senefmo,
is audience fenfibly dvvindled away, and Handel en¬
tered into an agreement with Mr Heidhgger to carry
on operas in conjun&ion with him. New fingers were
engaged from Italy; but the offended nobility raifed a
fubfcription againft him, to carry on operas in the play-
houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn fields. Handel bore up four
years againft this oppofition; three in partnerfhip with
Heidegger, and one byhimfelf: but though his mu-
fical abilities were fuperior to thofe of his antagonifts,
the aftoniftiing powers of the voice of Farinelli, whom
the oppofite party had engaged, determined the vic¬
tory againft him. At laft Handel, having fpent all he
was worth in a fruitlefs oppofition, thought proper to
defift. His difappointment had fuch an effedt upon
him, that for fome time he was difordered in his un-
derftanding, and at the fame time his right arm was
rendered ufelefs by a ftroke of the palfy. In this
deplorable fituation, it was thought neceffary that he
Ihould goto the baths of Aix-la Chapelle; and from
them he received fuch extraordinary and fudden re¬
lief, that his cure was looked upon by the nuns as mi¬
raculous.
In 1736, Handel again returned to England; and
foon after his return his Alexander’s Feaft was per¬
formed with applaufe at Covent Garden. The fuccefs
and fplendor of the Hay Market was by this time fo
much reduced by repeated mifmanagements, that lord
Middlefex undertook the direction of it himfelf, and
once more applied to Handel for compofition, He
accordingly compofed ttvo operas called Faromondo,
and Alejj'ondro Severo, for which in 1737 he received
L.1000. In 1738 he received L. 1500 from a Angle
benefit, and nothing feemed wanting to retrieve his
affairs, excepting fuch conceffions on his part as his op¬
ponents had a right to exped. Thefe conceffions, how¬
ever, he could not be prevailed upon to make ; and
that he might no longer be under obligations to ad as
he waS'direded by others, he refufed to enter into any
'engagements upon fubfcription. After having tried a
few more operas at Covent Garden without fuccefs, he
introduced another fpecies of mufic called oratorios,
■which he thought better fuited to the native gravity of
an Englifh audience. But as the fubjeds of thefe pieces
were always taken from facred hiftory, it was by fome
thought to be a profanation to fet them to mufic and
perform them at a playhoufe. In confequence of this
prejudice, the Oratorios met with very indifferent fuc¬
cefs ; and in 1741 Mr Handel found his affairs in fuch
a bad fituation, that he Was obliged to quit England,
and go to Dublin.
He was received in Ireland in a matirier fuitable to
his great merit; and his performing his oratorio called
the Meffiah, for the benefit of the city-prifon, brought
him into univerfal favour. In nine months time he had
brought his affairs into a better fituatioii ; and on his
return to England in 1742, he found the public much
more favourably difpofed. His oratorios Were now per¬
formed with great applaufe : his Meffiah, which before
had been but coldly received, became a favourite per¬
formance ; and Handel, with a generous humanity, de-
N° 148.
termitied to perform it annually for the benefit of the Handel.
foundling hofpital, which at that time was only fup- 1 v—““
ported by private benefadions. In 1743, he had a re¬
turn of his paralytic diforder; and in 1751 became
quite blind by a guttafereria in his eyes. This laft mis¬
fortune for fome time funk him into the deepeft de-
fpondency ; but at laft he was obliged to acquiefce iti
his fituation, after having without any. relief undergone
fome very painful operations. Finding it now inipof-
fible to manage his oratorios alone, he was affifted by
Mr Smith, who at his requeft frequently played for
him, and condu&ed them in his ftead ; and with this
affiftance they were continued till within eight days of
his death. During the latter part of his life, his mind
was often difordered ; yet at times it appears to have
refumed its full vigour, and he compofed feveral
fongs. chorufes, &c. which from their dates may be
conlidered almoft as the lall founds of his dying voice.
From about Odtober 1758 his health declined very
faff ; his appetite, which had been remarkably keen,
and which he had gratified to a great degree, left him;
and he became fenfible of the approach of death. On
the 6th of April 1759, llis laft oratorio was perform¬
ed, at which he was prefent, and died on the 14th
of the fame month. On the 20th he was buried by
the right reverend Dr Pearce, bifhop of Rochefter,
in Weltminfter abbey ; where, by his own order, and
at his own expence, a monument was eredted to his
memory.
With regard to the charafter of this moft eminent
mufician, he is univerfally allowed to have been a great
epicure : In his temper he was very haughty, but
Was feldom or never guilty of mean aftions. His pride
was uniform ; he was not by turns a tyrant and a flave.
He appears to have had a moft extravagant love for li¬
berty and independence ; infomuch, that he would, for
the fake of liberty, do things otherwife the moft prejudi¬
cial to his own intereft. He was liberal even when
poor, and remembered his former friends when he was
rich. His mufical powers can perhaps be beft exprefs-
ed by Arbuthnot’s reply tb Pope, who ferioufly a/ked
his opinion of him as a mufician; “ Conceive (faid
he) the higheft you can of his abilities, and they are
much beyond any thing you can conceive.”
Commemoration of Handel ; a mufical exhibition in-
ftituted fome years ago, and the grandeft of the kind
ever attempted in any nation. Of the rife and pro-
grefs of the defign, together with the manner in which
the firft celebration was executed, an accurate and au¬
thentic detail is given, as might be expected, by Dr
Burney in the 4th and laft volume of his Hiftory of
Mufic, from which the following account is ex-
traded.
“ In a converfation between lord vifcount Fitzwil-
liam, Sir Watkin Williams Wynn, and Joah Bates,
Efq; commiffioner of the vi&ualing-office, the begin¬
ning of laft year, 1783, at the houfe of the latter; af¬
ter remarking that the riumber of eminent muucal
performers of all kinds, both vocal and inftrumental,
with which Londort abounded, was far greater than in
any other city of Europe, it was lamented that there
was no public periodical occafion for collefting and
confolidating them into one band ; by which means a
performance might be exhibited on fo grand and mag¬
nificent I fcale as no other part of the world could equal.
The birth and death of Handel naturally occurred to
three
H A N [ 297 1 HAN
Hendel. three fuch enthufiaftic admirers of that great matter;
‘“"'V J - and it was immediately recolle&ed, that the next year
(1784) would be a proper time for the introduftion
of fuch a cuftom, as it formed a complete century fince
his birth, and an exa<9: quarter of a century fince his
deceafe.
“ The plan was foon after communicated to the
governors of the Mufical Fund, who approved it, and
promifed their affiftance. It was next fubmitted to
the diredlors of the concert of Ancient Mufic'; who,
with an alacrity which does honour to their zeal for
the memory of the great artift Handel, voluntarily un¬
dertook the trouble of managing and dire&ing the
celebrity. At length, the defign coming to the know¬
ledge of the king, it was honoured with his majefty’s
fandion and patronage. Weftminifter abbey, where
the bones of the great mufician were depofited, was
thought the propereft place for the performance ; and
application having been made to the bifhop of Ro-
chefter for the ufe of it, his lordftrip, finding that the
fcheme was honoured with the patronage of his ma-
jefty, readily confented; only requefting, as the per¬
formance would interfere with the annual benefit for
the Weftminfter Infirmary, that part of the profits
might be appropriated to that charity, as an indemni¬
fication for thelofs it would fuftain. To this the pro-
jedors of the plan acceded ; and it was afterwards
fettled, that the profits of the firft day’s performance
ttiould be equally divided between the Mufical Fund
and the Weftminfter Infirmary ; and thofe of the fub-
fequent days be folely applied to the ufe of that fund
which Handel himfelf fo long helped to fuftain, and to
which he not only bequeathed a thoufand pounds, but
which almoft every mufician in the capital annually
contributes his money, his performance, or both, to fup-
port. Application was next made to Mr James Wyatt,
the archited, to furnifti plans for the neceffary deco¬
rations of the abbey ; drawings of which having been
ftiown to his majefty, were approved. The general
idea was to produce the effed of a royal mufical
chapel, with the orcheftra terminating one end, and
the accommodation for the royal family, the other.
The arrangement of the performance of each day was
next fettled ; and it was at his majefty’s inftigation
that the celebrity was extended to three days in-
ftead of two, which he thought would not be fufficient
for the difplay of Handel’s powers, or fulfilling the
charitable purpofes to which it was intended to devote
the profits. It was originally intended to have cele¬
brated this feftival on the 20th, 22d, and 23d of A-
pril; and the 20th being the day of the funeral of
Handel, part of the mufic was, in fome meafure,
fo feleded as to apply to that incident. But, in con-
fequence of the fudden diflblution of parliament, it
was thought proper to defer the feftival to the 26th,
27th, and 29th of May, which feems to have been for
its advantage : as many perfons of tender conftitutions,
who ventured to go to Weftminfter Abbey in warm
weather, would not have had the courage to go thither
in cold. Imprefled with a reverence for the memory of
Handel, no fooner was the projeft known, but moft
of the pra&ical muficians in the kingdom eagerly ma-
nifefted their zeal for the enterprife ; and many of the
moft eminent profeflbrs, waving all claims to prece¬
dence in the band, offered to perform in any fubor-
Vol. VIII. Parti.
dinate ftation in which their talents could be moft Handel,
ufeful.
“ In order to render the band as powerful and com¬
plete as poffible, it was determined to employ every
fpecies of inftrument that was capable of producing
grand effefts in a great orcheftra and fpacious build¬
ing. Among thefe the facbut, or double trumpet-,
was fought ; but fo many years had elapfed fince it
had been ufed in this kingdom, that neither the inftru¬
ment, nor a performer upon it, could eafily be found.
It was, however, difcovered, after much, ufelefs en¬
quiry, not only here, but by letter, on the continent ;
that in his majefty’s military band there were fix mufi¬
cians who played the three feveral fpecies of facbut, te¬
nor, bafe, and double bafe.
“ The double baffoon, which was fo confpicuous ia
the orcheftra, and powerful in its effed, is likewife a
tube of 16 feet. It was made, with the approbation
of Mr Handel, by Stainfby the flute-maker, for the
coronation of his late majefty George II. The late
ingenious Mr Lampe, author of the juftly admired
mufic of The Dragon of Wantley, was the perfon in¬
tended to perform on it; but, for want of a proper
reed, or for fome other caufe, at prefent unknown,
no ufe was made of it at that time ; nor indeed, tho*
it has been often attempted, was it ever introduced in¬
to any band in England till now, by the ingenuity and
perfeveranee of Mr Aftily, of the Guards.
“ The double-bafe kettle-drums were made from
models of Mr Aftibridge, of Druiy Lane orcheftra, in
copper, it being impoffible to procure plates of brafs
large enough. The Tower drums, which, by permif-
fion of his grace the duke of Richmond, were brought
to the abbey on this occafion, are thofe which belong
to the ordnance ftores, and were taken by the duke of
Marlborough at the battle of Malplaquet in 1709.
Thefe are hemifpherical, or a circle divided; but thofe
of Mr Aftibridge are more cylindrical, being much
longer, as Well as more capacious, than the common
kettle-drum; by which he accounts for the fuperiority
of their tone to that of all other drums. Thefe three
fpecies of kettle-drums, which may be called tenor%
bafe. and double bafe, were an o&ave below each other.
“ The excellent organ, ere&ed at the weft end of
the abbey, for the commemoration performances only,
is the workmanftiip of the ingenious Mr Samuel Green
in Iflington. It was fabricated for the cathedral of
Canterbury ; but before its departure for the place of
its deftination, it was permitted to be opened in the
capital on this memorable occafion. The keys of com¬
munication with the harpfichord, at which Mr Bates
the condu&or was feated, extended 19 feet from the
body of the organ, and 20 feet 7 inches below the
perpendicular of the fet of keys by which it is ufually
played. Similar keys were firft contrived in this coun¬
try for Handel himfelf at his oratorios; but to convey
them to fo great a diftance from the inftrument, with¬
out rendering the touch imprafticably heavy, required
uncommon ingenuity and mechanical refources.
“ In celebrating the difpofition, difeipline, and ef-
fefts of this moft numerous and excellent band, the
merit of the admirable architeft, who furniftied the
elegant defigns for the orcheftra and galleries, muft not
be forgotten ; as, when filled, they conftituted one of
the grandeft and moft magnificent fpe&acles which
O o ima-
H A x\T [ ag8 ] HAN
imagination can delineate. All the preparations for re¬
ceiving their majeflies, and the firft peifonages in the
kingdom, at the eait end; upwards of 500 muliciansat
the weft; and the public in general, to the number of
between 3000 and 400operfons, in the area and galle¬
ries ; fo wonderfully correfponded with the ftyle of ar-
chitedfture of this venerable and beautiful ftru&ure,
that there was nothing vifible either for ufe or orna¬
ment, which did not harmonize with the principal tone
of the building, and which may not metaphorically
have been faid to have been in perfect tune with it.
But, befides the wonderful manner in which this con-
ftruftion exhibited the band to the fpe&ators, the or-
cheftra was fo judicioufty contrived, that almoft every
performer, both vocal and inftrumental, was in full
view of the conduftor and leader ; which accounts, in
fome meafure, for the uncommon cafe with which the
performers conftfs they executed their parts.
“ At the eaft end of the aifle, juft before the back
of the choir-organ, fome of the pipes of which were
vifible below, a throne was eredted in a beautiful Go¬
thic ftyle, correfponding with that of the abbey, and a
-center box, richly decorated and furnifhed with crim-
fon fattin, fringed with gold, for the reception of their
majefties and the royal family: on the right hand of
which was a box for the bilhops, and, on the left, one
for the dean and chapter of Weftminfter ; immediately
below thefe two boxes were two others, one on the
right for the families and friends of the diredtors, and
the other for thofe-of the prebendaries of Weftminfter.
Immediately below the king’s box was placed one for
the diredtors themfelves, who were all diftinguiihed
by white wands tipped with gold, and gold medals,
ftruck on the occafion, appending from white ribbands.
Thefe their majefties likewife condefcended to wear
at each performance. Behind, and on each fide of
the throne, there were feats for their majefties fuite,
maids of honour, grooms of the bed-chamber, pages,
&c.—The orcheftra was built at the oppofite extremi¬
ty, afcending regularly from the height of feven feet
from the floor to upwards of forty from the bafe of the
pillars, and extending from the centre to the top of the
fide aifle.—The intermediate fpace below was filled up
with level benches, and appropriated to the early fubfcri-
bers. The faid aifles were formed into long galleries
ranging with the orcheftra, and afcending fo as to con¬
tain 1 2 rows on each fide: the fronts of which proje&ed
before the pillars', and were ornamented with feftoons of
crimfon morine.—At the top of the orcheftra was placed
the occafional organ, in a Gothic frame, mounting to,
and mingling with, the faints and martyrs reprefented in
the painted glafs on the weft window. On each fide
of the organ, clofe to the window, were placed the
kettle-drums defcribed above. The choral bands were
principally placed in view of Mr Bates, on fteps feem-
ingly afcending into the clouds, in each of the fide
aifles, as their termination was invifible to the audience.
The principal fingers were ranged in the front of the
orcheftra, as at oratorios, accompanied by the choirs
of St Paul, the abbey, Windfor, and the chapel
royal.
“ Few circumftances will perhaps more aftonifh ve¬
teran muficians, than to be informed, that there was
but one general rehearfal for each day’s performance :
an indifputable proof of the high ftate of cultivation
to which pra&ical mufic is at prefent arrived in this
country ; for if good performers had not been found
ready made, a dozen rehearfals would not have been
fufficient to make them fo. Indeed, Mr Bates, in ex¬
amining the lift of performers, and enquiring into their
feveral merits, fuggefted the idea of what he called a
drilling rehearfal, at Tottenham-ftreet Concert Room,
a week before the performance ; in order to hear fuch
volunteers, particularly chorus fingers, as were but
little known to himfelf, or of whofe abilities his afiift-
ant was unable to fpeak with certainty. At this re¬
hearfal, though it confided of 120 performers, not
more than two of that number were delired to attend
no more.
“ At the general rehearfal in the abbey, mentioned
above, more than 500 perfons found means to obtain
admiflion, in fpite of every endeavour to fhut out all
but the performers ; for fear of interruption, and per¬
haps of failure in the firft attempts at incorporating and
confolidating fuch a numerous band: confiding not
only of all the regulars, both native and foreign, which
the capital could furniftr, but of all the irregulars, that
is, dilettanti, and provincial muficians of character,
who could be muftered, many of whom had never
heard or feen each other before. This intrufion,
which was very much to the diflatisfa&ion of the ma¬
nagers and condu&or, fuggefted the idea of turning
the eagernefs of the public to fome profitable*account
for the charity, by fixing the price of admiflion to half
a guinea for each perfon.
“ But, befides the profits derived from fubfequent
rehearfals, the confequences of the firft were not with¬
out their ufe : for the pleafure and aftoniflrment of the
audience, at the fmall mi flakes, and great effe&s of
this firft experiment, which many had condemned by
anticipation, were foon communicated to the lovers of
mufic throughout the town, to the great increafe of
fubfcribers and folicitors for tickets. For though the
friends of the dire&ors were early in fubfcribing, per¬
haps from perfonal refpeift, as much as expeilation of
a higher mufical repaft than ufual; yet the public in
general did not manifeft great eagernefs in fecuring
tickets till after this rehearial, Friday May 21. which
was reported to have aftonifhed even the performers
themfelves by its correftnefs and efje&s. But fo in-
terefting did the undertaking become by this favour¬
able rumour, that from the great demand of tickets
it was found necefiaiy to clofe the fubfcription.
“ Many families, as well as individuals, were at-
tra&ed to the capital by this celebrity ; and it was
never remembered to have been fo full, except at the
coronation of his prefent majefty. Many of the per¬
formers came, unfolicited, from the remoteft parts of
the kingdom at their own expence : fome of them,
however, were afterwards reimburfed, and had a fmall
gratuity in confideration of the time they were kept
from their families by the two unexpefted additional
performances.
“ Foreigners, particularly the FVench, muft be
much aftonifhed at fo numerous a band moving in fuch
exact meafure, without the afliftance of a Coryphaeus
to beat the time, either with a roll of paper, ora noify
baton, or truncheon. Roufleau fays, that ‘ the more
time is beaten, the lefs it is kept ;’ and it is certain,
that when the meafure is broken, the fury of the mu¬
fical.
HAN i 299 ] HAN
Handel fical general or direAor, increafing with the difobe-
II dience and confufion of his troops, he becomes more
Hanging. v;0lent, and his llrokes and gefticulations more ridicu-
jous {n proportion to their diforder.
“ As this commemoration is not only the firft in-
ftance of a band of fuch magnitude being affembled to¬
gether, but of any band at all numerous, performing
in a fimilar fituation, without the affitlance of a manu-
du&or to regulate the meafure, the performances in
Weftminfter abbey may be fafely pronounced no lefs
remarkable for the multiplicity of voices and inftru-
ments employed, than for accuracy and precifion.
When all the wheels of that huge machine, the orche-
ftra, were in motion, the effedt refembled clock-work
in every thing but want of feeling and expreflion.
And as the power of gravity and attraction in bodies is
proportioned to their mafs and denfity, fo it feems as if
the magnitude of this band had commanded and impel¬
led adhefion and obedience beyond that of any other
of inferior force. The pulfations in every limb, and
ramifications of veins and arteries in an animal, could
not be more reciprocal, ifochronous, and under the
regulation of the heart, than the members of this bo¬
dy of muficians under that of the conductor and leader.
The totality of found feemed to proceed from one
voice and one inftrument; and its powers produced not
only new and exquifite fenfations in judges and lovers
of the art, but were felt by thofe who never received
pleafure from mufic before. Thefe effedls, which will
be long remembered by the prefent public, perhaps to
the difadvantage of all other choral performances, run
the rifle of being doubted by all but thofe who heard
them, and the prefent defeription of being pronounced
fabulous if it fhould furvive the prefent generation.”
HANG-tcheou-fou, the metropolis of the pro*-
vince of Tche-kiang in China. See Tche-kiang.—
It is, according to the Chinefe, the paradife of the
earth ; and may be confidered as one of the richeft,
beft fituated, and largeft cities of the empire. It is four
leagues in circumference, exchifive of its fuburbs; and
the number of its inhabitants amounts to more than a
million. It is computed, that there are a thoufand
workmen within its walls employed in manufacturing
filk : what renders this city delightful, is a fmall lake,
called Si-hou, which wafhes the bottom of its walls on
the weltern fide ; its water is pure and limpid,, and its
banks are almoft every where covered with flowers.
Halls and open galleries, fupported by pillars, and pa¬
ved with large flag ftones, have been ereCted here on
piles, for the convenience of thofe who are fond of
walking ; caufeways, cafed with cut ftone, traverie the
lake in different directions; and the openings which
are left in them at intervals, for the pafiage of boats,
are covered by handfome bridges. In the middle of
the lake are two iflands, to which company generally
refort after having amufed themfelves with rowing,
and in which a temple and feveral pleafure-houfes have
been built for their reception. The emperor has a fmall
palace in the neighbourhood. This city has agarrifon
of 3000 Chinefe, under the command of the viceroy,
and 3000 Tartars, commanded by a general of the fame
nation, it has under its jurifdiClion feven cities of the
fecond and third clafs.
HANGING, a common name given to the me¬
thod of inflicting death on criminals by fufpending
them by the neck.—Phyficia'ns are not agreed as to Hangings
the manner in which death is brought on by hanging. "
De Haen hanged three dogs, whom he afterwards Hannibal,
opened. In one, nothing remarkable appeared in the
lungs. In another, from whom half an ounce of blood
was taken from the jugular vein, the dura and pia
mater were of the natural appearance ; but the lungs
were much inflamed. In the third, the meninges were
found, and there was no effufion of blood in the ven¬
tricles of the brain, but the left lobe of the lungs was
turgid with blood. Wepfer, Littraeus, Alberti, Bru-
hierius, and Boerhaave, affirm that hanged animals die
apopleCtic. Their arguments for this are chiefly drawn
from the livid colour of the face ; from the turgefcency
of the veflels of the brain ; the inflammation of the
eyes; and from the fparks of fire which thofe who
have furvived hanging allege they have feen before their
eyes. _ On the contrary, Bonetus, Petit, Haller, and
Laneif), from obferving that death is occafioned by
any fmall body falling into the glottis, have aferibed it
to the ftoppage of refpiration. Others, deeming both
thefe caufes ill-founded, have aferibed it to a luxation
of the vertebrae of the neck —Dr Haen adduces the
authority of many eminent authors to prove the poffibi-
lity of recovering hanged perfons; and obferves, in ge¬
neral, that with bleeding in the jugular vein, and
anointing the neck with warm oil, the fany: remedies
are to be employed in this cafe as for the recovery of
drowned people. See Drowning.
HANGINGS, denote any kind of drapery hung up
againft the walls or wainfeotting of a room.
Paper-HANGiNGS. See Paper-Hangings.
Wove Hangings. See Tapestry.
HANGCLIFF, a remarkable point of land on the
eaft coaft of the largeft of the Shetland Iflands. It is
frequently the firft land feen by fliips in northern voy¬
ages. Captain Phipps determined its fituation to be in
W. Long, 30'. N. Lat. 6o°9'.
HANNIBAL, a famous Carthaginian general, of
whofe exploits an account is given under the articles
Carthage and Rome. After having had the mif-
fortune to lofe a fea-fight with the Rhodians, through
the cowardice of Apollonius one of the admirals of
Antiochus the Great, he was forced to fly into Crete,
to avoid falling into the hands of the Romans. On
his 'arrival in this ifland, he took fan&uary among the
Gortynii; but as he had brought great treafure along
with him, and knew the avarice of the Cretans, he
thought proper to fecure his riches by the following
ftratagem. He filled feveral veflels with melted lead,
juft covering them over with gold and filver. Thefe
he depofited in the temple of Diana, in the prefence
of the Goftynii, with whom, he faid, he trufled all
his treafure : Juttin tells us, that he left this with
them as a fecurity for his good behaviour, and lived
for fome time very quietly in thefe parts. He took
care, however, to conceal his riches in hollow ftatues
of brafs; which, according to fome, he always carried
along with him ; or, as others will have it, expofed in
a public place as things of little value. At laft he
retired to the court of Prufias king of Bithynia, where
he found means to unite feveral of the neighbouring
Hates with that prince into a confederacy againft Lu-
menes king of Pergamus, a profefled friend to the Ro¬
mans \ and during the enfuing war gave Eumenes fe-
O o 2 veral
HAN
Hannibal, yeral defeats, more through the force of h!s own ge-
*J" » 1 ■ nius than the valour of his troops. The Romans
having received intelligence of the important fervices
performed by Hannibal, immediately difpatched T.
Qmntius Flaminius as an ambaffador to Prulias, in
order to procure his deftrinftion. At his firlt audience,
he complained of the prote&ion given to that famous
general, reprefenting him “ as the moft inveterate and
implacable enemy the Romans ever had ; as one who
had ruined both his own country and Antiochus, by
drawing them into a deftru&ive war with Rome.5’—
Prufias, in order to ingratiate himfelf with the Romans,
immediately fent a party of foldiers to furround Han¬
nibal’s houfe, that he might find it impofiible to make
his efcape. The Carthaginian, having before difeo-
t 1
HAN
When a Fabius and a Scipio were fent againft him, Hannibal,
the firft ftopped his progrefs, the other conquered Ha"no' |t
Thefe reafons have been anfwered by Mr Hooke,
who hath taken fome pains to vindicate Hannibal’s
chara&er, by fully and-fairly comparing it with that
of Scipio Africanus, and other Roman commanders.
“ I dd not fee (fays he) why thefe difficulties ffiould
check our adthor’s inclination to declare in favour of
the Carthaginian. That Fabius was not beaten by
Hannibal, we cannot much wonder, when we remem¬
ber how fteadily the old man kept to his refolution
never to fight with him. But from Fabius’s taking
this method to put a (iop to the vidtories of the ene¬
my, may we not conclude that he knew no other, and
vexed that no confidence was to be repofed in Prufias, thought Hannibal an overmatch for him ? And why
had contrived feven fecret paflages from his houfe, in does our author forget Publius Scipio (Africanus’s
order to evade the machinations of his enemies,
if they ffiould carry their point at the Bithynian court.
father), a prudent and able general, whom Hannibal
vanquifhed at the Ticin ? Livy relates fome vidtories
But guards being ported at thefe, he could not fly, of Hannibal over the celebrated Marcellus; but nei-
though, according to Livy, he attempted it. Per¬
ceiving, therefore, no poffibiiity of efcaping, he had
recourfe to poifon, which he had long referved for fuch
a melancholy occafion. Then taking it in his hand,
** Let us (faid he) deliver the Romans from the dif-
quietude with which they have long been tortured,
ther Marcellus nor any other general ever vanquiflied
Hannibal before the battle of Zama, if we may be¬
lieve Polybius (lib. xv. c. 16.). Terentius Varro, in¬
deed, is reprefented as a headftrong raih man; but the
battle of Cannas was not loft by his imprudence. The
order in which he drew up his army is no .where con-
fince they have not patience to wait for an old man’s demned ; and Chevalier Folard thinks it excellent.
death. Flaminius will not acquire any reputation 1
glory by a viftory gained over a betrayed and defence-
lefs perfon. This Angle day will be a lafting teftimo-
ny of the degeneracy of the Romans. Their ancef-
And as to the condudl of the battle, jEmilius Paulus, a
renowned captain, anda difciple of Fabius, had a greater
{hare in it than his colleague. The imprudence with
which Varro is taxed, was his venturing, contrary to
tors gave Pyrrhus intelligence of a defign to poifon his colleague’s advice, with above 90,000 men to en-
him, that he might guard againft the impending dan- counter in a plain field an enemy who had only 50,000,
ger, even when he was at the head of a powerful ar¬
my in Italy ; but they have deputed a perfon of con-
but was fuperior in horfe. And does not the very advice
of .Emilius, and the charge of temerity on Varro for not
fular dignity to excite Prufias impioufly to murder following it, imply a confeffion of Hannibal’s fuperio-
one who has taken refuge in his dominions, in viola¬
tion of the laws of hofpitality.” Then having de¬
rity in military {kill over iEmilius as well as Varro ?
It ought likewife to be obferved, that Hannibal’s in-
nounced dreadful imprecations againft Prufias, he fantry had gained the vi&ory over the Roman infan-
drunk the poifon, and expired at the age of 70 years.
Cornelius Nepos acquaints us, that he put an end to
try, before this latter fuffered any thing from the Car¬
thaginian cavalry. It was otherwife when Scipio
his life by a fubtile poifon which he carried about with gained the vi&ory at Zama. His infantry would pro-
him in a ring. Plutarch relates, that, according to bably have been vanquiftred but for his cavalry. Han-
fome writers, he ordered a fervant to ftrangle him with nibal, with only his third line of foot (his Italian army )v
a cloak wrapped about his neck ; and others fay, that, maintained a long fight againft Scipio’s three lines of
* 1 imitation of Midas and Themiftocles, he drank bull’s foot ;_and feems to have had the advantage over them,.
blood.
With refpeft to the chara&er of this general, it
appears to have been in military affairs what Demof-
thenes was in oratory, or Newton in mathematics ;
namely, abfolutely perfect, in which no human wifdom
could difeover a fault, and to which no man could add
when Mafiniffa and Laelius, with the horfe, came to-
their affillance. Polybius indeed fays, that Hannibal’s.
Italian forces were equal in number to all Scipio’s in¬
fantry ; but this is contradi&ed by Livy, and is not
very probable. The authority of Polybius, who was.
intimate friend of Scipio aEmilianus, is, I imagine.
a perfedtion. Rollin hath contrafted his character of little weight in matters where the glory of the
with that of Scipio Africanus. He enumerates the
qualities which make a complete general; and having
then given a fummary of what hiftorians have related
concerning both commanders, is inclined to give the
preference to Hannibal. “ There are, however (he
fays), two difficulties which hinder him from deciding;
one drawn from the charaders of the generals whom
Hannibal vanquiffied; the other from the errors he
committed. May it not be faid (continues our author),
that thofe vidories which made Hannibal fo famous,
were as much owing to the imprudence and temerity
of the Roman generals, as to his bravery and {kill ?
Scipios is particularly concerned. His partiality and
flattery to them are, in many inftances, but too vi-
fible.”
Our author then proceeds to fliow, that Hannibal
was not guilty of any of the faults laid to his charge
as a general; and having contrafted the moral cha¬
raders of the two generals with each other, makes it
evident, that as a man, as well as a general, Hannibal
had greatly the advantage of his rival. See Hooke’t
Roman hi/lory, yoL iv. p. 151. £5*feq.
HANNO, general of the Carthaginians, was com¬
manded to fail round Africa. He entered the ocean
through
HAN r 301 1 HAN
Hanover, through the Straits of Gibraltar, and difcovered feveral dom, the people being reprefented in the aflemblies of Hanover.
countries. He would have continued his navigation, had the ftates. No government can be more mild; and an [
it not been for want of provifions. He wrote an account air of content is fpread over all the inhabitants. The
of his voyage, which was often quoted, but not much Confeil Intime, the High Court of Jultice, and the
credited. Sigifmund Gelenius publiflhed it in Greek Regency, are the principal courts of juftice ; be¬
at Bafil, by Frobenius, in 1533. He lived, according fides which, every province has its municipal admini-
to Pliny, when the affairs of the^Carthaginians were ftration with the inferior divifions into bailiwics, &c.
in the moft flourifhing condition ; but this is a very The police is excellent, and juftice fairly adminiftered.
indeterminate expreffion. The elector enjoys the right de non appellando in all
HANOVER, an ele&oral ftate of Germany, of criminal affairs, but in civil proceffes only as far as
which the king of Great Britain is eledtor.—Though 2ooo_ florins.
the houfe of Hanover is the laft that has been railed Lutheranifm is the eftabliftied religion; but all others
to the ele&oral dignity in the empire, it may vie with enjoy a perfect toleration, and are publicly exercifed*
any in Germany for the antiquity and noblenefs of its Difference in religious fentiments here gives no in¬
family. It is likewife very confiderable for the extent terruption to that harmony which fhould fubfift among
of its territories, which at prefent are, The duchy of fellow citizens. There are 750 Lutheran pariflres,
Ca'enberg, in which are the cities of Hanover, Calen- H Reformed communities, a Romiflr college, a con-
berg, Hamelen, Neuftadt, Gottingen, &c.; the duchy vent, and fome Catholic churches,
of Grubenhagen, the county of Diepholt, the county Literature is in a very advanced ftate throughout
of Iloga, in the bilhoprick of Hildeftieim ; the baili- thefe dominions. The univerfity of Gottingen is de¬
ages of Coldingen, Luther, Badenburg, and Wefter- fervedly celebrated ; and contains about 800 ftudents
fhoven, with the right of proteftion of the city of of different nations, and 60 profeffors. There are be-
Hildefheim ; and the county of Danneberg, ceded by hdes feveral colleges, and a number of well eftabliftied
the dukes of Wolfenbuttle to the dukes of Lunenburg, fchools, throughout the eleftorate. In general, edu-
as an equivalent for their pretenfions on the city of cation is much attended to.
Brunfwic. The eleftor poffeffes likewife the county Although there are various trafts of heath and
of Delmenhorft, and the duchies of Bremen and Ver- marftiy ground, the foil in general produces abundance
den, fold by the king of Denmark in 1715 : the right of corn, fruits, hemp, flax, tobacco, madder, and fome
of poffefiing alternatively the biftiopric of OfnabrUck wine. There are feveral large fait-works. A good
belongs folely to the eledtoral branch ; but if it fhall deal of cattle are reared, and a great number of excel-
happen to fail, the dukes of Wolfenbuttle are to enjoy lent horfes. Moft metals and minerals are found here,
the fame right. This deflorate has no navy, but a The forefts furnifh fufficient timber, and large quanti-
confiderable marine on the great rivets Elbe and We- ties of pitch and tar.—The natural produftions of the
fer. deflorate furnifli ample materials for commerce, fo as
In confideration of the great fervices performed by to prevent the balance being againft them, although
■Erneft Auguftus, duke of Brunfwic-hanover, in the their manufaftures are not fufficient for confumption,
wars which the emperor Leopold had with Louis XIV. Cattle, horfes, fait, wrought iron, and fuel, are prin-
that emperor conferred the dignity of an eleftor of the cipal articles of export. Bremen is one of the greateft
holy Roman empire upon him and his heirs male, of commercial towns in Germany.
which he received the inveftiture on the 19th of De- The eleflor of Hanover is defcended from the anci-
cember 1692. This new creation met with great ent family of the Guelphs, dukes and deflors of Ba-
oppofition both in the eleftoral college and the varia ; one of whom, Henry the Lion, in 1140, mar-
college of princes: at laft, by a conclufion of the ried Maude, ddeft daughter of king Henry (Pianta-
three colleges on the 30th of January 1708, it was genet) II. of England. Their fon William fucceed-
unanimoufly determined, that the de&oral dignity ed to Brunfwic-Lunenburg, and his fon Otho was
fhould be confirmed to the duke of Hanover and his created duke thereof. The dominions defcended in a
heirs male ; but it was added, that if, while, that elec- direct line to Erneft, who divided them upon his-deatfr
toral dignity fubfifted, the Palatine ele&orate fhould in 1546 into two branches, that of Brunfwic-Lunen-
happen to fall into the hands of a Proteftant prince, burg Wolfenbuttle, and Brunfwic-Lunenburg ZelL
the firft Catholic elector fhould have a fupernumerary The poffeffor of the latter, Erneft Auguftus, was in
vote. _ 1692 raifed to the dignity of an ele&or ; before which
The princes of this houfe have their feat in the col- he was head of the college of German princes. Erneft
lege of princes, immediately after thofe of the elec- married Sophia, daughter of Frederic eleftor Palatine
toral houfes; each branch having a vote. The elec- and king of Bohemia, by Elizabeth, daughter of
tor, befides his feat in the eleftoral college, was inveft- James I. king of England. Sophia being the next
ed with the office of arch ftandard-bearer of the em- Proteftant heir to the houfe of Stuart, the parliament
pire ; but this being difputed with him by the duke of fixed the crown of Great Britain upon her on queen
Wirtemberg, the eleftor Palatine having obtained the Anne’s demife ; and George-Louis her eldeft fon be-
office of arch-fteward, yielded that of arch-treafurer came king of Great Britain in confequence thereof:
to the eleftor of Hanover, who was confirmed in this fince which the eleftors of Hanover have filled the
dignity by a decree of the diet of the 13th of Janua- Britifti throne.
>7 i?10- _ _ _ Hanover is alfo the name of the capital of the
The fovereign power is adminiftered by the lords of above eleftorate; and is agreeably fituated in a fandy
the regency appointed by the eleftor. Throughout all plain on the river Leyne, in E. Long. lo.-y. N.
the provinces they poffefs a confiderable fhare of free- Lat. 22. 5. It is a large well-built town, and pretty
well
HAN [ 302 ] H A N
well fortified. It fufFered greatly by tbe French,
who got poffeflion of it in 1757, but were foon after
driven out. It is noted for a particular kind of beer,
reckoned excellent in thefe parts. This city was the
refidence of the elector befo're he afcended the throne
of Great Britain. The" palace makes no great (hew
outwardly, but within it is richly furnifhed. The re¬
gency of the country is adminiftered in the fame man¬
ner as if the fovereign was prefent.
HANSE, or Hans, an ancient name for a fociety
or company of merchants ; particularly that of certain
cities in Germany, See, hence called Hanfe-toivns. See
Hanse-Tow/w.-—The word hanfe is obfolete High
Dutch or Teutonic; and fignifies “ alliance, confede¬
racy, alfociation,” Sec. Some derive it from the two
German words, am-feet that is, “ on the fea by rea-
fon the firft hanfe towns were all lituated on the fea-
coaft: whence the fociety is faid to have been firft
called am *eeJlenen, that is, “ cities on the fea and
afterwards, by abbreviation, hanfee, and hanfe.
Hji ns E-Towns. The hanfeatic fociety was a league
between feveral maritime cities of Germany, for the
mutual protection of their commerce. Bremen and
Amfterdam were the two firft that formed it; whofe
trade received fuch advantage by their fitting out two
men of war in each to convoy their fhips, that more
■cities continually entered into the league : even kings
and princes made treaties with them, and were often
glad of their affiftance and prote&ion ; by which means
they grew fo powerful both by fta and land, that they
railed armies as well as navies, enjoyed countries in
fovereignty, and made peace or war, though always in
defence of their trade, as if they had been an united
ftate or commonwealth.
At this time alfo abundance of cities, though they
had no great intereft in trade, or intercourfe with the
ocean, came into their alliance for the prefervation of
their liberties: fo that in 1 zco we find no lefs than
72 cities in the lift of the towns of the Hanfe ; parti¬
cularly Bremen, Amfterdam, Antwerp, Rotterdam,
Doit, Bruges, Oftend, Dunkirk, Middleburgh, Calais,
Rouen, Rochelle, Bourdeaux, St Malo, Bayonne, Bil-
boa, Ulbon, Seville, Cadiz, Carthagena, Barcelona,
Marfeilles, Leghorn, Naples, Meffina, London, Lubec,
Roftock, Stralfund, Stetin, Wifmar, Konigfberg,
Dantzig, Elbing, Marienburg.
The alliance was now fo powerful, that their fhips
of war were often hired by other princes to afiift them
againft their enemies. They not only awed, but often
defeated, all that oppofed their commerce ; and, par¬
ticularly in 1358, they took fuch revenge of the Da-
nifh fleet in the Sound, for having interrupted their
commerce, that Waldemar Til. then king of Denmark,
for the fake of peace, gave them up all Schonen for
16 years ; by which' they commanded the pafiage of
the Sound in their own right.— In 1428 they made
war on Erick king of Denmark with 250 fail, carry¬
ing on board 12,000 men. Thefe fo ravaged the coaft
of Jutland, that the king was glad to make peace with
them.
Many privileges were bellowed upon the hanfe
towns by Louis XI. Charles VIII. Louis XII. and
Francis I. kings of France ; as well as by the empe¬
ror Charles V. who had divers loans of money from
them ; and by king Henry III, who alfo incorporated
them into a trading body, in acknowledgment for
money which they advanced to him, as well as for the
good fervices they did him by their naval forces in
1206.
Thefe towns exercifed a jurifdi&ion among them-
felves ; for which purpofe they were divided into four
colleges or provinces, diftinguifhed by the names of
their four principal cities, viz. Lubec, Cologne, Brunf-
wic, and Dantzic, wherein were held their courts of
judicature. They had a common ftock or treafury at
Lubec, and power to call an affembly as often as ne-
ceffary.—They kept mazagines or warehoufes for the
fale of their merchandifes in London, Bruges, Ant¬
werp, Berg in Norway, Revel in Livonia, Novogorod
in Mufcovy, which were exported to moft parts of
Europe, in Englilh, Dutch, and Flemilh bottoms.
One of their principal magazines was at London,
where a fociety of German merchants was formed, call¬
ed the fieelyard company. To this company great
privileges were granted by Edward I. but revoked by
a£t of parliament in 1552 in the reign of Edward VI.
on a complaint of the Englilh merchants that tnis
company had fo engroffed the cloth-trade, that in the
preceding year they had exported 50,000 pieces,
while all the Englilh together had Ihipped off but 1100.
Queen Mary, who afcended the throne the year fol¬
lowing, having refolved to marry Philip the empe¬
ror’s fon, fufpended the execution of the aft for three
years : but after that term, whether by reafon of fome
new ftatute, or in purfuance of that of king Edward,
the privileges of that company were no longer regard¬
ed, and all efforts of the hanfe-towns to recover this
lofs were in vain.
Another accident that happened to their mortifica¬
tion was while queen Elizabeth was at war with the
Spaniards. Sir Francis Drake happening to meet
60 Ihips in the Tagus, loaden with corn, belonging to
the hanfe-towns, took out all the corn as contraband
goods which they were forbid to carry by their origi¬
nal patent. The hanfe-towns having complained of
this to the diet of the empire, the queen fent an am-
baffador thither to declare her reafons. The king of
Poland likewife interefted himfelf in the affair, becaufe
the city of Dantzic was under his proteftion. At laft,
though the quyen ftrove hard to preferve the commerce
of the Englilh in Germany, the emperor excluded the
Englilh company of merchant-adventurers, who had
coniiderable faftories at Stade, Embden, Bremen,
Hamburg, and Elbing, from all trade in the empire.
In Ihort, the hanfe towns, in Germany in particular,
were not only in fo flouriffiing, but in fo formidable a
ftate, from the 14th to the 16th centuries, that they
gave umbrage to all the neighbouring princes, who
threatened a ftrong confederacy againft them ; and, as
the firft ftep towards it, commanded all the cities
within their dominion or jurifdiftion to withdraw fiom
the union or hanfe, and be no farther concerned there¬
in. This immediately feparated all the cities of Eng¬
land, France, and Italy, from them. The hanfe, on
the other hand, prudently put themfelves under the
protefton of the empire: and as the cities juft now
mentioned had withdrawn from them; fo they with¬
drew from feveral more, and made a decree among
themfelves, that none fhould be admitted into their fo¬
ciety but fuch as Hood within the limits of the German
empire.
Ilanway.
HAN [ 303 ] HAN
empire, or were dependent thereon ; except Dantzic,
which continued a member, though in nowife depend¬
ent on the empire, only it had been fummoned formerly
to the imperial diet. By this means they maintained
their confederacy for the protection of their trade, as
it was begun, without being any more envied by their
neighbours. Heteby likewife they were reduced to
JLubec, Bremen, Hamburgh, and Dantzic; in the firft
of Which they kept their regiftt-r, and held affemblies
once in three years at leaft. But this hanfe or union
has for fotne time been diffolved ; and now every one
of the cities carries on a trade feparattly for itfelf, ac¬
cording to the ftipulation in fuch treaties of peace, &c.
as are made for the empire betwixt the emperor and
other potentates.
HANWAY (Jonas), eminent for his benevolent
defigns and ufeful writings, was born at Portlmouth
in Hamplhire on the izthof Auguft 1712. His fa¬
ther, Mr Thomas Hanway, was an officer in the na¬
val fervice, and for fome years ftore-keeper to the
dockyard at that place. He was deprived of his life
by an accident; and left his widow with four children,
Jonas, William, Thomas, and Elizabeth, all of a very
tender age. Mrs Hanway, coming to London after
the death of her huiband, put Jonas to fchool, where
he learned writing and accounts, and made fome pro¬
ficiency in Latin. At the age of 17 he was fent to
Lifbon, where he arrived in June 1729, and was bound
apprentice to a merchant in that city. His early life,
we are informed, was marked with that difcreet atten¬
tion to bufinefs, and love of neatnefs and regularity,
which afterwards diftinguifhed his characfter. At Lif¬
bon his affections were captivated by a lady, then cele¬
brated for her beauty and mental accomplifhments;
but fhe, preferring another for her hufband, returned
to England, and fpent the latter part of her life in
London with her family, on terms of friendfhip with
Mr Hanway.—On the expiration of Mr Hanway’s
apprenticefhip, he entered into bufinefs at Lifbon as
a merchant or faCtor ; but did not remain there long
before he returned to London.
He foon after connected himfelf as a partner in Mr
Hingley’s houfe in St Peterfburgh ; where he arrived
on the 10th of June *743. The trade of the Englifh
nation over the Cafpian hea into Perfia at this period
had been entrufted to the care of Mr Elton, who, not
content with the purfuit of commercial affairs, had in-
judicioufly engaged in the fervice of Nadir Shah to
build (hips on the Cafpian after the European manner.
This had alarmed the merchants in the Ruffian trade,
and a refolution was formed that one of their body
fhould make a journey into Perfia. On this occafion
Mr Hanway offered his fervice, and was accepted.
He fet out on the 10th of September ; and after ex¬
periencing a variety of hazards in that kingdom du¬
ring a courfe of 13 months, returned to St Peterfburg
January 1. 1745, without being able to eftablifh the
intended trade bv the Cafpian, partly through the
jealoufy of the Ruffian court on account of Elton’s
connections with the Perfians, and partly by the
troubles and revolutions of the latter kingdom.
Though Mr Hanway’s conduCt during this expe¬
dition feems to have been directed by the ftriCteft
rules of integrity, yet f«me difficulties arofe in fettling
liis.demands on his employers. Thefe, however, in
the end were referred to the determination of impar¬
tial arbitrators, who at length decided in his favour.
“ I obtained (he fays) my own ; and as to any other
perfonal advantage, it confifted in exercifing my mind
in patience under trials, and encrealing my know¬
ledge of the world.” He now fettled at St Peterl-
burgh; where he remained five years, with n® other
variations in his life than fuch as may be fuppofed to
occur in the dull round of a mercantile employment.
During this time he intended himfelf greatly in the
concerns of the merchants who had engaged in the
■ Cafpian trade • but the independence he had acquired
having excited a defire to fee his native country, he,
after feveral difappointments which prevented him from
accomplifhing his wifh, left St Peterfburgh on the 9th
of July 1750. On his arrival in his native country,
he did not immediately relinquifh his mercantile con¬
nections, though he feems to have left Ruffia with
that view. He employed himfelf fome time as a
merchant ; but afterwards, more beneficially to the
world, a« a private gentleman. In 175* he publifhed
“ An Hiftorical Account of the Britifh Trade over
the Cafpian Sea; with a Journal of Travels from Lon¬
don through Ruffia into Perfia ; and back again thro’
Ruffia, Germany, and Holland. To which are add¬
ed, the Revolutions of Perfia during the prefent Cen¬
tury, wbh the particular Hiftory of the great Ufur-
per Nadir Kouli,” 4 vols 410 : a work which was re¬
ceived, as it deferved to be, with great attention
from the public. In 1754., we find Mr Hanway
commending a plan offered for the advantage of Weft-
minfter, and fuggefting hints for the further im¬
provement of it, in “ A Letter to Mr John Spran-
ger, on his excellent Propofal for Paving, Cleanfing,
and Lighting the Streets of Weftminfter, &c.” <<-'vo.
A few years afterwards, when a fcheme of the like
kind was carried into effeCt, many of Mr Hanway’s.
ideas, thrown out in this pamphlet, were adopted. In-
1756, he printed “ A journal of EightDays Journey
from Portfmouth to Kingfton upon Thames, with an
Effayon Tea;” which was afterwards reprinted in 2
vols Hvo, 1757.
At this jun&ure, Great Britain being on the eve
of a war with France, the event of which was
very important to the ration at large, and required
every effort of patriotifm and prudence to ward
off the impending danger, Mr Hanway publifhed
“ Thoughts on the Duty of a good Citizen with Re¬
gard to War and Invafion, in a Letter from a Citizen
to his Friend,” 8vo. About the fame time, feveral
gentlemen formed a plan, which was matured and
made perffCI by the affiduity of Mr Hanway, for pro¬
viding the navy with failors, by furnifhing poor chil¬
dren with neceffaries to equip them for the fervice of
their country. The fuccefs and propriety of this fcheme
foon became apparent. Mr Hanway wrote and pub¬
lifhed three pamphlets on this occafion ; and the trea-
furer of the Society, accompamed by Mr Hanway,
having waited on the king, the Society received toool.
from his majefty, 4001. from the Prince of Wales,
and 200I. from the Princefs Dowager. This excel¬
lent inflitution through life was the favourite objedl
of Mr Hai way’s care, md continued to flourifh un¬
der his aufpices greatly to the advantage of the com¬
munity. In 1758 he became an advocate for another.
1 cha*-
HAN
Hanway. charitable inftitution, which derived coitfiderable emo-
» lument from his patronage of it. This was the Mag¬
dalen Charity; and to affift it he publiihed “ A Let¬
ter to Robert Dingley, Efq; being a propofal for the
Relief and Employment of friendlefs Girls and repent¬
ing Proftitutes,” qto. He alfo printed other fmall
performances on the fame fubjedt.
In 1759, Mr Hanway wrote “ Reafonsfor an Aug¬
mentation of at leaft Twelve Thoufand Mariners, to be
employed in the Merchants Service and Coalb'ng Trade,
in 33 Letters to Charles Gray, Efq; of Colchefter, 410.”
The next year he publilhed feveral performances: viz. 1.
A candid hiftorical Account of the Hofpital for the
Reception of expofed and deferted young Children ; re-
prefenting the prefent Plan of it as prodilftive of many
Evils, and not adapted to the Genius and Happinefs
of this Nation,” 8vo ; which being anfwered by an
anonymous Letter from Halifax in “ Candid Remarks,
[ 3°4 1
HAN
dered fo many and fuch meritorious fervices to his Hanway,
country. In confequence of this requeft, he was in
July 1762 appointed by a patent one of the com-
miffioners for vidualling the navy ; a poll which he
held above 21 years. The next aft of public benefi¬
cence in which we find him engaged is the colleftion
of money for the fufferers by the fire which happened
at Montreal, in the province of Quebec, in May 1765,
when a fourth part of the city was confumed. On thi*
occafion Mr Hanway, in conjunftion with two other
gentlemen, collefted 8415I.—The very next year a
dreadful fire broke out in Bridge Town in Barbadoes,
which confumed buildings and property to the amount
of near 100,0001. A fubfeription was opened, in
which Mr Hanway was a principal aftor, and 14,886!.
were collefted, and tranfmitted to a committee appoint¬
ed at Barbadoes to diftribute it to the unfortunate fuf¬
ferers. At fubfequent periods he continued to intereft
8vo 1760,” Mr Hanway replied toil, and the Remark- himfelf in various other plans for relieving the diftref-
• rejoined. 3. “ An Account of the Society for
the Encouragement of the Britilh Troops in Germany
and North America, &c.” 8vo. 3. “ Eight Letters
to  Duke of , on the Cuftom of Vails-giving
in England,” 8vo. This praftice of giving vails
had arrived at a very extravagant pitch, efpecially
among the fervants of the great. It was Mr Han¬
way who anfwered the kind reproach of a friend in
a high Hation for not coming oftener ta dine with
him, by faying “ Indeed I cannot afford it.” The
nobleman to whom the above letters were addreffed
was the duke of Newcaftle. The letters are written
in that humorous ftyle which is moft attraftive of ge¬
neral notice, and was belt adapted to the fubjeft. It was
Sir Timothy Waldo that firftput Mr Hanway on this
plan. Sir Timothy had dined with the duke of N ,
and, on his leaving the houfe, was contributing to the
fupport and infolence of a train of fervants who lined
the hall; and at laft put a crown into the hand of the
cook, who returned it, faying, “ Sir, I do not take
filver.”—“ Don't you indeed!” faid the worthy ba¬
ronet, putting it in his pocket ; “ then I do not give
gold.” Among the ludicrous circumftances in Mr
Hanway's letters is one which happened to himfejf.
He was paying the fervants of a refpeftable friend for
a dinner which their mafter had invited him to, one by
one as they appeared; “ Sir, your great- coat;” a (hilling
—“ Your hat a (hilling—“ Stick a (hilling—
“ Umbrella ;” a (hilling—“ Sir, your gloves  
“ Why, friend, you may keep the gloves; they are
not worth a (hilling.” In 1761, Mr Hanway produ¬
ced “ Refleftions, Effays, and Meditations on Life and
Religion ; with a Colleftion of Proverbs, and 28 Let-
fes, and promoting the good, of different clafles of
the community. His attention was particularly di-
refted towards alleviating the miferies of young chim¬
ney-fweepers. Befides the diftreffes of thefe helplefs
beings, which are open to general obfervation, fuch
as a contortion of the limbs, and the prevention of
their growth, they are liable to a difeafe peculiar to
their occupation, now known by the name of t\vz chim¬
ney /’weeper’s cancer. Four children have been brought
together into a workhoufe, all affliftedwith this dread¬
ful and incurable difeafe. After much inquiry and
confideration, he publifiied, in 1773, “ The State of
the Chimney-fweepers Young Apprentices ; (bowing
the wretched Condition of thefe diftrelfed Boys ; the
ill Conduft of fuch Mailers as do not obferve the Ob¬
ligation of Indentures ; the Neceflity of a drift In¬
quiry in order to fupport the civil and religious Rights
of thefe Apprentices,” 12mo. This fmall pamphlet
has already been produftive of fome advantage to the
objefts intended to be benefited by it. The fucceed-
ingyear 1774 he enlarged a former publication, entitled
“ Advice from a Farmer to his Daughter, &c.” and
republiflied it under the title of “ Virtue in humble
Life : containing Refleftions on the reciprocal Duties
of the Wealthy and Indigent, the Mader and the
Servant,” 2 vol. 8vo; a work deferving the particular
confideration of every magidratate. This edition in a
few months being fold, he reprinted it in two quarto
volumes, with a dedication to Mrs Montague.
In 1783, finding his health decline, he determined
to refign his office at the viftualling board, which he
did on the 2d of Oftober that year ; and immediately
received a grant of his whole falary by way of a pen-
ters written occafionally on feveral Subjects,* in 2 vols fion, to continue for life. This favour he owed to
the edeem which his majefiy, to whom he was perfon-
The many ufeful and public-fpirited plans which Mr
Hanway had promoted for the welfareof the community,
had now rendered his charafter mod refpeftably po-
ally known, entertained of him; excited by his various
exertions in behalf of his country and mankind.—He
now releafed from his mod material bufinefs, but
pular, while his difinteredednefs, and the fincerity of did not think it would conduce to his happinefs to
r.:„ —r~'   —-n rr-   lead, an idle life. He engaged again in behalf of the
chimney-fweepers boys; and promoted, by every means
his power, the edablKhment of Sunday-fchools,
his intentions, were confpicuous to all. Five citizens
of London, of whom the late Mr Hoare the banker
was one, waited on Lord Bute, at that time the mi- , .
nider ; and, in their own names, and the names of which are now in a fair way to be adopted in every
their fellow-citizens, requeded that fome notice might county in England. He likewife promoted a fubferip-
be taken of a man, who, at the expence of his own tion for the relief of the many black poor people who
private fortune, and unremitting application, had ren- wandered about the metropolis in extreme didrefs;
N° 148. 5 and
HAN [ 305 ] HAN
'3-Iarrtvay. and the lords of the treafury fecondtd the defign, by
Y—- direfting money, as far as 14I. a-head, to be iffued to
tke committee, to enable them to fend the blacks to
fuch places abroad as might be fixed on. After en¬
countering many obftacles, about 300 negroes were
fent, properly accommodated with provifions and ne-
ceflaries, to Africa, under the condud of a perfon ap¬
proved for that ftation. The objeft of this plan, be-
iides relieving the mifery of thefe poor people, was to
prevent in time the unnatural conneifions between
black perfons and white, the difagreeable conftqucnces
of which make their appearance but too frequently in
our ftreets.
In the fummer of 1786 Mr Hanway’s health de¬
clined fo vilibly that he thought it neceffary to attend
only to that. He had long felt the approach of a dif-
-order in the bladder, which, increafing by degrees,
caufed a flrangury ; and at length, on the 5th of Sep¬
tember 1786, put a period to a life fpent almoft en¬
tirely in the fervice of his fellow-creatures. On the
13th he was interred in the family-vault at Hanwell,
being attended to the grave by a numerous retinue of
friends ; and fince his death the public regard to his
virtues has been difplayed by a fubfcription of feveral
hundred pounds towards ere&ing a monument to per¬
petuate his memory.
Mr Hanw'ay in his perfon was of the middle fize, of
a thin fpare habit, but well fhaped: his limbs were
fafhioned with the niceft fymmetry. In the latter years
of his life he ftooped very much; and when he walked,
found it conduce to eafe to let his head incline towards
onefide; but when he went firll toRufiia at theageof3o,
his face was full and comely, and his perfon altogether
fuch as obtained for him the appellation of the Handfome
Evgltfhman. In his drefs, as far as was confiftent with his
ideas of health and eafe, he accommodated himfelf to the
revailing falhion. As it was frequently neceflary for
im to appear in polite circles on unexpe&ed occafions,
he ufually &ore drefs clothes, with a large French
bag. His hat, ornamented with a gold button, was
of a fize and falhion to be worn as well under the arm
as on the head. When it rained, a fmall parapluie
defended his face and wig. Thus he was always pre¬
pared to enter into any company without impropriety
or the appearance of negligence. His drefs for let
public occafions was a fuit of rich dark brown ; the
coat and waiftcoat lined throughout with ermine,
which juft appeared at the edges ; and a fmall gold-
hilted fword. As he was extremely fufceptible of cold,
he wore flannel under the linings of all his clothes, and
ufually three pair of ftockings. He was the firft man
who ventured to walk the ftreets of London with an
umbrella over his head. After carrying one near 30
'years, he faw them come into general ufe. The pre-
•carious ftate of his health when he arrived in England
“from Rullia, made it neceflary for him to ufe the ut-
moft caution; and his perfeverance in following the
advice of the medical pra&itioners was remarkable.
After Dr Lieberkyn phyfician to the king of Pruflia
bad recommended milk as a proper diet to reftore his
ftrength, he made it the chief part of his food for 30
years; and though it at firft difagreed with him, he
peffifted in trying it under every preparation that it
was capable of till it agreed with his ftomach. By
this rigid attention and care, his health was eftablilhed;
Vou VHI. Part I.
his lungs acquired ftrength and elafticity ; and it is Hatnray.
probable he would have lived feveral years longer, if ' ^
the diforder which was the immediate caufe of his
death had left him to the gradual decay of nature.
His mind was the moft adlive that it is poflible to con¬
ceive ; always on the wing, and never appearing to be
weary.- He rofe in the fummer at four or five, and in
the winter at feven. Having always bufinefs before him,
he was every day employed till the time of retiring to
reft ; and, when in health, was commonly afleep with¬
in two minutes after his lying down in bed.
Writing was his favourite employment, or rather
amufement; and when the number of his literary
works is confidered, and that they were the produce
only of thofe hours which he was able to fnatch from
public bufinefs, an idea may be formed of his applica*
tion. But by leaving his work to tranfaft his ordinary
bufinefs, and afterwards recurring to it with new ideas,
all his literary labours are defedlive in the arrangement
of the matter, and appear to have too much of the
mifcellaneous in their compofition. The original idea
is fometimes left for the purfuit of one newly ftarted,
and either taken up again when the mind of the
reader has almoft loft it, or it is totally deferted. Yet
thofe who are judges of literary compofition fay, that
his language is well calculated to have the effedl he
defired on the reader, and imprefs him with the idea
that the author was a man of inflexible integrity, and
wrote from the pure didlates of the heart. It is plain
and unornamented, without the appearance of art or
the affedlation of Angularity. Its greateft defedt (fay
they) is a want of concifenefs ; its greateft beauty, an
unaffedled and genuine fimplicity. He fpoke French
and Portuguefe, and underftood the Rus and modern
Perfic imperfedtly. Latin he had been taught at
fchool, but had not much occafion to cultivate it after
he entered into life.
Mr Hanway, although never married himfelf, was
yet an advocate for marriage, and recommended it
to all young people. He thought it the moft effedtual
reftraint on licentioufnefs, and that an increafe of un-
happinefs was by no means the natural confequence of
an increafe of domeftic cares. A “ local habitation,”
with the fociety of a fenfible woman, the choice of un-
biafled affedlion, he efteemed as the moft engaging
perfualive to the love of order and economy; without
which he thought life, in whatever ftation, muft be
disjointed and perturbed and unhappy. The lady
who engaged his firft alfedion was uncommonly hand¬
fome ; and it is probable he was prevented from marry¬
ing only by his failing to obtain her, and the unfettled
manner in which the firft years of his life were fpent:
for he loved the fociety of women; and in the parties
which frequently breakfafted at his houfe the ladies
ufually made the greater portion of the company.
In his tranfadlions with the world, he was always"
open, candid, and fincere. Whatever he faid might
be depended on with implicit confidence. He adhered
to the ftridl truth, even in the manner of his relation ;
and no brilliancy of thought could induce him to vary
from the faft : but although fo frank in his own pro¬
ceedings, he had feen too much of life to be eafily de¬
ceived by others; and he did not often place a confi¬
dence that was betrayed. He did not, however, think
the world fo degenerate as. is commonly imagined:.
P P “ And
HAP l $06 ] HAP
Hanway « And if I did (he ufed to fay), I would not let it
„ 0 . appear ; for nothing can tend fo effe&ually to make a
Happinelf. w|cjiej} or to £eep him f0j as a marked fufpicion.
T Confidence is the reward of truth and fidelity, and thefe
ftiould never be exerted in vain.” In his department
of commiflioner for vi&ualling the navy Ke was uncom¬
monly affiduous and attentive; and kept the contra&ors
and perfons who had dealings with the office at a great
diftance. He would not even accept a hare or pheafant,
or the fmalleft prefent, from any of them ; and when
any were fent him, he always returned them, not in a
morofe manner, as if he affefted the excels of difintereft-
ednefs, but with fome mild anfwer; fuch as, “ Mr Han¬
way returns many thanks to Mr for the prefent
he intended him; but he has made it a rule not to ac¬
cept any thing from any perfon engaged with the office:
A rule which, whilfthe acknowledges Mr ’s good
intentions, he hopes he will not expeft him to break
through.” With all this goodnefs, Mr Hanway had a
certain Angularity of thought and manners, which was
perhaps the coafequence of his living the greater part of
his life in foreign countries, and never having been mar¬
ried. He was not by any means an inattentive obferver
of the little forms of politenefs : but as he had ftudied
them in various realms, felefting thofe which he ap¬
proved, his politenefs differed from that of other people;
and his converfation had an air of originality in it that
was very pleafing.
Befides the works already mentioned in the courfe
of this article, Mr Hanway was the author of a great
number of others j his different publications amounting
all together to between fixty and feventy. A complete
lift of them is given by his biographer Mr Pugh, from
whofe grateful and well-written performance this article
has been chiefly extrafted.
HAP, or Happ, in law, fignifies to catch or fnatch
a thing. Thus we meet with, to hap the poffeffion of
a deed-poll. Littleton, fob alfo, to hap the rent.
If partition be made between two parceners, and more
land be allowed the one than the other, fhe that hath
moft of the land charges it to the other, and happeth
the rent whereon affize is brought.
HAPPINESS, or Felicity, abfolutely taken, de¬
notes the durable poffeffion of perfect good without
any mixture of evil, or the enjoyment of pure pleafure
unalloyed with pain ; or a ftate in which all the
wifhes are fatisfied: In which fenfes, Happinefs is
known only by name upon the earth. The word happy,
when applied to any ftate or condition of human life,
will admit of no pofitive definition, but is merely a re¬
lative term : that is,, when we call a man happy, we
mean that he is happier than fome others with whom
■we compare him ; than the generality of others ; or
than he himfelf was in fome other fituation.
This interefting fubjedt has been treated by many
eminent writers, and in a great variety of ways; but
by none does it appear to have been fet in a clearer
and more definite point of view than by Archdeacon
Paley in the fixth chapter of his Principles of Phihfophy.
“ In ftridtnefs (fays that elegant writer), any condition
may be denominated happy in which the amount or
aggregate of pleafure exceeds that of pain ; and the
degree of happinefs depends upon the quantity of this
excels. And the greateft quantity of it, ordinarily
attainable in human life, is what we mean by happinefs,
when we inquire or pronounce what human happinefs Happjneft,
confifts in. —
If any pojitive fignification, diftinft from what we
mean by pleafure, can be affixed to the term happinefs,
it may be taken to denote a certain ftate of the ner¬
vous fyftem in that part of the human frame in which
we feel joy and grief, paffions and affe&ions. Whe¬
ther this part be the heart, which the turn of moft
languages would lead us to believe ; or the diaphragm,
as Buffon, or the upper orifice of the ftomach, as Van
Helmont thought; or rather be a kind of fine net¬
work, lining the whole region of the praecordia, as
others have imagined; it is poffible not only that every
painful fenfation may violently fhake and difturb the
fibres at the time, but that a feries of fuch may at
length fo derange the very texture of the fyftem, as to
produce a perpetual irritation, which will fhow itfelf
by fretfulnefs, reftleflhefs, and impatience. It is pof¬
fible alfo, on the other hand, that a fucceffion of plea-
furable fenfations may have fuch an effedt upon this
fubtle organization, as to caufe the fibres to relax,
and return into their place and order; and thereby to
recover, or if not loft to preferve, that harmonious con¬
formation which gives to the mind its fenfe of com¬
placency and fatisfa&ion. This ftate may be denomi¬
nated happinefs: And is fo far diftinguiihable from
pleafure, that it does not refer to any particular objeift
of enjoyment, or co-nfift like pleafure in the gratifi¬
cation of one or more of the fenfes ; but is rather the
fecondary effedf which fuch objedts and gratifications
produce upon the nervous fyftem, or the ftate in which
they leave it. The comparative fenfe, however, in
which we have explained the term happinefs, is more
popular; and in profecuting the fubjedt, we may con-
fider, i. What human happinefs does not confift in ^
and, 2. What it does confift in.
I. Firf, then, happinefs does not confift in the plea-
fures of fenfe, in whatever profufion or variety they be
enjoyed. By the pleafures of fenfe are meant, as well
the animal gratifications of eating, drinking, and that
by which the fpecies is continued, as the more refined
pleafures of mufic, painting, architedture, gardening,
fplendid fhows, theatric exhibitions, and the pleafures,
laftly, of adtive fports, as of hunting, (hooting, filhing,
&c. For, i. Thefe pleafures continue but for a little
while at a time. This is true of them all, efpecially of
the groffer fort. Laying afide the preparation and
the expedition, and computing ftridtly the adtual fen¬
fation, we (hall be furprifed to find how inconfider-
able a portion of our time they occupy, how few
hours in the four and twenty they are able to fill up.
2. By repetition, they lofe their relifh. It is a pro¬
perty of the machine, for which we know no reme¬
dy, that the organs by which we perceive pleafure are
blunted and benumbed, by being frequently exercifed
in the fame way. There is hardly any one who has
not found the difference between a gratification when
new and when familiar, and any pleafure which does not
become indifferent as it grows habitual. 3. The ea-
gernefs for high and intenfe delights takes away the
relifh from all others ; and as fuch delights fall rarely
in our way, the greater part of our time becomes from
this caufe empty and uneafy. There is hardly any
delufion by which men are greater fufferers in their .
happinefs, than by . their expedting too much from
what
HAP [ 307 ] HAP
Hgpplncfs. what is called pleafure ; that is, from thofe intenfe de-
U»—y——' which vulgarly engrofs the name of pleafure.
The very expectation fpoils them. When they do
come, we are often engaged in taking pains to per-
fuade ourfelves how much we are pleafed, rather than
enjoying any pleafure which fprings naturally out of
the objeCt. And whenever we depend upon being
vaftly delighted, we always go home fecretly grieved
at miffing our aim. Likewife, as hath been obferved
juft, now, when this humour of being prodigioufly de¬
lighted has once taken hold of the imagination, it
hinders us from providing for or acquiefcing in thofe
gently foothing engagements, the due variety and fuc-
ceffion of which are the only things that fupply a con¬
tinued ftream of happinefs.
The truth feems to be, that there is a limit at which
thefe pleafures foon arrive, and from which they ever
afterwards decline. They are by neceffity of ffiort
duration, as the organs cannot hold on their emotions
beyond a certain length of time; and if you endeavour
to compenfate for this imperfection in their nature by
the frequency with which you repeat them, you lofe
more than you gain by the fatigue of che faculties and
the diminution of fenfibility. We have in. this ac¬
count faid nothing of the lofs of opportunities or the
decay of faculties, which whenever they happen leave the
voluptuary deftitute and defperate ; teafed by defires
that can never be gratified, and the memory of plea¬
fures which muft return no more. It will alfo be al¬
lowed by thofe who have experienced it, and perhaps
‘by thofe alone, that pleafure which is purchafed by
the encumbrance of our fortune is purchafed too dear;
the pleafure never compenfating for the perpetual irri¬
tation of embarraffed circumftances.
Thefe pleafures, after all, have their value : and as
the young are always too eager in their purfuit of
them, the old are fometimes too remifs; that is, too
ftudious of their eafe to be at the pains for them which
they really deferve.
Secondly, Neither does happinefs confift in an exemp¬
tion from pain, labour, care, bufinefs, fufpenfe, molef-
tation, and “ thofe evils which are without;” fuch a
ftate being ufually attended not with eafe, but with
depreffion of fpirits, a tafteleffnefs in all our ideas,
imaginary anxieties, and the whole train of hypochon¬
driacal affe&ions. For which reafon it feldom an-
fwers the expe&ations of thofe who retire from their
fhops and counting-houfes to enjoy the remainder of
their days in leifure and tranquillity; much lefs of
fuch as in a fit of chagrin ffiut themfelves up in cloy-
fters and hermitages, or quit the world and their fta-
tions in it for folitude and repofe.
Where there exifts a known external caufe of unea-
finefs, the caufe may be removed, and the uneafinefs
will ceafe. But thofe imaginary diftreffes which men
feel for want of real ones (and which are equally tor-
.menting, and fo far equally real) ; as they depend
upon no Angle or affignable fubjeft of uneafinefs, fo
they admit oft-times of no application or relief. Hence a
moderate pain, upon which the attention may faften
and fpend itfelf, is to many a refrefhment; as a fit of
the gout will fometimes cure the fpleen. And the
fame of any moderate agitation of the mind, as a lite¬
rary controverfy, a law-fuit, a contefted eleftion, and
above all gaming ; the paffion for which, in men of
fortune and liberal minds, is only to be accounted for Happincfo
on this principle.  v “-
Thirdly, Neither does happinefs confift in greatnefs,
rank, or elevated ftation.
Were it true that all fuperiority afforded pleafure,
it would follow, that by how much we were the great¬
er, that is, the more perfons we were fuperior to, in
the fame proportion, fo far as depended upon this
caufe, we ffiould be the happier; but fo it is, that no
fuperiority yields any fatisfadtion, fave that which we
poffefs or obtain over thofe with whonr-we immediately
compare outfelves. The ffiepherd perceives no plea¬
fure in his fuperiority over his dog ; the farmer in his
fuperiority over the ffiepherd ; the lord in his fuperi¬
ority over the farmer ; nor the king, laftly, in his fu¬
periority over the lord. Superiority, where there is
no competition, is feldom contemplated ; what moil
men indeed are quite unconfcious of. But if the fame
ffiepherd can run, fight, or wreltle, better than the pea-
fants of his village; if the farmer can ffiow better
cattle, if he keeps a better horfe, or be fuppofed to
have a longer purfe, than any farmer in the hundred ;
if the lord have more intereft in an ele&ion, greater
favour at court, a better houfe, or larger eftate, than
any nobleman in the county ; if the king poffefs a
more extenfive territory, a more powerful fleet or ar¬
my, a more fplendid eftabliffiment, more loyal fubjedts,
or more weight and authority in adjufting the affairs
of nations, than any prince in Europe ; in all thefe
cafes, the parties feel an adtual fatisfaction in their fu¬
periority. No fuperiority appears to be of any ac¬
count but a fuperiority over a rival. This, it is ma-
nifeft, may exift wherever rivalihips do ; and rivalffiips
fall out amongft men of all ranks and degrees. The
objedt of emulation, the dignity or magnitude of this
objedf, makes no difference ; as it is not what either
poffeffes that conftitutes the pleafure, but what one
poffeffes more than the other. Phiiofophy fmiles at the
contempt with which the rich and great fpeak of the
petty ftrifes and competitions of the poor ; not reflec¬
ting that thefe ftrifes and competitions are juft as rea-
fonable as their own, and the pleafure which fuccefs af¬
fords the fame.
It appears evident then, that happinefs does not
confift in greatnefs; fince what are fuppofed to be the
peculiar advantages of greatnefs, the pleafures of am¬
bition and fuperiority, are in reality common to all
conditions. But whether the purfuits of ambition be
ever wife, whether they contribute more to the happi¬
nefs or mifery of the purfuers, is a different queftion ;
and a queftion concerning which we may be allowed
to entertain great doubt. The pleafure of fuccefs is
exquiiite ; fo alfo is the anxiety of the purfuit, and
the pain of difappointment; and what is the worft:
part of the account, the pleafure is ffiort lived. We
foon ceafe to look back upon thofe whom we have
left behind; new contefts are engaged in, new pro-
fpedts unfold themfelves; a fucceffion of ftruggles is
kept up, whilft there is a rival left within the compafs
of our views and profeffion ; and when there is none,
the pleafure with the purfuit is at an end.
II. We have feen what happinefs does not confift
in. We are next to confider in what it does confift.
In the conduit of life, the great matter is, to know
beforehand what will pleafe us, and what pleafures will
P p 2 * hold
HAP [ 30$ 1 HAP
Happinefs. hold out. So far as we know this, our choice will be
- juftified by the event. And this knowledge is more
rare and difficult than at rirft fight it may feem to be :
For fometimespleafures,. which are wonderfully alluring
and flattering in the profpeft, turn out in the poffef-
fion extremely infipid; or do not hold out as we ex¬
pended : at other times pleafures ftart up, which never
entered into our calculation, and which we might have
miffed of by not forefeeing; from whence we have rea-
fon to believe, that we aftually do mifs of many plea¬
fures from the fame caufe.
By reafon of the original diverfity of tafte, capacity,
and conftitution, obfervable in the human fpecies, and
the ftill greater variety which habit and fafhion have
introduced in thefe particulars; it is impoffible to pro-
pofe any plan of happinefs which will fucceed to all, or
any method of life which is univerfally eligible or prac¬
ticable. All that can be faid is, that there remains a
prefumption in favour of thofe conditions of life in
•which men generally appear moft: cheerful and con¬
tented. For though the apparent happinefs of man¬
kind be not always a true meafure of their real happi-
nefs, it is the belt meafure we have.
Upon this principle, then, happinefs appears to
confift,
1. In the exercife of the focial affeftions. 
Thofe perfons commonly poffefs good fpirits who have
about them many obje&s of affeftion and endearment;
as wife, children, kindred, friends: and to the want
of thefe may be imputed the peevifhnefs of monks, and
of fuch as lead a monaftic life. Of the fame nature
with the indulgence of our domeftic affeftions, and
equally refrefhing to.the fpirits, is the pleafure which
refults from a&s of bounty and benificence, exercifed
either in giving money, or in imparting to thofe who
want it the affiftance of our ikill and profeffion.
2. Another main article of human happinefs is, the
exercife of our faculties, either of body or mind, in
the pmfuit of fome engaging end.
It feems to be true, that no plenitude of prefent
gratifications can make the poffeffor happy for a con¬
tinuance, unlefs he have fomething in referve, fome-
thing to hope for and look forward to. This may be
inferred from comparing the alacrity and fpirits of men
who are engaged in any purfuit which interefts them,
with the dejection and ennui of almoft all who are ei¬
ther born to fo much that they want nothing more, or
* who have ujed up their fatisfa&ions too foon and
drained the fources of them. It is this intolerable
vacuity of mind which carries the rich and great to the
horfe-courfe and the gaming table; and often engages
them in contefts and purfuits of which the fuccefs bears
no proportion to the folicitude and expence with which
it is fought.
The queftion now occurs. How we are to provide
ourfelves with a fucceffion of pleafurable engagements ?
This requires two things: Judgment in the choice of
ends adapted to our opportunities ; and a command of
imagination, fo as to be able, when the judgment has
made choice of an end, to transfer a pleafure to the
means ; after which the end may be forgotten as foon
as we will. Hence thofe pleafures are moft valuable,
not which are moft exquifite in the fruition, but moft
yroduftive of engagement and activity in the purfuit.
A man wjio is in eatneft in hi* endeavour* after the
happinefs of a future ftate, has in this refpecl an ad- Hai pintfiSiw
vantage over all the world. For he has conftantly
before his eyes an objedl of fupreme importance, pro-
duftive of perpetual engagement and activity, and of
which the purfuit (which can be faid of no purfuif be-
fides) lafts him to his life’s end. Yet even he muft
have many ends be'fide the far end; but then they will
conduft to that,be fubordinate, and in fome way orother
capable of being referred to that, and derive their fads-,
faction, or an addition of fatisfa&ion, from that.
Engagement is every thing. The more fignificant,.
however, our engagements are, the better ; fuch as
the planning of laws, intdtutions, manufactures, cha¬
rities, improvements, public works, and the endeavour¬
ing by our intereft, addrefs, felicitations, and activity,
to carry them into effect : Or, upon a fmaller fcale,
the procuring of a maintenance and fortune for oup
families, by a courfe of induftry and application to oup
callings, which forms and gives motion to the common:
occupations of life; training up a child ; profecuting^
a fcheme for his future eftablifhment; making our¬
felves mafters of a language or a fcience; improving op
managing an eftate ; labouring after a piece of prefer¬
ment : And, laftly, any engagement which is innocent
is better than none; as the writing oda book, the
building of a houfe, the laying out of a garden, the
digging of a fifti-pond; even the railing of a cucumber ■
or a tulip. Whilft the mind is taken up with the
obje&s or bufinefs before it, we are commonly happy,
whatever the obje& or bufinefs be : when the mind is
abfeht, and the thoughts are wandering to fomething
elfe than what is palling in the place in which- we are,
we are often miferable.
3. The arf’in which the fecret of human happinefs
in a great meafure confifts, is to fet the habits in fuch
a manner, that every change may be a change for the
better. The habits themfelves are much the fame ;
for whatever is made habitual becomes fmooth, and
eafy, and indifferent. The return to an old habit is
likewife eafy, whatever the habit be. Therefore the
advantage is with thofe habits which allow of indul¬
gence in the deviation from them. The luxurious re¬
ceive no greater pleafnre from their dainties than the
peafant does front his bread and cheefe; but the pea-
fant whenever he goes abroad finds a feaft, whereas the
epicure muft be well entertained to efcape difguft-
Thofe who fpend every day at cards, and thofe who -
go every day to plough, pafs their time much alike ;
intent upon what they are about, wanting nothing, ,
regretting nothing, they are both* in a ftate of eafe :
But then, whatever fupends the occupation of the card-
player diftreffes him ; whereas to the labourer, every
interruption is a refrtlhment: and this appears in the -
different effed that the Sabbath produces upon the
two, which proves a day of recreation to the one, but
a lamentable burden to the other. The man who has
learned to live alone, feels his fpirits enlivened when¬
ever he enters into company, and takes his leave with¬
out regrets another, who has long been accuftomed ti»
a crowd or continual fucceffion of company, experien¬
ces in company no elevation of fpirits, nor any greatee
fatisfadion than what the man of a retired life finds in
his chimney-corner. So far their conditions are equal:
but let a change of place, fortune, or fituation, fepar
rate the companion from his circle, his vifitors, his
HAP [ 309 ] H A R
flappmefs. dub, common-room, or coffee boufe, and the diffe- fuffidient reafons: T. “ That happinefs is pretty equally Haqut
' rence of advantage in the choice and conttitution of diftributed amongft the different orders of civil fociety; "
the two habits will fhow itfelf. Solitude comes to the and, 2. That vice has no advantage over virtue, even
e clothed with melancholy : to the other it brings with refpedt to this world’s happinefs.”
Harbour.-
liberty and quiet. You will fee the one fretful and
retllefs, at a lofshow to difpofe of his time, till the
hour comes round that he can forget himfelf in bed :
the other eafy and fatisfred, taking up his book or his
pipe as foon as he finds himfelf alone ; ready to admit
any little amufement that caffs up, or to turn his
hands and attention to the firff bufinefs that prefents
itfelf; or content without either to fit ftill, and let his
trains of thought glide indolently through his brain.
HAQUE, in our old writers, a little hand gun, pro¬
hibited to be ufed for deftru&ion of game, &c; by fta-
tute 33 Hen. VJfl. cap. 6. and 2 & 3 Ed. VI. cap.
14. 'Theie is alfo the half-haque, or demi-haque9
within the faid adts.
HARAM- See Seraglio.
HA R AN, otherwife Charrae in Mefopotamia, &
city celebrated for having been the place where Abra¬
ham firft retreated after he left Ur (Gen. xi. 31, 32);
without much ufe perhaps or pleafure, but without and where Terah, Abraham’s father, died and was bu-
hankering after anything better and without irrita- ried. Thither it was likewife that Jacob retired to Laban
tion. A reader who has inured himfelf to books of when he fled from the indignation of his brother Efau
fcierrce and argumentation, if a novel, a well written (id. xxvii. 45. xxviii. 10, &c.) Laftly, at Haran op
pamphlet, an article of news, a narrative of a curious Charrse in Mefopotamia, CrarTus the Roman general
voyage, or the journal of a traveller, fall in his wayj
fits down to the repall with reliih, enjoys his enter¬
tainment while it laffs, and can return when it is over
to his graver reading without diffaffe. Another,
with whom nothing will go down but works of humour
and pleafantry, or whofe curiofity mull be interefted
by perpetual novelty, will confume a bookfeller’s win¬
dow in half a forenoon; during which time he is ra¬
ther in fearch of diverfion than diverted: and as books
to his taile are few and Ihort and rapidly read over,
the ftock is foon exhaufled, when he is left, without
refource from this principal fupply of innocent amufe-
ment.
So far as circumftances of fortune conduce to-hap-
pinefs, it is not the income which any man pofleffes, but
the jncreafe of income that affords the pleafure. Two
perfons, of whom one begins with look and advances
his income to iogoI. a year; and the other fets off for a too pompous, prolix,
with toooh.and dwindles down to icol. may, in the declamation,
defeated and killed by- the Parthians. ~Hara»
was fituated between the Euphrates and the river Che*
bar, at a good diftance from the place where thefe two
rivers join.
HARANGUE, a modern French name for a fpeecft
or oration made by an orator in public,—Menage de¬
rives the word from the Italian arenga, which fignifies
the fame; formed, according to Ferrari, from arringo% T
“ a juff, or place of jufting.” Others derive it from
the Latin ara, " altar by reafon the firft harangues •
were made before altars: whence the verfe of Juvenal,
Aut LugJunenJis .rhetor di£iurut ad aram.
Harangues were ufually made ■ by the generals> »
previous to an engagement both amongft the Greeks
and Romans. An harangue on fuch occafions was
called allocui 10. See A llocutio.
The word is alfo frequently ufed in an ill fenfe, viz.
unfeafonable fpeech ofr
courfe of their time, have the receipt and fpending of
the fame fum of money : yet their fatisfa&ion, To far
as fortune is concerned in it, will be very different:
the feries and fum total of their incomes being the
fame, it makes a wide difference which end they be¬
gin at.
4, Happinefs confifts in health ; underftanding by
health, not only freedom from bodily diftempers, but
HARBINGER, an officer of the king’s houffiold,
having four yeomen under him, who ride a day’s jour¬
ney before the court when it travels, to provide lodge-
ings, &c.
HARBOROUGH, a town of Leicefterffiire, 84,
miles from London. It is a great thoroughfare
in the road to Derby, near the fource of the river
Welland; and was famous, in Camden’s time, for ita
aifo that tranquillity, firmnefs, and alacrity of mind, beaft fair, where the heft horfes and colts are ffill fold,
which we call goodj'giriis. For the fake of health, ac- Its fairs are April 29. and Oft. 19. The market is
cording to this notion of it, no facrifices can be too on Tuefday, for the ufe of which the Earl of Harbo-
great. Whether it require us to relinquifh lucrative rough has lately built a neat market-houfe at his own
fituations, to abftairi from favourite indulgences, to expence. Here ,is a good free-fehool, and a fair cha-
control intemperate paffions, or undergo tedious re* pel of eafe to Great-Bowden its parifh.
gimens; whatever difficulties it lays us under, a man; HARBOUR, a general name given to any fea-porfc
who purfues his happinefi, rationally and refoluteiy, or haven; as alfo to any place convenient for mooring
will be content to fnbmit to. Whfert we are in per- (hipping, although at a great diftance from the fea.
feft health and fpifits, we feel in ourfdves a happinefs The qualities requifite in a good harbour are, that the
independent of any particular outward' gratification bottom be entirely free from rocks or fhallows; that
■whatever, and of which we can give no account. This the opening be of fufficient extent to admit the en-
is an enjoyment which the Deity has annexed to life;
and probably con dilutes, in a great meafure, the hap¬
pinefs of infants and brutes-, efpecially of the lower
and fedentary orders of animals, as of oyfters, peri¬
winkles, and the like.
The above account of human happinefs will juftify
thefe two conclufions, which, although found in molt
trance or departure of large fliips without difficulty 5
that it ffiould have good anchoring-ground, and be
eafy of accefs; that it fhculd be well, defended from
the violence of the wind and fea; that it fhould have
room and convenience to receive the (hipping of diffe¬
rent nations, and thofe which are laden with different
merchandifes ; that it be furnilhed with a good light-
i^poks pf morality, have feJdom been fuppyrted by any houie, jmd have variety of proper rings, polls, moor-.:
ingsj-
II A R
Harturg Ings, &c. in order to remove or fecurc the veffels con'
jj £ . tained therein; and, finally, that it have plenty of
. ar^nc s' wood, and other materials for firing, befides hemp,
' iron, mariners, &c.
HARBURG, a fmalltown of Germany, in the circle
of Lower Saxony, and duchy of Lunenburg, feated on
the river Elbe over againll; Hamburgh. It was fur-
rounded with walls in 1355; and 30 years after, a ftrong
caftle, which Hill remains, was built by the bilhop.
E. Long. 9. 41. N. Lat. 53. 51.
HARDENING, the giving a greater degree of
hardnefs to bodies than they had before.
There are feveral ways of hardening iron and fteel, as
by hammering them, quenching them in cold water,
&c. See Steel.
Cafe-HARBENiNG. See CjiSE-Hardening.
HARDERWICK, a town of the United Provin¬
ces, in Dutch Guelderland. It is a well-built town,
and the chief of the fea-ports of this province. It has
feveral good buildings, particularly the great church,
which is much admired. In 1648 the public fchool
here was turned into an univerfity. The French did
it a great deal of damage in 1672; fince which time it
has been on the decline. E. Long. 5. 37. N. Lat.
52. 14.
HARDNESS, in bodies, a property direftly op-
pofite to fluidity ; by which they refill the impreflion
of any other fubftance, fometimes in an extreme de¬
gree. As fluidity has been found to confift in the
motion of the particles of a body upon one another in
eonfequCnce of a certain aftion of the univerfal fluid
or elementary fire among them ; we mull conclude
that hardnefs confiils in the abfence of this action, or
a deficiency of what is called latent heat. This is con¬
firmed by obferving, that there is an intermediate Hate
betwixt hardnefs and fluidity, in which bodies will
yield to a certain force, though they Hill make a con-
fiderable refiftance. This is principally obferved in the
metals, and is the foundation of their du&ility. It
appears, indeed, that this laft property, as well as
fluidity, is entirely dependent on a certain quantity of
latent heat abforbed, or otherwife afting within the
fubftance itfelf; for all the metals are rendered hard
by hammering, and foft by being put again into the
fire and kept there for fome time. The former ope¬
ration renders them hot as well as hard ; probably, as
Dr Black obferves, becaufe the particles of metal,are
thus forced nearer one another, and thofe of fire
fqueezed out from among them. By keeping them
for fome time in the fire, that element infinuates itfelf
again among the particles, and arranges them in the
fame manner as before, fo that the duftility returns.
-By a fecond hammering this property is again deftroy-
ed, returning on a repetition of the heating, ox anneal¬
ing as it is called ; and fo on, as often as we pleafe.
Hardnefs appears to diminifh the cohefion of bodies
in fome degree, though their fragility does not by any
means keep pace with their hardnefs. Thus, glafs is
very hard and very brittle ; but flint, though ftill
harder than glafs, is much lefs brittle. Among the
metals, however, thefe two properties feem to be more
conne&ed, though even here the connedtion is by no
means complete. Steel, the hardeft of all the metals,
is indeed the moll brittle ; but lead, the fofteft, is not
the molt dudtile. Neither is hardnefs conn eft ed with
310 ] H A R
the fpeciflc gravity of bodies; for a diamond, the Hardne*,
hardeft; fubftance in nature, is little more than half Hardouim
the weight of the lighteft metal. As little is it con- *
nefted with the coldnefs, eleflrical properties, or any
other quality with which we are acquainted : fo that
though the principle above laid down may be accepted
as a general foundation for our inquiries, a great num¬
ber of particulars remain yet to be difcovered before we
can offer any fatisfaclory explanation.
All bodies become harder by cold ; but this is not
the only means of their doing fo, for fome become
hard by heat as well as cold. Thus, water becomes
hard by cold when it is frozen, but it becomes much
harder when its fteam is paffed over red-hot iron, and
it enters the fubftance of the metal, by an union with
which it becomes almoft as hard as glafs.
Mr Quift and others have conftrufted tables of the
hardnefs of different fubftances. The method purfued
in conftrufting thefe tables was by obferving the order*
in which they were able to cut or make any imprefiion
upon one another. The following table, extrafled
from M. Magellan’s edition of Cronlledt’s Mineralogy,
was taken from Dr Quift, Bergman, and Mr Kirwan.
The firft column fhows the hardnefs, and the
the fpecific gravity.
Diamond from Ormus
Pink diamond
Bluilh diamond
Yellowifti diamond
Cubic diamond
Ruby
Pale ruby from Brazil
Ruby fpinell
Deep blue fapphjre
Ditto paler
Topaz
Whitifh ditto
Bohemian ditto
Emerald
Garnet - , -
Agate
Onyx
Sardonyx
Occid. amethyft
Cryftal
Cornelian
Green jafper
Reddifh yellow ditto
Schoerl
Tourmalin^
Quartz
Opal
Chryfolite
Zeolyte
Fluor - -
Calcareous fpar
Gypfum
Chalk
19
19
>9
3>7
3 >4
3.3
3>3
18 — 3,2
4,2
3>5
It
17
16
I? z
17
14
= i;i
z %
— 2,6
— 2,6
— 2,7
— 2,6
— 2,7
— 2,7
— 2,6
— 3.6
— 3»o
— 2,7
— 2,6
— 3»7
— 2,1
— 3»5
— 2,7
— 2>3
— 2.7
HARDOUIN (John), a leSrned French Jefuit in
the beginning of the 18th century, known by the re¬
markable paradoxes he advanced in his writings ; this
in particular, That all the works of the ancient pro¬
fane writers, except Cicero’s works, Virgil’s Geor¬
gies, Horace’s fa tires and ^fifties, and Pliny’s natu¬
ral
H A R r 3I« ] . H A R
Kardwicke ral hiftory, arc mere forgeries. He died at Paris in fhopric of Cluchefter, which he held with the deanery
- jj]re I729» aged 83. His principal works are, 1. An of St Paul’s to his death, which happened in 1740.
»r edition of Pliny’s natural hiftory, with notes, which He was difmiffed from being chaplain to George I. in
is much efteemed. 2. An edition of the councils, 1 y'l 8, t»y the ftrength of party prejudices, in company
which made much noife. 3. Chronology reftored with Dr Mofs and Dr Sherlock, perfons of diftingui/h-
by medals, 4to. 4. A commentary on the New Te-
ftament, folio ; in which he pretends that our Saviour
and his apoftles preached in Latin, &c.
HARDWICKE. See York.
HARE, in zoology. See Lepu:
ed rank for parts and learning.—About the latter end
of queen Anne’s reign he publifhed a remarkable
pamphlet, intituled, The difficulties and difcourage-
ments which attend the ftudy of the fcriptures, in
the way of private judgment : in order to Ihew, that
The hare is a beaft of venery, or of the foreft, but fince fuch a ftudy of the fcriptures is an indifpenfable
peculiarly fo termed in the fecond year of her age. duty, it concerns all Chriftian focieties to remove, as
There are reckoned four forts of them, from the place much as poffible, thofe difcouragements. In this work*
of their abode : fome live in the mountains, foine in his manner appeared to be fo ludicrous, that the con-
the fields, fome in marfhes, and fome wander about vocation fell upon him, as if he were really againft the
every where. The mountain-hares are the fwifteft, ftudy of the holy fcriptures: and Whifton fays, that
the field-hares are not fo nimble, and thofe of the finding this piece likely to hinder that preferment he
marfties are the fioweft : but the wandering hares are was feeking for, he aimed to conceal his being the
the moft dangerous to follow ; for they are cunning in author. He publiflied many pieces againft bifhop
the ways and mazes of the fields, and, knowing the
neareft ways, run up the hills and rocks, to the con-
fufion of the dogs, and the difcouragement of the
hunters. See the article Hunting.
Hares and rabbits are very mifchievous to new
planted orchards, by peeling off the barks of the ten¬
der and young trees for their food. They do alfo the
fame fort of mifchief to nurferies; for the prevention
of which, fome bind ropes about the trees up to fuch
a height as they are able to reach ; fome daub them
with tar; but though this keeps off the hares, it is
itfelf mifchievous to the trees ; but this hurtful pro¬
perty of it is in fome degree taken off by mixing any
kind of fat or greafe with it, and incorporating them
well over the fire. This mixture is to be rubbed over
the lower part of the trees in November, and will pre-
ferve them till that time the next year, without any
danger from thefe animals. It is only in the hard
Hoadly, in the Bangorian Controverfy, as it is called j
and alfo other learned works, which were colle&ed af¬
ter his death, and publiftied in four vols. 8vo. 2. Ait
edition of Terence, with notes, in 410. 3. The book
of Pfalms in the Hebrew, put into the original poeti¬
cal metre, 410. In this laft work, he pretends to have
difcovered the Hebrew metre, which was fuppofed to
be irretrievably loft. But his hypothefis, though de¬
fended by fome, yet has been confuted by feveral learn¬
ed men, particularly by Dr Lowth in his Metric*
Hare ana: Irevis confutation annexed to his leftures De
Sacra Poef Hcbraorum.
HARESBURY a town of Wiltftiire, on the Willy*,
near Warminfter, 94 miles from London, is in old re¬
cords called Heightjbury, or Heytjbury y and now it is-
writ Hatchbury. It was once the feat of the emprefs
Maud. Here are fairs May 14th, and September
[5th ; and it has fent members to parliament ever fince
weather in the winter feafon, when other food is Henry VI. it being an ancient borough by preferip-
r     r 1 .r _ 1 1..     nm •  r 1  r 0 J r
fcarce, that thefe creatures feed on the barks of trees.
People who have the care of warrens, pretend to an
odd way of making hares fat when they get them
there. This is the Hopping up their ears with wax,
and rendering them deaf. The hare is fo timorous a
tion. There is an almftioufe here for 12 poor men and1
a woman. Here is a collegiate church with four pre¬
bendaries, and a free fchool, and the place is governed
by a bailiff and burgeffes.
HARFLEUR an ancient town of France,
creature, that fhe is continually liftening after every Normandy ; but is now a poor place, on account of
noife, and will run a long way on the leaft fufpicion of its fortifications being demoliftxed, and its harbour
danger ; fo that fhe always eats in terror, and runs her-
felf out of fleftr continually. Thefe are both prevent¬
ed by her feeding in a fafe place, and that without ap-
choaked up. It was taken by the Englifh, by affault^
in the year 1415. It is feated on the river Lizarda,
near the Seine, five miles from Havre de Grace, forty
prehenfion ; and they fay {he will always readily be north-weft of Rouen, and one hundred and fix north-
fattened in this way.
Though the hare lives on vegetables and water only,
yet the habitual exercife of this animal exalts its falts,
weft of Paris. E. Long. o. 17. N. Lat. 49. 30.
HARIOT, or Heriot, in law, a due belonging
to a lord at the death of his tenant, confifting of the
and renders it fomewhat alcalefcent; and this tendency beft beaft, either horfe, or cow, or ox, which he had at
is much increafed, if it is killed immediately after be¬
ing heated by ftrong exercife.
Java Hare. See Mus.
Hare's Ear, in botany. Se£ Bupleurtjm.
HARE (Dr Francis), an Englilh biihop, of whofe
the time of his death ; and in fome manors the beft
goods, piece of plate, &c. are called hariots.
Hariot (Thomas), See Harriot.
HARLECH, a town of Merionethihire, in north*
Wales. It is feated on a rock, on the fea-fhore ; and is
birth we have no particulars, was bred at Eton fchool, but a poor place, though the fhire-town, and fends r,
and from that foundation became a member of King’s member to parliament. It had formerly a ftrong
college, Cambridge ; where he had the tuition of the handfome caftle, which was a garrifon for Charles L
marquis of Blandford, only fon of the illuftrious duke in the civil wars, for which reafon it was afterwards
of Marlborough, who appointed him chaplain-general demoliihed by the parliament. W. Long. 4. o. N»
to the army. He afterwards obtained the deanery of Lat. 54. 47.
Worcefter, and from thence was promoted to the bi- HARLEIAN Collection.—A moft valuable
- 3 colle&ioa
H A R . f 3'
ilarlelan, colleftion of ufeful and cuiious manufcripts, begun
tHarlcm. near the end 0f the laft century, by Robert Har-
ley of Brampton Bryan, Efq; in Herefordfltire, after¬
wards earl of Oxford and lord high-treafurer; and
which was conducted upon the plan of the great
Sir Robert Cotton. He publifhed his firft confider-
able colledtion in Auguft 1705, and in lefs than^ten
years he got together near 2500 rare and curious
MSS. Soon after this, the celebrated Dr George
Hicks, Mr Anftis garter king at arms, bifhop Ni-
colfon, and many other eminent antiquaries, not only
offered him their affiftance in procuring MSS. but
jnefented him with feveral that were very valuable.
Being thus encouraged to perfeverante by his fuccefs,
be kept many perfons employed in purchafing MSS.
for him abroad, giving them written inftruftions for
their conduft. By thefe means the MS. library was,
in the year 1721, increafed to near 6000 books, 14,000
original charters, and 500 rolls.
On the.2ill of May 1724 lord Oxford died: but
his fon Edward, who fucceeded to his honours and
Hlate, flill farther enlarged the collection ; fo that when
be died, June 1.6th 1741, it confided of 8000 volumes,
feveral of them containing diltinCt and independent
treatifes, befides many loofe papers which have been
fmee forted and bound up in volumes ; and above
40,000 original rolls, charters, letters patent, grants,
and other deeds and inftruments of great antiquity.
The principal delign of making this collection was
•the eftablifhment of a MS. Englilh hiltorical library,
and the refeuing from deftruCtion fuch national re¬
cords as had eluded the diligence of preceding collec¬
tors : but lord Oxford’s plan was more extenfive ; for
his collection abounds alfo with curious MSS. in every
fcience.—This collection is now in the BritifhMufasum;
and an enumeration of its contents may be feen in the
Annual Regifter, vi. 140, &c.
HARLEM, a town of the United Provinces, in
Holland, fituated on the river Sparren, in E. Long. 5.
17. N. Lat. 53. 22. It i ■ a large and populous city,
and Hands near a lake of the fame name, with which
it has a communication, as well as with Amflerdam and
Leyden, by means of feveral canals. Schemes have
been often formed for draining of this lake, but were
never put in execution. To the fouth of the town lies
a wood, cut into delightful walks and villas. The
town is famous for the liege which it held out againft
the Spaniards for ten months in 1573 ; the townfmen,
before they capitulated, being reduced to eat the vi-
lell animals, and even leather and grafs. The inhabi¬
tants correfponded with the prince of Orange for a
confiderable time by means of carrier-pigeons. Har¬
lem, as is well known, claims the invention of printing;
and in faCt, the firll elfays of the art are indifputably
to be attributed to Laurentius, a magillrate of that
city. £See Laurentius, and (Hi/lory Printing.]
^Before the Reformation, Harlem was a bilhop’s fee ;
.and the Ptipifts Hill greatly outnumber the Protdlants.
An academy of fciences was founded here in 1752.
Vaft quantities of linen and thread are bleached here ;
the waters of the lake having a peculiar quality, which
renders them very fit for that purpofe.—A fort of
phrenfy with regard to flowers, particularly tulips, once
prevailed here, in confequence of which the moll beauti¬
ful forts were bought and fold at an extravagant price.
JN° 148.
2 1 MAR
HARLEQUIN, in the Italian comedy, a buffoon, Harley
drefled in party-coloured cloaths ; anfwering much the If
fame purpofe as a merry-andrew or jack-pudding in ar oi: *
our drolls, on mountebanks llages, &c. We have al- ’
fo introduced the harlequin upon our theatres; and
this is one of the Handing charadters in the modern
grotefque or pantomime entertainment*.—The term
took its rife from a famous Italian comedian who
came to Paris under Henry III. and who frequenting
the houfe of M. <k Harlay, his companions ufed to
call him Harlequino, q. d. little Harlay ; a name which
has defeended to all thofe of the fame rank and pro-
feflion.
HARLEY (Robert), earl of Oxford and Morti¬
mer, was the eldell fon of Sir Edward Harley,, and
born in 1661. At the Revolution, Sir Edward and
his fon raifed a troop of horfe at their own expence ;
and after the acceffion of king William and queen Ma¬
ry, he obtained a feat in parliament. His promotions
were rapid: in 1702, he was chofen fpeaker of the
houfe of commons ; in 1704, he was fworn of queen
Anne’s privy council, and the fame year made fecre-
tary of ftate ; in 1706, he added as one of the com-
miffioners for the treaty of Union ; and in 1710, was
appointed a commiflioner of the treafury, and chancel¬
lor and under-treafurer of the exchequer. A daring
attempt was made on his life, March 8. 1711, by the
marquis of Guifcard a French papilt; who, when un¬
der an examination before a committee of the privy
council, itabbed him with a penknife. Of this wound,
however, he foon recovered ; and was the fame year
created earl of Oxford, and lord high-treafurer, which
office he refigned juft before the queen’s death. He
was impeached of high treafon in 1715, and commit¬
ted to the Tower; but was cleared by trial, and died
in 1724. His charadler has been varioufly reprefent-
ed, but cannot be here difeufled. He was not only an
encourager of literature, but the greateft colleftor in
his time of curious books and MSS. his colledtiou of
which makes a capital part of the Britifli Mufeum.
See Harleian Collctlwn.
HARL1NG. See Herling.
HARLINGEN, a fea-port town of the United
Netherlands, in Weft Friefland. It Hands on the
coaft of the Zuyder fea, at the mouth of a large canal,
in E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 53. 12. It was only a
hamlet till about the year 1234, when it was deftroyed
by the fea ; and being afterwards rebuilt, became a
confiderable town. In 1579, it was confiderably en¬
larged by the care of William prince of Orange. It
is now very well fortified, and is naturally ftrong, as
the adjacent country can very eafily be laid under wa¬
ter. The city is fquare ; and the ftreets are handfome,
ftiaight, and clean, with canals in the middle of them. It
has five gates; four towards the land, and one towards
the fea ; but though the harbour is good, yet vefiels of
great burden cannot get into it until they are light¬
ened, for want of water. The admiralty college of
Friefland has its feat here. The manufactures are fait,
bricks, and tiles ; a confiderable trade is alfo carried
on in all forts of linen cloth, and the adjacent country
yields abundance of corn and good paftures.
HARLOCH, or Harleich, a town of Merioneth-
fture, in North Wales, 223 miles from London, on
the fea coaft, near the north-weft point of the county.
It
H A R [3
It is naturally flxong, a garrifon being kept here for
the fecurity of the coaft. Its caftle lies now in ruins.
The town, though a corporation and governed by a
mayor, makes but a very mean appearance. It has a
market on Saturdays, and four fairs in the year.
HARLOT, a woman given to incontinency, or
that makes a habit or a trade of proftituting her
body.—The word is fuppofed to be ufed for the di¬
minutive whorelet, a “ little whore.”—Others derive it
from Arietta, rniftrefs to Robert duke of Normandy,
and mother to William the Conqueror: Camden de¬
rives it from one Arlotha, concubine to William the
Conqueror: Others from the Italian Arlotta, “ a proud
whore.”
Harlots were tolerated amongft Jews, Greeks, and
Romans. Fornication indeed was prohibited among
the Jews, under fevere penalties ; but thefe they ex¬
plained as extending only to women of their own na¬
tion. The public ftews were therefore flocked with
foreign proftitutes, who feem to have been taken un¬
der the prote&ion of government. Hence appears the
reafon why the word Jlrange •woman is often found to
fignify a harlot. Proflitutes at firft wore veils or
mafks j but by and by their modefty was entirely put
to flight, and they went abroad bare-faced. At_Athens
the proftitutes were generally ftrangers ; and fuch as
debauched an -.thenian female were liable to a penal¬
ty. To frequent the public ftews was not held dif-
graceful! The wifeft of the Heathen fages allowed it!
Solon permitted common whores to go publicly to
the >oung men who had engaged them, and encoura¬
ged the youth of Athens to gratify their lull with thefe,
rather than feduce and debauch the wives or daughters
of citizens. Cato the Cenfor was of the fame fenti-
ments; and Cicero challenges all perfons to name a
time when men were either reproved for this pra&ice,
or not countenanced in it. Amongft the Jews, the
harlots ufed to ply in the highways and ftreets of ci¬
ties ; at Athens they frequented the ceramicus, fciros^
and the old forum. — In fome places they were diftin-
guilhed by their drefs from other women. Corinth
was a remarkable nurfery of harlots, and gave birth to
the noted Lais. Their accomplifliments were oftentimes
great, in all the polite and elegant parts of female edu¬
cation, viz. philofophy, dancing, finging, rhetoric, &c.
Afpafia, the miftrefs of Pericles, was admired by So¬
crates for her learning. The more accompliftied pro¬
ftitutes frequently amafled large fortunes ; a remark¬
able inflance of which we have in Phryne, who offered
to rebuild the walls of Thebes, when deftroyed by
Alexander, on condition that they would perpetuate
her memory and proftflion by an infcription. Profti¬
tutes at Rome were obliged to fix a bill over their
doors, indicating their charadler and profeffion. It
v’as alfo cuftomary for them to change their names,
after they had fignified to the praetor their intention
of leading fuch a diffolute life : this, they did, becaufe
their trade was unbecoming their birth and condition;
but they re-affumed their family names 'when they
quitted their infamous mode of living. Women
whofe grandfather, father, or hufband, had been a Ro¬
man knight, were forbidden by the laws to make a
■public proftfiion of lewdnefs.
HA RMATTAN, the name of a remarkable perio¬
dical wind which blows from the interior parts of A-
Von, VIII. Part L
'3 ] . , H A R .
frica towards the Atlantic ocean. Of this wind we
have the following account in the Philofophical Tranf-
a&ions, vol. 71. furniftred by Mr Norris, a gentleman
who had frequent opportunities of obferving its Angu¬
lar properties and effefts.
“ On that part of the coaft of Africa which lies be¬
tween Cape Verd and Cape Lopez, an cafterly wind
prevails during the months of December, January, and
February, which by the Fantees, a nation on the Gold
coaft, is called the Harmattan. Cape Verd is in 15 N.
latitude, and Cape Lopez in 1 S. latitude; and the
coaft between thefe two Capes runs, in an oblique di-
redion, nearly from W. S. W. to E. S. E. forming
a range of upwards of 2100 miles. At the ifles de
Los, which are a little to the northward of Sierra Le¬
one, and to the fouthward of Cape Verd, it blows from,
the E. S. E. on the Gold coaft from the N. E. and at
Cape Lopez, and the river Gabon, from the N. N. E.
This wind is by the French and Portuguefe, who fre¬
quent the Gold coaft, called Amply the N. E. wind,
the quarter from which it blows. The Englifti, whq
fometimes borrow words and phrafes from the Fantee
language, which is lefs guttural and more harmonious
than that of their neighbours, adopt the Fantee word
Harmattan.
The harmattan comes on indifcriminately at any
hour of the day, at any time of the tide, or at any pe¬
riod of the moon, and continues fometimes only a day
or two, fometimes Ave or Ax days, and it has beer)
known to laft fifteen or fixteen days. There are gene¬
rally three or four returns of it every feafon. It blows
with a moderate force, not quite fo ftrong as the fea-
breeze (which every day fets in during the fair feafon
from the W. W. S. W. and S. W); but fomewhat
ftronger thaa the land wind at night from the N. and
N. N. W.
1. A fog or haze is one of the peculiarities which
always accompanies the harmattan. The gloom occa-
Aoned by this fog is fo great, as fometimes to make
even near objefts obfcure. The Englifb fort at Why-
dah (lands about the midway between the French and
Poituguefe forts, and not quite a quarter of a mile from
either, yet very often from thence neither of the other
forts can be difcovered. The fun, concealed the great-
eft part of the day, appears only a few hours about
noon, and then of a mild red, exciting no painful fen-
fation on the eye.
2, Extreme drynefs makes another extraordinary
property of this wind. No dew falls during the con¬
tinuance of the harmattan ; nor is there the lead ap¬
pearance of moifture in the atmofphere. Vegetables
of every kind are very much injured; all tender plants,
and moft of the produ&ions of the garden, are de¬
ftroyed ; the grafs withers, and becomes dry like hay;
the vigorous ever-greens likewife feel ks pernicious in¬
fluence ; the branches of the lemon, orange, and lime-
trees droop, the leaves become flaccid, wither, and if
the harmattan continues to blow for 1 o or 12 days,
are fo parched, as to be eafily rubbed to daft between
the fingers : the fruit of thefe trees, deprived of its
nouriftrment, and ftinted in its growth, only appears
to ripen, for it becomes yellow and dry, with¬
out acquiring half the ufual fize. The natives take
this opportunity of the extreme drynefs of the grafs
and young trees to fet fire to them, efpecially near
Q^q their
H A R E 3H 1 H A R
Harmat- their roads, hot only to keep thofe roads open to tra-
tan. vellerS) but to dellroy the fhelter which long grafs, and
thickets of young trees, would afford to Ikulking par¬
ties of their enemies. A fire thus lighted flies with
fuch rapidity, as to endanger thofe who travel: in that
fituation, a common method of efcape is, on difcover-
ing a fire to windward, to fet the grafs on fire to lee¬
ward, and then follow your own fire. There are other
extraordinary effefts produced by the extreme drynefs
of the harmattan.
The parching effe&s of this wind are likewife evi¬
dent on the external parts of the body. The eyes,
noftrils, lips, and palate, are rendered dry and uneafy,
and drink is often required, not fo much to quench
thirft, as to remove a painful aridity in the fauces.
The lips and nqfe become fore, and even chapped; and
though the air be cool, yet there is a troublefome fen-
fation of prickling heat on the fkin. If the harmat¬
tan continues four or five days, the fcarf fkin peels off,
firlt from the hands and face, and afterwards from the
other parts of the body if it continues a day or two
longer. Mr Norris obferved, that when fweat was ex¬
cited by exercife on thofe parts which were covered
by his cloaths from the weather, it was peculiarly a-
crid, and tafted, on applying his tongue to his arm,
fomething like fpirits of hartfhorn diluted with water.
3. Salubrity forms a third peculiarity of the har¬
mattan. Though this wind i? fo very prejudicial to
vegetable life, and occafions fuch difagreeable parching
effe&s on the human fpecies, yet it is highly conducive
to heahh. Thofe labouring under fluxes and in¬
termitting fevers generally recover in an harmattan.
Thofe weakened by fevers, and finking under evacua¬
tions for the cure of them, particularly bleeding, which
is often injudicioufly repeated, have theit lives faved,
and vigour reftored, in fpite of the doftor. It flops
the progrefs of epidemics : the fmall-pox, remittent
fevers, &c. not only difappear,. but thofe labouring un¬
der thefe difeafes when an harmattan comes on, are
almoft certain of a fpeedy recovery. Infe&ion appears
not then to be eafily communicated even by art. In
the year 1770, there were on board the Unity, at
Whydah, above 300 flaves; the fmall-pox broke out
among them, and it was determined to inoculate ; thofe
who were inoculated before the harmattan came on,
got very well through the difeafe. About 70 were in¬
oculated a day or two after the harmattan fet in, but
no one of them had either ficknefs or eruption. It
was imagined that the infeilion was effedually difper-
fed, and the fhip clear of the diforder ; but in a very
few weeks it began to appear among thofe feventy.
About 50 of them were inoculated the fecond time ;
the ethers had the difeafe in a natural way : an har¬
mattan came on, and they all recovered, excepting one
girl, who had an ugly ulcer on the inoculated part,
.and died fome time afterwards of a locked jaw.”
This account differs remarkably from that given by
Dr Lind, who calls the harmattan a malignant and fa¬
tal wind : (See his Difeafes of Hot Climates.) As to
the nature of the foil over which it blows, it appears,
that excepting a few rivers and fome lakes, the coun¬
try about and beyond Whydah is covered for 400
miles back with verdure, open plains of grafs, clumps
of trees, and fome woods of no confiderable extent.
The furface is fandy, and below that a rich reddifh
-6
earth : it rifes with a gentle afeent for 150 miles from Harmodiu#
the fea, before there is the appearance of a hill, with- It
out affording a flone of the fize of a walnut. Beyond Harm°n5-
thefe hills there is no account of any great ranges of
mountains. ' -
HARMODfUS, a friend of Ariflogiton, who de¬
livered his country from the tyranny of the Pififtrati-
dte. (See Aristogiton.) The Athenians, to re¬
ward the patriotifm of thefe illuflrious citizens, made
a law that no one fhould ever after bear the name of
Ariflogiton and Harmodius.
HARMONIA, in fabulous hiftory, the wife of
Cadmus, both of whom were turned into ferpents.
See Cadmus.
Though many of the ancient authors make Har-
monia a princefs of divine origin, there is a paflage in
Athenaeus from Euhemerus, the Vanini of his time,
which tells us, that fhe was by profeffion a player on
the flute, and in the fervice of the prince of Zidon
previous to her departure with Cadmus. This cir-
cumftance, however, might encourage the belief, that
as Cadmus brought letters into Greece, his wife
hrouftil harmony thither; as the word harmonia^
has been faid to have no other derivation than from
her name: which makes it very difficult to afeertain
the fenfe in which the Greeks made ufe of it in their
mufief ; for it has no roots by which it can be decom- f See Har-
pounded, in order to deduce from them its etymology. mony'
The common account of the word, however, that is
given by lexicographers, and generally adopted by
the learned, does not confirm this opinion. It is ge¬
nerally derived from and this from the old verb
apto, toft or join.
HARMONIC. As an adjeflive, it fignifies ir»
general any thing belonging to harmony ; though in
our language the adjedlive is more properly written
harmonical. In this cafe it may be applied to the har¬
monic al divifions of a monochord ; or, in a word, to
confonances in general. As a fubflantive neuter, it
imports all the concomitant or acceflary founds which,
upon the principles refulting from the experiments made
on fonorous bodies, attend any given found whatever,
and render it appretiable. Thus all the aliquot parts
of a mufical firing produce harmonical founds, or har¬
monics,
HARMONICA. This word, when originally ap¬
propriated by Dr Ftanklin to that peculiar form or
mode of mufical glafles, which he himfelf, after a num¬
ber of happy experiments, had conftituted, was written
Armonica. In this place, however, we have ventured to
reftore it to its native plenitude of found, as we have
no antipathy againft the moderate ufe of afpirations.
It is derived from the Greek word The ra¬
dio?.! word is to fait or ft one thing to another.
By the word dgfiovtu the Greeks expreffed aptitudes of
various kinds; and from the ufe w-hich they made of
that expreffion, we have reafon to conclude, that it
was intended to import the higheft degree of refine¬
ment and delicacy in thofe relations which it was
meant to fignify. Relations or aptitudes of found, in
particular, were underftood by it ; and in this view.
Dr Franklin could not have felefted a name more e*-
preffive of its nature and genius, for the inftrument
which we are now to deferibe; as, perhaps, no mu¬
fical tone can poffibly be finer, nor confequently fuf-
ceptible
H A R [ 3*5 1 H A R
Harmon!- ceptible of jufter concords, than thofe which it produces.
1 c^‘ In an old Englifh book, wbofe title we cannot at
*■' * prefent recolleft, and in which a number of various
amufements were defcribed, we remember to have feen
the elements or firft approaches to mufic by glaffes.
That author enjoins his pupil to choofe half a dozen of
fuch as are ufed in drinking; to fill each of them with
water in proportion to the gravity or acutenefs of the
found which he intended it fhould produce ; and ha¬
ving thus adjufted them one to another, he might en¬
tertain the company with a church-tune. Thefe, per¬
haps, were the rude and barbarous hints which Mr
Puckeridge afterwards improved. But, for a farther
account of him, of the llate in which he left the in-
ftrument, and of the Hate to which it has afterwards
been carried, we muft refer our readers to the following
extracts from Dr Franklin's letters, and from others
who have written upon the fame fubjeft.
The Do&or, in his letter to Father Becearia, has
given a minute and elegant account of the Harmonica.
Nor does it appear that his fucceffors have either more
fenfibly improved, or more accurately delineated, that
angelic inftrument. The detail of his own improvements,
therefore, fhall be given in his own words.
“ Perhaps (fays he) it may be agreeable to you, as
you live in a mufical country, to have an account of
the new inftrument lately added here to the great
number that charming fcience was poflefied of before.
As it is an inftrument that feems peculiarly adapted
to Italian mufic, efpecially that of the foft and plain¬
tive kind, I will endeavour to give you fuch a deferip-
tion of it, and of the manner of conftru&ing it, that
you or any of your friends may be enabled to imitate
it, if you incline fo to do, without being at the
expence and trouble of the many experiments I have
made in endeavouring to bring it to its prefent per-
fedtion.
“ You have doubtlefs heard the fweet tone that is
drawn from a drinking-glafs, by preffing a wet finger
round its brim. One Mr Puckeridge, a gentleman
from Ireland, was the firft who thought of playing
tunes formed of thefe tones. He colk&ed a number
of glaftes of different fizes; fixed them near each other
on a table; and tuned them, by putting into them wa¬
ter, more or lefs as each note required. The tones
were brought out by preffing his fingers round their
brims. He was unfortunately burnt here, with his in-
ftrument, in a fire which confumed the houfe lived in.
Mr E. Delaval, a moft ingenious member of our Royal
Society, made one in imitation of it with a better
choice and form of glaffes, which was the firft I faw or
heard. Being charmed with the fweetnefs of its tones,
and the mufic he produced from it, I wilhed to fee the
glaffes difpofed in a more convenient form, and brought
together in a narrower compafs, fo as to admit of a
greater number of tones, and all within reach of hand
to a perfon fitting before the inftrument; which I ac-
complifhed, after various intermediate trials, and lefs
commodious forms, both of glaffes and conftruefion,
in the following manner.
“ The glaffes are blown as near as .pofiible in the
form of hemifpheres, having each an open neck or
focket in the middle. The thicknefs of the glafs near
the brim is about the tenth of an inch, or hardly quite
fo much, but thicker as it comes nearer the neck;
which in the largeft glaffes is about an inch deep, and Harmonu
an inch and a half wide within ; thefe dimenfions lef- ca-
fening as the glaffes themfelves diminifti in fize, ex-
cept that the neck of the fmalleft ought not to be
Ihorter than half an inch.—The largeft glafs is nine
inches diameter, and the fmalleft three inches. Be¬
tween thefe there are 23 different fizes, differing from
each other a quarter of an inch in diameter. To
make a fingle inftrument there ftiould be at leaft fix
glaffes blown of each fize; and out of this number
one may probably pick 37 glaffes (which are fufficient
for three o&aves with all the femitones) that will be
each either the note one wants, or a little (harper than
that note, and all fitting fo well into each other as to
taper pretty regularly from the largeft to the fmalleft.
It is true there are not 37 fizes; but it often happens
that two of the fame fize differ a note or half a note
in tone, by reafon of a difference in thicknefs, and
thefe may be placed one in the other without fenfibly
hurting the regularity of the taper form.
“ The glaffes being chofen, and every one marked
with a diamond the note you intend it for, they are
to be tuned by diminifliing the thicknefs of thbfe
that are too (harp. This is done by grinding them
round from the neck towards the brim, the breadth
of one or two inches as may be required ; often try¬
ing the glafs by a well- tuned harpfichord, comparing
the note drawn from the glafs by your finger with the
note you want, as founded by that ftring of the harp¬
fichord. When you come near the matter, be careful
to wipe the glafs clean and dry before each trial, be-
caufe the tone is fomething flatter when the glafs is
wet than it will be when dry ;—and grinding a very
little between each trial, you will thereby tune to great
exa&nefs. The more care is neceffary in this, becaufe
if you go below your required tone there is no fharpen-
ing it again but by grinding fomewhat off the brim-
which will afterwards require polifhing, and thus in-
creafe the trouble.
“ The glaffes being thus tuned, you are to be
provided with a cafe for them, and a fpindle on which
they are to be fixed. My cafe is about three feet long,
eleven inches every way wide within at the biggefl:
. end, and five inches at the fmalleft end ; for it tapers
all the way, to adapt it better to the conical figure of
the fet of glaffes. This cafe opens in the middle of
its height, and the upper part turns up by hinges fixed
behind. The fpindle is of hard iron, lies horizontally
from end to end of the box within, exadlly in the
middle, and is made to turn on brafs gudgeons at each
end. It is round, an inch diameter at the thickeft
end, and tapering to a quarter of an inch at the fmalleft.
—A fquare (hank comes from its thickeft end through
the box, on which Ihank a wheel is fixed by a ferew.
This wheel ferves as a fly to make the motion equable,
when the fpindle, with the glaffes, is turned by the
foot like a fpinning-wheel. My wheel is of mahogany,
18 inches diameter, and pretty thick, fo as to conceal
near its circumference about 2jlb. of lead. An ivory
pin is fixed in the face of this wheel, about four inches
from the axis. Over the neck of this pin is put the
loop of the ftring that comes up from the moveable ftep
to give it motion. The cafe ftanda on a neat frame
with four legs.
“ To fix the glaffes on the fpindle, a cork is firlt to
Qjl 2 be
H A R
he fitted in each neck pretty tight, and proje&ing
little without the neck, that the neck of one may not
touch the infide of another when put together, for
that would make a jarring. Thefe corks are to be
perforated with holes of different diameters, fo as to
fuit that part of the fpindle on which they are to be
fixed. When a glafs is put on, by holding it ftifRy
between both hands, while another turns the fpindle,
it may be gradually brought to its place. But care
muft be taken that the hole be not too fmall, left in
forcing it up the neck fhould fplit; nor too large,
left the glafs, not being firmly fixed, fhould turn or
move on the fpindle, fo as to touch or jar againft its
neighbouring glafs. The glaffes thus are placed one in
another; the largeft on the biggeft end of the fpindle,
which is to the left hand : the neck of this glafs is to¬
wards the wheel ; and the next goes into it in the
fame pofition, only about an inch of itxbrim appearing
beyond the brim of the firft ; thus proceeding, every
glafs when fixed fhows about an inch of its brim (or
three quarters of an inch, or half an inch, as they grow
fmaller) beyond the brim of the glafs that contains it;
and. it is from thefe expofed parts of each glafs that the
tone is drawn, by laying a finger on one of them as the
fpindle and glaffes turn round.
“ My largeft glafs is G a little below the reach of
a common voice, and my higheft G, including three
complete o&aves.—To diftinguifh the glaffes more
readily to the eye, I have painted the apparent parts of
the glaffes within-fide, every femitone white, and the
ether notes of the oftave with the feven prifmatic co¬
lours; •viz. C, red; D, orange; E, yellow; F, green,
G, blue; A, indigo, B, purple; and C, red again;—
fo that the glaffes of the fame colour (the white excep¬
ted ) are always o&aves to each other.
“ This inftrument is played upon by fitting before
the middle of the fet of glaffes, as before the keys of
a harpfichord, turning them with the foot, and wetting
them now and then with a fpunge and clean water.
The fingers filould be firft a little foaked in water, and
quite free from all greafinefs; a little' fine chalk upon
them is fometimes ufeful, to make them catch the glafs
and bring out the tone more readily. Both hands are
ufed, by which means different parts are played to¬
gether.—Obferve, that the tones are be ft drawn out
when the glaffes turn from the ends of the fingers, not
when they turn to them.
“ The advantages of this inftrument are, that its
tones are incomparably fweet beyond thofe of any
other; that they may be fwelled and foftened at pleafure
by ftronger or weaker preffures of the finger, and con¬
tinued to any length ; and that the inftrument, being
once well tuned, never again wants timing.”
Such was the ftate in which this learned and inge¬
nious author found, and fuch the perfection to which
he carried, that celeftial inftrument of which we now
treat. We call it celejiial; becaufe, in comparifon with
any other inftrument which we know, the founds that
it produces are indeed heavenly. Some of them, how¬
ever, are ftill conftru&ed in the fame imperfedt man¬
ner as the inftrument of Mr Puckeridge. They are
contained in an oblong cheft; their pofitions are either
exadtly or nearly redilineal; the artificial femitones by
which the full notes are divided, form another paral¬
lel line; but the diftances between, each of them are
H A R
much greater than thofe between the.notes of the na- Harmonl-
tural fcale, as they take their places,- not diredly op-
polite to the rioteswhich they are intended to heighten * 1 ”
or deprefs, but in a fituation between the higheft and
loweft, to {how, that in afcending they are (harps to
the one, and in defcending flats to the other. This
ftrudure, however, is doubly inconvenient; for it not
only increafes the labour and difficulty of the performer,
but renders fome mufical operations impradicable,
which upon the Harmonica, as conftituted by Dr Frank¬
lin, may be executed with eafe and pleafure. In this
fabric, if properly formed and accurately tuned, the
inftrument is equally adapted to harmony and melody.
But as no material ftrudure could ever yet be brought
to the perfedion even of human ideas, this inftrument
ftill in fome meafure retains the perverfe nature of its
original ftamina. Hence it is not without the utmoft
difficulty that the glaffes can be tuned by grinding;
and the leaft conceivable redundancy or defect renders
the difcord upon this inftrument more confpicuous and
intolerable than upon any other. Hence likewife
that inexpreffible delicacy to be obferved in the man¬
ner of the fridion by which the found is produced r
for if the touch be too gentle, it cannot extort the
tone; and if too ftrong, bcfides the mellow and deli¬
cate found which ought to be heard, we likewife per¬
ceive the finger jarring upon the glafs, which, mingled
with thofe fofter founds by which the fenfes had been
foothed, gives a feeling fimilar to iron grating upon
iron, but more difagreeable. In wind-inftruments the
operation of the tongue, in harpfichords the ftroke of
the quill, and on the violin the motion of the bow,
gives that ftrong and fenfible interruption of found
which may be called articulation, and which renders
the rhythmus or meafure of an airmore perceptible: but,
upon the glaffes, the touch of the finger is too foft to-
divide the notes with fo much force; fo that, unlefs the
mind be fteadily attentive, they feem to mek one into
another, by which means the idea of rhythmus is almoft
loft. There is no way of performing a llur but by
forbearing to ftop the firft found, when that which is
immediately fubfequent commences. Thus, when the
llur is of any length, and regularly defcends or rifes
by the interval of a fecond, all the notes in the llur
muft be heard together, and produce no agreeable
diffonance; yet if it rifes or defcends by perfedt chords,
the effe<ft is pleafing. The open lhake, or trill, is ano¬
ther unhappy operation upon mufical glaffes ; which
can only be performed by the alternate pulfations of
two continued founds, differing from each other only
by a note or femitone. But as thefe pulfations thus
managed cannot be diftindl, the refult is far from.be¬
ing pleafant; nor is there any fuccedaneum for the
clofe lhake, which in the violin is performed by alter¬
nately depreffing the ftring to the finger-board, and
fuffering it to rife without entirely removing the finger
from it, and which, by giving the note that tremulous
found produced by the human voice affedted with grief,
is a grace peculiarly adapted to pathetic and plaintive
airs.
We proceed, however, to a farther account of the
fame inftrument, extradled from the Annual Regifter,
vol. iv. p.' 149-
“ Befides thofe tones (fays the author of that
account) which every elaftic ftring produces by a vi->
bratioa
r .us t
H A R
r 317 1
H A R
Harmoni- bration of all its parts, it is capable of another fet of “ Inftead of the finger, I have applied moiftened Harmoni-
tones, in which only a part of the itring is fuppofed leather to the edge of the glafs, in order to bring out
to vibrate. Thefe founds are produced by the lighteft the ton:: but, for want of a proper elafticity, this did
touches, either by air, as in Ofwald’s lyre, or by not fucceed. I tried cork, and this anfwered every
rubbing the bow in the foftelt manner on the ftring of purpofe of the finger; but made the tone much louder
a fiddle. • than the finger could do. Inftead, therefore, of the
“ Analogous to thefe founds are thofe produced by finger, if a number of corks were fo contrived as to
bells: in thofe laft, befides thofe tones produced by fall with a proper degree of prelfure on the edge of
their elliptical vibrations, there are a fet of tones which the glafs, by means of keys like the jacks of an organ,
may be brought by gently rubbing their edges, and in it is evident, that in fueh a cafe a new and tolerably
which the whole inftrument does not appear to vibrate peifeft inftrument would be produced; not fo loud in-
in all its parts as before. deed as fome, but infinitely more melodious than any.
“ Take, for inftance, a bell finely polilhed at the “ The mouths of the glaffes or bells ufed in this ex¬
edges ; or, what will perhaps be more convenient, a periment Ihould not refemble the mouth of a trumpet,,
drinking-glafs : let the edges be as free from any thing but. Ihould rather come forward with a perpendicular
ody as pofiibk; then, by moiftening the finger in wa- edge. The corks ufed in this cafe fnould be finooth,
ter (I have found alum-water to be belt), and rubbing even free from thofe blemilhes which are ufually found
it circularly round the edge of the glafs, you will at in^them, and at the fame time the more elaftic the
length bring out the tone referred to. better.”
“ This note is poffeffed of infinite fweetnefs ; it has In the two accounts here given feems to be compre-
all the excellencies of the tone of a bell without its hended every thing valuable which has been faid upon
defedts. It is loud, has a fufficient body, is capable the fubjedt. It remains, however, our permanent opi-
of being fwelled and continued at pleafure ; and, be- nion, that the form and llrudfure defigned and.confti-
fides, has naturally that vibratory foftening which tuted by Dr Franklin is by much the moft eligible ;
muliciaus endeavour to imitate by mixing with the note nor can we admit, that a cork, however fuccefsfully
to be played a quarter-tone from below. applied, will produce the fame mellownefs and equality
■“ To vary thefe tones, nothing more is required of tone in general with the finger. It appears to us,
than to procure feveral bells or glaffes of different tones, that, by this kind of voluntary attrition, a note may be
tuned as nearly as poffible, which may be done by thin- funk or fwelled with much more art and propriety than
ning the edges of either: or, for immediate fatis- by the fubftitution of any thing elfe extrinfic to the
fadtion, the glaffes may be tuned by pouring in water; hand ; and when chords are long protradled, that de-
the more water is poured in, the graver the -tone gree of fridfion, which renders every found in the chord
will be. fenfible to the ear, without harftinefs, muff be the moll
“ Let us fuppofe then a double odlave of thofe agreeable. For this reafon, likewife, we Ihould recom-
glaffes, thus tuned, to be procured. Any common mend alum-water in preference to chalk,
tune may be executed by the fingers rubbing upon From what has already been faid, it will eafily be
each glafs fucctffively ; and this I have frequently perceived, that this inftrument requires to be tuned with
done without the leaff difficulty, only choofing thofe the niceft degree of delicacy which the laws of tempe-
tunes which are flow and eafy. Here then are num- rament will poffibly admit. For thefe laws the reader
hers of delicate tones, with which muficians have been will naturally have recourfe to the article Music f, in f Chap,
till very lately unacquainted ; and the only defeft is, this Didionary ; where, from M. D’Alembert, is gi-art. 64.
that they cannot be made to follow each other with ven a plain and fatisfa£k>ry account, both of the me-
that celerity apd eafe which is requiiite for melody. In thod propofed by Rameau, and of that eftablifhed in
order to remedy this, I took a large drinking-glafs, common practice, without anticipating the experience
and by means of a wheel and gut, as in the ele&rical and tafte of the reader, by dictating which of thefe
machine, made it to turn upon its axis with a mode^ plans is preferable. To thofe who have occafion to
rately quick but equable motion ; then moiffening the tune the inftrument, it may likewife be ufeful to per¬
il nger as before, nothing more was required than merely ufe the detached article Temperament in thisWork.
to touch the glafs at the edge, without any other mo- Without recapitulating the different rules of alteration
tion, in order to bring out the tone. prefcribed in thefe accounts, we ftall prefuppofe the
“ Inftead of one glafs only turning in this manner, if reader acquainted with them ; and proceed to defcribe
the whole number of glaffes were fo fixed as to keep how, under their influence, the Harmonica may be tu-
^ontinually turning by means of a wheel, it follows, ned. But it is previouffy expedient to obferve, that
that upon every touch of the finger a note would be the fame rules which conduct the procefs of tuning a
expreffed; and thus, by touching feveral glaffes at once, harpfichord, will be equally effectual in tuning the Har-
an harmony of notes might be produced, as in an harp- monica ; with this only difference, that ' greater delica*
fichord. _ cy in adjufting the chords ffiould, if praifticable, be at-
“ As I write rather to excite than fatisfy the cu- tempted,
rious, I fliall not pretend to direft the various ways There are different notes from whence the procedure
this number of glaffes may be contrived to turn ; it of tuning may commence. La or A, which is the key
may be fufficient to fay, that if the glaffes are placed that pretty nearly divides the harpfichord, is chofen by
in the fegment of a circle, and then a ftrap, as in a fome; this la in common fpinets is 24 natural keys
cutler’s wheel, be fuppofed to go round them all, the from the bottom, and 13 from the top : and the ut a-
whole number will by this means be made to turn by bove it, or fecond C upon the G cleff, by others. This
means of a wheeL, laft we ffiould rather advife, becaufe we imagine thofe
interval*:
ITii'rmom-
MAR l SiS ] MAR
Intervals which we have called feconds major to be more naturals, it will likewife be neceflary to try the thirds, K
juft through the whole'odtave, when the courfe of tu- and to alter fuch as may offend the ear; which, if can¬
ning is begun by,a natural femitone. The initiate, tioufly done, .will not fenfibly injure the other chords,
therefore, may begin by tuning the fecond ut of his —Though this article has been protrafted to a length
Harmonica., or C above the treble cleff, in unifon with which we did not originally intend, we have how-
its correfpondent C upon the harpfichord or any other ever the fatisfa&ion to find, ' that it comprehends
inftrumeuc in concert-pitch; then, defcending to its everything effential; fo that any perfon who under-
pftave.below, adjuft it with the ut above, till every ftands the nature of chords, and the practical prin-
pulfation if pofiible be loft, and the founds rendered ciples of mufic as univerfally taught, may not only be
fcarcely diftmguiftiable when fimultaneoufly heard. To able to tune his inftrument, but to acquire its whole
the loweft note of this odtave he muft tune the fol or G manoeuvre, without the leaft affiftance from a mafter.
immediarely above it by a fifth, ftill obferving the laws
of temperament: To this G, the re, or D immediately
above it, by the fame chord : To the re, or D above,
its odtave below : To this, by a fifth, the la or A im¬
mediately above it: To la, the mi or Esafcending in
the fame proportion: To mi, its oftave below : To
this, they? or B immediately above it by a fifth : To
the firft «/, or C, which was tuned, the fa or F imme-
dietely below by the fame chord.
That the pradtitioner may be ftill more fecure in the
juftice and propriety of his procedure, he may try the
thirds of the notes already adjufted, and alter, as much
as is confiftent with the fifths and o&aves, fuch among
thefe thirds as may feem grating and difagreeable to his
ear. Thus far having accomplifhed his operation, he
may tune all the other natural notes whether above or
below by odtaves. His next concern is with the femi-
tones. And here it will be fuggefted by common
fenfe, that as in all inftruments with fixed fcales the
lharp of a lower muft likewife anfwer for the flat of a
higher tone, the femitone ought as nearly as poflible
to divide the interval. He may begin with la or A
fharp ; which la in its natural ftate is a third minor be¬
neath the ut ox C, from whence he began in the natu¬
ral fcale. This femitone fhould correfpond with the F
natural immediately above t)y a fifth. To it may be
tuned the re or D fharp immediately below by a fimilar
chord : To D ftiarp, its oftave above : To^yf or B na¬
tural, immediately above the la or A firft mentioned,
may be adjufted the ¥ or fa (harp immediately above
it: To this its oftave below: To that o&ave, the C
or ut (harp , above by a fifth : To the C (harp, its odtave
below : To this, by a fifth, the G or fol (harp above.
Between this G (harp and the D (harp immediately
above it, the fifth will probably be too (harp; but if
the others are juftly tuned, that difcord will not be ex¬
tremely offenfive; and it is a neceffary confequence of
temperament. The reft of the (harps and flats, like their
naturals, whether afcending or defcending, may be tu¬
ned by their oftavea.
The notes, with their chords, may be expreffed by
letters and figures, thus; where, however, it muft be
pbferved, that the higher notes of any chord are marked
■with larger capitals. It (hould likewife be remarked,
that the figures are not exprelfive of the different ratios
which the notes bear one to another, confidered with
refpeft to their vibrations; but only fignificant of
their nominal diftances, according to the received de¬
nominations of the intervals. Cc cG cD dD dA
s s s j s
aE Ee eB Cf. The (harps and flats thus, a^FIj,
AM, ikm, B \ F$, FM. CM,
c^Gr^. In running over the (harps and flats as the
On Plate CCXXVI. is reprefented an inftrument
of this kind, made by Mr Dobb of St Paul’s church¬
yard, London.
Though this topic appeared in itfelf complete in
the former edition of this extenfive work, yet having
fince received from Dr Edmund Cullen of Dublin the
following obfervations, and refle&ing that men of mu-
fical talents have not only different taftes, but different
powers of mechanical operation, we have' thought it
proper to fubmit to the choice of our readers, either
Dr Franklin’s form and arrangement of the glaffes, or
that which has been adopted by Dr Cullen; but in ei¬
ther cafe, we would recommend it to the initiate in
this inftrument, to diftinguifh by colours, according to
Dr Franklin, the .notes and femitones.—We like¬
wife cannot forbear to thinlj, that the complete bafa
pradticable on the harmonica, is by many degrees pre¬
ferable to the chords with which Dr Cullen propofes to
grace every emphatic note, with which, from the ftruc-
ture and arrangement of his inftrument, he is under a
necefiity of deluding inftead of fatisfying the ear, with
the full effeft of the regular procedure of the treble and
bafs upon the fame inftrument.
This inftrument the Doftor defcribes as confiding “ of
35 glaffes of different fixes, anfwering to fo many diftindfc
founds, and rangedin the manner hereafter to be delcribed.
They are exa&ly of the form of a cocoa nut when the u-
fual quantity of the top is cut off, or the fugar-bowls
made of cocoa-nut (hells fo much in ufe will give a pre-
cife idea of their figure. They are blown with plain long
ftalks, which are fitted to wooden feet fcrewed on a
board at proper diftances, in fuch a manner that the cir¬
cular tops of all may be in the fame horizontal plane,
at the diftance of about an inch afunder. Of thefe 35,
10 only are allotted for half tones; there remain there¬
fore 25 for the diatonic fcale. The loweft note cprre-
fponds to G in the bafs clef; hence it extends upward
to the o&ave above C in alt. For uniformity, take the
glaffes which are chofen gradually and regularly dimi-
nifhing in fize as they afcend in tone. This, however,
is not abfolutely neceffary, as the tone of the glafs does
not entirely depend *upon its fize, but in a great mea-
fure upon the proportion of its different parts to one
another: hence the glafs correfponding to one note may
be fmalier than a glafs correfponding to a note three or
four tones higher : however, where it is practicable, they
(houkbalways be chofen gradually diminiffing as they a-
fcend,both on account of the elegance of appearance, and
that an equality in point of loudnefs may be preferved ;
for, as every body knows, an inftrument may be liable
to great inequality in point of ftrength, though per-
fetftly in tune. This muft have a very bad effedt; and
therefore we find performers on the violin and other in¬
ftruments of that kind very felicitous about the propor¬
tional
H A R [ 3
parmonl- tional thlcknefs of their fixings. The glafies being
ca' chofen in the beft manner circumftances will permit,
.1 we proceed to arrange them. Here let me obferve, that
in general the diameter of the largeft glafs at its mouth
is about feven inches, and its folid contents about five
Englilh pints, while the highefi: is of about ^ inch, and
its contents about -f of a gill: this, however, is arbitrary,
and depends upon the pitch of the inftrument. In ar¬
ranging the glaffes, we (hail, to avoid confufion, take
the diatonic fcale fit fi,and afterwards the half tones will
be eafily underftood. The wooden feet before men¬
tioned are to be fcrewed on a (trong board of a proper
fize, and they are difpofed at convenient intervals in
rows perpendicular to the longeft fides of the redlan-
gular board on which they iland. In thefe feet the
glades are difpofed in the following manner: Beginning
with the lowed note G, we fix that on the foot which
ftands in the neared angle of the board on the left
hand, A in the next bottom in the fame perpendicular
line, B in the third : when we com< to C, however,
we do not place it in the fame perpendicular line, but
in the neared bottom of the fecond perpendicular row
to the left hand, D in the fecond of the fame row, E
in the third ; F again in the neared bottom of the third
row, G in the fecond of the fame row, A in the third ;
B again in the neared bottom of the fourth row, C in
the fecond of the fame, and fo on. By this contri¬
vance, it is eafy to fee an immenie compafs is obtain¬
ed : fo great a one indeed, that if the glafles were dif¬
pofed according to the old method, regularly afcending
in a line parallel to the front of the indrument, to take
in the fame compafs, it mud dretch to a confiderable
length, no lefs than a length equal to the fum of all
. the perpendiculars we before fpoke of, which in ordi¬
nary fize of the glaffes would amount to upw ards of 16
feet ; the inconvenience of which it is unneceffary to
dwell upon. As to the half tones, perhaps a more ju¬
dicious and convenient arrangement may be thought of
for them : but the prefent mode is far from incon¬
venient, except in fume keys; and it is fufficiently
commodious for performing fuch airs as are bed fuited
to the nature and defign of the indrument. After ex¬
plaining the arrangement, we lhall fpeak fomewhst more
cxaftly of them. Eb on the fird line of the treble Have
ftands in the fourth bottom of the fird perpendicular
row to the left hand ; FI) on the fird fpace dands in
the fourth place of the fecond row, G!) on the fe¬
cond line of the treble dave Hands in the fourth of the
third row, Ct) on the third fpace of the fame dave
dands in the fame manner in the fourth row, .and
To on, afcending Ft) in the fifth row, Gl] in the
fixth, At) in the feventh, Cil in the eighth. In the ninth
perpendicular row, that is, the lad to the right hand
in the diatonic fcale, Hands G alone ; but immediately
behind is placed B[j of the middle line of the treble
dave, and again behind it D[) of the fourth line of the
treble dave, which finifhes the whole. There is fome-
thing Angular, and perhaps whimfical, in the didribu-
tion of the half tones : but it is found diffidently con¬
venient ; and if a better is thought of, it may eafily be
adopted. In the mean time I mud obferve, that two
of them, viz. Ct( and Ft), Handing immediately behind
the D and G refpeftively above them, are Angularly
well fitted for performing running paffages either up or
down in the key of G. £x. gr. let us fuppofe that we
19] H A R
have that very common A, G, FI), E, femfquaVers:
Here the performer touches A, which is in the fird place
of the 6th row, with his left hand, G with the fore-finger
of his right, Fi) with the middle, and E again with the
left hand; in the fame manner may E, D, Gl], and B, be
played, or upwards by inverting the motion: Thus we
can with the utraod eafe run either up or down two very
frequent paffages in a key, which might naturally be fup-
pofed difficult upon this indrument, and that with any
given rapidity. I wifh as much could be faid of all the
other half tones, of which, by the bye, fome are altoge¬
ther wanting: it is obvious, however, that they may
eafily be added, if we can find convenient places; and
I apprehend even that very practicable. Be that as it
may, notwithdanding the feemingly inconvenient fi¬
xation of fome half tones, and the total want of others,
pieces may be performed on this indrument wf confi¬
derable rapidity. I myfelf, though very far from be¬
ing an accomplifhed player, can with great eafe go
through all the parts of Fidier’s celebrated Rondeau ;
nay, i have heard the fifth concerto of Vivaldi played
upon it with as much diltinftnefs as upon a violin. The
glaffes are not nectffarily chofen perfe&ly in tune, hut
are tuned by the help of a quantity of water. Here,
however, two cautions are neceffary : id, By no means
to take a glafs which is, when without water, flatter
than the note you intend; as in that cafe you cannot re¬
medy it, the water making the tone dill flatter : rather
let it be i'omewhat (harper, and you may tune it to the
utmod nicety by a little water. The fecond caution is,
not to choqfe a glafs which is very much (harper than
the note required ; as in that cafe, fo large a quantity
of water will be required to tune it as will entirely
fmother the tone.
“ Th*s indrument is to be played fomewbat in the
manner of the harmonica, viz. the fingers are to be well
wetted; and by the application of them to the fide, af-
lided by a proper motion, the found is produced. And
here I would obferve, that the proper motion is, to make
the fingers follow the thumb, not the thumb fellow the
fingers ingoing round the glafs : it us neceffary alfo to
preferve the circular motion very exatfly, as the lead
deviation from it produces the mod horrible found
that can be conceived, it it likewife to be obferved, that
you mud touch the fmaller glaffes upon the very top of
the brim ; and for that purpofe the palm of the hand
mud be nearly parallel to the top of the glafs: but
in coming to the larger glaffes, it is abfolutely necef¬
fary to make the fingers touch the fide, not the top of.
the glafs; and the larger the glafs, the more diftant*
from the top mud they be touched. Practice alone can
determine this matter.
“ From this difpofition of the glaffes, it Is eafy to fee
that the perfeft chord of C is always mod completely
in our power, namely, by ufing difl'erent fingers to the
different notes at the fame time : and although a full
bafs cannot be executed upon this inftrument, we have
always a great number of accompaniments which can
eafily be introduced; more perhaps than upon any inftru¬
ment, the organ and others of that fpecies excepted. The
thirds or fifths occafionally can be introduced; and when
done with tade and judgment, will fcarcely yield to a
middling bafs. If to this «fadded the thrilling foftnefs
of the tones, inimitable by. any other fubdancc, it will
readily appear to be an iRltrum?nt more in the true dyle
of
Harmoni-
H A R
Hartnoni- of mufic, of that mufic which the heart acknowledges,
, ca’ than any that either chance or ingenuity has hitherto
"V"" produced. It is indeed incapable of that whimfical
fubdivifton to which the fade of modern conripofers, that
fworn enemy to harmony and real mulic, leads; which
ferves no end but'to exhibit the wonderful executions
of a favourite performer, and to overwhelm his hearers
with ftupid admiration. This is not mufic; and up¬
on thefe occafions, though I acknowledge the difficul¬
ty of doing what I fee done, I lament that the hpneft
man has taken fo much pains to fo little purpofe.
Our inftrument is not capable of this (at lead not in
fo exquifite a degree as the harpfichord, violin, and a
few others) : yet if the true and original intent of mu-
fic is not to adonifli but to pleafe, if that indrument
which mod readily and pleafmgly feizes the heart thro'
the ears is the bed, I have not a moment’s hefitation in
fetting it down the fird of all mpfical indruments.
There is but one which will in any degree bear the
comparifon, or rather they are the fame indrument, I
mean Dr Franklin’s harmonica: but I am inclined to
think that the indrument we have been fpeaking of has
fome fuperiority over the harmonica. The fird driking
difference is in the -imprafticability of executing quick
paffages on the latter whereas it is in mod cafes ex¬
tremely eafy on the other. Again, the very long con¬
tinued vibration of the glafs, inevitably mud produce
C 32° 1
H A R
about that: And if he will fit at our indrument, he Harmoni.
may, though at the expence of much eafe in point of ca>
execution.
“ Let us now confider fome objections that have been '""'""V**-*
made to this indrument. One is, that neceffity of
danding, in order to do any thing capital upon it. But
is not that the cafe in all indruments, except where'
the performer fits of neceffity ? Did ever any one
fee Giardini or Fidier play a folo fitting? But for
the fatisfaCfion of thefe torpid gentlemen, I can faith¬
fully affure them, I knew a lady who performed on this
indrument perfectly well, though die had loft the ufe
of both her legs. A more ferious and important ob¬
jection lies both to this and the harmonica, viz. the
want of a fhake. How this is fupplied upon the harmo¬
nica, 1 cannot fay, as I never favv it even attempted :
but on our indrument, although a very perfeCt fhake can
fcarcely be produced, fomething fo like it maybe done
as will fairly excufe the want; and that is, by whirling
the two dands round the note concerned with the drake
with the utmod velocity, beginning the lower note a
little fooner than the other. By this means, except in
very large glaffes where the vibrations are too didant
in time, fuch an intermixture of the two founds is pro¬
duced, as extremely well imitates a fine fhake, and the
dexterous performer will make the beat in a turned
diake with a fpare finger. This operation requires
horrible difeord, or at lead confufion, except the piece fome dexterity ; but this is a charge common to all
played be fo .flow that the vibration of one glafs be
nearly over before the other is heard. Now, in our in¬
ftrument, this may be remedied by laying pieces of
fpunge lightly between the glaffes, fo as to allow them
.only the proper extent of vibration. This, however, is
an exceptionable method : and it is much better done
by the touch of the performer’s finger, which indantly
ftops the vibration ; and the ufe of this may be learned
by a very little praflice, the motion here being entire¬
ly voluntary,: ‘But in the harmonica, the motion being
.partly mechanical, v.g. the rotation of the glaffes,.
this cannot be done ; and for the IGame reafon, in the
execution of the crefcendo the harmonica is not fo per-
mufical indruments ; and I quedion not but that the
Highland bagpipe itfelf requires fome fort of {kill.
“ Upon the whole, I am clearly of opinion, that the
harmonica, and more efpecially this inftrument which
has as yet got no name, is the moft exquifite and noble
prefent that the lovers of true harmony have ever yet re¬
ceived ; and it is .with much aftoniftrment I find this
invaluable treafure almoft entirely confined to Ireland, a
country not very remarkable for mufical tafte or ta¬
lents: But I hope foon to fee this elegant fpecies of
mufic very generally known and practifed over all Eu¬
rope.” i
HARMONY. The fenfe which the Greeks gave to
feft as this inftrument. Befides, the inconvenience of this word in their mufic, is fo much lefs eafy to be de¬
tuning the half tones, as (harps or fiats, feparately, is as termined, becaufe, the wbrd itfelf being originally a
great‘in the harmonica as in the harpfichord. This is fubdantive proper, it has no radical words by which we
a very great imperfe<9:ion ; as half tones, being tuned at might analyfe it, to difeover its etymology. In the
the medium, are falfe both as fliarps and as flats. The ancient treatifes which remain to us, harmony appears
learned Dr Smith fays, there is no lefs than one-fifth of to be that department whole objeft is the agreeable fuc-
the interval difference between the (harp of one note ceffion of founds, merely conlidered as high or low ;
■and the flat of the next above ; and for this, purpofe in oppofition to the two others called rhythmica and
^ropofes to have an harpfichord condrudted with a flop,
fo as to direft the jacks to the (harps or flats accord¬
ing to the prevalence of either in the piece to be play¬
ed : but in our indrument, from its very condruftion,
this inconvenience is avoided. As to matters of con¬
venience, the harmonica is exceedingly apt to be out of
order ; the glaffes frequently break, plainly on account
of the great drain upon them where they join the
metric a, which have their principle in time and mea-
fure. This leaves our ideas concerning that aptitude of
found vague and undetermined ; nor can we fix them
without fludying for that purpofe all the rules of the
art; and even after we have done fo, it will be very
difficult £0 dittinguilh harmony from melody, uniefs
we add to the lad the ideas of rhythmus and mea-
fure ; without which, in reality, no melody can have
fpindle, and are thus with much difficulty reneweda dillinguilhing charafter: whereas harmony is cha-
whereas with us the lofs of a glafs is nothing. Add to ra&erifed by its own nature, independent of all other
all this, that the harmonica, in point of original ex- -    -L—J- —   
pence, is about five times as high as the other : although
j apprehend it poffeffes no one advantage, except that
the performer may fit at it; whereas with our indru-
tnent it is convenient, if not neceffary, to Aand ; but he
mud be a lazy mufician that gives hunfelf much concern
N° 148.
quantities except the chords or intervals which com-
pofe it.
It appears by a paffage of Nicomachus, and by
others, that they lileewife gave the name of harmony to
the chord of an o&ave, and to concerts of voices and
indruments, which performed in the didance of.an -oc-
4 tave
H A R L 3^1 1 H A 11
Harmony tave one from the other, and which is more commonly
w'"v  called antiphone.
Harmony, according to the moderns, is a fuccelfion
of chords agreeable to the laws of modulation. For a
long time this harmony had no other principle but fuch
rules as were almoft arbitrary, or folely founded on
the approbation of a pra&ifed ear, which decided con¬
cerning the agreeable or difagreeable fucceffion of
chords, and whofe determinations were at laft reduced
to calculation. But father Merfenne and M. Saveur
having found that every found, however fimple in ap¬
pearance, was always accompanied with other founds
iefs feniible, which conftitute with itfelf a perfedt chord-
rnajor ; with this experiment M. Rameau fet out, and
upon it formed the bafis of his harmonic fyftem, which
he has extended to a great many volumes, and which
at laft M. D’Alembert has taken the trouble of ex¬
plaining to the public.
Signior Tartini, taking his route from an experiment
which is newer and more delicate, yet not lefs certain,
has reached conclufions fimilar enough to thofe of Ra¬
meau, by purfuing a path whofe diredtion feems quite
oppofite. According to M. Rameau, the treble is
generated by the bafs; Signior Tartini makes the
bafs refult from the treble. One deduces harmony
from melody, and the other fuppofes quite the con¬
trary. . To determine from which of the two fchools
the beft performances are likely to proceed, no more is
neceflary than to inveftigate the end of the compofer,
and difcover whether the air is made for the accom¬
paniments, or the accompaniments for the air. At
the word System in Roufleau’s Mufical Di&ionary,
is given a delineation of that publilhed by Signior
Tartini. Here he continues to fpeak of M. Rameau,
whom he has followed through this whole work, as
the artift of greateft authority in the country where he
writes.
He thinks himfelf obliged, however, to declare,
That this fyftem, however ingenious it may be, is far
from being founded upon nature; an affirmation which
he inceflantly repeats: “ That it is only eftablifhed
upon analogies and congruities, which a man of inven¬
tion may overturn to-morrow, by fubftituting others
more natural: that, in fhort, of the experiments from
whence he deduces it, one is detefted fallacious, and
the other will not yield him the confequences which he
would extort from it. In reality, when this author
took it in his head to dignify with the title of de-
monjlration the reafonings upon which he eftabliftied his
theory, every one turned the arrogant pretence into ri¬
dicule. The Academy of Sciences loudly difapproved
a title fo ill founded, and fo gratuitoully affumed ; and
~M. Eftive, of the Royal Society at Montpelier, has
fhown him, that even to begin with this propofition,
That according to the law of nature, founds are repre-
fented by their o&aves, and that the o&aves may be
fubftituted for them, there was not any one thing de-
monftrated, or even firmly eftablifhed, in his pretended
demonftration.” Tie returns to his fyftem.
“ The mechanical principle of refonance prefents us
with nothing but independent and folitary chords ;
it neither prefcribes nor eftabliihes their fucceffion.
Yet a regular fucceffion is neceffary ; a di&ionary of
fele&ed words is not an oration, nor a colleftion of
legitimate chords a piece of mufic : there muft be a
Vo l. VIII. Part I.
meaning, there muft be conne&ions in mufic as well Hannmiy.
as in language : it is neceflary that what has preceded
ffiould tranfmit fomething of its nature to what is fub-
fequent, fo that all the parts conjoined may form a
whole, and be ftamped with the genuine chara&er of
unity.
“ Now, the complex fenfation which refults from a
perfedl chord muft be refolved into the fimple fenfa¬
tion of each particular found which compofes it, and
into the fenfation of each particular interval which
forms it, afcertained by comparifon one with another.
Beyond this there is nothing fenfible in any chord ;
from whence it follows, that it is only by the relation
between founds, and by the analogy between intervals,
that the conneftion now in queftion can be eftabliffied;
and this is the genuine, the only fource, from whence
flow all the law’s of harmony and modulation. If, then,
the whole of harmony were only formed by a fucceffion
of perfeft chords-majoi, it would be fufficient to pro¬
ceed by intervals fimilar to thofe which compofe fuch
a chord ; for then fome one or more founds of the pre¬
ceding chord being neceffarily protracted in that which
is fubfequent, all the chords would be found fufficiently
connected, and the harmony would, at lead in this
fenfe, be one.
“ But befides that thefe fucceffions muft exclude all
melody by excluding the diatonic feries which forms its
foundation, it would not arrive at the real end of the
art ; becaufe, as mufic is a fyftem of meanings like a
difcourfe, it ought, like a difcourfe, to have its periods,
its phrafes, its fufpenfes, its cadences, its punCtuation of
every kind ; and becaufe the uniformity of a harmoni-
cal procedure implies nothing of all this, diatonic pro¬
cedures require that major and minor chords ffiould be
intermixed ; and the neceffity of diflbnances has been
felt in order to diftinguilh the phrafes, and render the
cadences fenfible. Now, a connected feries of perfeft
chords-major can neither be productive of perfeCt
chords-minor nor of diffonances, nor can fenlibly mark
any mufical phrafe, and the punCtuation muft there be
found entirely defective.
“ M. Rameau being abfolutely determined, in his
fyftem, to deduce from nature all the harmony prac-
tifed among us, had recouvfe, for this effeCt, to ano¬
ther experiment of his own invention, of which I have
formerly fpoken, and which by a different arrange¬
ment is taken from the firft. He pretended, that any
fimple found whatever afforded in it multiplies a per¬
fect minor or flat chord, of which it was the domi¬
nant or fifth, as it furniffied a perfeCt chord major by
the vibration of its aliquot parts, of which it is the tonic
or fundamental found. He has affirmed as a certain
faCt, that a vocal firing caufed two others lower than
itfelf to vibrate through their whole extent, yet without
making them produce any found, one to its twelfth ma¬
jor and the other to its feventeenth; and from thisjoin-
ed to the former faCt, he has very ingenioufly dedu¬
ced, not only the application of the minor mode and
of diffonances in harmony, but the rules of harmonic
phrafes and of all modulation, fuch as they are found at
the words -Chord, Accompaniment, Fundamental Bafs, Ca¬
dence, Dffonance, Modulation.
“ But firft (continues Rouffeau), the experiment
is falfe. It is difcovered, that the firings tuned be¬
neath the fundamental found do not entirely vibrate
R r when
H A R
[ 322 1
H A R
Harmony, when tli'S fundamental found is given ; but that they thefe additional harmonics that the founds which pro- Harmony.
- e divided in fuch a manner as to return its unifon duce them are diftinguiihed with a more fenfible degree 
alone, which of confequence can have no harmonics
below. It is moreover difcovered, that the property
of firings in dividing themfelves, is not peculiar to thofe
which are tuned by a twelfth and feventeenth below the
of harfhnefs ; and thefe very harmonica which thus
render the chord perceptible, do not enter into its
harmony. This is the reafon why the mod perfedl
chords are naturally difpleafing to ears whole relifh
principal found ; but that ofciliations are likewife pro- for harmony is not fufficiently formed ; and I have
duced in the lower firings by all its multiples. Whence no hefitation in thinking, that even the odtave itfelf
it follows, that, the intervals of the twelfth and feven¬
teenth below not being fingular phenomena of their
kind, nothing can be concluded in favour of the perfect
minor chord which they reprefent.
“ Though the truth of this experiment were grant¬
ed, even this would by no means remove the difficulty.
If, as M. Rameau alleges, all harmony is derived front
the refonan.ee of fonorous bodies, it cannot then be de¬
rived only from the vibrations of fuch bodies as do not
refound. In reality, it is an extraordinary theory,
to deduce from bodies that do not refound the prin¬
ciples of harmony ; and it is a pofition in natural phi-
lofophy no lefs ftrange, that a fonorous body fhouH
vibrate without refounding, as if found itfelf were any
thing elfe but the air impelled by thefe vibrations.
Moreover, fonorous bodies do not only produce, be-
fides the principal found, the other tones which with
Itfelf compofe a perfect chord; but an infinite number
of other founds, formed by all the aliquot parts of the
bodies in vibration, which do not enter into that per-
feft harmony. Why then ffiould the fornfer founds
produce confonances, and why ffiould the latter not
produce them, fince all of them equally refult from
nature ?
“ Every found exhibits a chord truly perfect, fince
It is compofed of all its harmonics, and fince it Is by
them that it becomes a found. Yet thefe harmonics are
not Heard, and nothing Is diltinguiihed but a Ample
found, unlefs it be exceedingly ftrong: whence it fol¬
lows, that the only good harmony is an unifon; and
that, as foon as the confonances can be diftinguifhed,
the natural proportion being altered, the harmony has
loft its purity.
“ That alteration Is in this cafe produced two diffe¬
rent ways. Firft, by caufing certain harmonics to re¬
found, and not the others, the proportion of force
which ought to prevail in all of them is altered, for pro¬
ducing the fenfation of a fingle found; whence thfe
unity of nature is deftroyed. By doubling thefe har¬
monics, an effeft is exhibited fimilar to that which
would be produced by fuppreffing all the others; for
in that cafe we cannot doubt, but that, along with the
generating found, the tones of the other harmonics
which were permitted to found would be heard : where¬
as, in leaving all of them to their natural operations,
they deftroy one another, and confpire together in
might be difpleafing, if the mixture of male and fe¬
male voices did not inure us to that interval from our
infancy.
“ With diffonance it is ftill worfe ; becaufe, not
only the harmonics of the found by which the difeord is
produced, but even the found itfelf, is excluded from the
natural harmony of the fundamental: which is the caufe
why difeord is always diftinguiffied amongft all the
other founds in a manner Ihocking to the fenfe.
“ Every key of an organ, with the ftop fully open¬
ed, gives a perfeft chord with its third major, which
are not diltinguifhed from the fundamental found, if
the hearer is not extremely attentive, and if he does
not found the whole ftop in fucceffion ; but thefe har¬
monic founds are never abforbed in the fundamental,
but on account of the prodigious noife, and by fuch a
fituation of the regifters as may caufe the pipes which
produce the fundamental found to conceal by their
force the other founds which produce thefe harmonics.
Now, no perfon obferves, nor can obferve, this conti¬
nual proportion in a concert; fince, by the manner of
inverting the harmony, its greateft force muft in every
inftant be transferred from one part to another ; which
is not practicable, and would deftroy the whi le melody.
‘‘ When we play upon the organ, every key in the
bafs caufes to refound the perfect chord major; but
becaufe that bafs is not always fundamental, and be¬
caufe the mufic is often modulated in a perfeft minor
chord, this perfeCt chord-major is rarely ftruck with
the right hand ; fo that we hear the third minor with
the major, the fifth with the triton, the feventh re¬
dundant with the o&ave, and a thoufand other caco¬
phonies, which, however, do not much difguft our
ears, becaufe habit renders them traftable ; but it i^
not to be imagined that an ear naturally juft would,
prove fo patient of difeords, when firft expofed to the
teft of this harmony.
“ M. Rameau pretends, that trebles compofed with
a certain, degree of fimplicity naturally fuggeft their
own baffes; and that any man having a juft, though-
unpraftifed ear, would fpontaneoufly fing that bafs.
This is the prejudice of a mufician, refuted by univer-
fal experience. Not only would he, who has never
heard either bafs or harmony, be of himfelf incapable
of finding either the bafs or the harmony of M.
Rameau, but they would be difpleafing to him if he
forming and ftretigthening the fimple fenfation of the heard them, and he would greatly prefer the fimph
principal found. It is the fame effeft which the full unifon.
found of a ftop in the organ "produces, when, by fuc- “ When we confider, that, of all the people upon
ceffively removing the ftopper or regifter, the third and earth, who have all of them fome kind of mufic and
fifth are permitted to found with the principal; for then melody, the Europeans are the only people who have
that fifth and third, which remained abforbed in the a harmony confifting of chords, and who are pleafed
other founds, are feparately and difagreeably diftinguifh¬
ed by the ear.
“ Moreover, the harmonics which we caufe to found
have other harmonics pertaining to themfelves, which
cannot be fuch to the fundamental found. It is by
with this mixture of founds; when we confider that
the world has endured for fo many ages, whilft, of all
the nations which cultivated the fine arts, not one has
found out this harmony : that not one animal, not one
bird, not one being in nature, produces any other chord
but
H A R [ 323 J H A R
harmony, but the unifon, nor any other mufic but melody : that
' the eaftern languages, fo fonorous, fo mufical; that
the ears of the Greeks, fo delicate, fo fenfible, prac-
tifed and cultivated with fo much art, have never con¬
ducted this people, luxurious and enamoured of plea-
fure as they were, towards this harmony which we
imagined fo natural: that without it their mufic pro¬
duced fuch aftonHhing effeCts ; that with it ours is
fo impotent: that, in fhort, it was referved for the
people of the north, whofe grofs and callous organs of
fenfation are more affedted with the noife and clamour
of voices, than with the fweetnefs of accents and the
melody of infledtions, to make this grand difcovery,
and to vend it as the efiential principle upon which all
the rules of the art were founded ; when, in fhort, at¬
tention is paid to all thefe obfervations, it is very diffi¬
cult not to fufpedt that all our harmony is nothing but
a Gothic and barbarous invention, which would never
have entered into our minds, had we been truly fenfible
to the genuine beauties of art, and of that mulic which
is unqueftionably natural.
“ M. Rameau afferts, however, that harmony is the
fource of the moft powerful charms in mufic. But
this notion is contradictory both to reafon and to mat¬
ter of fadt. To fadt it is contradidtory ; becaufe,
fince the invention of counter-point, all the wonderful
effedts of mufic have ceafed, and it has loll its whole
force and'energy. To which may be added, that fuch
beauties as purely refult from harmony are only percei¬
ved by the learned ; that they affedt none with tranf-
port but fuch as are deeply converfant in the art :
whereas the real ^beauties of mufic, refulting from na¬
ture, ought to be, and certainly are, equally obvious
to the adept and the novice. To reafon it is contradic¬
tory ; fince harmony affords us no principle of imita¬
tion by which mufic, in forming images and expreffing
fentiments, can rife above its native excellence till it be¬
comes in fome meafure dramatic or imitative, which is
the higheft pitch of elevation and energy to which the
art can afpire ; fince all the pleafures which we can re¬
ceive from the mere mechanical influence of founds are
extremely limited, and have very little power over the
human heart.”
Thus far we have heard M. Roufleau, in his obfer¬
vations on harmony, with patience ; and we readily
grant, that the fyftem of harmony by M. Rameau is
neither demonstrated, nor capable of demonitration.
But it will not follow, that any man of invention can
fo eafiiy and fo quickly fubvert thofe aptitudes and ana¬
logies on which the fyftem is founded. Every hypo-
thefis is admitted to poffefs a degree of probability pro¬
portioned to the number of phenomena for which it
offers a fatisfadtory folution. The firft experiment of
M. Rameau is, that every fonorous body, together
with its principal found and its odtave, gives likewife
its twelfth and leventeenth major above ; which being
approximated as much as poffible, even to the chords
immediately reprefented by them, return to the third,
fifth, and odtave, or, ip other words, produce perfedt
harmony. This is what nature, when folicited, fpon-
taneoufly gives ; this is what the human ear, unpre¬
pared and uncultivated, imbibes with ineffable avidity
and pleafure. Could any thing which claims a right
to our attention, and acceptance from nature, be im-
prelied with more genuine or more legible fignatures of
her fandtion than this ? We do not contend for the Harmony,
truth of M. Rameau’s fecond experiment. Nor is it v~—
neceffary we flrould. The firft, expanded and carried
into all its confequences, refolves the phenomena of
harmonyin a manner fufficient to eftabliih its authenti¬
city and influence. The difficulties for which it af¬
fords no folution are too few and too trivial either to
merit the regard of an artift, or a philofopher, as M.
D’Alembert in his dements has clearly fhown. The
fadts with which M. Rouffeau confronts this principle,
the armies of multiplied harmonics generated in injini-
tum, which he draws up in formidable array againtt it,
only (how the thin partitions which fometimes may di¬
vide philofophy from whim. For, as bodies are infi¬
nitely divifible, according to the philofophy now efta-
blifhed, or as, according to every philofophy, they
muft be indefinitely divifible, each infinitefimal of any
given mafs, which are only harmonics to other princi¬
pal founds, muft have fundamental tones and harmo¬
nics peculiar to themfelves; fo that, if the reafoning of
Rouffeau has any force againft M. Bameau’s experi¬
ment, the ear muft be continually diftradted w-ith a
chaos of inappretiable harmonics, and melody itfelf
muft be loft in the confufion. But the truth of the
matter is, that, by the wife inftitution of nature, there
is fitch a conformity eltabliftied between our fenfes and
their proper objedts, as muft prevent all thefe difagree-
able effedts. Rouffeau and his opponent are agreed in
this, that the harmonics confpire to form one predomi¬
nant found ; and are not to be detedted but by the niceft
organs, applied with the deepeft attention. It is equal¬
ly obvious, that, in an artificial harmony, by a proper
management of this wife precaution of nature, diffo-
nances themfelves may be either entirely concealed or
confiderably foftened. So that, fince by nature fono¬
rous bodies in adtual vibration are predifpofed to exhi¬
bit perfedt harmony ; and fince the human ear is, by
the fame wife regulation, fabricated in fuch a manner
as to perceive it; the harmonical chaos of M. Rouffeau
may be left to operate on his own brain, where it wull
probably meet with the warmeft reception it can ex¬
pedite) find *. Nor does it avail him to pretend, that »M. Rouf-
before the harmonics can be diftinguilhed; fonorous bo- feau was a-
dies muft be impelled with a force which alters the ^v.e w^.e”
chords, and deftroys the purity of the harmony ; for^"®^-'.
this pefition is equally falfe both in theory and prac- ten.
tice. In theory, becaufe an impulfe, however forcible,
muft proportionally operate on all the parts of any fo¬
norous body, fo far as it extends: in pradtice, be¬
caufe the human ear adtually perceives the harmony to
be pure. What effedls his various manoeuvres upon
the organ may have, we leave to fuch as have leifure
and curiofity enough to try the experiments : but it is
apprehended, that when tried, their refults will leave
the fyftem of Rameau, particularly as remodelled by
D’Alembert, in its full force.
Of all the whims and paradoxes maintained by this
philofopher, none is more extravagant than his af-
lertion, that every chord, except the Ample unifon, is
difpleafing to the human ear : nay, that we are only
reconciled to odtaves themfelves by being inured to
hear them from our infancy. Strange, 'that nature
ftrould have fixed this invariable proportion between
male and female voices, whilft at the fame time Are in-
fpired the hearers with fuch violent prepoffeffions a-
R r 2 gainft 4
H A R L 324 ] H A R
Harmony, gainfl; it as were invincible but by long and confirmed
habit! The tranflator of D'Alembert's Elements, as gi¬
ven under the article Music in this Didtionary, has
been at peculiar pains to inveftigate his earlieft recol-
ledtions upon this fubjedl; and has had fuch opportu¬
nities, both of attending to his original perceptions,
and of recogniling the fidelity of his memory, as are
not common. He can remember, even from a period
of early childhood, to have been pleafed with the fim-
pleft kinds of artificial harmony ; to have diftinguilhed
the harmonics of fonorous bodies with delight; and to
have been ftruck with horror at the found of fuch bo¬
dies as, by their ftrufture, or by the cohefion of their
parts, exhibited thefe harmonics falfe. This is the
chief, if not the only caufe, of the tremendous and
difagreeable fenfation which we feel from the found of
the Chinefe ghong. ^The fame horrible cacophony is
frequently, in tome degree, produced by a drum une¬
qually braced : from this found the tranflator often re¬
members to have ftarted and fcreamed, when carried
through the ftrCets of the town in which he was born
in the arms of his nurfery-maid ; and as he is confci-
ous, that the acouftic organs of many are as exquifite as
his own, he cannot doubt but they may have had the
fame fenfations, though perhaps they do not recol-
le£t the facts. So early and fo nicely may the fenfa¬
tions of harmony and difcord be diftinguiflied. But
after all, it feems that harmony is no more than a mo¬
dern invention, and even at this late period only
known to the Europeans. We fhould, however, be
glad to know, from what oracle our philofopher learn¬
ed that harmony was not known to antiquity. From
what remains of their works, no proof of his pofition
can be derived; and we have at lead mentioned one
probability againft it in our notes to the Preliminary
Difcourfe to the article Music, (fee Note b.) Buttho’
Roufieau’s mighty objeftions were granted, that har¬
mony can only be endured by fuch ears as are habi¬
tually formed and cultivated ; that the period of its
prevalence has been fhort, and the extent of its em¬
pire limited to Europe ; ftill his conclufion, that it is a
Gothic and barbarous invention, is not fairly deducible
even from thefe premifes. Muft we affirm, that epic
poetry has no foundation in nature, becaufe, during
the long interval which happened from the beginning of
the world to the deftru&ion of Troy, no epic poem
feems to have appeared ? Or becaufe a natural and mel¬
lifluous verfification is lefs relifhed by an unpoliflied
tatle, than the uncouth rhymes of a common ballad,
(hall we infer, that the power of numbers is merely
fuppofititious and arbitrary ? On the contrary, we will
venture to affirm, that though harmony cannot, as
Rameau fuppofes, be mathematically demonftrated
from the nature and vibrations of fonorous bodies; yet
the idea of its conftituent parts, and of their coalef-
cence, is no lefs eflabliihed, no lefs precife and defi¬
nite, than any mode or property of fpace or quantity
to be invefligated by geometrical refearches or alge¬
braical calculations. It is certain, that the mimetic or
imitative power of mufic chiefly confifts in melody; but
from this truth, however evident, it cannot be fairly
deduced, that harmony is abfolutely unfufceptible of
imitation. Perhaps every mufical found, even to the
moft Ample, and all modulations of found, are more or
lefs remotely connefted with fome fentiment or paffion Harmony,
of the human heart. We know, that there are inftinc- " '» - -1
tive expreffions of pain or pleafure in their various
modes and degrees, which, when uttered by any fenfi-
tive, and perceived by any confcious being, excite in
the mind of the percipient a feeling fympathetic with
that by which they are prompted. We likewife know
from experience, that all artificial founds modulated in
the fame manner, have fimilar, though not equal, ef-
fe&s. We have feen, that, in order to render harmony
compatible with itfelf, the melody of each part muft be
congenial; and, for that reafon, one kindred melody
refult from the whole. So far, therefore, as any corn-
pofer has it in his power to render the general melody
homogeneous; fo far the imitation may be preferved,
and even heightened : for fuch obje&s as are majeftic
and auguft, or the feelings which they excite, are more
aptly expreffed by a compofition of kindred founds,
than by any fimple tone whatever. They who fup-
pofe the mimetic powers of mufic to be confummated
in the imitation of mere unmeaning founds or degrees
of motion, muft entertain limited and unworthy ideas
of its province. It is naturally a reprefentative almoft
of every fentiment or affeftion of the foul; and, when
this end is gained, the art muft have reached its higheft
perfeftion, and produced its nobleft effefts. But thefe
effefts, however fenfible among the ancients, may in
us be fuperfeded by other caufes which remain yet un¬
explored. Theatrical performances are likewife, by
them, faid to have produced the moft wonderful ef-
fefts ; yet thefe we do not recognife amongft ourfelves,
though we have dramatic entertainnitnts perhaps not
inferior to theirs.
RoulTeau proceeds to tell us, that among the an¬
cients the enharmonic fpecies of mufic was fometimes
called harmony.
Dire£t Harmony, is that in which the bafs is funda¬
mental, and in which the upper parts preferve among-
themfelves, and with that fundamental bafs, the natu¬
ral and original order which ought to fubfift in each of
the chords that compofe this harmony.
Inverted Harmony, is that in which the fundamental
or generating found is placed in fome of the upper parts,
and when fome other found of the chord is transferred
to the bafs beneath the others.
Harmony of the Spheres, or Celeflial Harmony, a fort
of mtfic much talked of by many of the ancient phi-
lofophers and fathers, fuppofed to be produced by the
fweetly tuned motions of the ftars and planets. This
harmony they attributed to the various proportionate
impreffions of the heavenly globes upon one another,
afting at proper intervals. It is impoffible, according
to them, that fuch prodigious large bodies, moving
with fo much rapidity, ftiould be filent: on the con¬
trary, the atmofphere, continually impelled by them,
muft yield a fet of founds proportionate to the impref-
fion it receives; confequently, as they do not all run the
fame circuit, nor with one and the fame velocity, the
different tones arifing from the diverfity of motions,
dire&ed by the hand of the Almighty, muft form an
admirable fymphony or concert.
They therefore fuppofed, that the moon, as being
the lowed of the planets, correfponded to mi; Mer¬
cury, to yh,-. Venus, t-ofol; the Sun, to/a; Mars, to
1. /,
H A R [ 325 ] H A R
Harmoftes Jt • Jupiter, to ut; Saturn, to re; and the orb of the
IS fixed ftars, as being the higheft of all, to mi, or the
, Harc oftave.
^ HARMOSTES, or Harmosta, in antiquity, a
fort of magiftrate among the Spartans, whereof there
were feveral, whofe bufinefs was to look to the build¬
ing of citadels, and repairing the forts and fortifica¬
tions of the cities.—The word is ap^«c, formed of
apto, concino, “ I adapt, concert,” &c.
Hx\RMOSYNIANS, ocg^»a-vtoit jn antiquity, were
magiftrates among the Spartans, w'ho, after the death
of Lycurgus, were appointed to enforce the obfervance
of that law of the Spartan legiflator which required
married women to wear a veil when they appeared in
th*; ftreets, whereby they were diftinguiihed from fingle
females, w'ho were allowed to appear abroad with their
faces uncovered.
HARNESS, a complete armour, or the whole
equipage and accoutrements of a cavalier heavily armed;
as cafque, cuirafs, &c. The word is formed of the
French barnois; which fome derive from the Greek
afvaKir, “ a lamb’s fkin,” becaufe they anciently co¬
vered themfelves therewith. Du Cange obferves, that
the word harnejium is ufed in the corrupt Latin inlhe
fame fenfe, and that it conies from the High Dutch
harnas or harnifcb. Others derive it from, the Italian
arnefe; others from the Celtic harries, “ a cuirafs.”
Under king Richard II. it was exprefsly forbidden
all men to ride in harnefs with launcegays. Fide fiat.
7 Ric. II. cap. 13. In the ftatute 2 Hen. VI. cap. 14.
harnefs feems to include all kinds of furniture for of¬
fence as well as defence, both of men and horfe ; as
t fwords, buckles for belts, girdles, &c.
Harness is alfo ufed for the furniture put on a
horfe to draw in a coach or waggon, or other carriage;
fuch as collars, leathers, traces, &e.
HARO, Harou, or Harol, in the Norman cuftoms.
—Clamour de haro is a cry or formula of invoking the
affifiance of juftice again!! the violence of fome offender,
who upon hearing the word haro is obliged to defift,
on pain of being feverely punifhed for his outrage, and
to go with the party before the judge.
The word is commonly derived of ha and roul, as be¬
ing fuppofed an invocation of the fovereign power, to
affift the weak againtl the ftrong, on occafion of Raoul
firft duke of Normandy, about the year 912, who ren¬
dered himfelf venerable to his fubjedts by the feverity
of his juftice; fo that they called on him even after
his death when they fuffered any oppreffion. Some
derive it from Harola king of Denmark, who in the
year 826 was made grand confervator of juftice at
Mentz. Others from the Daniih aa rau, q. d. “ help
me;” a cry raifed by the Normans in flying from a
king of Denmark named Roux, who made himfelf
duke of Normandy. The letters of the French chan¬
cery have ufually this claufe. Non ob/lant clameur de
haro. See.
The haro had anciently fuch vaft power, that a poor
man of the city of Caen named Affelin, in virtue here¬
of, arrefted the corps of William the Conqueror, in
the middle of the funeral proceffion, till fuch time as
his fon Henry had paid the value of the land in que-
ftion, which was that whereon the chapel was built
wherein he was interred.
HAROLD, the name of two Englifh kings. See Harold,
England, n° 77, 83. HarP*
HARP, a mufical inftrument of the ftringed kind, v
of a triangular figure, and held upright between the
legs of the performer.
Papias, and Du Cange after him, will have the harp
to have taken its name from the Arpi, a people of
Italy, who were fuppofed the firft that invented it;
and from whom, they fay, it was borrowed by other
nations. Menage, Sec. derive the word from the
Latin harpa, and that from the German herp or harp.
Others bring it from the Latin carpo, becaufe touched
or thrummed with the fingers. Dr Hickes derives it
from harpa or hearpa, which fignify the fame thing ;
the firft in the language of the Cimbri, the fecond in
that of the Anglo-Saxons. The Englifli prieft who
wrote the life of St Dunftan, and who lived with him
in the tenth century, fays, cap. ii. n. 1 2. Sumpfitfecum
ex more citharam fuam, quam paterna lingua hearpam vo-
carnus; which intimates the word to be Anglo-Saxon.
The harp was the favourite mufical inftrument of
the Britons and other northern nations in the middle
ages; as is evident from their laws, and from every
paffage in their hiftory, in which there is the leaft al-
lufion to mufic. By the laws of Wales, a harp was
one of the three things that were neceffary to conftitute
a gentleman, i. e. a freeman ; and none could pretend
to that chara&er who had not one of thefe favourite
inftruments, or could not play upon it. By the fame
laws, to prevent flaves from pretending to be gentle¬
men, it was exprefsly forbidden to teach, or to permit,
them to play upon the harp ; and none but the king,
the king’s muficians, and gentlemen, were allowed to
have harps in their pofleflion. A gentleman’s harp
was not liable to be feized for debt; becaufe the want
of it would have degraded him from his rank, and re¬
duced him to a flave. The harp was in no lefs efti-
mation and univerfal ufe among the Saxons and Danes.
Thofe who played upon this inftrument were declared
gentlemen by law ; their perfons were efteemed invio¬
lable, and fecured from injuries by very fevere penal¬
ties; they were readily admitted into the higheft com¬
pany, and treated with diftinguiftud marks of refpedt
wherever they appeared.
There is fome diverfity in the ftru&ure of harps.
That called the triple harp has 97 firings or chords in
three rows, extending from C in the tenor cliff to
double G in alt, which make five otfaves : the middle
row is for the femitones, and the two outfide rows are
perfedt unifons. On the bafs fide, which is played with
the right hand, there are 36 firings; .on the treble
fide, 26; and in the middle row, 35 firings. There
are two rows of pins or ferews on the right fide, ferving
to keep the firings tight in their holes, which are fa-
ftened at the other end to three rows of pins on the
upper fide. The harp, within the laft 40 years, has
been in fome degree improved by the addition of eight
firings to the unifon, viz,, from E to double F in alt.
' This inftrument is ftruck with the finger and thumb of
both hands. Its muiic is much like that of the fpinet,
all its firings going from femitone to femitone; whence
fome call it an inverted fpinet. It is capable of a much
greater degree of perfedtion than the lute.
There are among us two forts of this inftrumer.£,
H A R [ 326
Harp. v't%, the Welch harp, being that juft defcribed; and the
u * Irijh harp. Plate CCXXVI. n° 1. reprefents the harp
of Brian Boiromh, king of all Ireland, flain in battle
with the Danes A. D. 1014, at Clontarf. His fon
Donagh having murdered his brother Teige, A. D.
1023, and being depofed by his nephew, retired to
Rome, and carried with him the crown, harp, and
other regalia of his father, which he prefented to the
Pope in order to obtain abfolution. Adrian IV. fur-
named Breakfpear, alleged this circumftance as one
of the principal titles he claimed to this kingdom in
his bull transferring it to Henry II. Thefe regalia
were kept in the Vatican till the pope fent the harp to
Henry VIII. with the title of Defender of the Faith;
but kept the crown, which was of mafiivegold. Henry
gave the harp to the fit ft earl of Clanricard ; in whofe
family it remained till the beginning of this century,
when it came by a lady of the De Burgh family into
that of Mac Mahon of Clenagh in the county of Clare,
after whofe death it palled into the poffeflion of com-
mifiioner Mac Namara of Limerick. In 1782 it was
prefented to the right honourable William Conyngham,
who depofited it in Trinity college library. It is 32
inches high, and of extraordinary good workmanlhip ;
the founding-board is of oak, the arms of red fally ;
the extremity of the uppermoft arm in part is capt with
filver, extremely well wrought and chiffeled. It con¬
tains a large cryftal fet in filver, and under it was ano¬
ther ftone now loft. The buttons or ornamental knobs
at the fides of this arm are of filver. On the front arm
are the arms chafed in filver of the 0‘Brien family, the
bloody hand fuppofted by lions. On the fides of the
front arm within two circles are two Irilh wolf dogs
cut in the wood. The holes of the founding board
where the firings entered are neatly ornamented with
cfcutcheons of brafs carved and gilt; the larger found¬
ing-holes have been ornamented, probably with filver,
as they have been the objebl of theft. This harp has
28 keys, and as many firing-holes, confequently there
were as many firings. The foot-piece or reft is broken
off, and the parts round which it was joined are very
rotten. The whole bears.evidence of an expert artift.
King David is ufually painted with a harp in his
hands ; but we have no teflimony in all antiquity that
] H A II
dipnofophifts tells us, that a certain mufician, named I! q>.
Alexander Alexandrlnus, was fuch an admirable performer —y—
upon it, and had given fuch proofs of his abilities at
Rome, that he made the inhabitants “ mufi-
cally mad.” N° 3 and 4. are varieties of the fame in-
flrument. N° y. is the Theban harp, according to a
drawing made from an ancient painting in one of the
fepulchral grottos of the firft kings of Thebes, and
communicated by Mr Bruce to Dr Burney *. The
performer is clad in a habit made like a fliirt, fuch as * Vide 7W-
the women ftill wear in Abyffinia, and the men in Nubia. ney's H'Jl. of
It reaches down to his ancles 5 his feet are without Mufie>
fandals, and bare; his neck and arms are alfo bare ; hisp‘ 2,24‘
loofe white fleeves are gathered above his elbows; and
his head is clofe fhaved. His left hand feems employed
in the upper part of the inftrument among the notes in
alto, as if in an arpeggio; while, Hooping forwards, he
feems with his right hand to be beginning with the
loweft firing, and promifing to afcend with the moft
rapid execution : this atlion, fo obvioufly rendered by
an indifferent art iff, fhows that it was a common one
in his time; or, in other words, that great hands were
then frequent, and confequently that mufic was well
underflood and diligently followed.
On this inftrument Dr Burney makes the following
obfervations: “ The number of firings, the fize and
form of this inftrument, and the elegance of its orna¬
ments, awaken refledions, which to indulge would lead
ys too far from our purpofe, and indeed out of our
depth. The mind is wholly loll in the immenfe anti¬
quity of the painting in which it is reprefented. In¬
deed the time when it was executed is fo remote, as to
encourage a belief, that arts, after having been brought
to great perfedion, were again loft and again invented
long after this period.—With refped to the number of
firings upon this harp, if conjedures may be allowed
concerning the method of tuning them, two might be
offered to the reader’s choice. The firft idea that pre¬
fented itfelf at the fight of 13 firings was, that they
would furnifh all the femitones to be found in modern
inftruments within the compafs of an odave, as from
C to e, D to d, or E to e. The fecond idea is more
Grecian, and conformable to antiquity ; which is, that
if the longeft firing reprefented projlamlanomenos, or D,
the Hebrew harp, which they call chinnor, was any the remaining 12 firings would fapply all the tonesj
thing like ours. _ On a Hebrew medal of Simon Mac-
cabaeus we fee two forts of mufical inftruments ; but
they are both of them very different from our harp,
and only confift of three or four firings. All authors
agree, that our harp is very different from the lyra,
cithara, or barbiton, ufed among the Romans. For-
tunatus, lib. vii. carm. 8. witneffes, that it was an in¬
ftrument of the barbarians:
Romanufquc lyra, plaudat tilt barbarus hafpa,
Grtecus Achilliacba, crotta Britanna canat.
Of ancient harps, two are reprefented on the fame
plate.—N° 2. is a trigonum or triangular harp. It is
taken from an ancient painting in the mufeum of th(?
king of Naples, in which it is placed on the fhoulder
of a little dancing Cupid, who fupports the inftrument
with his left hand and plays upon it with his right. The
trigonum is mentioned by Athenaeus, lib. iv. and by
Julius Pollux, lib. iv. cap. 9. According to Athenasus,
Sophocles calls it a Phrygian inftrument; and one of his
femitones, and quarter-tones, of the diatonic, chroma¬
tic, and enharmonic genera of the ancients, within the
compafs of an odave : but for my part, I would rather
incline to the firft arrangement, as it is more natural,
and more conformable to the ftrudure of our organs,
than the fecond. For with refped to the genera of the
Greeks, though no hiitoric teilimony can be produced
concerning the invention of the diatonic and chromatic,
yet ancient writers are unanimous inafcribing to Olym¬
pus the Phrygian the firft ufe of the enharmonic: and
though in the beginning the melody of this genus was
fo fimple and natural as to refemble the wild notes and
rude effays of a people not quite emerged from barba-
rifm; yet in after-times it became overcharged with
finical fopperies and fanciful beauties, arifing from fuch
minute divifions of the i'cale as had no other merit than
the great difficulty of forming them. It feems a mat¬
ter of great wonder, with fuch a model before their
eyes as the Theban harp, that the form and manner of
ufing
H A R [ 327 ] H A R
Harp, ufirig fuch an inftrument fhould not have been perpe-
[| tuated by pofterity; but that, many ages after, ano-
> Harpies, tjjg,. 0f an inferior hind, with fewer firings, fhould
' » take place of it. Yet if we confider how little we are
acquainted with the ufe and even confiru&ion of the
inftruments which afforded the greatefi delight to the
Greeks and Romans, or even with others in common
ufe in a neighbouring part of Europe only a few cen¬
turies ago, our wonder will ceale ; efpecially if we re-
fieft upon the ignorance and barbarifm into which
it is poffible for an ingenious people to be plunged
by the tyranny and devaftation of a powerful and cruel
invader.”
Bell-Harp, a mufrcal inftrument of the fifing kind,
thus called from the common players on it fwinging it
about, as a bell on its bafis.
It is about three feet long; its firings, which are of
no determinate number, are of brafs or fteel wire, fixed
at one end, and ftretehed acrofs the found-board by
fcrews fixed at the other. It takes in four odtaves,
according to the number of the firings, which are
flruck only with the thumbs, the right hand playing
the treble and the left hand the bafe : and in order to
draw the found the clearer, the thumbs are armed
with a little wire pin. This may perhaps be the lyra,
or cythara of the ancients ; but we find no mention
made of it under the name it now bears, which muft be
allowed to be modern.
Harp of JEolus. See Acoustics, n° 10.
HARPAGINES, in antiquity, were hooks of iron,
hanging on the top 0/ a pole, which, being fecured
with chains to the malls of fhips, and then let down
with great velocity into the enemy’s veffels, caught
them up into the air. By way of defence againfl thefe
machines, they covered their fhips with hides, which
broke and blunted the force of the iron. The harpa-
gines, by the Greeks called bprayis, owe their inven¬
tion to Anacharfis the Scythian philofopher.
HARPAGIUS. See Arpagius.
HARPALUS, a Greek aftronomer, who flourifhed
about 480 B- C. corredled the cycle of eight years in¬
vented by Cleoftratus; and propofed a new one of nine
years, in which he imagined the fun and moon returned
to the fame point. But Harpalus’s cycle was afterwards
altered by Meton, who added ten full years to it. See
Chronology, n^ay.
HARPIES (apiitiai, Harpyi^e), in antiquity, a
rapacious impure fort of monfters of the bird kind,
Virv JEn mentioned among the poets. They are reprtfented*
iii, with wings, ears like bears, bodies like vulturs, faces
like women, and feet and hands hooked like the talons ■
of birds of prey.
The ancients looked on the harpies as a fort of
genii or demons. Some make them the daughters of
Tellus and Oceanus, the earth and ocean', whence, fays
Servius, it is, that they inhabit an ifland, half on land
and half in water. Valerius Flaccus makes them the
daughters of Typhon.
There were three harpies, Aello, Ocypete, and Ce-
loeno, which laft Homer calls Podarge. Hefiod, in his
'Theogony, ver. 267. only reckons two, Aello and Ocy¬
pete, and makes them the daughters of Thaumas and
Eleftra, affirming that they had wings, and went with
the rapidity of the wind. Zephyrus begat of them
Balius and Xanthus, Achilles’s horfes. Pherecydes Harping
relates, that the Boreades expelled them from the II
iEgean and Sicilian feas, and purfued them as far as HarP001u
the iflands which he calls Plata and Homer Calynx; " v ^
and which have iince been called the Strophades.
Voffius, De Idolol. lib. iii. cap. 99. p. 63. thinks,
that what the ancients have related of the harpies,
agrees to no other birds fo well as the bats found in
the territories of Darien in South America. Thefe
animals kill not only birds, but dogs and cats, and
prove very troublefome to men by their peckings. But
the ancients, as the fame Voffius obferves, knew no¬
thing of thefe birds. By the harpies, therefore, he
thinks, they could mean nothing elfe but the winds;
and that it was on this account they were made daugh¬
ters of Eledlra, the daughter of Oceanus. Such is
the opinion of the fcholiafts of Apollonius, Hefiod,
and Euftathius. Their names, Aello, Ocypete, Ce-
loeno, are fuppofed to fuggeft a farther argument of
this.
Mr Bryant fuppofes that the harpies were a college
of priefts in Bithynia, who on account of their repeat¬
ed a£ts of violence and cruelty, were driven out of the
country : their temple was called Hrp't, and the en¬
virons Arpiai, whence the Grecians formed fyiroiai ^
and he obferves farther, that Harpy a, was cer¬
tainly of old the name of a place.
HARPING iron. See Harpoon.
HARPINGS, the fore-parts of the wales which
encompafs the bow of a fhip, and are fattened to the
ftem, bejng thicker than the after part of the wales,,
in order to reinforce the ftrip in this place, where Ihe
fuftains the greateft ftrock of refiftance in plunging in¬
to the fea, or dividing it, under a great preflure of fail.
HARPOCRATES, in mythology, the.fon of Ills
and Ofiris. This is an Egyptian deity, whofe diftin-
guilhing attribute is, that he is reprefented with his
fingers applied to his mouth, denoting that he is the
god of iilence. The ftatue of this idol was fixed in
the entrance of moft of the Egyptian temples, and he
was commonly exhibited under the figure of a young
man naked, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, holding
in one hand a cornucopia, and in the other the flower
of lotus, and fometimes bearing a quiver.
_ HARPOCRATION (Valerius), a celebrated an¬
cient rhetorician of Alexandria, who has left us an ex¬
cellent Lexicon upon the ten orators of Greece. Aldus
firft publilhed this lexicon in the Greek at Venice in
1603. Many learned men have laboured upon it ; but
the beft edition was given by James Gronovius at Ley¬
den in 1696..
HARPOON, or Harping-iron, a fpear or javelin
ufed to ftrike the whales in the Greenland filhery.
The harpoon, which is fometimes called the harp¬
ing-iron, is furnilhed with a long ftaff, having at one
end abroad and flat triangular head, ftrarpened at both
edges, fo as to penetrate the whale with facility : to
the head of this weapon is fattened a long cord, called
the whale line, which lies carefully coiled in the boat, in
fuch a manner as to run out without being interrupted
or entangled. See Whale-Fishert.
Gun-HARPooN, a kind of fire-arm for difeharging
harpoons at whales, and thereby killing them more
eafily and expeditioufly than formerly when the har-
5 poons
H A R L 328 1 H A R
Harpoon poons were thrown by the hand. Though this me
II thod was proje&ed a good many years ago, it has but
Harrier, lately come into ufe; and premiums have been annually
' offered by the fociety for encouraging arts, &c. to the
perfons who fir ft ftruck a fifti in this manner. In the
Tranfa&ions of that fociety for 1786, we have an ac¬
count of the firft fifti ftruck in this manner in 1784.
The gun was of the blunderbufs conftruftion, loaded
with four common tobacco-pipes full of glazed powder;
the fifti was ftiot at the diftance of ten fathoms, the
harpoon going into her back up to the ring ; and ftie
was killed in about an hour. In 1785 three whales
were killed in this manner; four in 1786, and three in
1787. Since that time the gun-harpoon has come
more into ufe, and will probably foon fuperfede £Be
other method entirely. In the Tranfa&ions of the
Society for 1789, we have accounts of a number of
whales killed in this manner. The inftrument appears
to be extremely ufeful in calm ftill weather, as the
whale, though a timorous creature, will frequently al¬
low a boat to approach it to the diftance of 20, 15, or
even 10 fathoms, all of which diftances are within reach
of the gun-harpoon, though not within the reach of
that thrown by the hand. The greateft inconvenience
was in cafe of rain or fnow, by which the lock was
apt to get wet. To remedy this, a cafe of leather was
made to fit round the gun and over the lock, lined
with tin, and big enough to fire the gun when it was
on. The fifti ftruck with an harpoon difcharged in
this manner are foon killed by reafon of its penetra¬
ting their bodies to a great depth, not lefs than five or
fix feet, whith no man’s ftrength would be able to ac-
complifli. In the volume juft quoted, we have an ac¬
count of one which was {hot through the tail. The
harpoon broke in the flit, but five fathoms of line
went through the tail. The fifti was killed in eight
hours, which is perhaps the only inftance of a fifti
ftruck in that part being caught. In another, the
harpoon carried fix feet of line into its body; the
creature died in ten minutes. Others were killed in
15 minutes or half an hour, and one had a rib broken
by the violence of the ftroke. In the Tranfa&ions
of the Society for 1790, there are other accounts fimi-
lar to the foregoing, and all agreeing as to the great
ufefulnefs of the inftrument both for ftriking the fifti
at a confiderable diftance, and for killing them in a
very ftiort time.
HARPSICHORD, the moft harmonious of all
the mufical inftruments of the ftring-kind. It is played
on after the manner of the organ, and is furniftied
with a fet, and fometimes with two fets of keys; the
touching or ftriking of thefe keys moves a kind of
little jacks, which alfo move a double row of chords
or firings, of brafs or iron, ftretched over four bridges
on the table of the inftrument.
HARQUEBUSS, a piece of fire-arms, of the
length of a muftcet, ufually cocked with a wheel. It
carried a bail that weighed one ounce feven-eighths.
There was alfo a larger fort, called the great har-
quebufs, ufed for the defence of ftrong places, which
carried a ball of about three ounces and a half: but
they are now but little ufed, except in fome oldcaftles,
and by the French in fome of their garrifons.
HARRIER, a kind of hound, endowed with an
N° 149.
admirable gift of fmelling, and very bold in the pur-Harrington,
fuit of his game. See Canis. Harriot.
HARRINGTON (Sir John), an ingenious Eng- “J”'v
lilh poet, was the fon of John Harrington, Efq; who
was committed to the Tower by queen Mary for hold¬
ing a correfpondence with her fifter Elizabeth ; who,
when ftie came to the crown, Hood godmother to this
fon. Before he was 30, he publiftied a tranflation of
Ariofto’s Orlando Furiofo, a work by which he was
principally known ; for though he afterwards pub-
liflted fome epigrams, his talent did not feem to have
lain that way. He was created knight of the bath
by James I.; and prefented a MS. to prince Henry,
levelled chiefly at the married biftiops. He is fup-
pofed to have died about the latter end of James’s
reign.
Harrington (James), a moft eminent Englifh
writer in the 17th century, bred at Oxford, travelled
into Holland, France, Denmark, and Germany, and
learned the languages of thofe countries. Upon his
return to England, he was admitted one of the privy-
chamber extraordinary to king Charles I. He ferved
the king with great fidelity, and made ufe of his inte-
reft with his friends in parliament to procure matters
to be accommodated with all parties. The king loved
his company except when the converfation happened
to turn upon commonwealths. He found means to
fee the king at St James’s ; and attended him on the
fcaffold, where, or a little before, he received a token
of his majefty’s affe£lion. After the death of king
Charles, he wrote his Oceana : a kind of political ro¬
mance, in imitation of Plato’s Commonwealth, which
he dedicated to Oliver Cromwell. It is faid, that
when Oliver perufed it, he declared, that “ the gentle¬
man had wrote very well, but muft not think to cheat
him out of his power and authority; for that what
he had won by the fword, he would not fuffer himfelf
to be fcribbled out of.” This work was attacked by
feveral writers, againft whom he defended it. Befide
his writings to promote republican principles, he in-
ftituted likewife a nightly meeting of feveral ingenious
men in the New Palace-Yard, Weftminfter; which
club was called the Rota, and continued, till the fe-
cluded members of parliament were reftored by ge*.
neral Monk. In 1661, he was committed to the
Tower for treafonable defigns and praftir.es; and
chancellor Hyde, at a conference with the lords
and commons, charged him with being concerned
in a plot. But a committee of lords and commons
could make nothing of that plot. He was convey¬
ed to St Nicolas’s ifland, and from thence to Ply¬
mouth, where he fell into an uncommon diforder
of the imagination. Having obtained his liberty by
means of the earl of Bath, he was carried to London,
and died in 1677. He publiftied, befides the above
works, feveral others, which were firft collefted by
Toland, in one volume folio, in 1700 ; but a more
complete edition was publiftied, in 1737, by the reve¬
rend Dr Birch.
HARRIOT (Thomas), a celebrated algebraift,
was born at Oxford in 1560, where he was alfo edu¬
cated. In 1579, he completed his bachelor’s degree;
and, being already diftinguiftied for his mathematical
learning, was foon after recommended to Sir Walter
Raleigh,
H A R [ 3*9 1 H A R
Raleigh, as a proper perfon to Inftruft him in that ham>college in Oxford, but took no degree. He cul- Harris,
fcience. He was accordingly received into the family tivated letters, however, moft attentively ; and alfo Harnfon.^
of that gentleman ; who, in 1585, fent him with the mufic, in the theory and praftice of which he is faid
colony, under Sir Richard Grenville, to Virginia ; of to have had few equals. He was member for Chrift-
which country, having remained there about a year, church Hants, which he reprefented in feveral fuccef-
he afterwards publifhed a topographical defcription. five parliaments. In 1763, he was appointed one of
About the year 1588, Mr Harriot was introduced by the lords commiffioners of the admiralty, and foon af-
his patron Sir Walter Raleigh, to Henry Percy earl ter removed to the board of treafury. In 1774 he
of Northumberland, who allowed him a penfion of was made fecretary and comptroller to the queen, which
\ 201. per annum. He fpent many years of hir life poll he held until his death. He died Dec. 2 1. 1780, in
in Sion college ; where he died in July 1621, of a his 7 2d year, after a long illnefs, which he bore with
Cancer in his lip, and was buried in the church of St calmnefs and refignation.—He is the author of fome
Chriftopher, where a handfome monument was erefted valuable works. 1. Three Treatifes: concerning Art;
to his memory. Anthony Wood tells us, he was a Mufic, Painting, and Poetry; and Happinefs, 1745,
deift, and that the divines looked upon his death as a 8vo. 2. Hermes ; or, A Philofophical Enquiry con-
judgment. Be his religious opinions what they might, cerning Univerfal Grammar. 3. Philofophical Ar¬
ne was doubtlefs one of the firft mathematicians of the rangements. 4. Philological Inquiries, 1782, 2 vols
age in which he lived, and will always be remembered 8vo. finilhed juft before his death, and publifiied fince.
as the inventor of the prefent improved method of Thefe Inquiries fiiow much ingenuity and learning ;
algebraical calculation. His improvements in algebra but being the amufement of his old age rather than an
were adopted by Des Cartes, and for a confiderable exertion of genius, they have not the philofophic tone
time impofed upon the French nation as his own of his former produ&ions.
invention : but the theft was at laft dete&ed, and ex- HARRIS, one of the Hebrides or Weftern Iftands
pofed by Dr Wallis, in his Hiftory of Algebra, where of Scotland. It is 20 miles in length, and 10 in
the reader will find our author’s invention accurately breadth. Upon the eaft fide it is moftly rock; but
fpecified. His works are, 1. A brief and true re- on the weft there are fome tolerable farms, and the
port of the new-found land of Virginia ; of the com- number of people amounts to 2000. It has Lewis on
the north, and North Uift on the fouth, from which it
is feparated by a channel of four miles in width, called
the Sound of Harris. This channel is navigable for
veffels of burden, but it requires a ikilful pilot. It is
modities there found, and to be raifed, &c. 2. Artis
analytica praxis ad a quad ones algebraic as nova expedita,
tt generali methodo refolvendas, e pojlhumis Thomee Har¬
riot^ &c. 3. Ephemeris chyrometrka. Manufcript, in
the library of Sion college. He is faid to have left the only paffage between the Butt of the Lewis and
feveral other manufcripts which are probably loft. Bara for veffels of burden palling to and from the weft
HARRIS (William), a proteftant diffenting mini- fide of the Long Illand. The found is greatly en-
fter of eminent abilities and chara&er, refided at Ho- cumbered with rocks and illands, fome of which are
niton,in Devonlhire. Sept. 20. 1765, the degree of confiderable, as Bernera, Pabay, Enfay, Killegray.
D. D. was conferred on him by the univerfity of Glaf- Thefe, with Scalpay, Taranfay, and Scarp, compofe
gow, by the unanimous confent of the members of the inhabited ifiands on the coaft of Harris. Some of
that body. “ He publiftisd an Hiftorical and Critical them produce good crops of grain, and all of them
Account of the Lives of James I. Charles I. anLOli- good pafture. Harris and its iflands fell from 400 to
ver Cromwell, in five vols 8vo. after the manner of 500 ton of kelp annually; it abounds on the eaft fide
Mr Bayle. He was preparing a like account of in excellent lochs or bays, and its Ihores on both fides
James II. Fie alfo wrote the life of Hugh Peters; form one continued filhery. The fifh on this coaft,
befides many fugitive pieces occafionally, for the pub- and along the whole Ihores of the Long Illand, are
lie prints, in fupport of liberty and virtue. All his more numerous, and of larger dimenfions, than thofe
works have been well received ; and thofe who differ on the oppofite continent ; on which account, two
from him in principle, Hill value him in point of in- royal filhing ftations were begun in the reign of
duftry and faitfifulnefs.” We give this chara&er in Charles I. one in Loch Maddie, and the other in the
the words of his munificent patron Mr Hollis, who Sound of Harris.
had prefented him with many valuable books rela- HARRISON (William), a writer much efteemed
tive to the fubje&s of his hiftories; and was at the and patronifed by the literati of his time, was fellow
expence of procuring his degree. But the Do&or’s of New-college, Oxford, and had no other income than
works were differently thought of by the authors of 40I. a year as tutor to one of the duke-of Queenlbery’s
the Critical Review (March 1766). “ Induftry was fons. In this employment he fortunately" attra&ed
their principal characteriftic. They certainly have the favour of Dr Swift, whofe felicitations with Mr
none of the vivacity which infpired Bayle ; and in the St John obtained for him the reputable employment
judgment of difpaffionate readers, impartiality is fre- of fecretary to lord Raby, ambaffador at the Hague,
quently violated.” Dr Harris died at Honiton, Feb. 4. and afterwards earl of Strafford. A letter of his whilft
177°- at Utrecht, dated Dec. 16. 17:2, is printed in the
HARRIS (James, Efq;), an Engliftr gentleman of Dean’s works. Mr Harrifon, who did not long en-
very uncommon parts and learning, was the fan of joy his rifing fortune, was difpatched to Londonwith
James Harris, Efq; by a filter of lord Shaftelbury au- the Barrier-treaty; and died Feb. 14. 1712-13. See
thor of The Chara&eriftics- He was born in the the Journal to Stella, of that and the following day;
Clofe at Salifbury 1709; and educated at the gram- where Dr Swift laments his lofs with the moft unaf-
mar-fehoo! there. In 1726, he was removed to Wad- fedted fincerity. Mr Ticket has mentioned him with
Von. VIII. Parti. Ss refpedl
H A R L <3° 1 H A R
HarrSTen. refpeA in his Profpedl of Peace; in Engliih Poets,
  Vol. XXVI. p. 113 ; and Dr Young in the beautiful
clofe of an Epiftle to Lord Lanfdowne, Vol. LII.
p. 185, moft pathetically bewails his lofs. Dr Birch,
who has given a curious note on Mr Harrifon’s Letter
to Swift, has confounded him with Thomas Harrifon,
M. A. of Queen’s-college. In Nichols’s Seled Col-
leftion are fome pleafing fpecimens of his poetry ;
which, with Woodftock-Park in Dodfley’s Collcftion,
and an Ode to the Duke of Marlborough, 1707, in
Duncombe’s Horace, are all the poetical writings that
are known of this excellent young man ; who figured
both as an humourift and a politician in the fifth vo¬
lume of the Tatler, of which (under the patronage of
Bolingbroke, Henley, and Swift) he was profeffedly
the editor. See the Supplement to Swift.—There
was another William Harrifon, author of The Pilgrim,
or the happy Convert, a Paftoral Tragedy, 1709,.
Harrison (John), a moft accurate mechanic, the
celebrated inventor of the famous time-keeper for af-
certaining the longitude at fea, and alfo of the com¬
pound, or, as it is commonly called, the gridiron pen¬
dulum ; was born at Foulby, in the parifti ofWrag-
by, near Pontefraft in Yorkfhire, in 1693. The vi¬
gour of his natural abilities, if not even ftrengthened
by the want of education, which confined his atten¬
tion to few obje&s, at leaft amply compenfated the
deficiencies of it; as fully appeared from the aftonifti-
ing progrefs he made in that branch of mechanics to
which he devoted himfelf. His father was a carpen¬
ter, in which profeffion the fon aflifted ; occafionally
alfo, according to the mifcellaneous pra&ice of coun¬
try artifts, furveying land, and repairing clocks and
watches. He was, from his early childhood, attached to
any machinery moving by wheels, as appeared while
he lay fick of the fmall-pox about the fixth year of his
age, when he had a watch placed open upon his pil¬
low to amufc himfelf by contemplating the move¬
ment. In 1700, he removed with his father to Bar-
row in Lincolnfhire ; where, though his opportunities
of acquiring knowledge were very few, he eagerly
improved every incident from which he might colled!
information ; frequently employing all or great part
®f his nights in writing or drawing : and he always
acknowledged his obligations to a clergyman who
same every Sunday to officiate in the neighbourhood,
who lent him a MS. copy of profeifor Saunderfon’s
Ledlures ; which he carefully and neatly tranferibed,
with all the diagrams. His native genius exerted
itfelf fuperior to thefe folitary difadvantages ; for in
the year 1726, he had conftrudted two clocks, moftly
«f wood, in which he applied the efcapement and
compound pendulum of his own invention : thefe fur-
paffed every thing then made, fcarcely erring a fecond
m a month. In 1728, he came up to London with
the drawings of a machine for determining the longh
tude at fea, in expectation of being enabled to exe¬
cute one by the board of longitude. Upon applica¬
tion to Dr Halley, he referred him to Mr George
Graham; who, difeovering'he had uncommon merit,
advifed him to make his machine before he applied
to the board of longitude. He returned home to
perform this talk ; and in 1735 came to London again
with his firft machine; with which he was fent to
Lilbon the next year for a trial of its properties. In Harriron,
this (hort voyage, he correfted the dead reckoning —-v—
about a degree and a half; a fuccefs that proved the
means of his receiving both public and private encou¬
ragement. About the year 1739, he completed his
fecond machine, of a conftru&ion much more fimple
than the former, and which anfwered much better;
this, though not fent to fea, recommended Mr Har¬
rifon yet ftronger to the patronage of his private
friends and of the public. His third machine, which
he produced in 1749, was ftill lefs complicated than the
fecond, and fuperior in accuracy, as erring only three or
four feconds in a week. This he conceived to be the ne
plus ultra of his attempts; but in an endeavour to im¬
prove pocket-watches, he found the principles he applied
to furpafs his expedlations fo much, as to encourage him
to make his fourth time-keeper, which is in the form
of a pocket watch, about fix inches diameter. With
this time-keeper his fon made two voyages, the one
to Jamaica, and the other to Barbadoes : in both
which experiments it corre&ed the longitude within
the neareft limits required by the a<ft of the 12th of
queen Anne ; and the inventor therefore, at different
times, though not without infinite trouble, received
the propofed reward of 20,0001. Thefe four ma¬
chines were given up to the board of longitude. The
three former were not of any ufe, as all the advanta¬
ges gained by making them were comprehended in
the laft; they were worthy, however, of being carefully
preferved as mechanical curiofities, in which might be
traced the gradations of ingenuity executed with the
moft delicate workmanlhip; whereas they now lie
totally neglefted in the royal obfervatory at Green¬
wich. The fourth machine, emphatically diftinguithed
by the name of The time keeper, has been copied by
the ingenious Mr Kendal ; and that duplicate, durino;
a three years circumnavigation of the globe in the
fouthern hemifphere by captain Cook, anfwered as
well as the original. The latter part of Mr Harri-
fon’s life was employed in making a fifth improved
time-keeper on the fame principles with the prece¬
ding one ; which, at the end of a ten weeks trial, in
1772, at the king’s private obfervatory at Richmond,
erred only 4^ feconds. Within a few years of his
death, his conftitution vifibly declined ; and he had
frequent fits of the gout, a diforder that never attacked
him before his 77th year:, he died at his houfe in
Red-Lion Square, in 1776, aged 83. The reclufc
manner of his life in the unremitted purfuit of his fa¬
vourite object, was by no means calculated to qualify
him as a man of the world; and the many difeourage-
ments he encountered in foliciting the legal reward
of his labours, ftill lefs difpofed him to accommodate
himfelf to the humours of mankind. In converfing.
on his profeffion, he-was clear, diftinft, and modeft
yet, like many other mere mechanics, found a diffi¬
culty in delivering his meaning by writing ; in which,
he adhered to a peculiar and uncouth phvafeology*
This was but too evident in his Defcription concerning
fuch mechanifm as ’will afford a nice or true menfura-
tion of time, &c. 8vo. 1775 » which his well-known
mechanical talents will induce the public to account
for from his unacquaintance with letters, from his
advanced age, and attendant mental infirmities; a-
mong
II A R [ 33i ] H A R
Harrogate mong which may be reckoned his obftlnate refufal to
11 accept of any affiftance whatever in this publication.
. Hart. fmall WOrk includes alfo an account of his new
mufical fcale ; 01 mechanical divifion of the oftave,
according to the proportion which the radius and dia¬
meter of a circle have refpeftively to the circumference.
He had in his youth been the leader of a diftinguifhed
band of church-fingers; had a very delicate ear for
mufic ; and his experiments on found, with a moft cu¬
rious monochord of his own improvement, are reported
to have been not lefs accurate than thofe he was en¬
gaged in for the menfuration of time.
HARROGATE, a village in the Weft Riding of
Yorkftiire, in the parifh of Knarelborough, remarkable
for its medicinal fprings. Thefe are three in number,
all different in their qualities, notwith(landing their
contiguity. 1. The Tewet water or Sweet Spa, a vi¬
triolic fpring of a fort of milky tafte ufed in gravelly
cafes, was difcovered by Mr Slingfiay 1638. 2. The
(linking or fulphur fpring, ufeful in dropfical, fcorbu-
tic, and gouty cafes, rifes in the town, and is received
in four bafons under four different buildings ; at one it
is drunk, at the others ufed for hot or cold baths. It
is perfettly clear; but the tafte and fmell a compofition
of rotten eggs, fea-water, and fulphur, and extremely
fait. Bathing is the moft general mode of ufing it.
It is the ftrongeft fulphur water in Great Britain ;
and from the fuperior ftrength of the impregnating
fulphur, it does not lofe the fulphureous fmell even
when expofed to a fcalding and almoft boiling heat;
and in diddling it, when three pints had been taken off
from a gallon of it, the laft was as ftrong as the firft,
and flunk intolerably. It is difcutient and attenu¬
ating, and a warm bath of it is of great benefit in pains
and aches, ftrains and lamenefs; diffolving hard fwell-
ings, curing old ulcers and fcrophulous complaints, and
is a powerful cleanfer of the ftomach and bowels.
3. St Mungo’s well, is fo called from Kentigern a
Scotch faint much honoured hereabouts, whom his
tutor Servanus bifttop of Orkney, out of affedlion for
him, called Mongah, which in the Norifh or Norway
language fignifies a dear friend.—The Harrogate fea-
fon is from May to Michaelmas ; and the company af-
femble and lodge in five or fix large houfes or inns on
the heath, a mile from the village, each houfe having
a long room and an ordinary: the bed company
ufed to lodge at Knarelborough, which is three
miles off.
HARROW-om-the-Hill, a town ofMiddlefex,
fo called from its fituation on the higheft hill in the
county, is 10 miles north-weft of London. This parifh
is noted for a free fchool, founded in the reign of queen
Elizabeth. A filver arrow is (hot for here once a year,
viz. Auguft 4. by a feleft number of the fcholars, who
are dreffed for the purpofe in the habit of archers.
Harrow, in agriculture. See there, n° 98.
HART, a flag, or male deer, in the fixth year.
See Cervus.
HART-BeeJI, or Quanga. See Capra.
Haw's-Horns, the horns of the common male deer.
—The fcrapings or rafpings of the horn of this ani¬
mal are medicinal, and ufed in decodlions, ptifans, &c.
Hartftiorn jelly is nutritive and (Lengthening, and
fometimes given in diarrhoeas; but a decodtion of
burnt hartftiorn in water is more frequently ufed for Hartfori.
this purpofe, and is called bartJJ>om drink. v—
The coal of hartfhorn, by being calcined with a
long continued and ftrong fire, is changed into a very
white earth, called hartfhorn calcined to whitenefs.
This earth is employed in medicine as an abforbent,
and adminiftered in dyfenteries and labour-pains, which
are fuppofcd to be caufed by acrid and ill-digefted mat¬
ters. This earth levigated is the bafis of Sydenham’s
wftiite decodtion, which is commonly prefcribed in thefe
difeafes.
The fait of haltftiorn is a great fudorific, and given
in fevers with fuccefs; and hartfhorn alfo yields, by
diftillation, a very penetrative volatile fpirit.
HARTFORD, the capital of the county of the
fame name, fignifying, as is commonly thought, the
“ ford of harts,” (lands on the river Lea, 21 miles
from London ; and is of confiderable antiquity. Here
the Eaft-Saxon kings often kept their court; and here,
in 673, was held a fynod. King Alfred built a caftle
here, by which the Danifii veffels were deftroyed, that
came up from the Thames by its river as far as Ware,
where the Daries had eredled a fort, from which they
made frequent fallies to plunder and deftroy the coun¬
try. The prefent caftle confifts of a gate-houfe, or
lodge of brick, and a range of brick buildings, which
feem of the time of James or Charles I. and alfo of a
very ancient wall of ruble (tone, with angular towers,
fuppofed to have been (landing ever fince its firft foun¬
dation. The manor of this town was all along the
king’s, of whom both the town and caftle were for¬
merly held in capite. The barons took the latter front
king John, but Henry III. recovered it. Edward III,
gave the town a charter for markets on Thurfday and
Saturday, and in his grant of it to John of Gaunt
it is called The Honour of Hartford. It fent members
to parliament in the reign of Edward I. but after the
7th of Henry V. on the petition of the bailiff and bur-
geffes to be exempted by reafon of their poverty, that
privilege was difcontinued till the 22d of James I.
Henry VI. who kept his Eafter here in 1429, ordained
by his charter, confirming their market, that no other
(hould be kept on the fame days, within feven miles,
on pain of having the goods feized by the bailiffs o£
Hartford. This manor being then part of queen Mar¬
garet’s jointure, the courts were held in her name, and
(he appointed a horfe fair to be kept in what part of
the town the bailiff and conftables thought fit. The
ftandard of weights and meafures was fixed here in the
reign of Henry VII.; and Mary I. made this a corpora¬
tion by the name of bailiffs and burgeffes, of whom the
latter were 16 by her charter. In the 25th and
35th of Elizabeth, Michaelmas-term was kept here,
by reafon of the plague at both times in London; and
that queen, who fometimes refided in its caftle, and
declared the borough as parcel of her duchy of Lan-
cafter, granted it a new charter, by the ftyle of a bai¬
liff, 11 capital burgeffes, and 16 affiftants, with a mar¬
ket on Saturday. James I, granted it a new charter,
with the ftyle of mayor, burgeffes, and commonalty,
to have 10 capital burgeffes and 16 affiftants, the
mayor to be chofen out of the former by both of them ;
and a fair was then appointed here on May 12. Here
was once a monaftery, founded by a nephew of Wil-
S f 2 liata
H A R L 232 ] H A R
Hnrtford-Ilam the Conqueror; and here were formerly five
fohe, churches which are now reduced to two. In St An-
Hartland. drew>s tijere js a feat not only for the mayor and al-
W-v— dermenj but anot-her for the governors of Chrift-chufch
hofpital in London, whahave erefted a houfe in this
town on account of its healthy air and dry fituation,
to receive fuch children as wanted either health or
room in that hofpital; and they have built a gallery
in the church, wherein 200 of their children may be
accommodated. The town is now governed' by a
mayor, high-fteward, who is generally a nobleman, a
recorder, 9 aldermen, a town clerk, chamberlain, to
capital burgefles, and 16 affiltants, and has 2 ferjeants
at mace. The chief commodities of its market are
wheat, malt, and wool; and it is faid to fend 5000
quarters of malt to London weekly by the river Lea.
Befides the abovementioned, here are two fairs on
July 5 and November 8, and two others for cattle, viz.
the Saturday fortnight before Eafter, and its Midfum-
mer fair is chiefly for horfes. Here is a handfome
free grammar-fchaol, befides 3 charity-fchools; but the
fplendor of the place is much diminifhed fince the
north road from London was turned through Ware.
The county gaol, however, is ftill kept in the town,
and the gaol-delivery in the caftle. It gives the title of
earl to the noble family of Seymour-Conway.
HARTFORDSHIRE, a county of England, de¬
riving its name from Hartford the capital; and that
from ihe harts with which it anciently abounded, be¬
ing then over-run with woods. It is bounded on the
call by Effex, on the weft by Bedfordfhire and Buc-
kinghamftiire, on the (puth by Middlefex, and on the
north by Cambridgelhire. This county is much in¬
dented by thofe that furround it: the longeft part is
about 35 miles, and the broadeft about 27 ; and
the circumference is 190, containing about 451,000
acres. It is divided into eight hundreds, which con¬
tain 19 market towns, 54 vicarages, 120 parifties, and
near 950 villages, with about 16,500 houfes, and
90,000 inhabitants ; and fends fix members to parlia¬
ment, two knights for the ftiire, with two burgefles
for St Alban’s, and as many for Hartford. Before ihe
reign of queen Elizabeth, one fheriff ferved both for
this ftiire and Eflex ; but in the ninth year of her
reign, it had one allotted for itfelf. With regard to
ecclefiaftical jurifdi&ion, it belongs partly to the dio-
cefe of Lincoln, and partly to that of London.
Though the foil in general, efpecially in the Chil-
tern and fouthern parts, is but very indifferent, and
much inferior to that of the neighbouring counties ;
yet the air is fo much fuperior, that lands in this ftiire
generally fell at three or four years purchafe more than
•in many others on that account. But it muft be
owned, that the foil of Hartfordftiire has been much
improved of late, by draining, fowing grafs feeds, and
other methods. There are few or no manufadtures in
the county ;; but its markets are much frequented, in
confequence of its being near London, for malt and
all forts of grain, which, with the many thorough¬
fares through it, make ample amends.
HARTLAND, a town in Devonftiire, near tire
Briftol channel, with a market on Saturdays, much
frequented by the people of Cornwall, who come hi¬
ther in boats. It gives its name to a point, called
z
Hartland Point, at the entrance of Briftol channel. Hartlepool
W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 51.9. II
HARTLEPOOL, a lea port town in the county Hartogh.
of Durham. It is commodioully feated on a promon- 'i‘"v T
tory, and is almoft encompaffed by the fea. It is an
ancient corporation, governed by a mayor and aider-
men, with other fubordinate officers. It is at prefent
a pretty large but poor place. It depends chiefly on
the filhing trade ; and its harbour is much frequented
by colliers palling to and from Newcaftle. W. Long,
o. 55. N. 54. 40.
HARTLEY, a town of Northumberland, on the
coaft, fituated northweft of Tynemouth, where Lord
Delaval has conftrudted a pretty haven, whence-coals
are flipped for London. Here are large fait works
and copperas works, and likewii'e confiderable glafs
works; and there is here a canal cut through a folid rock
to the harbour, 52 feet deep, 30 broad, and 9.00 long,
Thefe works are the foie property of Lord Delaval, and
yield a revenue «f above 20,000l./er annum.
Hartley (David), M. A. born at Ilingworth,
where his father was curate, received his academic
cal education at Jefus college, Cambridge, of which
he was a fellow. He firft began to practife phyfic at
Newark, in Nottinghamfhire; from whence he remo¬
ved to St Edmund’s Bury, in Suffolk. After this,
he fettled for fome time in London ; and laftly went
to live at Bath, where he died in 1757, aged 53,
leaving two fons and a daughter. He publilhed “ A
view of the prefent evidence for and againft Mrs Ste¬
phens’s * medicines as a folvent for the ftone, contaim ♦ See Ste.
ing 155 cafes, with fome experiments and obferva-/>Wj
tions London, 1739. He is faid to have alfo writ-
ten againft Dr Warren, of St Edmund’s Bury, in de¬
fence of inoculation ; and fome letters of his are to be
met with in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions. The doc¬
tor was certainly a man of learning, and reputed a
good phyfician ; but too fond of noftrums. But his
moft confiderable literary produ&ion is a work intitled,.
“ Obfervations on man, his frame, his duty, and his
expeftations, in two parts;” London, 1749, 2 v°l8"
8vo. The firft part contains obfervations on the frame
of the human body and mind, and on their mutual
connexions and influences. .The fecond part contains
obfervations on. the duty and expe&ations of man¬
kind.
HARTMAN ( John Adolphus), a learned divine
and hiftorian, was born at Munfter in 1680. After
being a Jefuit for feveral years, he became a Calvinift
at Caffel, in 1715; and foon after was made profeffor
of philofophy and poetry,, and in 1722 profeffor of
hiftory and eloquence, at Marpurg, where he died in
1744. The moft efteemed of his works are, 1 The
ftate of the fciences at Heffe, in German. 2.
ria HaJJiaca, 3 vols. 3. Precept a eloquentie rationa-
lis, See.
He ought not to be confounded with George Hart*
man, a German mathematician, who, in 1540, wrote
a book on perfpeXive.; nor with Wolfgang Hartman^
who, in 1596, compofed the Annals of Auglburg.
HARTOGIA, in botany : A genus of the pen-
tandria order, belonging to the moncecia clafsof plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 48th or¬
der, Aggregau. The male" calyx is pentaphyllous, the
pe-
H A R [ 333 ] H A R
Harufpices petals five ; the female calyx triphyllous, with five pe¬
ll tals, and five barren and five caftrated ftamlna. There
Harvey. are three capfules; and the feeds are arlllated, or in-
! * clofed in a deciduous cafe.
HARUSPICES, pretenders to divination by cer¬
tain figns or omens among the Romans.—The Ro¬
man harufpices were at firit all taken from Hetmria,
■where their art had moft credit. Afterwards young
Romans were fent into Hetruria, in order to be brought
up in the fcience. It confiiled in foretelling future
events by attending to various circumftances of the vic¬
tims. Firft, It was an ill omen when the vidfim would
not come to the altar without dragging, when it broke
its rope, fled away, avoided the ftroke, ftruggled
much after it, made a great bellowing, was long a-
dying, or bled but little. Secondly, Prefages were
drawn from infpedting the noble parts of the victim
when opened; as the heart, lungs, fpleen, and efpe-
cially the liver. If all thefe were found, if the top
of the liver was large and well-made, and if its fibres
were ftrong, it prefaged well for the, affair in queftion.
Thirdly', Knowledge was alfo drawn by the harufpi¬
ces from the manner in which the fire confumed the
vidtim. If the flame brightened immediately, was pure
and clear, rofe up in a pyramid without noife, and did
not go out till the vidfim was confumed, thefe were
happy figns. Fourthly, The fmoke alfo W'as confidered,
whether it whirled about in curls, or fpread itfelf to
the right or the left, or gave a fmell different from the
common one of broiled meat. Fifthly, It was a lucky
omen if the incenfe they burned melted all at once, and
gave a moft apreeable fmell.
HARUSPICY. See Haruspices and Divina¬
tion.
HARVEST, probably derived from a Saxon word
fignifying herb fcaj}, is that feafon of the year when
the corn is ripe and fit to be reaped and gathered into
barns.
HARVEsr-Fly, in zoology, a large four-winged fly
of the cicada kind, very common in Italy, and erro-
neoufly fuppofedto be a grafshopper. See Cicada.
HARVEST-Home, denotes the feaft often obferved at
the clofe of harveft, and alfo the fong ufed on that oc-
cafion. See December.
HARVEY (Dr William), an eminent Englifh phy-
fician in the i yth century, was incorporated Do&or
of phyfic in Cambridge, afterwards admitted into the
college of phyficians in London, and was appointed
lefturer of anatomy and chirurgery in that college.
In thefe le&ures he opened his difcovery relating to
the circulation of the blood ; which, after a variety of
experiments, he communicated to the world in his Ex-
ercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et fanguinis. He was
phyfician to king James I. and to king Charles I. and
adhered to the royal caufe. His works have eternized
his memory. In 1651, he publifhed his Exercitationes
de generatione animalium, a very curious work ; but it
would have been more fo had not his papers been de-
flroyed during the civil wars. In 1654, he was cho-
fen prefident of the college of phyficians in his.abfence:
but his age and weaknefs were fo great, that he could
not difcharge the duty of that office;-and therefore
defired them to choofe Dr Pringle. As he had no
children, he fettled his paternal eftate upon the col-
ege. He had three years before built a combination-
room, a library, and a mufeum ; and in 1656 he Harvey,
brought the deeds of his eftate, and prefented them to Haiwich.^
the college. He was then prefent at the firft feaft, '■"’"V’”?
inftituted by himfelf, to be continued annually, to¬
gether with a commemoration fpeech in Latin, to be
fpoken on the 18th of O&ober, in honour of the be¬
nefactors to the college ; he having appointed a hand-
fome ftipend for the orator, and alfo for the keeper of
the library and mufeum, which are tlill called by his
name. He died in 1657.
This great phyfician had the happinefs, in his life¬
time, to find the clamours of ignorance, envy, and
prejudice, againft his doftrine, totally filenced, and to
fee it univerfally eftabliftied. It has, by length of
time, been more and more confirmed, and every man
now fees and knows it from his own experience. It
appears to be of the utmoft importance in medicine 4
as it is perhaps impoffible to define health and ficknefs
in few'er words, than that the one is a free, and the
other an obftrufted, circulation.—Dr Harvey was not
only an excellent phyfician, but an excellent man; his
modefty, candour, and piety, were equal to his know¬
ledge ; the farther he penetrated into the wonders of
nature, the more he was inclined to venerate the Author
of it.
HARWICH, a town of Effex, in England, 72
miles from London. It is not large ; but is well built
and populous, has a good maritime trade, is almoft
encompaffed by the fea, and has ftrong works. It is
walled in ; and the ftreets are paved for the moft part
with clay, which tumbling down from the cliff, where is
a petrefying water between the town and Beacon-Hill*
foon grows as hard as ftone; and the inhabitants boaft
the wall is as ftrong and the ftreets are as clean as thofe
that are of real ftone. The harbour or bay is very
large, fafe, and deep ; and is commanded by a ftrong
fort on the Suffolk fide, though not in that county.
Here is a dock belonging to the government, with all
conveniences for building, cleaning, and refitting men
of war. A little way from the town, on a high hill
Cd\\z& Beacon-hill, is a very fine light-houfe, which is
feen at a great diftance, and is very ufeful on this
dangerous coaft. At this place the packet boats which
pafs between England and Holland are ftationed, and
the town is much benefited by the paffengers. The
bay is fo fpacious, by the influx of the Stour from Ma-
ningtree, and the Orwell from Ipfwich, and fuch ufe
was made of it in the Dutch war, that too fail of
men of war have been feen there at one time, with
their tenders, befides 300 or 400 fail of colliers'; for it
is a perfeA harbour to within two miles of Ipfwich,
and able to receive ftfips of 100 guns all the way. The
inns here are very good; but the accommodations dear,,
by reafon of the great concourfe of paffengers to and
from Holland, which was the motive of fitting up floops-
to go thither dire&ly from the Thames, when the
ftage-coaches that ufed to ply two or three times a
week between this place and London were laid down.
This place was firft made a free borough, and had a
grant of its market on Tuefdays in the reign of Ed¬
ward II. Its government was fettled by charter of
king James I. in a mayor, chofen yearly, November 30,.
out of eight aldermen, who with 24 capital burgeffes,,
the eleftors, and the recorder, make the corporation..
JJy this charter it had alfo a power to deft two bur¬
geffes;
HAS [ 334 1 HAS
Harwood geffes to parliament, the grant of Its Friday market,
ll and its two fairs on May-day and Oftober i 8. which
, are each for three days. The town has alfo an ad-
* 'miralty jurifdiftion within its liberties, and the return
of all writs, fines, &c. Though the entrance into the
fea here is between two and three miles wide at high-
water, yet the channel where the (hips muft keep to
come to the harbour, which is on the Suffolk fide, is
deep and narrow ; fo that ail (hips that come in or go
out are commanded by the guns of Landguard-Fort
on that fide. This town was fortified heretofore on
the land fide, but in the reign of king Charles I. the
fortifications were demolifhed. It has fince been or¬
dered to be refortified.—The church here, ever fince
the reformation,'has been a chapel to the mother-church
at Dover-Court.
HARWOOD, a fmallbut pretty town in the north
riding of Yorkfhire, with a coftly ftone-bridge of 11
arches over the Wherfe, which runs in a bed of ftone,
and is as clear as rock-water. Near it are the ruins of
an ancient caftle, built foon after the conqueft ; and
which remained a neat ftrong building in Cambden’s
time. It had a variety of mafters ; one of whom, in
the reign of king John, obtained a grant for a market
and fair here. In the reign of Edward III. it was va¬
lued at 400 marks a-year. This caftle was ruined in
the civil wars. It has eight or nine dependent confta-
bularies, wherein are many antiquities. The remains
of the caftle, which feems to have been the keep, is in
a condition to exift long. The caftle itfelf covered near
an acre of ground. Near it is now Harwood-Houfe,
one of the firft houfes in the county for elegance and fu-
qperiorembellifhments; built on part of the file of Gaw-
thorp-Hall, now no more. In the church are fome an¬
cient monuments, particularly that of lord chief-juftice
Gafcoigne, who committed the Prince of Wales to
prifon for ftriking him on the bench.
HASLEMERE, a town of Surry, in England,
feated on the edge of the county next Hampfhire, 43
miles from London, is an ancient place, and was once
deftroyed by the Danes. It is a borough by prefcrip-
tion, and has fent members to parliament ever fince the
reign of Edward IV. who are chofen by a bailiff and
burgage-teeners. It is faid to have had feven parifti-
churches formerly, though but one church now, which
is a chapel of eafe to Chidingfold ; and that it (food
heretofore upon a hill more to the fouth than the pre-
fent town.
HASSELQUISTA, in botany: A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
45th order, Umbellata. The fruits are quite fmooth;
the feeds of the radius oval, plane, marginated, and
convex in the middle ; thofe in the di(k hemifpherical
and urceolated or bladdcr-ftiaped.
HASSELT, a handfome town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in Overyffel, feated on the river Wecht, in E.
Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 23. 46.
Hasselt, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Weftphalia, and in the territory of Liege, fituated on
the river Demer, in E. Long. 4. 49. N. Lat. co. ce.
HASSIDEANS, or Assideans. See Assi-
DEANS.
HASSOCK, a bafs made of rufhes, to kneel or reft
the feet upon in churches.
HASP and Staple, in Scots law, the fymbol com¬
monly ufed in burgage tenements for entering Snd in- Hafta
fefting an hell', by delivering into his hands the hafp J
and ftaple of the door. Hafting^
HAST A, or Hast a Pura% among medalifts, figni- » 4
fies a kind of fpear or javelin, not (hod or headed with
iron •, or rather an ancient fceptre, fomewhat longer
than ordinary, occafionally given to all the gods.
The hafta is fuppofed a fymbol of the goodnefs of
the gods, and of the conduft of providence, which is
equally mild and forcible.
Hasta, in fome countries, is a meafure or quantity
of ground amounting to thirty paces : thus called, ac¬
cording to M. Du-Cange, from the hafta or rod where¬
with it was meafured.
HASTATED Leaf. See Botany, p. 442.
HASTING-pear, a name given by the gardeners
to a fpecies of pear, called alfo by fome the green chijfel
pear. This is a moderately large pear, and is longifti
towards the pedicle; its (kin is thin, and of a whitilh
green ; the pulp is melting, and of a fugary flavour.
It ripens in July.
HASTINGS, a town of Suffex in England, 64
miles from London. It is the chief of the cinque-
ports ; and was formerly obliged to find 21 (hips, with¬
in 40 days after the king’s fummons, well furniftied
and armed for fervice, and to maintain the crews a
fortnight at its own charge. This town is fuppofed to
have taken its name from Haftings, the famous Danifh
pirate, who ufed to build fortreffes where he went a-
(hore for his prey, to cover his men, and fecure his re¬
treat. In king Atbelftan’s reign here was a mint.
This town had charters from Edward the Confeffor,
William I. and II.7Henry II. Richard I. Hen¬
ry III. Edward I. and Charles II. exempting it from
toll, and impowering it to hold courts of judicature
on life and death. It is incorporated by the ftyle of
mayor, jurats, and commonalty. It has handfome
houfes, and cuftomhoufe officers ; but frequent ftornjs
have rendered it an indifferent harbour, though a vaft
fum of money has been laid out at times to make it a
good one. It has fent members to parliament ever
fince Edward III. London is fupplied from hence
with abundance of fiflr that ate taken on the coaft.
The town lies between two high cliffs towards the fea,
and as high a hill on the land fide, having two ftreets,
and in each a pariffi-church, divided by a itream of freffi
water called the Bourne. About the year 1377, this
town was burnt by the French ;-and after it was rebuilt,
it was divided into the two parifhes. Here are two cha¬
rity fchools, eredted for the teaching of 200 or 300 chil¬
dren. There was a caftle on the hill, which overlooked
the town, but it is now in ruins. The markets here are
on Wednefdays and Saturdays : the fairs are on Tuef-
day and Wednefday in Whitfun-week, and July 26,
Odtober 23, and 24. Here was formerly a priory.
Haftings was a barony in the Huntington family,
now in the Rawdon family.
This town is remarkable for a battle fought in its
neighbourhood, between Harold king of England and
William duke of Normandy, on the 15 th of Odtober
ic66, in which the former was defeated and killed; and
by his death William, furnamed the Conqueror, became
king of England? (See England, n° 86.)—The night
before the battle, the afpedf of things was very diffe¬
rent in the two camps. The Englifti fpent the time
in riot, jollity, and diforder; the Normans in prayer
3 and
HAS C 335 ] HAS
Haftmg*. and other duties of religion. The next day both ar-
mies prepared for battle. The duke divided his army
into three lines: the firft, headed by Montgomery,
confifted of archers and light-armed infantry : the fe-
cond, commanded by Martel, was" compofed of his
braveft battalions, heavy-armed, and ranged in clofe
order : his cavalry, at whofe head he placed himfelf,
formed the third line ; and were f<5 difpofed, that they
ftretched beyond the infantry, and flanked each wing
of the army. He ordered the fignal of battle to found;
and the whole army, moving at once, and finging the
hymn or fong of Roland the famous peer of Charle¬
magne, advanced, in order and with alacrity, towards
the enemy.
Harold had feized the advantage of a riling ground,
and having befides drawn fome trenches to fecure his
flanks, he refolved to Hand upon the defenfive, and to
avoid all action with the cavalry, in which he was
inferior. The Kentilh men were placed in the van,,
a poll which they had always claimed as their due;
the Londoners guarded the ftandard ; and the king
himfclf, accompanied by his two valiant brothers,
Gurth and Leofwin, difmounting from horfeback,
placed himfelf at the head of his infantry, and expref-
led his refolution to conquer or to perilh in the attion.
The firft attack of the Normans was defperate, but
was received with equal valour by the Englilh : and
after a furious combat, which remained long undeci¬
ded, the former, overcome by the difficulty of the
ground, and hard prefled by the enemy, began firft
to relax their vigour; then to give ground ; and con-
fufion was fpreading among the ranks, when William,
who found himfelf on the brink of deft-rmftion, haften-
ed, with a feleft band, to the relief of his difmayed
forces. His prefence reftored the aftion ; the Eag-
lifh were obliged to retreat wuth lofs; and the duke,
ordering his fecond line to advance, renewed the at¬
tack with frefh forces and with redoubled courage.
Finding that the enemy, aided by the advantage of
ground, and animated by the example of their prince,
ftill made a vigorous refiftance, he tried a ftratagem,
which was very delicate in its management, but which
feemed advifable in his defperate fituation, when, if
he gained not a decifive victory, he was totally un¬
done : he commanded his troops to make a hafty re¬
treat, and to allure the enemy from their ground by
the appearance of flight. The artifice fucceeded a-
gainft thefe unexperienced troops; who, heated by
the aftion, and fanguine in their hopes, precipitantly
followed the Normans into the plain. William gave
orders, that at once the infantry fhould face about
upon their purfuers, and the cavalry make an affault
upon their wings, and both of them purfue the ad¬
vantage which the furprize and terror of the enemy
muft give them in that critical and decifive moment.
The Englilh were repulfed with great flaughter, and
driven back to the hill; where being rallied again by
the bravery of Harold, they were able, notwithftand-
ing their lofs, to maintain the poll and continue the
combat. The duke tried the lame ftratagem a fecond
time with the fame fuccefs; but even after this double
advantage, he ftill found a great body of the Englilh,
who, maintaining themfelves in firm array, feemed de¬
termined to difpute the victory to the laft extremity.
He ordered his heavy-armed infantry to make the af¬
fault upon them ; while his archers, placed behind, Hailing*
fhould gall the enemy, who were expofed by the fitu- ^
ation of the ground, and who were intent in defend- u' .
ing themfelves againft the fwords and fpears of the af-
failants. By this difpofition he at laft prevailed. Ha¬
rold was flain by an arrow, while he was combating
with great bravery at the head of his men. His two
brothers lhared the fame fate ; and the Englilh, dif-
couraged by the fall of thefe princes, gave ground on
all fides, and were purfued with great llaughter by the
vi&orious Normans. A few troops, however, of the
vanquilhed dared ftill to turn upon their purfuers; and
taking them in deep and miry ground, obtained fome
revenge for the flaaghter and dilhonour of the day.
But the appearance of the duke obliged them to feek
their fafety by flight, and darknefs faved them from
any farther purfuit by the enemy.
Thus was gained by William duke of Normandy,
the great and decifive vi&ory of Haftings, after a
battle which was fought from morning till funfet, and
which feemed worthy, by the heroic feats of valour
difplayed by both armies, and by both commanders,
to decide the fate of a mighty kingdom. William
had three horfes killed under him ; and there fell near
fifteen thoufand men on the fide of the Normans. The
lofs was ftill more confiderable on that of the vanquilh¬
ed ; befides the death of the king and his two bro¬
thers. The dead body of Harold was brought t»
William, who reftored it without ranfom to his mo¬
ther.
HASTIVE, a French term, fometimes ufed in
Englilh for early, forward, or fomething that comes
before the ordinary time or feafon. The haftive fruits
are ftrawberries and cherries. We have haftive peas*
tic.
HAT, a covering for the head, worn by the men
throughout the weftern part of Europe. Hats are faid
to have been firft feen about the year 1400, at which,
time they became of ufe for country wear, riding, &c-
F. Daniel relates, that when Charles II. made his pub¬
lic entry into Rouen, in 1449, he had on a hat lined
with red velvet, and furmounted with a plume or tuft
of feathers: he adds, that it is from this entry, or at
leaft under this reign, that the ufe of hats and caps is
to be dated, which henceforward began to take place
of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn be¬
fore. In the procefs-of time, from the laity, the cler¬
gy alfo took this part of the habit; but it was looked
on as a great abufe, and feveral regulations were pub-
lilhed, forbidding any prieft or religious perfon to ap¬
pear abroad in a hat without coronets, and enjoining
them to keep to the ufe of chaperoons, made of black
cloth, with decent coronets ; if they were poor, they
were at leaft to have cordneta. faftened to their hats,
and this upon penalty of fufpenfion and excommunica¬
tion. Indeed the ufe of hats is faid to have been of a
longer Handing among the ecclefiaftics of Brittany, by
two hundred years, and efpecially among the canons ;
but thefe were no other than a kind of caps, and from
hence arofe the fquare caps worn in colleges, &c. Lo-
bineau obferves, that a bilhop of Dol, in the 12 th cen¬
tury, zealous for good order, allowed the canons alone
to wear fuch hats ; enjoining, that if any other perfoa
come with them to church, divine fervite Ihould im¬
mediately be fufpended.
Hats
flats.
HAS C 336 1 H A S
Hats make a very confiderable article in commerce:
the fineft, and' thofe moft valued, are made of pure hair
of an amphibious animal, called the caftor or beaver,
frequent in Canada and other provinces of North A-
merica. See Beaver.
Method of making Hats. Hats are made either of
wool, or hair of diverfe animals, particularly of the
caftor., hare, rabbet, camel, &c. The procefs is much
the fame in all; for which reafon we ihall content our-
felves to inftance in that of caftors.
The Ikin of this animal is covered with two kinds
of hair; the one long, ftiff, gloffy, and pretty thin fet;
this is what renders the ikin or fur of fo much value :
the other is ihort, thick, and foft, which alone is ufed
in hats.
'To tear off one of thefe kinds of hair, and cut the
other, the batters, or rather the women employed for
that purpofe, make ufe of two knives, a large one like
a ihoemaker’s knife for the long hair; and a fmaller,
not unlike a vine knife, wherewith they (have or fcrape
off the ihorter hair.
When the hair is off, they mix the fluff; to one third
of dry caftor putting two-thirds of old coat, i. e. of
hair which has been worn fome time by the favages,
and card the whole with cards, like thofe ufed in the
•woollen manufadlory, only finer; this done, they weigh
it, and take more or lefs according to the fize or
thicknefs of the hat intended. The Huff is now laid
on the hurdle, which is a fquare table, parallel to the
horizon, having longitudinal chinks cut through it;
on this hurdle, with an inftrument called a bow, much
like that of a violin, but larger, whofe firing is worked
with a little bow flick, and thus made to play on the
furs, they fly and mix together, the dull and filth at
the fame tinie pafiing through the chinks ; this they
reckon one of the moft difficult operations in the
whole, on account of the juftnefs required in the hand
to make the fluff fall precifely -together, and that it
may be every where of the fame thicknefs. In lieu of
a bow, fome hatters make ufe of a fieveor fearce of
Bair, through which they pafs the fluff.
After this manner they form gores, or two ca-
pades, of an oval form, ending in an acute angle at
top; and with what Huff remains, they fupply and
ilrengthen them in places where they happen to be
flenderer than ordinary ; though it is to be remember¬
ed, that they defignedly make them thicker in the
brim, near the crown, than toward the circumference,
or in the crown itfelf.
The capades thus finifhed, they go on to harden
them into clofer and more confiftent flakes by preffing
down a hardening fkin or leather thereon ; this done,
they are carried to the bafon, which is a fort of bench
vuth an iron plate fitted therein, and a little fire under¬
neath it; upon which laying one of the hardened ca¬
pades, fprinkled over with water, and a fort of mould
being applied thereon, the heat of the fire, with the
water and preffing, imbody the matter into a flight
hairy fort of fluff or felt; after which, turning up the
edges all round the mould, they lay it by, and thus
proceed to the other : this finifhed, the two next are
joined together, fo as to meet in an angle at the top,
and only form one conical cap, after the manner of a
manica Hippocratis, or flannel bag.
N° 149*
The bat thus bafoned, they remove it to a large kind
of receiver or trough, refembling a mill-hopper, going
floping or narrowing down from the edge or rim to
the bottom, which is a copper kettle filled with water
and grounds, kept hot for that purpofe. On the de-
fcent or floping fide, called plank, the bafoned hat,
being firft dipped in the kettle, is laid ; and here they
proceed to work it, by rolling and unrolling it again
and again, one part after another, firft with the hand,
and then with a little wooden roller, taking care to
dip it from time to time, till at length by thus fulling
and thickening it four or five hours, it is reduced to
the extent or dimenfions of the hat intended. To fe-
cure the hands from being injured by this frequent
rolling, &c. they ufually guard them with a fort of
thick gloves.
The hat thus wrought, they proceed to give it the
proper form, which is done by laying the conical cap
on a wooden block, of the intended fize of the crown
of the hat, and thus tying it round with a packthread,
called a commander : after which, with a piece of iron,
or copper bent for that purpofe, and called a Jlamper,
they gradually beat or drive down the commander all
round, till it has reached the bottom of the block, and
thus is the crown formed ; what remains at bottom be¬
low the firing being the brim.
The hat being now fet to dry, they proceed to fingc
it, by holding it over a flare of ftraw or the like ; then
- it is pounced, or rubbed over with pumice, to take off
the coarfer knap ; then rubbed over afrelh with feal-
flein to lay the knap a little finer ; and laftly, carded
with a fine card to raife the fine cotton, with which
the hat is afterwards to appear.
Things thus far advanced, the hat is thus fent, up¬
on its block, and tied about with a packthread as be¬
fore, to be dyed. The dye being completed, the hat
is returned to the hatter, who proceeds to dry it, by
hanging it in the top or roof of a ftove or oven, at
the bottom of which is a charcoal fire; when dry, it
is to be itiffened, which is done with melted glue
or gum fenegal, applied thereon by firft fmearing
it, and beating it over with a brufh, and then
rubbing it with the hand. The next thing is to
fteam it on the fteaming bafon, which is a little
hearth or fire-place, raifed three feet high with an
iron-plate laid over it, exa&ly covering the hearth ;
on this plate they firft fpread cloths, which being
fprinkled over with water to fecure the hat from burn¬
ing, the hat is placed brim downwards thereon ; when
moderately hot, the workman ftrikes gently on the
brim with the flat of his hand, to make the joinings
incorporate and bind fo as not to appear; turning it
from time to time, this way and that way, and at laft
overturning and fetting it in the crown. When fteam-
ed fufficiently, and dried, they put it again on the
block, and brufti and iron it on a table or bench for
the purpofe, called the Jlall-loard; this they perform
with a fort of irons like thofe commonly ufed in iron¬
ing linen, and heated like them ; which being rubbed
over and over each part of the hat, with the affiftance
of the brulh, fmoothes and gives it a glofs, which is
the laft operation ; nothing now remaining but to clip
the edges even with fciffars, and few a lining to the
crown.
Dyeing
HAT r 337 1 HAT
Hat Dyeing of Hats. The inftru£lions of Mr Colbert
Hatch, dired hats to be firft ftrongly galled, by boiling them
“~Y“— a long time in a decoftion of galls with a little log¬
wood, that the dye may penetrate the better into their
fubtlance ; after which a proper quantity of vitriol,
and deco&ion of lagwood, with a little verdigris, are
added, and the hats continued in this mixture alfo for
a confiderable time. They are afterwards to be put
into a frefh liquor of logwpod, galls, vitriol, and ver¬
digris ; and where the hats are of great price,, or of
a hair which difficultly takes the dye, the fame pro-
cefs. is to be repeated a third time. For obtaining the
moll perfeft colour, the hair or wool is to be dyed
blue previoufly to its being formed into hats.—The
prefent praftice is more compendious, and affords, as
we may daily fee, a very good black. According to
Dr Lewis, it does not materially differ from that of
the EncyclopZdie, which is as follows.
An hundred pounds of logwood, 12 pounds of gum,
and fix pounds of galls, are boiled in a proper quan¬
tity of water for fome hours ; after which, about fix
pounds of verdigris and ten of green vitriol are add¬
ed, and the liquor kept juft fimmering, or of a heat
a little below boiling. Ten or twelve dozen of hats
are immediately put iti* each on its block, and kept
down by crofs bars for about an hour and an half:
they are then .taken out and aired, and the fame num¬
ber of others put in their room. The two fets of hats
are thus dipped and aired alternately, eight times each;
the liquor being refrefhed each time with more of the
ingredients, but in lefs quantity than at firft.
This procefs (fays Dr Lewis) affords a very good
black on woollen and filk fluffs as well as on hats, as
we may fee in the fmall pieces of both kinds which are
fometimes dyed by the hatters. The workmen lay
great llrefs upon the verdigris, and affirm that they
cannot dye a black hat without it : it were to be wifhed
that the ufe of this ingredient were more common in the
other branches of the black dye ; for the hatters dye,
» both on filk and woollen, is reckoned a finer black than
what is commonly produced by the woollen and filk
dyer.
Hats are alfo made for womens wear, not only
of the above fluffs, but of chips, ftraw* or cane, by
plaiting, and fewing the plaits together; beginning
with the centre of the crown, and working round till
the whole is finifhed. Hats for the fame purpofe are
alfo wove and made of horfe-hair, filk, &c.
Hat is alfo figuratively ufed for the dignity of care
dinal, or a promotion to that dignity. In this fenf-
they fay, “ to expeft the hat} to claim, or have pre-
tenfions to, the hat,” &c.
Pope Innocent IV. firft made the hat the fymbol or
cognizance of the cardinals, enjoining them to wear a
red hat at the ceremonies and proceffions, in token of
their being ready to fpill their blood for Jefus Chrift.
HATCH, or Hatchway, a fquare or oblong open¬
ing in the Deck of a fhip, of which there are.feveral,
forming the paffages from orftf deck to another, and into
the hold or lower apartments. See Plate CLVI.
where A reprefents the main-hatchway of the lower
deck ; N N the foie-hatchw’ay ; and O O the after¬
hatchway —There are likewife hatches of a fmaller
kind, called /cuttles. See UU in the fame figure ; as
alfo the article Scuttle.—Hatches is alfo, though
Vol. VIII. Part I.
improperly, a name applied by failors to the covers or Hatche!
lids of the hatchway. it
HATCHED, or Hitch el, in the manufaaory of Hacc_hing-.
flax, hemp, &c. a tool, not unlike a card, for dreffing v
and combing them into fine hairs.
They confift of (harp-pointed iron pins, or teeth,
fet orderly in a board.
Of thefe there are feveral forts, fome with finer
and ftiorter teeth, others with them coarfer and longer.
HATCHES, in mining, a term ufed in Cornwal,
to exprefs any of the openings of the earth either into
mines or in fearch of them. The fruitlefs openings
are called e/ay-hatches ; the real mouths of the veins,
tin hatches; and the places where they wind up the
buckets of ore, wind hatches.
Hatches alfo denote flood-gates fet in a river, &c.
to (top the current of the water, particularly certain
dams-or mounds made of rubbilh, clay, or earth, to
prevent the water that iffues from the dream works
and tin-wafhes in Cornwal from running into the frefh
rivers.
HATCHET, a fmall light fort of an axe, with a
bafil edge on its left fide, and a (hurt handle, as being
to be ufed with one hand.—Hatchets are ufed by va¬
rious artificers, and more particularly in hewing of
wood.
HATCHING, the maturating fecundated eggs,
whether by the incubation and warmth of the parent
bird, or bv artificial heat, fo as to produce young
chickens alive.
The art of hatching chickens by means of ovens has
long been pradifed in Egypt, but it is there only
known to the inhabitants of a Angle village named
Berme, and to thofe that live at a fmall diftance from
it. Towards the beginning of autumn they fcatter
themfelves all over the country ; where each perfon
among them is ready to undertake the management of
an oven, each of which is of a different fize; but, in
general, they are capable of containing from forty to
fourfeore thoufand eggs The number of thefe ovens
placed up and down the country is about 386, and they
ufually keep them working for about fix month' : as,
therefore, each brood takes up in an oven, as under a
hen, only 21 days, it is eafy in every one of them to
hatch eight different broods of chickens. Every.Ber-
mean is under the obligation of delivering to the per¬
fon who intrufts him with an oven, only two-thirds of
as many chickens as there have been e.rgs put under
his care ; and he is a gainer by this bargain, as more
than two-thirds of the eggs ufually produce chickens.
In order to make a calculation of the number of chic¬
kens yearly fo hatched in Egypt, it has been fuppofed
that only two-thirds of the eggs are ha ched, and that
each brood confifts of at leal! 30,000 chickens; and
thus it would appear, that the . v ns of Egypt give life
yearly to at lead 92,640,000 of thefe animals.
This ufeful and advantageous method of hatching
(eggs has been lately difeovered in France by the in¬
genious Mr Reaumur ; who, by a number of experi¬
ments, has reduced the art to certain principles. He
found by experience, that the heat neceffary for this
purpofe is nearly the fame with that marked 32 on his
thermometer, or that marked 96011 Fahrenheit’s. This
degree of heat is nearly that of the (kin of the hen, and,
what i« remarkable, of the flan of all other dome (tic
T t fowls,
H A T [ 338 ] HAT
Hatching, fowls, and probably of all other kinds of birds. The making of lines with a pen, penci1, graver, or the like; Hatchment*
degree of heat which brings about the developement and the interfering or going acrofs thofe lines with H
of the cygnet, the gofling, and the turkey-pout, is the others drawn a contrary way, is called counter-hatching. Hlttetnift*»>
fame as that which fits for hatching the canary-fong- The depths and fliadows of draughts are ufually formed *
Iter, and, in all probability, the fmalleft humming- by hatching.
bird : the difference is only in the time during which Hatching is of Angular ufe in heraldry, to diftinguifti
this heat ought to be communicated to the eggs of the feveral colours of a fnield, without being illumined :
different birds ; it will bring the canary bird to per- thus, gules or red is hatched by lines drawn from the
fedtion in 11 or 12 days, while the turkey-pout will top to the bottom ; azure, by lines drawn acrofs the
require 27 or 28. ' fhield ; and fo of other colours.
After many experiments, Mr Reamur found, that HATCHMENT, in heraldry, the coat-of-arms of
ftoves heated by means of a baker’s oven, fucceeded a perfon dead, ufually placed on the front of a houfe,
better than thofe made hot by layers of dung : and the whereby may be known what rank the deceafed perfon
furnaces of glafs-houfes and thofe of the meltersof me- was of when living r the whole diftinguiihed in fuch a
tals, by means of pipes to convey heat into a room, manner as to enable the beholder to know whether he
might, no doubt, be made to anfwer the fame purpofe. was a bachelor, married man, or widower; with the
As to the form of thefftoves, no great nicety is required, like diftindtions for women.
A chamber over an oven will do very well. Nothing Bi/hop's-Hatfield, a town of Hartfordfhire in
more will be neceffary but to afcertain the degree of the great coach-road to the north, 19 miles from Lon-
heat ; which may be done by melting a lump of butter don. It was called Bifiiops-Hatfield, becaufe it did be-
of the fifce of a walnut, with half as njuch tallow, and l°ng to the Bilhops of Ely. Theodore archbifhop of
putting it into a phial. This will ferve to indicate the Canterbury held a fy nod here, anno 681, againft the
heat with fufficient exadlnefs: for when it is too great, Eutychean herefy. Here was once a royal palace, from
this mixture will become as liquid as oil; and when the whence both Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth were
heat is too fmall, it will remain fixed in a lump : but condudted to the throne. King James I. exchanged
it will flow like a thick fyrup, upon inclining the bottle, the manor with Sir Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Sa¬
if the flove be of a right temper. Great attention liibury, for Theobald’s, in the pariflr of Chdhunt in
therefore (hould be given to keep the heat always at this county; and the lordlhip Hill remains in that
this degree, by letting in frcflr air if it be too great, noble family, who have a very fine feat here. The rec-
or (hutting the (love more clofe if it be too fmall: and tory, which is in that earl’s gift, is reckoned worth 800
that all the eggs in the Hove may equally (hare the ir- pounds a-year. Here are two charity fchools; and
regularities of the heat, it will be neceffary to (hift them there is a market on Thurfdays, with two fairs in April
from the fides to the centre ; and thus to imitate the and Odlober.
hens, who are frequently feen to make ufe of their bills, HATFIELD and Chace, a town in the weft ri-
to pufh to the outer parts thofe eggs that were neareft to ding of Yorkfliire, four miles from Doncafter. The
the middle of their nefts, and to bring into the middle chace is famous for deer-hunting. There are many in-
fuch as lay neareft the fides. trenchments near the town, as if it had been the camp
Mr Reamur has invented a fort of low boxes, with- of fome great army. It is faid that no rats were
out bottoms, and lined with furs. Thefe, which he ever feen in this town.
calls artijiclalparents, not only (belter the chickens Hatfield-broad-oak, or King's Hatfield, a town
from the injuries of the air, but afford a kindly warmth, of Effex in England, feated on a branch of the ri-
fo that they prefently take the benefit of their (helter ver Lea, 30 miles from London, is fo called from the
as readily as they would have done under the wings of nature of the foil,s from its tenure by king William the
a hen. After hatching, it will be neceffary to keep Conqueror and his fucceffors, and from a broad oak
the chickens, for fome time, in a room artfully heat- growing in the town. It has a market on Saturdays,,
ed and furnifhed with thefe boxes; but afterwards they and a fair in Auguft.
may be fafely expofed to the air in the court-yard, in HAT FEM, a town of the United Provinces, in the
which it may not be amifs to place one of thefe artifi- duchy of Guelderland, feated on the river Uffol, in E.
cial parents to (helter them if there (hould be occafion Long. 6. o. N. Lat. 53. 30.
for it. HATTEMISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the name
As to the manner of feeding the young brood, they of a modern Dutch fe£t, fo called from Pontian Van
are generally a whole day after being hatched, before Hattem, a minifter in the province of Zealand, to-
they take any food at Sll; and then a few crumbs of wards the clofe of the laft century, who being addi&ed
bread may be given them for a day or two, after which to the fentiments of Spinoza, was on that account de-
they will begin to pick up infe&s and grafs for them- graded from his paftoral office. The Verfchorifts and
felves. Hattemifts refemble each other in their religious fy-
But to fave the trouble of attending them, capons Items, though they never fo entirely agreed as to form
may be taught to watch them in the fame manner as one communion. The founders of thefe fefts deduced
hens do. Mr Reaumur affures, that he has feen above from the dodrine of abfohite decrees* a fyftem of fatal
200 chickens at once, all led about and defended on- and uncontrollable neceffity; they denied the difference
ly by three or four fuch capons. Nay, cocks may between moral good and evil, and the corruption of
be taught to perform the fame office ; which they, as human nature: from hence they farther concluded,
well as the capons, will continue to do all their lives that mankind were under no fort of obligation to cor¬
after. red their manners, to improve their minds, or to obey
Hatching, or Hacking, in defigning, See. the the divine laws; that the whole of religion confided
not
H A V [ 339 1 H A V
:■’.attack not in a&ir.g, but in fuffering ; an* that all the pre-
il cepts of Jefus Chrift are reducible to this one, that vve
, av‘l; na' bear with cheerfulnefs and patience the events that
happen to us through the divine will, and make it our
conllant and only ftudy to maintain a permanent tran¬
quillity of mind. Thus far they agreed ; but the Hatte*
mills farther affirmed, that Chrift made no expiation
for the fins of men by his death, but had only fuggelt-
ed to us by his mediation, that there was nothing in us
that could offend the Deity ; this, they fay, was Chrift’s
manner of juftifying his fervants, and prefenting them
blamelefs before the tribunal of God. It was 6ne of
their diftinguilhed tenets, that God does not punilh men
for their fins, but by their fins. Thefe two fedls, fays
Mofheim, Hill fubfiil, though they no longer bear the
names of their founders.
HATTOCK, a fhock of corn containing twelve
fheaves; others make it only three Iheaves laid toge¬
ther.
HATUAN, a town and fort of Upper Hungary, in
the county of Novigrod. It was taken by the Imperia-
lills in 1685. It is feated on a mountain, in E. Long.
19. 48. N. Lat. 47. 52.
HAVANNA, a fea-port town of America, in the
ifland of Cuba, and on the north-well part of it, op-
pofite to Florida. It is famous for its harbour, which
is in every refpeft one of the bell in the Well In¬
dies, and perhaps in the world. It is entered by a
narrow palfage, upwards of half a mile in lengthy which
afterwards expands into a layge bafon, forming three
Cul de Sacs, and is fufficient, in extent and depth, to
contain 1000 fail of the largell (hips, having almoll
throughout fix fathom water, and being perfedlly co¬
hered from every wind. The town was built by Diego
de Velafquez, who conquered the illand of Cuba. It
was but a fmall place, and named originally the port of
Carenas; but afterwards, when the city by its increafe
of wealth grew confiderable, it was called St Chrljlo-
J/her of the Fluvanna. In 1536, it was of fo inconfi-
derabie a value, that being taken by a French pirate,
he ranfomed the place for the paltry fum of 700 pieces
of eight. Some time after it was taken by the Englilh,
and a fecond time by the French : nor was its value
underHood, or any care taken to put it in a pollute pf
defence, till the reign of Philip II.; though what was
then' done proved infufficient. But fince the accef-
fion of a branch of the Houfe of Bourbon to the Spa-
•nilh crown, more pains have been taken to render it a
place of ftrength.
The Havanna Hands on the well fide of the harbour,
in a pleafant plain ; and is the refidence of the gover¬
nor and captain-general of Cuba, and of the royal offi¬
cers, as well as of an affelfor for the affillance of the
governor and captain general of the Well Indies. The
bilhop of St Jago de Cuba likewife choofes to fix his
refidence here. The buildings are elegant, built of
Hone, and fome of them moll fuperbly furnilhed.
Here are eleven churches and monalleries, and two
handfome hofpitals. Near the middle of the town is a
fpacious 'fquare, iurrounded with uniform buildings.
The churches are rich and magnificent; the lamps,
candlellicks, and ornaments for the altars being of
gold and lilver ; fome of the lamps are of the moll cu¬
rious workmanlhip, and weigh near 100 weight. The
Recolle&s church, which Hands on the befi ground in
6
the city, has 12 beautiful chapels in it, and in the mo-
naHery are cells for 50 fathers; The church of St Clara
has feven altars adorned with plate, and the nunnery con¬
tains 100 women and fervants, all clothed in blue. The
church belonging to the AuguHines has 13 altars; that
of St Juan de Dios 9, with an hofpital for foldiers of
12,000 pieces of eight revenue. It is not a bilhop’s
fee, though the bilhop of St Jago refides here, the re¬
venue of which prelate is not lefs than 50,000 pieces of
eight a-year. In 1700 the inhabitants were computed
at 26,000, and we may very well imagine them to be
increafed fince. They are a more polite and focial
people than the inhabitants of any of the Spanilh ports
on the continent ; and of late imitate the French both
in their drefs and manners. The city is fupplied with
water by a fmall river called Lagida, which rifes from
the hills on the fouth-wefi fide of the town, and di¬
vides itfelf into three flreams, one of which falls into
the fea on the eafi fide of the town, but the other two
flow through the place, entering the walls near the
middle of the city.
As to the fortifications, it was already remarked,
that the entrance to the harbour is by a narrow gut
near half a mile in length : this paflage is defended on
the call fide by a llrong cafile called El Moro, fituated
on a high rock ; and on the walls and baflions are
mounted 40 pieces of cannon. Under the faces of the
fouth-wefl baflion of the Moro, and more within the
entrance of the harbour, is a battery of Hone called the
'Twelve Apojlles, almofi level with the water, and the
guns of which carry each a ball of 36 pounds.' A little
higher, and oppofite to the Point gate, is the La Di-
vina Paltora, or the Shepherd’s Battery, of 14 guns,
level with the water. On the wefi fide of the entrance,
at the point, is a fquare fort called the Punta, with
four baftions well mounted with cannon, about 200
yards didant from the Punta gate of the town. On
the baHions of the town, next the harbour, are a num¬
ber of cannon; and about the middle of the city is
another fort, called El Fuerle, a fquare fort with four
baHions, mounted with 22 pieces of cannon, of no
great Hrength ; but in this lafi the governor refides,
and in it the king of Spain’s treafures aredepofited till
the arrival of the galleons. On the land-fide, from the
Punta gate to the dock-yard, there is a rampart with
baHions, faced with Hone, and earthen parapets with a
ditch, which in feveral places has fallen in, and is almofl;
filled up, particularly behind the Punta and land-gates,
near the Hone quarries, which, ifjoined to one another,
might be of great detriment to the place in cafe of a
fiege, as a lodgement might be made in them. The
ground here rifes with an eafy afcent to the land-gate ;
and is either open paflure or garden ground, well flo-
red with the cabbage-tree. Before the land-gate is a
ravelin. . The hill on a riling ground from this gate
(which is the highefl part of the town) to the dock¬
yard, is deeper than on the other fide.
Such are the fortifications of the Havanna, which
are the befl the Spaniards have in the Wefi Indies, as
indeed the place is of the greatefi importance. But
though flrong, they have many defe&s, and from the
Situation of the town and forts, are commanded by
many eminences, of which an enemy could not fail to
take advantage. On the eafi fide of the harbour,
the Cavannas, on a part of which the Moro is built,
, T t 2 com-
H A V
[ 340 ]
H A V
Hasanna. commands in a great meafure that fort, but abfolutely money, in tobacco «ulledted at the Havanna on account Havanaa
’ commands the Punta, El Fuerte, and whole north-call
part of the city, which is the bell fortified. On the
weft fide of the city runs a fuburb, called Gmdaloupe,
whofe church is fituated on an eminence about half a
mile from the land-gate, which it is on a level with,
and higher than any other part of the fortifications.
From the north fide of this rifing ground, the Punta
gate may be flanked ; and fronr the fouth-eaft fide the
dock-yard is commanded. Along the north fide runs
an aqueduft, which falliug into the ditch at the land-
gate, runs down to the dock-yard, both for watering
the (hips ancf turning a faw-mill. About half a mile
from the church, is a bridge made over a rivulet that
runs into the bay about 100 yards. That road leads to
the centre of the ifland, and extends to Baracoa, above
600 miles diftant. From this bridge to the Lazaretto,
is about two miles, with a rifing ground betwixt them.
A trench thrown up between thefe two places would
cut off the communication with the town by land.
From thefe obfervations it will plainly appear, that
the Havanna, though well fortified, is not' impreg¬
nable.
The Havanna has greatly contributed to the mari¬
time ftrength of the crown of Spain, many flrips ha¬
ving been built here within thefe few years, from 60
to 80 guns, the ifland furnifhing the fineft materials,
fuch as oak, pine, cedar, and mahogany. The only
defeft of the harbour is the narrownefs of its entry :
for though free from bars and ftroals, yet only one (hip
'at a time can enter it ; from which circumftance the
galleons have more than once been infulted, and fome
of them taken, at the mouth of the harbour, the forts
there not being able to afford them any afiiftance.
Upon the rapture with Spai
of the king of Spain, and in other valuable merchan- H
dizes, the fhm loft by the enemy perhaps did not fall a ’ t
fliort of three millions fterling.
The city of Havanna was reftored by the peace of
176 5 ; and is of the greateil importance to Spain, be¬
ing the rendezvous for all their fleets to return from
America to Europe, lying at the mouth of the gulph
of Florida, through which they are all obliged to pafs.
Here the navy of Spain ftafioned in the Weft Indies
ride ; and here the galleons, the flora, and other mer¬
chant (hips from other ports both of the continent and
iflands, meet in September, to take in provifions and
water, with great part of their lading,' and for the-
convenience of returning to Spain in a body. A con¬
tinual fair is held till their departure, which generally
happens before the end of the month, when proclama¬
tion is made, forbidding any perfon belonging to the
fleet to flay in town on pain of death ; and accordingly,
on firing the warning gun, they ail retire on board.—
The commerce carried on in this port, which is very
confiderable, may be diftinguifhed into the particular
commerce of the ifland of .Cuba, and that more general
by the galleons and flota. The former confifts in
hides, ufually ftyled of the Havanna, which are excel¬
lent, and of great value ; fugar, tobacco, admirable in
its kind, &c. Though ftrangers are prohibited to
trade, yet a contraband commerce is carried on' brifker
here than at La Vera Cruz. Some little trade is car¬
ried on by other ports of Cuba, but it is very incon-
fiderable. As to the general commerce, this port is-
the place of rendezvous (as already mentioned) for all
(hips, particularly from Carthagena, Puerto Velo, and
La Vera Cruz, which return to Spain from the Indies.
miniftry fent a fquadron and army again!! this place
under the command of admiral Pocock and lord Albe¬
marle. The Spaniards had in the harbour at the time
a fleet of twelve fail of the line, two of them but juft
launched, two more on the (locks nearly finiihed, and
feveral merchant (hips. The men of war were almoft
ready for fea ; but no account had reached the gover¬
nor of the intended attack. The place, however, was
gallantly defended, and fifftained a liege of two months
and eight days before it could be reduced ; when a
capitulation was figned, and alongft with the city was
yielded a diftrict of 180 miles to the weftward. This
conqueft was without doubt in itfelf the mod conftder-
able, and in its confequences the mod deciflve, of any
we had made fince the beginning of the war ; and in
no operation were the courage, fteadinefs, and perfe-
1762, the Britifli The Havanna is regularly fupplied with European
goods only by the regiftet (hips from Cadiz and the
Canaries. The flota and galleons bring there no more
than the refufe of their cargoes, which they had not
been able to difpofe of at Carthagena, Puerto Velo, or
La Vera Cruz. When the fleet is in the harbour,
provifions are exceffively dear on (bore, and money fo.
plenty, that a Spaniard expedls half a piece of eight a-
day from a male (lave, and a quarter from a female,,
out of what they earn for their labour. The fleet ge¬
nerally foils from thence, through the channel of Ba¬
hama, in the month of September; and is the richeft.
in the world; ftnce, in filver and merchandife, there
is feldom lei's than thirty millions of pieces'of eight on. _
board, or fix millions feven hundred and fifty thoufand
pounds of our money. — It is natural to imagine, that
a port of fo much confequence as the Havanna ought
verance of the Britifli troops, and the condudl of their to be well fortified. Since it has been reftored to
leaders, more confpicuous. The acquifition of this
place united in itfelf all the advantages which can be
acquired in war. It was a militaiy atchievement
of the higheft clafs. By its effc£l on the enemy’s ma¬
rine it was equal to the greateft naval vidlory, and
in the plunder it equalled the produce of a national
Spain, many new works have been added, to prevent
if pofiible a fimilar difafter befalling it. W. Long_
82. 13. N. Lat. 23. 12.
HAVEL, a river of Brandenburg, which proceeds
from a lake in the duchy of Mecklenburg, and running
thro’ the middle Marche, and thro’ Brandenburg and
fubfidy. Nine foil of the enemy’s line-of-battle (hips other towns, runs north, and falls into the Elbe.
* i-f o 1r /j t-. • £* L,.. - ^ .1 /L ! 1 1  f TTA V 7 T71 T T3 TP T) n ...... ^ (■ a n in t } 1
were taken; three of their capital (hips had been funk
by themfelves at the beginning of the fiege; two more
were in forwardnefs upon the (locks, and were after¬
wards deftroyed by the captors. The enemy on this
accafion loft a whole fleet of (hips of war, befides a
rmmbet of confiderable merchant, (hips ; and in ready
HAVELBERG, a town of Germany, in th* circle
of Lower Saxony, and in the deflorate of Branden¬
burg, with a bifltop’s fee, fecularized in favour of the
houfe of Brandenburg. It is feated on the river Havel,
in E. Long. 12. 43. N. Lat. 53. 4.
HAVEN, a fea-port or harbour for (hips. See
Port;
Haver-
camp
H H m
H A U [ 34> ] H A U
Port and Harbour.—The word is derived from the
Saxon havene, or the German hafen, or the French
havre; which all fignify the fame thing.
HAVERCAMP (Sigibert), a celebrated Dutch
fcholar and critic, profeffor of hiftory, eloquence, and
the Greek tongue, at Leyden. He was particularly
{killed in medals; and was the author of fome efteemed
works in that way, befide giving good and elegant
editions of feveral Greek and Latin authors. He died
at Leyden in 1742, aged 58.
HAVERFORD-west, a town of Pembrokefliire
in South Wales, feated in W. Long. 5. N Lat. 51. 50.
It is a neat, well-built, populous place, on the fide of
a hill, which forms a part of the well bank of the river
Dongledye, 256 miles from London. It is an incor¬
porated town and county of itfelf, governed by a
mayor, Iheriff, town-clerk, two bailiffs, ferjeants at
mace, and other officers. The mayor of the town is
admiral, coroner, efcheater, and clerk of the markets,
within its precindfs. The houfes are well built and
well inhabited, and the people enjoy a good trade.
Here the affizes are held and the county-jail kept.
The town enjoys feveral privileges, and has its own
courts. There are three parifh-churches within the
town, and one in the fuburbs. Here is alfo a com¬
modious quay for (hips of burden, a cuftomhoufe, and
a fine Hone-bridge over the Dongledye, with a good
free-fchool, a charity-fchool for boys and girls, and
an almfhoufe. It was formerly fortified with a rampart
and caftle, now demolifiied.
HAVERILL, a town of England, in the county
of Suffolk, where there is a confiderable manufadtory of
checks, cottons, and fuftains. By the ruins of a
church and caltle ftill to be feen, it appears to have
been formerly a place of much greater confequence
than at prefent. It has now only about 300 poor clay-
houfes, and one wide ftreet not paVed.
HAUL, an expreffion peculiar to feamen, .imply¬
ing to pull a fingle rope, without the affiftance of
blocks or other fuch mechanical powers. When a
rope is otherwife pulled, as by the application of tackles,
or the connexion with blocks, &c. the term is changed
into bo'wjing.
To Haul the Wind, is to direft the {hip’s courfe
nearer to that point of the compafs from which the
wind arifes. Thus, fuppofing a (hip to fail fouth-
weft, with the wind northerly, and fame particular oc-
cafion requires to haul the wind more weftward; to
perform this operation, it is neceffary to arrange the
fails more obliquely with her keel; to brace the yards
more forward, by llackening the fUr~oard and pulling
in the larboard braces, and to haul the lower (beets
further aft ; and, finally, to put the helm a port, i. e.
over to the larboard fide of the veffel. As foon as her
head is turned direftly to the weftward, and her fails
are trimmed accordingly, (he is faid to have hauled
the wind four points; that is to fay, from fouth-weft
to weft. She may ftill go two points nearer to the di-
redfiou of the wind, by-difpofing her fails according
to their greateft obliquity, or, in the fea-phrafe, by
trimming allJharp; and in this duration (he is faid to be
clofe hauled, as failing weft-north-weft.
HAUM, Halm, or Hawm, among farmers, denotes
the Item or ftalk of corn, peafe, beans, &c. from the
root-to the ear.
HAUNCH, or Hanch, the Hip, or that part of Haunch
the body between the laft ribs and the thigh. II
The haunches of a horfe are too long, if when Haute'
(landing in the liable he limps, with his hind-legs far- v
ther back than he ought; and when the top or onfet
of his tail is not in a perpendicular line to the tip of
his hocks, as it always does in horfes whofe haunches
are of a juft length. There are fome horfes which
though they have too long haunches, yet commonly
walk well: fuch are good to climb hills, but are not
at all fure upon a defcent; for they cannot ply their
hams, and never gallop {lowly, but always nearly upon
a full fpeed. The art of riding the-great horfe has
not a more neceffary leffon than that of putting a horfe
upon his haunches; which, in other words, is called
coupling him well, or putting him well together, or corn-
pad. A horfe that cannot bend or lower his haunches,
throws himfeif too much upon his (boulder, and lies *
heavy upon the bridle.
HAVRE, in geography, &c. a French term frgni-
fying the fame with haven or harbour.
Hap're de Grace, a fea-port town of France, and
capital of a diftrict of the fame name, is feated in the
province of Normandy, on the Englifh Channel, in a
large plain at the mouth of the river Seine. It is a fmail
fortified town, nearly of a fquare figure, divided into
two parts by the harbour, furrounded with a wall and
other works, and defended by a very ftrong citadel. It
is one of the moll important places in France, on ac¬
count of its foreign trade and convenient harbour ; for
which reafon it was made a diftindl government from
the reft of Normandy. It was furprifed in 1562 by the
Proteftants, who delivered it to queen Elizabeth ; but
it was loft next year. In 1694 it was bombarded by
the Englifh, and alfo in the year 1758. E. Long. o. 11.
N. Lat. 49. 29.
HAURI \NT, in heraldry, a term peculiar to:
fifties; and fignifies their (landing upright, as if they
were refrefhing themfejves by fucking in the air.
HAUTE FEUILLE (John),an ingenious mecha¬
nic, born at Orleans in 1647. Though he embraced:
the (late of an ecolefiaftic, and enjoyed feveral benefi¬
ces, he applied almoft his whole life to mechanics, in
which he made a great progrefs. He had a particular-
talle for clock work, and made feveral difcoveries in it.
that were of fingular ufe. It was he who found otic
the fecret of moderating the vibration of the balance,
by means of a fmail (teel-fpring, which has fince been
made ufe of. This difcovery he laid before the mem¬
bers of the Academy of Sciences in 1674; and thefe
watches are, by way of eminence, called pendulum-
’watches; not that they have real pendulums, but be-
caufe they nearly approach to the juftnefs of pendu¬
lums. M. Huygens perfedled this happy invention ;
but having declared himfeif the inventor, and obtained-
from Louis XIV. a patent for making watches twith
fpiral fprings, the abbe Feuille oppofed the regiftering
of this privilege, and publiftied a piece on the fubjedl
again ft M. Huygens.. He wrote a great number of
other pieces, moft.of which are fmall pamphlets con¬
fiding of a few pages, but very.curious ; as, 1. His
perpetual pendulum, quarto. 2. New inventions,
quarto. 3. The art of breathing under water, and
the means of preferring a flame (hut up in a fmall
place. 4. Refledlions on machines for railing water..
5 . Hisn
HAW [ 342 1 HAW
Hautboy His opinion on the different fentiments of Malle-
H-wters ^ranc^e anc^ Regis relating to the appearance of the
1 moon when feen in the horizon. 6. The magnetic
balance. 7. A placet to the king on the longitude.
8. Letter on the fecret of the longitude. 9. A new
fyftem on the flux and reflux of the fea. io. The
means of making fenfible experiments that prove the
motion of the earth j and many other pieces. He
died in 1724.
H AUTBOY, a mufical inftrument of the wind kind,
fliaped much like the lute; only that it fpreads and
widens towards the bottom, and is founded through a
reed. The treble is two feet long ; the tenor goes a
fifth lower when blown open : it has only eight holes;
but the bafs, which is five feet long, has eleven.
The word is French, haul hois, d. “ high wood
and is given to this inflrument becaufe the tone of it is
, higher than that of the violin.
HAW, a fort of berry, the fruit of feveral fpecies
of mefpilus, thence denominated hawthorns. See
Mespilus.
Haw, among farriers, an excrefcence refembling a
griflle, growing under the nether eye-lid and eye of a
horfe, which, if not timely removed, will put it quite
Oi.fi.. See Farriery, Seft. xv. 4.
Haw, a fmall parcel of land fo called in Kent, as
a Hcmphaiv, or Beanhaiv, lying near the houfe, and
inclofed for thefe ufes. But Sir Edward Coke, in an
ancient plea concerningFeverfham in Kent, fays/;aw«
are houfes.
HAw-Finth. 'See LoxiA.
HAWGH, or Howgh, fignifies a green plot in a
valley as they ufe it in the north of England.
HAWK, in ornithology. See Falco.
HAWKEUS, anciently were fraudulent perfons,
who went from place to place buying and felling brafs,
pewter, and other merchandize, which ought to be
uttered in open market. In this fenfe the word is
-mentioned anno 25 Hen. VIII. pap.-<5. and 33 ejufdem,
cap. 4. The appellation hawkers feems to have arifen
from their uncertain wandering, like thofe who, with
.hawks, feek their game where they can find it.
The term is now ufed as fynonymous with pedlar ;
a perfon who travels about the country felling wares.
Every hawker muft take out an annual licence, for
which he muft pay 4I. and if he travels with a horfe,
afs, or mule, for every one of them 81. If he travels
without a licence, or contrary to it, he forfeits for
every offence to the informer, and ,the poor of the
parifh where difcovered, 10I. The afts relating to
hawkers, do not extend to makers of goods or their
agents ;.or to thofe who fell goods in fairs or markets; •
to the fellers of fiffi, fruit, or other victuals; nor to
the venders of books and newspapers, 9 and 1 o W.
cap. 27. 3 and 4 Anne, .cap. 4. But hawkers ihall
not, by virtue of fuch licence, fell or offer to fale any
tea or fpirituous liquors, though with a permit, under
the penalty of having the fame feized, and imprifon-
ment and proftcution of the offender. 9 Geo. II. cap. 35.
Hawkers who were licenfed on June 23. 1785 may
fet up any bufinefs in the place where they are refi-
dt nt inhabitants, though not brought up thereto, and
may employ theiein perfons who have not been ap¬
prentices.
Hawkers is a term alfo applied to thofe who go up Hawkers
and down London ftreets and country towns, felling !|.
newfpapers, pamphlets, &c. Hawking^
HAWKESWORTH (John), a celebrated Eng- ' v
lift writer, was born about the year 1719V though his
epitaph,.as we find it in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
Aug. 1781, makes him to have beenftorn in 1715.
He was brought up to amrechanical profefiion, that of
a watchmaker as is fuppofed. He was of the Prefty-
terian perfuafion, and a member of the celebrated Tom
Bradbury’s meeting, from which he was expelled for
fome irregularities. He afterwards devoted himfelf to
literatuie, and became an author of confiderable emi¬
nence. In the early part ©f life his circumftances
were rather confined. He refided feme time at Bromley
in Kent, where his wife kept a boarding fchool. He
afterwards became known to a lady who had great
property and intereft in the Eall India company, and
through her means was chofen a diredlor of that body.
As an author, his Adventurer is his capital work ; the
merits of which, if we miftake not, procured him the
degree of LL.D. from Herring archbiftop of Canter¬
bury. When the defign of compih’ng a narrative of
the difeoveries in the South Seas was on foot, he was
recommended as a proper perfoa to be employed on
the occafion: but in truth he was not a proper perfon,
nor did the performance anfwer expectation. Works
of tafte and elegance, where imagination and the paf-
fions were to be affe&ed, were his province; not works
of dry, cold, accurate narrative. However, he exe-
.cuted his talk, and is faid to have received for it the
enormous fum of 6000 ]. He died in 1773; fome fay
of high living ; others, off chagrin from the ill recep¬
tion of his Narrative : for he was a man of the keeneft
fenfibility, and obnoxious to all the evils of fuch irri¬
table natures. On a handfome marble monument at
Bromley in Kent is the following infeription, the lat¬
ter part of which is taken from the laft .number of The
Adventurer:
To the memory of
. JOHN HAWKESWORTH, LL.D.
Who died the i6th of November
mdcclxxiii, aged 58 years.
That he lived ornamental and ufeful
To fociety in an eminent degree
Was among the boafted felicities
Of the prefent age ;
That he laboured for the benefit of fociety.
Let his own pathetic admonitions
Record and realize.
“ The hour is hailing, in which whatever praife
“ or cenfure I have acquired will be remembered
“ with equal indifference. Time, who is impatient
“ to date my laft paper, will ftortly moulder the
“ hand which is now writing it in the dull, and ftill
“ the breaft that now throbs at the reflection. But
“ let not this be read as fomething that relates
“ only to another; for a few years only can divide
“ the eye that is now reading from the hand that
“ has written.”
HAWKING, the exercife of taking wili-fowl by
means of hawks. The method of reclaiming, man¬
ning, and bringing up a hawk to this exercife, is called
falconry. See Falconry.
J There
HAW [ 343 ] HAW
Hawking. There are only two countries in the world where
we have any evidence that the exercife of hawking
was very anciently in vogue. Thefe are, Thrace and
Britain. In the former, it was purfued merely as the
diverfion of a particular diftridt, if we may believe
*£. x.8. Pliny*, whofe account is rendered obfcure by the
darknefs of his own ideas of the matter. The pri-
mseval Britons, with a fondnefs for the exercife of
hunting, had alfo a tafte for that of hawking; and
every chief among them maintained a confiderable num¬
ber of birds for that fport. It appears alfo from a
•|Vol. I. p. curious paiTage in the poems of Offianf, that the fame
nj. diverfiou was falhionable at a very early period in
Scotland. The poet tells us, that a peace was endea¬
voured to be gained by the proffer of too managed
fteeds, 100 foreign captives, and “ roo hawks with
fluttering wings, that fly acrofs the fky.” To the
Romans this diverfion was fcarce known in the days
of Vefpafian; yet it was introduced immediately af¬
terwards. Moil probably they adopted it from the
Britons ; but we certainly know that they greatly im¬
proved it by the introduftion of fpaniels into the
ifland. In this ftate it appears among the Roman
Britons in the fixth century. Gildas, in a remarkable
pafiage in his firfl epidle, fpeaks of Maglocunus, on
his relinquiftring the fphere of ambition, and taking re¬
fuge in a monaftery ; and proverbially compares him
to a dove, that haftens away at the noily approach of
the dogs, and with various turns and tvindings takes
her flight from the talons of the haw’k.
In after times, hawking was the principal amufement
of the Engli/h : a perfcn of rank fcar'ce ftirred out
without his hawk on his hand ; which, in old paint-
jj. ings, is the criterion of nobility. Harold, afterwards
anfcaxton. king of England, when he went on a moft important
embafly into Normandy, is painted embarking with a
bird on his fill, and a dog under his arm : and in an
ancient pidlure of the nuptials of Henry VI. a noble¬
man is reprefented in much the fame manner ; for in
thofe days, it was thought fujficient for noblemen to winde
their horn, and to carry their hawk fair, and leave Jludy
and learning to the children of mean people. The former
were the accomplHhments of the times; Spenfer makes
his gallant Sir Triftram boaft,
Ne K there hawk which mantleth her on pearch,
Whether high towring, or accoafting low,
But I the meafure of her flight doc fearch,
And all her prey, and all her diet know. B. vi. Canto
In fliort, this diverfion was, among the old Englilh,
the pride of the rich, and the privilege of the poor;
no rank of men feems to have been excluded the
amufement: we learn from the book of St Alban’s,
that every degree had its peculiar hawk, from the
emperor down to the holy-water clerk. Vail was the
expence that fometimes attended this fport. In the
reign of James I. Sir Thomas Monfon is faid to have
given 1000I. for a caft of hawks: we are not then to
wonder at the rigour of the laws that tended to pre-
ferve a pleafure that was carried to fuch an extrava¬
gant pitch. In the 34th of Edward III. it was made
felony to ileal a hawk ; to take its eggs, even in a
perfon’s o#n ground, was puniihable with imprifon-
ment fqr a year and a day, befides a fine af'the king’s
pleafure: in queen Elizabeth’s reign, the imprifonment
was reduced to three months; but the offender was to
find fecurity for his good behaviour for feven years, or Hawking,
lie in prifon till he did. Such was the enviable ftate
of the times of old England ; during the whole day,
the gentry were given to the fowls of the air and the
beafts of the field; in the evening, they celebrated their
exploits with the moft abandoned and brutiih fottiih-
nefs ; at the fame time, the inferior rank of people, by
the moft unjuft and arbitrary laws, were liable to ca¬
pital puniihments, to fines, and lofs of liberty, for de-
ftroying the moil noxious of the feathered tribe.
According to Olearius, the diverfion of hawking is
more followed by the Tartars and Perfians than ever
it was in any part of Europe. II n’y avoit point de
hutte (fays he) qui n’eujtfon aigle ou fon fauccn.
The falcons or hawks that were in ufe in thefe king¬
doms, are now found to breed in Wales, and in North
Britain and its ifles. The peregrine falcon inhabits
the rocks of Caernarvonihire. The fame fpecies, with,
the gyrfalcon, the gentil, and the gofhawk, are found
in Scotland, and the lanner in Ireland.
We may here take notice, that the Norwegian breed
was, in old times, in high efteem in England : they
were thought bribes worthy a king. Jeoffrey Fitz- Maddox Am-
pierre gave two good Norway hawks to king John, to nquiuV^-
obtain for his friend the liberty of exporting 100 wt. chequer,!,
of cheefe; and Nicholas the Dane was to give the 469*
king a hawk every time he came into England, that
he might have free liberty to traffic throughout the
king’s dominions.
They were alfo made the tenures that fome of the Blunt's Ante
nobility held their eftates by, from the crown. Thus Tenurci,%ot
Sir John Stanley had a grant of the Ifie of Man from
Henry IV. to be held of the king, his heirs, and fuc-
ceffors, by homage and the fervice of two falcons,
payable on the day of his or their coronation. And
Philip de Haftang held his manor of Combertoun in
Cambridgefhire, by the fervice of keeping the king’s
falcons.
Hawking, though an exercife now much difufed
among us, in comparifon of 'what it anciently was,
does yet furnifh a great variety of fignificant terms,
which ftill obtain in our language. Thus, the parts
of a hawk have their proper names.—The legs, from
the thigh to the foot, are called arms ; the toes, the
petty Jingles ; the claws, the pounces.—The wings are
called the fails; the long feathers thereof, the beams ;
the two longeft, the principal feathers; thofe next
thereto, the fags.—The tail is called the train ; the
bread-feathers, the mails ; thofe behind the thigh, the
pendant feathers.—When the feathers are not yet full
grown, file is faid to be unfummed; when they are
complete, file is fummed:—The craw, or crop, is called
the gorge ;—The pipe next the fundament, where the
faeces are drawn down, is called thepannel:—The flitny
fubftance lying in the pannel, is called the glut;—The
upper and crooked part ef the bill is called the beak ;
the nether-part, the clap; the yellow part between the.
beak and the eyes, thz fear ot fere; the two fmall holes
therein, the nares.
As to her furniture :—The leathers, with bells but¬
toned on her legs, are called bewits.—Thz leathern-
thong, whereby the falconer holds the hawk, is called
the leafe or leafh ; the little ftraps, by which the leafe
is faftened to the \;gs,jffes; and a line or pack-thread
faftened to the leafe, in difciplining her, a creance.~
A.
HAW [ 344 3 HAW
;Ha\Vting. A cover for her head, to keep herm the dark, is called
—~ a hood; a large wide hood, open behind* to be wore
at firft, is called a rufttr hood: To draw the firings,
that the hood may be in readinefs to be pulled off, is
called urjlriking the hood.—The blinding a hawk juft
taken, by running a thread through her eye lids, and
thus drawing them over the eyes, to prepare her for
being hooded, is called feeling.—A figure or refem-
blance of a fowl, made of leather and feathers, is called
a lure.— Her refting-place, when off the falconer’s fill,
is called the pearch — The place where her meat is laid,
_ is called the hack ; and that wherein (he is fet, while
her feathers fall and come again, the mew.
Something given a hawk, to cleanfe and purge her
gorge, is called cajling—Small feathers given her to
make her call, are called plumage:— Gravel given her to
help to bring down her ftomach, is called rangle: Her
throwing up filth from the gorge after calling, is called
gleaming.—The purging of her greafe, &c. enframing.
—A being Huffed is called gurgiting.—The infer ting
a feather in her wing, in lieu of a broken one, is called
imping.—The giving her a leg, wing, or pinion of a
fowl to pull at, is called tiring :—The neck of a bird
the hawk preys on, is called the inke: What the
hawk leaves of her prey, is called the pill or pelf.
There are alfo proper terms for her feveral aftions.
—-When fire flutters with her wings, as if driving to
;get away, either from perch or fill, fire is faid to bate.
—When Handing too near they fight with each other,
it is called crabbing :—When the young ones quiver,
-and (hake their wings in obedience to the elder, it is
■called cowring :—When Ihe wipes her beak after feed¬
ing, (he is faid to feak :—When (he fleeps, (he is faid
tojouk :—From the time of exchanging her coat, till
{he turn white again, is called her intermewing:—
Treading is "called cawking: When fire ftretches one
of her wings after her legs, and then the other, it is
called mantling: Her dung is called muting; when
fhe mutes a good way from her, fhe is faid to Jlice ;
when fhe does it direftly down, inftead of yerking
•backwards, fhe is faid to flime ; and if it be in drops,
it is called dropping.—When fhe as it were fneezes, it
is called fniting.—When fhe raifes and (hak. s herfelf,
■fhe is faid to rou%e: When, after mantling, fhe
Troffes her wings together over her back, fire is faid
to warble.
When a hawk feizes, fhe is faid to Z7W;—-When,
•after feiztog, fire pulls off the feathers, file is faid to
plume. - When fhe raifes a fowl aloft, and at length
defeends with it to the ground, it is called trufing.—
When, being alott, fhe defeends toftrike her prey, it is
calledJlooping.—'When fhe flies out too far from the
game, (he i- faid to raZ-r.-When, forfaking her proper
game, (lie flits at pyes, crows, &c. that chance to crofs
her, it is called check.—When, miffing the fowl, fhe
betakes herfelf to the next check, fhe is faid toJly on
head. The fowl or game fhe flies at~ is called the
quarry.— ! he dead body of a fowl killed by the hawk,
is called a pelt.—When fine flies away with the quarry,
fhe is laid to carry.-—When in Hooping fhe turns two
or three times on the wing, 'to recover herfelf ere fhe
feizes, it is called cancelicring.—When fhe hits the
prey, yet does not trufs it, it is called ruff.—The
making a hawk tame and gentle, is called reclaiming.
The bringing her to endure company, manning her.
N°149-
—An old Haunch hawk, ufed to fly and fet example Hawking*
to a young one, is called a make-hawk.
The reclaiming, manning, and bringing up a hawk
to the fport, is not eafy to be brought to any precife
fet of rules.—It confifts in a number of little pra&ices
and obfervances, calculated to familiarize the falconet*
to his bird, to procure the love thereof, &c. See the
article Falconry.
When your hawk comes readily to the lure, a large
pair of luring-bells are to be put upon her; and the
more giddy-headed and apt to rake out your hawk is,
the larger muff the bells be. Having done this, and
fhe being fharp-fet, ride out in a fair morning, into
fome large field unencumbered with trees or wood,
with your hawk on your fift ; then having loofened
her hood, whiftle foftly, to provoke her to fly; unhood
her, and let her fly with her head into the wind ; for
by that means -fhe will be the better able to get upon
the wing, and will naturally climb upwards, flying a
circle. After fhe has flown three or four turns, then
lure her with your voice, cafting the lure about your
head, having firft tied a pullet to it; and if your fal¬
con come in and approach near you, caft out the lure
into the wind, and if fhe ftoop to it reward her.
You will often find, that when fhe flies from the
fift, fhe will take Hand on the ground : this is a fault
which is very common with foar-falcons. To remedy
this, fright her up with your wand ; and when you
have forced her to take a turn or two, take her dowft
to the lure, and feed hen But if this does not do,
then you muft have in readinefs a duck fealed, fo that
fhe may fee no way but backwards, and that will
make her mount the higher. Hold this duck in your
hand, by one of the wings near the body; then lure
with the voice, to make the falcon turn her head; and
when fhe is at a reafonable pitch; caft your duck up
juft under her-; when, if fhe ftrike, ftoop, or trufs thd
duck, permit her to kill it, and reward her by giving
her a reafonable gorge. After you have pradlifed
this two or three times, your hawk will leave the
ftand, and, delighted to be on the wing, will be very
obedient.
It is not convenient, for the firft or fecond time, to
fhow your hawk a large fowl; for it frequently happens,
that they efcape from the hawk, and fhe, not recovering
them, rakes after them: this gives the falconer trouble,
and frequently occafiohs the lofs of the hawk. But if
file happens to purfue a fowl, and being'unable to re¬
cover it, gives it over, and comes in again direclly,
then caft out a fealed duck; and if fhe ftoop and truft
it acrofs the wings, permit her to take her pleafure,
rewarding her alfo with the heart, brains, tongue; and
liver. But if you have not a quick duck, take her down
with a dry lure, and let her plume a pullet and feed
upon it. By this means a hawk will learn to give over
a fowl that rakes out, and on hearing the falconer’s
lure, will make back again, and know the better how
to hold in the head.
Some hawks have a difdainful coynefs, proceeding
from their being high fed : fuch a hawk muft not be
rewarded though fhe fhould kill: but you may give
her leave to plume a little ; and then taking a fheep’s
heart cold* or the leg of a pullet, when the hawk is
bufy in pluming, let either of them be conveyed into
the body of the fowl, that it may favour of it; and
4. when
HAW [
Hawkwood when the hawk has eaten the heart, brains, and tongue
II of the fowl, take out what is inclofed, call her to your
. Hawfe. an(j fec(j her jt. afterwards give her fome of
’ * the feathers of the fowl’s neck, to fcower her, and
make her caft.
If your hawk be a (lately high-flying one, (he
ought not to take more than one flight in a morn¬
ing ; and if (he be made for the river, let her not
fly more than twice: when (he is at the higheft,
take her down with your lure; and when (he has
plumed and broken the fowl a little, feed her, by
which means you will keep her a high-flyer, and fond
of the lure.
HAWKWOOD (Sir John), a famous Englifti ge¬
neral, was the fon of a tanner at Heddingham-Sibil in
Efftx, where he was born in the reign of Edward III.
He was bound apprentice to a taylor in London; but
being fortunately prefled into the army, was fent abroad,
where his genius foon expanded itfelf, and furmounted
the narrow prejudices which adhered to his birth and
occupation. He fignalized himfelf as a foldier in
France and Italy, and particularly at Pifa and Florence.
He commanded with great ability and fuccefs in the
army of Galeacia duke of Milan; and was in fuch
high efteem with Barnabas his brother, that he gave
him Domitia his natural daughter in marriage, with
an ample fortune. He died at Florence, full of years
and military fame, in 1394.
HAWSE, or Hause, is generally underftood to
imply the fituation of the cables before the (hip’s (tem,
when (he is moored with two anchors out from for¬
ward, viz. one on the (larboard, and the other on the
larboard bow. Hence it is ufual to fay, fhe has a
dear hawfe, or a foul hawfe. It alfo denotes any
ftnall diftance a head of a (hip, or between her head
and the anchors employed to ride her, as, “ He has
anchored in our hawfe, The brig fell athwart our
hawfe,” &c.
A (hip is faid to ride with a clear hawfe, when the
cables are diretted to their anchors, without lying
athwart the (tem ; or eroding, or being twifted round
each other by the (hip’s winding about, according to
the change of the wind, tide, or current.
A foul hawfe, on the contrary, implies that the ca¬
bles lie acrofs the item, or bear upon each other, fo as
to be rubbed and chafed by the motion of the veflel.
The hawfe accordingly is foul, by having either a crofs,
an elbow, or a round turn. If the larboard cable,
lying acrofs the (lem, points out on the (larboard frde,
while the (larboard cable at the fame time grows out
on the larboard fide, there is a crofs in the hawfe. If,
after this, the (hip, without returning to her former
pofition, continues to wind about the fame way, fo as
to perform an entire revolution, each of the cables will
be twifted round the other, and then dire&ed out from
the oppofite bow, forming what is called a round turn.
An elbow is produced when the (hip (lops in the mid¬
dle of that revolution, after having had acrofs: or, in
other words, if (he rides with her head northward with
a clear hawfe, and afterwards turns quite round fo as
to direft her head northward again, (he will have an
elbow.
Haitse-HoIcs, certain cylindrical holes cut through
the bows of a (hjp on each fide of the ftem, through
which the cables pafs in order to be drawm into or let
Von. VIII. Part I.
345 1 HAY
out of the veficl as occafion requires. They are for- Hawfe
tided on each fide by the H
HAirse-Pieces, a name given to the foremoft timbers
of a (hip, whofe lower ends reft on the knuckle-tim¬
ber, or the foremoft of the cant-timbers. They are
generally parallel to the ftem, having their upper ends
fometimes terminated by the lower part of the beak-
head ; and otherwife, by the top of the bow, particu¬
larly in fmall drips and merchantmen.
HAWSER, a large rope which holds the middle
degree between the cable and tow-line, in any drip
whereto it belongs, being a fize fmaller than the form¬
er, and as much larger than the latter.
HAY, any kind of grafs cut and dried for the food
of cattle.
The time of mowing grafs for hay mud be regu¬
lated according to its growth and ripenefs; nothing
being more prejudicial to the crop than mowing it too
foon; becaufe the fap is not then fully come out of
the root, and when made into hay, the grafs (hrinks
aw'ay to nothing. It mud not, however, be let (land
too long till it have (hed its feeds. When the tops of
the grafs look browm, and begin to bend down, and
the red honeyfuckle flowers begin to wither, you may
conclude it ripe for mowing.
Sain-Foin Hay, is of feveral forts, which may be di-
ftinguilhed by the following terms, viz. 1. The virgin.
2. The bloflbmed. 3. The full-grown. And, 4. The
threflied hay. The firft of thefe is beyond comparifon
the bed. It mud be cut before the bloflbms generally
appear ; for when it (lands till it is full blown, the
mod fpirituous and nouriftiing parts of its juice are
fpent, the fap is much impoveriftied, and the fain foin
can never recover that richnefs it had in its virgin (late.
But this fine hay cannot well be had of uncultivated
fain-foin, becaufe that may not be much above an
handful high when it is in a condition to be cut; it
would then make a very light crop, and would be a
great while before it (prang up again : but the rich
will have two or three tuns to an acre, and fpring again
immediately for a fecond crop ; fo that little or none
in quantity would be loft by fo great an improvement
of its quality.
The fecond fort is that cut in the flower, which,
though much inferior to the virgin-hay, far exceeds
any other kind as yet commonly propagated in Bri¬
tain ; and if it be a full crop, it may amount to three
tuns an acre. This is that fain-foin which is com¬
monly made; and the larger it is, the more nourifliing
it is for horfes.
The next fort of fain-foin is the full grown, cut
when the blofibms are gone or going off: this alfo is
good hay, though it falls (hort by many degrees of the
goodnefs of the other two forts; but it makes a greater
crop than either of them, becaufe it grows to its full
bulk, and (brinks little in drying.
The laft fort is the threflied hay ; which, when not
damaged by wet weather, has been found more nou¬
rifliing to horfes than coarfe water-meadow hay : and,
when it is cut fmall by an engine, is good for cattle,
and much better than the chaff of corn. The bed
time to cut it, is when the greateil part of the feed is
well filled; the fiill-blown ripe, and the lall-blown
beginning to be full.
The goodnefs of the hay depends greatly upon the
U u manner
HAY [ 346 1 HAY
Hay- manner of ordering it. The bed hay in all England
ig made of fain-foin, without ever fpreading it. This
method, though it be longer before it be finilhed, cofts
lefs labour than the other. If fain-foin be laid up
pretty green, it will take no damage, provided it be
fet in fmall round ricks, with a large balket drawn up
in the middle of each, to have a vent-hole, through
which the fuperfluous moifture of the hay may tranf-
pire. As foon as its heating is over, thefe ricks aught
to be thatched; and all fain-foin ricks, that are made
when the hay is full dried in the cocks, ought to be
thatched immediately after the making them. That
which is laid up moll dried, will come out of the-rick
of a green colour; but that which has been much
heated in the rick, will be brown.
The feed affords the owner another opportunity of
making a profit of his fain-foin : but this, if the hoe¬
ing hufbandry were general, would not be vendible in.,
great quantities for planting; becaufe the ordinary
crop of an acre will produce feed enough to drill an
hundred acres, which would not want planting for a
long time. The other ufe then of this feed is for pro-
vender ; and it has been affirmed by fome who have
made trials of it, that three bulhels of good fain-foin
feed given to horfes, will nouri.lh them as much as four
bufhels of oats ; and when well ordered, it is fo fweet,
that moll forts of cattle are greedy of it.
Har-Making. See Agriculture, n° 199, ctfeq.
Hay, a town of Brecktiocklhire, in Wales, feated
near the confluence of the rivers Wye and Dulas. It
was a town of good note in the time tif the Romans ;
it being then fortified with a-caftle and a wall, which
were ruined in the rebellion of Owen Glendower. It
is at prefent a pretty good town ; and the market is
large for corn, cattle, and provifions. W. Long, o.
56. N. Lat. 52. 10.
Hay (William, Efq;), an agreeable Englifh writer,
was born at Glenburne in SulTex, about 1700, as is
conje£lured ; and educated at Headley-fchobl. In
1730, he publilhed a poem, called Mount Calurn, de¬
dicated to the duchefs of Newcaftle ; in which he de-
fcribes the beauties of his native country, and celebrates
the virtues of his friends. When lord Hardwicke was
called up to the houfe of lords in 1734, he was chofen
to fucceed him in reprefenting the borough of Sea-
ford among the commons: and he reprefented this bo¬
rough for the remainder of his life. He defended the
meafures of Sir Robert Walpole, and was the fuppofed
author of a minifterial pamphlet, intituled, A Letter
to a Freeholder on the late Redu&ion of the Land-tax
to one Shilling in' the Pound ; which had been printed
in 1732. In 1735, he publilhed Remarks on the Laws
relative to the Poor, with Propofals for their better
Relief and Employment; and at the fame time brought
in a bill for the purpofe. He made another attempt of
this kind, but without effedt. May 1738, he was ap¬
pointed a commiffioner of the Viftualling-office. in
1753) appeared Religio Philofophi; or, the Principles
of Morality and Chriltianity, illullrated from a View
of the Univerfe, and of Man’s Situation in it. This
was followed, 1^1754, by his E flay on Deformity;
in which he rallies his own imperfedlion in this refpedl
with much livelinefs and good humour. “ Bodily de¬
formity (fays he), is very rare. Among 558 gentle¬
men in the Houfe of Commons, I am the only one Hiyes-
that is fo. Thanks to my worthy conllituents, who II
never objedled to my perfon, and I hope never to give Hay8’
them caufe to objedl to my behaviour.” The fame
year, he tranlhted Hr.vkins Browne Zk Immortaiitate-
■Anirnii In I7551, he tranflated and modernized fome
Epigrams of Martial ^, but furvived this publication
o ily a (hort time, dying June 19. the fame year. A little
time before, he had been appointed keeper of the Re¬
cords in the Power; and it is faid that his attention and
affiduity during the few months he held that office were
eminently ferviceable t-o his fucceflors.—He left a Ion,
who inherited the imperfeci form of his father. Tin's
gentleman went into the fervice of the E til India com¬
pany, where he acquired rank, fortune,, qnd reputa¬
tion; but being one ot thofe who oppofed Coffim Aliy
Kawn, and unfortunately-falling into his hands, w-as^
with other gentlemen, ordered to be put to death at
Patna, OA. 5. 1 763.
HAYES (Charles, Efq;), a very fingular perfon*
whofe great erudition was lo concealed by his modelly,
that his name is known to very few, though his pub¬
lications are many'. He was born in 167-8, and became
diftinguiflied in 1704 by A Treatife of Fluxions, fo¬
lio : the only work to whicht he ever fet his name, la
lyto, came out a final! 410 pamphlet of 19 pages, inti¬
tuled, A new and eafy Method to find out the Longi¬
tude, from obfenfing the Altitudes of the Celellial Bo¬
dies : and, in 1723, The Moon, a Philofophical Dia¬
logue ; tending to (how-, that the moon is not an o-
paque body) but has original light of her own. Du¬
ring a long courfe of years, the management of the
late Royal African company lay in a manner wholly
upon Mr Hayes, he-being annually either fub-governor
or deputy-governor ; notwithftanding which, he' con¬
tinued his ptirfmt after general knowledge. To a (kill
in the Greek and Latin as well as modern languages,
he added the knowledge of the Hebrew : and publiffied
feveral pieces, relating to the tranflation and chrono¬
logy of the fcriptures. The African company being
dtffolved in 1752, he retired to Down in Kent, where
he gave himfelf up to ftudy. May 1753, he began to-
compile in Latin his Chronographia Afiatica & 7E-
gyptiaca, which he lived to finifh, but not to publifli
which, however, was publiflied afterwards. Auguft.
1758, he left his houfe in Kent, and took chambers,
in Gray-Inn, where he died, December 18. 1760, in
his 82d year. The title of his pofthumous works runs
thus : Chronographiis AJiatica iff Egyptiacts Specimen} in
quo, I. Origa Chronologic lxx Interpretum invejligutur.
2. ConfpeSus totius operis exhibetur, 8vo.
HAYNAULT. See Hainault.
HAYS, particular nets for taking rabbits, hares*
&c. common to be bought in (hops that fell nets, and
they may be had larger or fhorter as you think fit ;
from 15 to 20 fathoms is a good length, and for depth
a fathom.
As rabbits often ftraggle abroad.about mid-day for
frefti grafs, where you perceive a number gone forth to
any remote brakes or thickets, pitch two or three of
thefe hays about their burrows ; lie clofe there: but in
cafe you have not nets enough to inclofe all their bur¬
rows, fome may be flopped up with Hones, &c. Then
fet out with the coney-dog to hunt up and down at %
good
H A X [ 347 i H E A
good diftance, and draw on. by degrees to the man who
is with you, and lies clofe by the hay, who may take
them as they bolt into it.
HAYWARD, the perfon who keeps the common
herd or cattle of a town. He is appointed by the lord’s
court; and his olhce is to fee that the cattle neither
break nor crop the hedges of inclofed grounds.
Hayward (Sir John), an eminent Engliflt hiftorian
and biographer in the beginning of the i 7th century,
was educated in the univerfity of Cambridge, where
he took the degree of doftor of laws. In 16to, he
was appointed one of the hiftoriographers of a college
then at Chelfea ; and, in 1619, received the honour
of knighthood. He wrote, 1. The lives of the three
Norman kings of England, William I. and II. and
Henry I. 2. The firll part of the life and reign of
king Henry IV. 3. The life and reign of king Ed¬
ward VI.; and feveral theological works. He died in
1627.
HAZAEL, an officer belonging to Benhadad king
of Syria, caufed that prince to be put to death, and
reigned in his ftead. He defeated Joram, Jehu, and
Jehoahaz, kings of Ifrael; and, after his death, was
fucceeded by Benhadad hisfon, 852 B. C.
HAZARD, or Chance., in gaming. See Ga¬
ming.
Hazard, a game on dice, without tables, is very
properly fo called; fince it fpeedily makes a man, or
undoes him.
It is played with only two dice; and as many may
play at it as can Hand round the largeft round table.
Two things are chiefly to be obferved, viz. main
and chance 5 the latter belonging to the caftor, and
the former, or main, to the other gamefters. There
can be no main thrown above nine, nor under five ; fo
that five, fix, feven, eight, and nine, are the only
mains flung at hazard. Chances and nicks ire from four
to ten : thus four is a chance to nine, five to eight, fix‘
to feven, feven to fix, eight to five ; and nine and ten
a chance to five, fix, feven, and eight: in fhort, four,
five, fix, feven, eight, nine, and ten, are chances to
any main, if any of thefe nick it not. Now nicks
are either when the chance is the fame with the main,
as five and five, or the like ; or fix and twelve, feven
and eleven, eight and twelve. Here obfefve, that twelve
is out to nine, feven, and five ; eleven is out to nine,
eight, fix, and five: and ames-ace and duce-ace, are
out to all mains whatever.
HAZLE, or Hazel, in botany. SeeCoRYLDs.
The kernels of the fruit have a mild, farina'ceous,
oily tafte, agreeable to moft palates. Squirrels and
mice are fond of them, as.well as fome birds, fuch as
jays, nutcrackers, &c. A kind of chocolate has been
prepared from them, and there are infiances of their
having been formed into bread. The oil exprefied
from them is little inferior to the oil of almonds ; and
is ufed by painters and by chemifts for receiving and
retaining odours. The charcoal made of the wood is
ilfed by painters in drawing.—Some of the Highlan¬
ders, where fuperftition is not totally fubfided, look
upon the tree itfelf as unlucky ; but are glad to get
two of the nuts naturally conjoined, which is a good
omen. Thefe they call cno-chomhlaich, and carry them
®s an efficacious charm againft witchcraft.
Evelyn tells us, that no plant is more proper for
thickening of copfes than the hazle, for which he di¬
rects the following expeditious method. Take a pole
of hazle (afli or poplar may alfo be ufed) of 20 or 30 ■
feet in length, the head a little lopped into the ground,
giving it a chop near the ground to make it fuccumb;
this faftened to the earth with a hook or two, and co¬
vered with fome frefti mould at a competent depth (as
gardeners lay their carnations), will produce a great
number of fuckers, and thicken and furnifh a copfe
fpeedily.
HAZi-s Earth, ox Hadley-Earth, a kind of red loam,
which is faid to be an excellent mixture with other
forts of earth; Uniting what is too loofe, cooling what
is too hot, and gently retaining the moifture.
Witch-Hazel. See Hamamalis.
HEAD, the uppermoft or foremoft part of the
body of an animal. See Anatomy, Part I. feft. ii.
HsAo-Hch, a moft troublefome fenfation in the head,
produced by various caufes, and attended with diffe¬
rent fymptoms, according to its different degrees and
the place where it is feated. See (the Index fubjoined
to) Medicine.
Dragon's Head, in aftronomy, is the afcending node
of the moon or other planet.
Head of a Ship, an ornamental figure ere&ed on the
continuation of a (hip’s ftem, as being exprefiive of her
name, and emblamatical of war, navigation, commerce,
&c.
Head, is alfo ufed in a more enlarged fenfe to fig-
nify the whole front or forepart of the (hip, including
the bows on each fide : the head therefore opens the
column of water through which the (hip paffes when
advancing. Hence we fay, head-fails, head-fea, head-,
way, &c.
Thus, fig. 1. Plate CCXXVI. reprefents one fide
of the fore part or head of a 74 gunftiip, toge¬
ther with part of the bow, keel, and gunnel. The
names of the feveral pieces, exhibited therein, are as
follow:
AA Fore-part of the keel, with a a the two falfe
keels beneath it.
AC the ftem.
a a The cat-head.
bb The fuppotter of the cat-head.
cc The knight-head, or bollard-timber, of which
there is one on each fide, to fecure the inner end of the
bowfprit.
<ld The haufe-holes.
te The naval-hoods, i. 6. thick pieces of plank
laid upon the bow to ftrengthen the edges of the
haufe holes.
f The davit-chock, by which the davit is firmly
wedged while employed to fi(h the anchor.
g The bulk-head, which terminates the forecaftle
on the fore fide, being called the beak-head bulk-head
by (hipwrights,
H The gun-ports of the lower deck.
h The gun-ports of the upper deck and forecaftle.
I, I, The channels, with their dead-eyes and chain-
plates.
i The gripe, or fore-foot, which unites the keel
with the ftem, forming a part of either.
k k Thefe dotted lines reprefe'nt the thicknefs and
defeent of the different decks from the fore-part of the
(hip towards the middle. The loweft of the three dot-
U u 2 ted
H E A
trd lines / exprefies the convexity of the beams, or the
difference between the height of the deck in the middle
of its breadth and at the fhip's fide. This is alfo exhi¬
bited more clearly in the Mitosiup-Fraine; where the
red curve of the beam is delineated. N. B. Thefe
lines muit be always parallel to the lines which termi¬
nate the gun ports above and below.
m m The timbers of the head, and part of the bow-
fPrit*
X The rails of the head which lie acrofs the tim¬
bers.
QJZ Fore-part of the main-wale.
R X Foie-part of ihe channel-wale.
U C The load water-line.
Fig. 2. reprefents a head-view of a fhip, with the
projection of her principal timbers, and all her planks
laid on one fide.
It is evident that the fore-part of a fhip is called its
heady from the affinity of motion and pofition it bears
to a fifh, and in general to the horizontal fituation of
all animals whilfl fwimming.
By the Head ; the ftate of a ffiip, which is laden
deeper at the fore-end than the after-end.
HEAD-Boro<Wy or HEAD-Borough, fignifies the perfon
who is the chief of the frank-pledge, and had ancient¬
ly the principal dire&ion of thofe within his own
pledge. He was alfo called lurrow-bead, bur/boulder,
now borjholder, tbird-borow, tytbing-man, chlef-pledgey and
borow elder, according to the diverfity of fpeech in dif¬
ferent places. This office is now ufually called a high-
conjlable. The head-borow was the chief of ten pledges:
the other nine were called hand-borows, or plegii ma-
nuales, & c.
Head-Mould-Jhot, a difeafe in children, wherein the
futures of the fkull, generally the coronal, ride; that
is, have their edges fhot over one another; and are fo
clofe locked together,as to comprefs the internal parts,
the meninges, or even the brain itfelf. The difeafe
ufually occafions convulfions, and is fuppofed to admit
of no cure from medicine, unlefs room could be given
by manual operation or a divulfion of the futures.
The head-mould-ihot is the diforder oppoiite to the
horfe-fhoe-head.
HEAD-Pence, an cxaCtion of a certain fum formerly
coHedfed by the ffierifl'of Northumberland from the in¬
habitants of that county, without any account to be
made to the king. This was aboliffied by the ftatute
23 Hen. VI. cap. 7.
HEAD-Tm, in metallurgy," is a preparation of tin-
ore toward the fitting it for working into metal. When
the ore has been pounded and'twice waffied, that part
of it which lies Uppermoft, or makes the furface of the
mafs in the tub, is called the head-tin ; this is feparated
from the reft, and after a little more waffiing becomes
fit for the blowing-houfe.
HEAD-Faft, a rope employed to faften a ftup to
a wharf, chain, or buoy, or to fome other veffel along-
fide.
HEAD-Land, a name frequently given to a cape or
promontory.
HEAD-Drefs-, amongft the Jewiffi, Grecian, and Ro¬
man ladies, as among ourfelves, was various, according
to the different periods of time, and the fluAuation of
faftiion. In general, it principally confifted of their
hair differently tricked out. It was ufually divided
H E A
before, with a bodkin, into two equal parts ; fome- Head
times it was covered with a net, or put into a kind of ii
purfe, or tied behind in the form of a knot, or bound He;ilth‘
back and plaited with ribbands. It was waffied with r ^
great care ; effence and perfumes were applied to it,
and gold duft fometimes made ufe of as powder. Pearls
and jewels made a part of their ornaments ; and pen¬
dants were worn in the ear. To cover the defeft of
hair, perukes were made ufe of by the gentlemen of
Rome. And we read that Otho had a covering of
falfe hair, becaufe he had not much of his own. See
Hair, Jewels.
Both Grecian and Roman ladies wore tetes. But
whether they ever built up their heads fo high as the
Engliffi, or our continental neighbours, will admit of
a difpute.
Headmost, the fituation of any ffiip or ffiips
which are the moft advanced in a fleet, or line of
battle.
HsAD-Rope, that part of the bolt-rope which ter¬
minates any of the principal fails on the upper edge,
which is accordingly fewed thereto. See the article
Bolt-rope.
Head-Sails, a general name for all thofe fails which
are extended on the fore-maft and bowfprit, and em¬
ployed to command the fore-part of the ffiip : fuch
are the fore-fail, fore-top-fail, fore-top-gallant-fail, jib,
fore-ftay-fail, and the fprit-fail with its top-fail. This
term is ufed in oppofition to after-fails, viz. all thofe
which are extended on the mizen-maft, and on the ftays
between the mizen and main mafts.
HEAD-to-vvind; the iituation of a ffiip or boat,
when her head is turned to windward.
Head-Way, the motion of advancing at fea. It is
generally ufed when a ffiip firft begins to advance ; or
when it is doubtful whether ffie is in a flate of reft or
motion. It is in both fenfes oppofed to retreating, or
moving with the ftern foremoft. See the article Stern¬
way.
HEALFANG, Healsfang, or Halsfang, in
our ancient cuftoms, fignifies collijlrigium, or the pu-
niffiment of the pillory. The word is compounded of
two Saxon words ; halp, neck, and pangen “ to con¬
tain Pcena fcilicet qua alicui collumJlringatur. The heal-
fang, however, cannot fignify a pillory in the charter
of Canutus, De Foreftis, cap. xiv. Et pro culpa folvat
regi duos folidos, quos Dani vacant halfehang.
Healfang is alfo taken for a pecuniary puniffiment
or muld, to commute for ftanding in the pillory; and
is to be paid either to the king or the chief lord. Qut
falfum tejlimonium dedit, reddat regi vel terra domino heal¬
fang.
HEALING, in its general fenfe, includes the
whole procefs of curing or removing a diforder, and
recovering health. In this fenfe medicine is defined
the art of healing. In its more reftrained fenfe, as ufed
in furgery, &c. healing denotes the uniting or confo-
lidating the lips of a wound or ulcer. The medicines
proper for this intention are called incarnatives, aggluti-
natives, vulneraries, &c.
Healing, in archite&ure, denotes the covering the
roof of a building. The healing is various; as of
lead, tiles, flate, Horffiamftone, ffiingles, or reed and
ftraw.
HEALTH, is a right difpofition of the body, and
1 of
f 348 ]
I
H E A L 349 1 H E A
Health of all its parts; confining in a due temperature, a right
U conformation, juft connexion, and ready and free ex-
tArt‘ ercife of the feveral vital fun&ions.
Health admits of latitude, as not being the fame in
all fubje&s, who may yet be faid to enjoy health.
That part of medicine which (hows the means of
preferving health, is termed hygieine. See Medicine.
The Greeks and Romans deified Health, reprefent-
ing it under the figure of a woman, whom they fuppo-
fed to be the daughter of iEfculapius. We find the
name of the goddefs Salus, or Health, on many me¬
dals of the Roman emperors, with different inferip-
tions; as, salus publica, salus reipublicac,'salus
AUGUSTI, &C.
Methods of preferving the Health of Mariners. Sec
Mariner.
HEAM, in beafts, denotes the fame with after lirth
in women. Thyme, penny-royal, winter-favory, and
common hore-hound, boiled in white-wine, and given
to a mare, are efteemed good to expel the beam. Dit¬
tany, applied in a peffary, expels the beam, as well as
the dead foal; fo alfo do fennel, hops, favin, angeli¬
ca, &c.
HEARING, the aft or faculty of perceiving
founds. Hearing is reckoned among our external fen-
fes. Its organ is the ear, and particularly the audi¬
tory nerve diffufed through the fame ; and its objeft,
certain motions or vibrations of the air. Hence hear¬
ing may be more fcientifically defined, a fenfation,
whereby, from a due motion impreffed on the fibrillae
of the auditory nerve, and communicated thence to the
fenfory, the mind perceives and gets the idea of founds.
See Anatomy, n° 141.
Hearing in different animals. See Comp as a-
<rivs*Anatomy■, Entomology, and Ichthyology.
HEARNE (Thomas), a celebrated antiquarian,
eminent for his writings and editions of MSS. His fa¬
ther was parifivclerk of Little Waltham in Berklhire,
where he was born in 1680. He had a liberal educa¬
tion by the patronage of a neighbouring gentleman ;
and even from a boy difeovered a ftrong propenfity to
the ftudy of antiquities. He did great fervices to the
Bodleian library, and died in 1735.
HEARSli, among hunters, a hind in the fecond
year of her age. See Hunting.
Hearse is the name of a well-known carriage, ufed
for conveying the dead to the grave. The word is alfo
ufed by Shakefpeare in his Henry VI. for a monument
erefted over a grave.
HEART, in anatomy, a mufculouspart of the ani¬
mal body, fituated in the thorax, on the anterior part
of the diaphragm, between the two laminae of the me-
diaftinum, wherein the veins all terminate, and from
which all the arteries arife; and which, by its alternate
contraftion and dilatation, is the chief inftrument of the
circulation of the blood, and the principle of life. See Heart.
Anatomy, n°i2i, 122. ■" e' “
Several ingenious perfonshave from time to time at¬
tempted to make eftimates of the force of the blood in
the heart and arteries; who have as widely differed from
each other, as they have from the truth, for want of a
fufficient number of data to argue upon. This fet the
truly ingenious Dr Hales upon making proper experi¬
ments, in order to afeertain the force of the blood iii
the veins and arteries of feveral animals.
If, according to Dr KeiPs eftimate, the left ven¬
tricle of a man’s heart throws out in each fyftole an
ounce or 1.638 cubic inches of blood, and the area of
the orifice of the aorta be =0.4187, then dividing
the former by this, the quotient 3.9 is the length of
the cylinder of blood which is formed in palling thro’
the aorta in each fyftole of the ventricle ; and in the
75 pulfes of a minute, a cylinder of 292.5 inches in
length will pafs : this is at the rate of 1462 feet in an
hour. But the fyftole of the heart being performed
in one third of this time, the velocity of the blood in
that inftant will be thrice as much, viz. at the rate of
4386 feet in an hour, or 73 feet in a minute. And
if the ventricle throws out one ounce in a pulfe, then
in the 75 pulfes of a minute, the quantity of blood
will be equal to 4.41b. 11 oz. and, in 34 minutes,
a quantity equal to a middle-fized man, viz. 158 lb.
will pafs through the heart. But if, with Dr Har¬
vey and Dr Lower, we fuppofe two ounces of blood,
that is, 3.276 cubic inches, to be thrown out at each
fyftole of the ventricle, then the velocity of the
blood in entering the orifice of the aorta will be
double the former, viz. at the rate of 146 feet in a
minute, and a quantity of blood equal to the weight
of a man’s body will pafs in half the time, viz. 17 mi¬
nutes.
If we fuppofe, what is probable, that the blood will
rife 7+j- feet high in a tube fixed to the carotide ar¬
tery of a man, and that the inward area of the left
ventricle of his heart is equal to 15 fquare inches, thefe
multiplied into 7+4- feet, give 1350 cubic inches of
blood, which preffes on that ventricle, when it firft be¬
gins to contraft, a weight equal to 15.5 pounds.
What the doftor thus calculates, from fuppofition,
with regard to mankind, he aftually experimented up¬
on hories, dogs, fallow-does, &c. by fixing tubes in
orifices opened in their veins and arteries ; by obfer-
ving the feveral heights to which the blood rofe in
thefe tubes, as they lay on the ground; and by mea-
furing the capacities of the ventricles of the heart
and orifices of the arteries. And, that the reader
may the more readily compare the faid eftimates to¬
gether, he has given a table of them, ranged in the
following order.
TABLE
H E A r 350 1 H E A
HEART-burn, a difeafe ufually called cardialgia by
phyficians. In furfeits, or upon fwallowing without
due maftication ; when meats are eat tough and fat, or
with farinaceous fttbftances unfermented ; or when by
any accident the faliva is vitiated, too fcanty, or not
intimately mixed with the food, the fermentation
becomes tumultuous, the ftomach fwells with air, and
this extraordinary commotion being attended with
an unufual heat, brings on the uneafinefs called the
heart-burn; which is remedied by whatever promotes
a greater fecretion of faliva, or helps to mix it with our
aliment. The teftaceoys powders, as oyfter-lhells,
crabs eyes, chalk, &c. are the ufual remedies for the
heart-burn.
HE ARTH, that part of the pavement of a room on
which the fire is immediately placed.
Hearth-Money. See Chimney- Money.
HEAT, in phyfiology, has a double meaning; be¬
ing put either for that peculiar fenfation which is felt
on the approach of burning bodies, or for the caufe of
that fenfation; in which lalt. fenfe it is fynonymous
with Fire. This mode of fpeaking, however, is in¬
accurate, and, by confounding the effeA with the
caufe, fometimes produces obfeurity : it were to be
wifhed therefore that the word heat was ufed only to
denote the effeft; and fire, or fome other term, to de¬
note the caiife of that effedt.
The difputes which formerly were fo much agitated
in the learned world concerning the nature of heat,
viz. whether it confifted merely in the motion of the
terreftrial particles of bodies, or in that of a fubtile
Suid, are now moftly ceafed, and it is almoft univer-
fally believed to be the effeft of a fluid. Unluckily,
however, from the promifeuous ufe of the words fire
and heat, an opinion feems to have gained ground,
that there is in nature a fluid eflentially hot; and that
wherever the oppofite fenfation prevails, the former
fluid is in part abfent. Hence havfe arifen numberlefs
fpeculations concerning the attra&ion, abforption, and
capacities of bodies for heat; all of which being built on
a falfe principle, have ferved no other purpofe but to
involve this part of natural philofophy in obfeurity
and confufion. Under the articles Chemistry, Com¬
bustion, Electricity, &c. it is fo fully fhown that
heat properly fo called is not a fluid, but the modification
of a fluid, that it is fuperfluous to fay any more on
the fubjedt at prefent. This being admitted, it will
evidently follow, that heat can neither be abforbed nor
attra&ed ; neither can any body have a greater capa¬
city for it than another, except in proportion to its
bulk, which allows a larger quantity of the fluid to
enter and to afiume the particular motion which con-
ftitutes heat. From fome of Dr Black’s experiments
indeed it. would appear at firfi view, that heat was ab¬
forbed, or attracted in the ft ri die It fenfe of the word:
but this muft be attributed merely to the transferring
of the modification of the fluid from one fubftance to
another, without regarding whether it is the identical
quantity of fluid which adls as heat in one fubftance
that is transferred to the other, or whether only by
fome unknown means a firnilar motion is produced
in another portion of the fame. At any rate, how¬
ever, fome word muft be made ufe of to exprefs this
operation; and abforption 01 attraction will anfwer the
purpofe
-
H E A [ 35' ] H E A
Heat, purpofe as well as any others : but ftill we ought to
remember, that thefe are inaccurate ; and when we be¬
gin to argue from them as if they fully and exa&ly
determined the mode in which the fluid afts, or rather
is afted upon (for both thefe words fuppofe heat to
be paflive, and not aftive), we mud certainly err. As to
the phrafes capacity for containing heat, alfohte heat, See.
they are ftill more inaccurate than the words ahforption
and attraftion, and cannot convey any dillindt idea;
whence the fyflems founded upon the explanations
of thefe terms, aiTumed gratis dictum without the leaft
proof, have never been able to fupport themfelves, but
are liable to endlefs and infuperable obje&ions.
It is by no means indeed eafy, nay we may boldly
fay that it is abfolutely impoffible, for human genius to
inveftigate all the phenomena of this fubtile and invi-
fible element. All that can be done is, to difebver a
few general rules according to which the fluid afts
in certain cafes. From thefe we can only reafon ana¬
logically to cafes where its action is lefs obvious. But
we are not to expert that by reafoning in this manner
we can folve every phenomenon : nor can it be any re¬
commendation to an hypothefis, merely that it folves
fame phenomena, unlefs we were able by its means to
folve them all ; but this no wife man will pretend to
do, nay, not even to hwnu them all. It appears ex¬
ceedingly erroneous therefore to invent folutiens of cer¬
tain phenomena, and then to argue for the truth of
the hypothefis from the facility with which the phe¬
nomena are explained by it. The true and proper me¬
thod of proceeding in this cafe is to lay dowm certain
principles eftabliflred from the obvious phenomena of
nature, and to reafon from them fairly as far as we
can ; but where this ends, our knowledge muft ftop,
and we cannot by any means proceed farther upon a
lure foundation.
The only general principles as yet certainly efta-
blifhed from obvious phenomena upon this fubjedt are
the following: i. Heat and cold are found to expel
one another Hence we ought to conclude, that
heat and cold are both pqfitives; for a negative
can neither be expelled nor accumulated. 2. bleat
is vi/illy occafioned by the rays of the fun concentra¬
ted, and likewife by the fluid of eleAricity concentra¬
ted. If fire, therefore, properly fo called, be the
caufe of heat, than which nothing can be more evi¬
dent to our fenfee, we are certainly intitled to con¬
clude, that both the light of the fun and the eleftric
fluid are elementary fire. Hence alfo we conclude their
identity ; for two different fubft&nces cannot by any
means produce conftantly the fame effect when put in
the fame circumftances, t which both light and electri¬
city do in this cafe, merely by concentration, or dif-
charging a great quantity of the fluid upon a fmall
portion of any terreflrial body. 3. Heat expands
bodies in every direction : whence we conclude, that
the fluid, when producing heat, aCts from a centre
towards a circumference ; and by analogy, that when
it produces cold it aCts from a circumference towards a
centre. 4. It appears from undeniable experiments,
that heat, fomehow or other, is the caufe of fluidity.
As the aCtion of the fluid has already been ftiown,
when it produces heat, to be from a centre to a cir¬
cumference, it follows, that when the expan five aCtion
of the fluid is confined within the furface of anybody,
5
this may be called its latent heat; becaufe it extends Heat,
not beyond the furface, and therefore cannot affeCt the
thermometer, or be known to us as heat by the fenfe
of feeling. But when this expanfive aCIion is trans¬
ferred from the internal parts of the fubftance to the
furface, it then affeCts the thermometer, and the body
is faid to hezomf hotter at the fame time that it con¬
geals or is faid to be frozen. This is what fome phi-
lofophers call the converfion of the lat.nt intofenfible
heat; others, the alteration of the capacity : but what¬
ever term we give to the efifeti, the caufe muft remain
the fame, viz. the oppofite aCtions‘of the fame fluid ;
the expanfive power in fome cafes counterafting or
overcoming the condenfing one, and vice verfa. 5.
Though fometimes the expanfive aClton is fufficiently
ftrong to produce fluidity naturally, and in moft cafes
may be made fo ftrong artificially, as to make bodies
fluid, yet in all cafes it is not fo. A certain degree
cf expanfive power exifts in all bodies whatever, and
this by philofophers is called the fipecific heat of the
body. 6. Whatever is called the cooling of any body
is only the diminution of the expanfive aCtion upon its
furface, or, if we may ufe the expreffion, on the fur¬
face of its particles. This is accomplifhed by an op¬
pofite power or modification of the fluid taking place
on the outfide ; but when this becomes fufficiently
ftrong to penetrate the whole fubftance, it then ex¬
pels part of the fluid aCting in the oppofite direction,
and then fome change takes place in the texture of the
body. It is, however, impoffible to fpeak very per-
fpicuoufly upon this fubjeCt, as the fubtility and indi-
vifibility of the fluid render all reafonings upon it very
precarious. 7. It is altogether impoffible to calculate
the quantity of abfolute heat contained in any fub¬
ftance, becaufe this depends on the proportion betwixt
the quantity of fluid aCting expanfively and that a&ing
in the oppofite direction in the fame. Thefe two
muft fome way or other counterbalance each other
throughout the whole fyftem of natureand we may
fay with certainty, that any fubftance in which the
one exifts without the other, is none of thofe fubjeCl to
the invelligation of our fenfes, and all fpeculations con¬
cerning it muft .be vain. 8. When the fluid contained
in any fubftance is vehemently agitated, this naturailr
produces an expanfion in it ; and therefore bodies be¬
come hot by violent friction, percuffion, Sic. In thefe
cafes, however, we have no right to fay that the fluid
is expelled, but only that its mode of aftion is altered ;
for this is conftantly fufficient to produce heat, and in
this indeed the very effence of heat confifts. 9. When
the expanfive aCtion of elementary fire within any fub¬
ftance becomes greater than is confiftent with the co-
hefion of that fubftance, it is diffipated or refolved into
vapour. This, however, may be done in fuch a man¬
ner that the heat dill aCIs upon the feparated parts of
the body without fpending any of its force upon ex¬
ternal fubftances. Hence vapour continues to exilt
in a temperature much below that in which it was
originally produced; nay, will fometimes be exceffively
cold to the touch, when it really contains as much
heat, though in a/ato/f ftate, as before. 10. When
this latent heat is transferred to external bodies, the
vapour then ccafes to be vapour, or is condenfed, and
in fome cafes returns to its original ftate; in others, it
is productive of light and vehement fenfible heat:
whence
H E A [ 352 ] H E A
whence all the phenomena of Distillation, Evapo¬
ration, Flame, Ignition, Combustion, &c.
Thefe are the principal fa&s which can be looked
upon as ejiabli/hed with regard to heat confidered in a
philofophical view. In common difcourfe it is always
fpoken of as a certain fubftance diftinft from all others,
and may properly enough be reckoned fo with regard
to all the purpofes of life. In this fenfe, heat is accumula¬
ted by certain-bodies in a much greater proportion than
others. Dr Franklin made the experiment with pieces
of cloth of various coloifrs laid upon fnow and expofed
to the funfhine, and in all cafes found that the pieces
dyed with the darkeft colours funk deepelt in the
fnow. Mr Cavallo examined the matter more accu¬
rately ; full by obferving the height to which a ther¬
mometer with a blackened bulb rofe in comparifon
with one of clear glafs, and then by comparing the
heights of different thermometers whofe bulbs were
painted of various colours. Having therefore con-
itrufted two thermometers whofe fcales exactly corre-
fponded with each other, he fixed them both upon the
fame frame, about an inch afunder, having the balls
quite detached from the frame ; and in this manner
expofed them to the light of the fun or of a lamp.
When thefe were expofed.. to the fun or kept in the
flrade, with the glafs of both bulbs clear, they fhowed
precifely the fame degree ; and the difference between
the degree fhown by the thermometers when expofed
to the fun and when kept in the fhade, at about the
fame time of the day, was very trifling.
The ball of one of the thermometers being painted
black, and that of the other left clean, they fhowed
different degrees of temperature on being expofed to
the fun; the difference fometimes amounting to io°:
but was never conftant; varying according to the clear-
nefs of the fun’s light as well as of the air, and like-
wife according to the different degrees of temperature
in the atmofphere.
On keeping the thermometer with the painted ball
on the infide of a window, Mr Cavallo obferved that
Itrong day-light had an effed in railing the mercury as
well as the fun’s light. To afeertain this, he cleaned
the bulb of the painted thermometer, and blackened
that of the other ; but the effed was conllant, vix. the
quickfilver in the tube of the thermometer, whofe ball
was painted black, was conftantly higher than the
ocher whenever they were expofed to the flrong day¬
light. The difference was commonly about one-third
of a degree, but fometimes it amounted to three-fourths,
or even to a whole degree; and the experiment anfwer-
ed even when the fun was hid by clouds, which feems
to indicate that every degree of light is accompanied
with a correfponding one of heat.
By this confideration Mr Cavallo was induced to try
whether, by direding the concentrated light of the
moon upon the blackened bulb of a thermometer, it
would be raifed higher than a clean one ftanding in
the fame. The experiment was feveral times tried
with a large lens, and afterwards with a burning mir¬
ror of 18 inches diameter ; yet fometimes for want of
proper means of obferving the height of the mercury
in the tubes of the thermometers, fometimes for want of
acontinued clear light of the moon, or in fhort fromfome
unfavourable circumitance or other, he was never able
to make a fair and declfive trial of this experiment.
N° 149.
Making trial of the heat of a lamp, he found that
it alfo had a confiderable effed. The ball of one being
blackened, and both fet at two inches diftance from
the flame of a lamp, they both rofe from 58 to 65v
deg. and the thermometer which was blackened to 674.
Another time the uncoloured thermometer rofe to 67^,
and the coloured one to 681. From a number of
trials it at lall appeared, that the difference at this di¬
ftance from the lamp amounted generally to about a
degree. When the thermometers were removed far¬
ther than two inches from the lamp, the difference
decreafed; and at the diftance of about 14 or 15 inches
it vanifhed entirely.
On this occafion Mr Cavallo had an opportunity of
making a curious obfervation concerning-the decreafe
of heat at different diftances from the centre. “ It is
mathematically true, that emanations which proceed
from a centre, and expand in a fphere, muft become
more and more rare in proportion to the fquares of the
diftances from the centre. Thus it is faid, that the
intenfity of light proceeding from a luminous body, at
the double, treble, quadruple, &c. diftance from that
body, muft be refpedlively four, nine, fixteen, times,
&c. lefs denfe. The fame thing may be faid of heat;
but with refpedt to the latter, it appeared, that it*
intenfity did not decreafe exa&ly in the duplicate pro¬
portion of the diftances from the flame of the lamp,
but fhowed a very odd irregularity. It feemed to de¬
creafe fafter than the duplicate proportion of the di¬
ftances for the fpace of two inches and a half or three
inches, after which it deCreafed much flower; but
whether this proceeded from fome different ftate of
the air’s purity at different diftances from the flame of
the lamp, or from the vapours coming from the flame,
I cannot take upon me to determine.”
Mr Cavallo next made fome experiments upon ther¬
mometers, the balls of which were painted of various
colours. His view was to examine with precifion the
degrees of heat imbibed by differently coloured fub-
llances, in order to determine whether they kept any
proportion to the fpaces occupied by the prifmatic
colours in the prifmatic fpeftrum, or if they followed
any other law. In thefe experiments he met with
confiderable difficulties, chiefly arifing from the dif¬
ferent nature of the colours with which the bulbs were
painted. By reafon of this diverfity the bulbs could
not be made equally fmooth, which occafioned a con¬
fiderable difference in the effeft ; as he found by paint¬
ing two bulbs of thermometers with the fame colour,
only making the one fmooth and the other rough.
To avoid this inconvenience, he attempted to make
thermometers with tubes of differently coloured glafs ;
but when a ball was formed with any of thefe, the
glafs of the ball was fo thin, that it differed very little
from that which was entirely colourlefs. He then in¬
cluded the thermometers in boxes, where the rays en¬
tered through coloured glaffes; but here the rays were
not only far from being homogeneous, but there was
fuch a difference in the tranfparency of fome of the
coloured glaffes, that this method proved alfo ineffec¬
tual. The leaft ambiguous method, therefore, was
that of painting the balls of the thermometers with
water-colours, taking care to lay them on as equally
and fmooth as poffible. In this manner the experi¬
ments were repeated, ufing fometimes a dozen of ther¬
mometers
H E A
We»t* tnometers at once, whofe balls were painted with vari-
—V— ous colours, and were expofed to the fun : but from, a
vaft number of experiments, and fome weeks obferva-
tion, it could only be deduced, that if the^ colours
with which the balls of the thermometers were painted
had any confiderable refemblance to thofe of the prifm,
thofe which were neareft to the violet Ihowed a greater
degree of heat than the others; but they were all,
even that painted with white lead, in fome interme¬
diate degree between the blackened thermometer and
that which was left quite clear. If the colours had
not the proper denfity, the effefts were different:
thus, a thermometer painted with a light blue flood
lower than another painted with good carmine.
1 353 1
H E A
when firfl weighed and when it is afterwards heated
to one degree; but by an eafy calculation it will be ^
found, that this difference is fo exceedingly fmall that
it cannot be perceived with our molt exa£l inftruments
either of weight or meafure.
On repeating this experiment with other thermome¬
ters, each procefs varied a little from the other; which
irregularity, Mr Cavallo thinks, was certainly owing
to the imperfe&ion of his fcales : but by taking a
mean of various experiments, it appears, that one de¬
gree of heat, according to Fahrenheit’s thermometer,
increafes the bulk of a quantity of quickfilver in the
temperature of 50°'by about nine parts in 100,000;
that is, if the bulk of any quantity of quickfilver in
In the courfe of his thermometrical experiments, the temperature of 50° be ioo,ooc, it will be 100,009
Mr Cavallo likewife difcovered a new method of deter- in the temperature of 510.
mining the expanfion of mercury by weight, which In making experiments of this kind, it is neceffary
feemed capable of being carried to a greater degree of to have the bores of the tubes abfolutely cylindrical;
exa&nefs than any other hitherto propofed. Having
firft blown a ball to a capillary tube, fuch as are com¬
monly ufed for thermometers, he weighed it, and
found the weight when empty to be 79.25 grains;
and he obferves, that in this experiment it is a precau¬
tion abfolutely neceffary to have the glafs as accurately
cleaned as poffible. Some mercury was then introdu-
and the fcales fhould be fo exa£t as to turn with the
hundredth part of a grain when charged with half an
ounce weight.
Heat of Burning Bodies. See CoMBUSTtON.
Heat of Chemical Mixtures. This is a phenomenon
neceffarily refulting from the change of form produced
in the different fubflances which are mixed toerether ;
 J .C _• !_• 1 VI .
ced into the item of the thermometer, taking care that and the manner in which it happens may be eafrly un-
none of it entered the ball; and by adapting a fcale tU* „r „:r —j
of inches to the tube, obferved that 4.3 , inches of it
were filled with the mercury. The thermometer was
now weighed again ; and from this the weight of the
glafs being fubtrafted, the remainder, viz. 0.24 gr.
Ihowed the weight of that quantity of quickfilver
which filled the 4.3 inches of the tube. Now the ball
of the thermometer, and alfo part of the tube, were
entirely filled with quickfilver; and in order to find
out the weight of the mercury contained in it, the
thermometer was weighed for the laft time; and the
weight of the glafs being fubtrafted from this, the re¬
mainder, viz. 3205 grains, fhowed the weight of the
whole quantity of quickfilver contained in the ther¬
mometer.
By comparing this inflrument with a graduated
thermometer of Fahrenheit, and by applying a fcale
of inches, he found, that 20° on the new thermometer
was equal to 1.37 inches. But 0.24 grains was the
derftood from the example of oil of vitriol and water.
If equal quantities of concentrated vitriolic acid and
water are mixed together, a very great degree of heat
immediately takes place ; infomuch, that if the veffel
which contains the mixture is made of glafs it will
probably break ; and after it is cold, the mixture will
be found to have fhrunk in its dimenfions, or will oc¬
cupy lefs fpace than the bulk of the water and acid
taken feparately. In this cafe we know that the water,
while in its fluid ftate, hath as much latent heat as it
can contain; i. e. the elementary fire within it expands
or feparates its parts from each ether, as much as is
confident with the conftitution of the body. If any¬
more is added, it cannot be abforbed, or direft its
force upon the particles of the water without railing
them in vapour: of confequence, part of this addi¬
tional expanfive power will be employed in the forma¬
tion of vapour, and the reft will be difeharged upon
the neighbouring bodies, i. e. will be converted into
weight of as much mercury as filled 4.3 inches of the fenfible heat. The vitriolic acid, in its concentrated
tube. Therefore, by the rule of proportion, it will
be found, that the weight of as much quickfilver as
fills 1.33 inches of the tube, viz. the length of 20°, is
equal to 0.0742 of a grain nearly; and that the weight
of as much quicklilver as fills a length of the tube
equivalent to one degree, is equal to 0.00371 grains.
Now it is clear, that the weight of the whole quanti¬
ty of quickfilver contained in the thermometer is to
.the weight of as much as fills the length of one degree
of the tube, as the bulk of the whole quantity of quick-
filver in a given degree of heat to the increafe of bulk
that the fame whole quantity of quickfilver acquires
when heated but one degree ; viz. 32.05 grains is to
0.00371 grains as 1 to 0.0011+. By which experi¬
ment it appears, that one degree of Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer increafes the bulk of mercury not above eleven
hundredth thoufandth parts. A fmall deviation from
mathematical exaftnefs is indeed produced by the dif¬
ference of weight between the quickfilver of the tube
Vol. VIII. Part I.
ftate, contains a great quantity of latent heat, which is
neceflary to preferve its fluidity. But when it is
mixed with the fluid water, the latent heat contained
in the latter is abundantly fuflicient for both : of con¬
fequence, the great expanfive power in the oil of vi¬
triol itfelf becomes now totally ufelefs, and therefore
exerts its force upon the neighbouring bodies; and
when the mixture returns to the original temperature
of the oil of vitriol and water, it fliows a lofs of fub-
ftance by its diminution in bulk. This may ferve to
explain all cafes in chemiftry where heat or cold is pro¬
duced : and it will generally be found, that where
bodies, by being mixed together, produce heat, they
{brink in their dimenfions; but when they produce
cold, they are enlarged.
Methods of Meafuring Heat. See Thermometer.
Expanfion of Metals by Heat. See Pyrometer.
Degrees of Heat which Animals are capable of bearing.
—The ancients were of opinion, that all countries
X x lying
HEA [3 £4 1 HEA
lying within the tropics were uninhabitable by reafon
of their heat: but time has difcovered their miftake ;
and it is now found, that no part of the world is too
hot for mankind to live in. The learned profelfor
Boerhaave, in his chemiftry, relates certain experi¬
ments made with great accuracy by the celebrated
Fahrenheit, and others, at his defire, on this fubjeft,
in a fugar-baker’s office; where the heat, at the time
of making the experiments, was up to 146 degrees
of Fahrenheit’s thermometer. A fparrow, fubjefted
to air thus heated, died, after breathing very labori-
oufly, in lefs than feven minutes. A cat refifted this
great heat fomewhat above a quarter of an hour j and
a dog about 28 minutes, difcharging before his death
a confiderable quantity of a ruddy-coloured foam, and
exhaled a ftench fo peculiarly offenfive, as to throw
one of the affiftants into a fainting fit. This diflblu-
tion of the humours, or great change from a natural
(late, the profeffor attributes not to the heat of the
itove alone, which would not have produced any fuch
effeft on the flefh of a dead animal; but likewife to
the vital motion, by which a ftill greater degree of
heat, he fuppofes, was produced in the fluids circula¬
ting through the lungs, in confequence of which the
oils, falts, and Ipirits of the animal became fo highly
exalted.
Meffieurs Du-Hamel and Tillet having been fent
into the province of Augomois, in the years 1760 and
1761, with a view of endeavouring to deftroy an in-
fe& which confumed the grain of that province, ef¬
fected the fame in the manner related in the Memoirs
for 1761, by expofing the affected corn, with the
infefts included in it, in an oven, where the heat was
fufficient to kill them without injuring the grain.
This operation was performed at Rochefoucault, in a
large public oven, w'bere, for economical views, their
firit ftep was to affure themfelves of the heat remaining
in it on the day after bread had been baked in it.
This they did, by conveying in a thermometer on the
end of a fhovel, which, on its being withdrawn, indi¬
cated a degree of heat confiderably above that of boil¬
ing water : but M. Tillet, convinced that the thermo¬
meter had fallen feveral degrees in drawing to the
mouth of the oven, and appearing under fome embar-
raffment on that head, a girl, one of the attendants
on the oven, offered to enter, and mark with a pencil
the height at which the thermometer flood within the
oven. The girl fmiled on M. Tillet’s appearing to
hefitate at this ftrange propofition; and entering the
oven, with a pencil given her for that purpofe, mark¬
ed the thermometer, after flaying two or three minutes,
Handing at 100 degrees of Reaumur’s fcale, or, to
snake ufe of a fcale better known in this country, at
near 260 degrees of Fahrenheit’s. M. Tillet began
to exprefs an anxiety, for the welfare of his female
affiftantj and to pref? her return. This female fala-
mander, however, affuring him that ffie felt no incon¬
venience from her fituation, remained there 10 minutes
longer ; that is, near the time when Boerhaave’s cat
parted with her nine lives under a much lefs degree of
heat; when the thermometer ftanding at 288 degrees,
or 7$ degrees above that of boiling water, fire came
out of the oven, her complexion indeed confiderably
heightened, but her refpiration by no means quick or
laborious. After M. Tillet’s return to Paris, thefe
experiments were repeated by Monf. Marantin, com- Heat,
miffaire de guerre, at Rochefoucault, an intelligent and '’“""v'—
accurate obferver, on a fecond girl belonging to the
oven, who remained in it, without much inconvenience*
under the fame degree of heat, as long as her predecef*
for; and even breathed in air heated to about 335 de¬
grees for the fpace of five minutes.
M. Tillet endeavoured to clear up the very apparent
contrariety between thefe experiments and thofe made
under the direction of Boerhaave, by fubjecting vari¬
ous animals, under different fcircumltances, to great
degrees of heat. From his experiments, in fome of
which the animals were Twaddled with clothes, and
were thereby enabled to refifl for a much longer time
the effe£ts of the extraordinary heat, he infers, that
the heat of the air received into the lungs was not, as
was fuppofed by Boerhaave, the only or principal
caufe of the anxiety, laborious breathing, and death,
of the animals on whom his experiments were made ;
but that the hot air, which had free and immediate
accefs to every part of the furface of their bodies, pe¬
netrated the fubftance on all fides, and brought on a
fever, from whence proceeded all the fymptoms: on
the contrary, the girls at Rochefoucault, having theip
bodies in great meafure prote&ed from this arflion by
their clothes, were enabled to breathe the air, thus
violently heated, for a long time without great incon¬
venience. In faft, we (hould think too, that.the bulk
of their bodies, though not thought of much confe¬
quence by M. Tillet, appears to have contributed not
a little to their fecurity. In common refpiration, the
blood, in its paffage through the lungs, is cooled by
being brought into contaft with the external infpired
air: In.the prefent experiments, on the contrary, the
veficles and veffels of the lungs.receiving at each in-
fpiration an air heated to 300 degrees,, mufl have, been
continually cooled and refrelhed, as well as the fubcu-
taneous veffels, by the fucceffive arrival of the whole
mafs of blood contained in the interior parts of the
body, whofe heat might be fuppofed at the beginning
of the experiment not to exceed 100 degrees. Not
to mention, that M. Tillet’s two gir's may not poffibly
have been fubjefted to fo great a degree of heat as
that indicated by the thermometer ; which appears to
us to have always remained on the fhovel, in contact
with the earth.
Thefe experiments foon excited other philbfophers
to make fimilar ones, of which fome very remarkable
on,es are thofe of Dr Dobfon at Liverpool, who gives
the following account of them in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions, vol. Ixv.
“ I. The fweating-room of our public hofpital at Li¬
verpool, which is nearly a cube of nine feet, lighted
from the top, was heated till the quickfilver flood at
2240 on Fahrenheit’s fcale, nor would the tube of the
thermometer indeed admit the heat to be raifed higher*
The thermometer was fufpended by a firing fixed to
the wooden frame of tire fky-light, and hung down
about the centre of the room. Myfelf and feveral
others were at this tirne inclofed in the ftove, without
experiencing any oppreffive or painful fenfation of heat
proportioned to the degree pointed out by the thermo¬
meter. Every metallic about us foon became very hot,
“ II. My friend Mr Park, an ingenious furgeon
of this place, went into the ftove heated to 202°. Af-
3 ttr
UFA [ 355 1 H E A
Heat, ter ten minutes, I found the pulfe quickened to 120.
'’“'V*'—' And to determine the increafe of the animal-heat, ano¬
ther thermometer was handed to him, in which the
quickfilver already ftood at 98°; but it rofe only to
99i, whether the bulb of the thermometer was in-
clofed in the palms of the hands or received in the
mouth(A). The natural ftate of this gentleman’s pulfe
is about 65.
“ III. Another gentleman went through the fame
experiment in the fame circumilances, and with the
fame effedb.
“ IV. One of the porters to the hofpital, a healthy
young man, and the pulfe 75, was inclofed in the
liove when the quickfilver ftood at 2 to° ; and he re¬
mained there, with little inconvenience, for 20 minutes.
The pulfe, now 164, and the animal-heat, determi
ned by another thermometer as in the former experi¬
ments, was 1014-.
“ V. A young gentleman of a delicate and irritable
habit, whofe natural pulfe is about 80, remained in
the ftove ten minutes when heated to 224 . The
pulfe rofe to 145, and the animal heat to 102°. This
gentleman, who had been frequently in the ftove during
the courfe of the day, found himfelf feeble, and dif-
pofed to break out into fweats for 24 hours after the
experiment.
“ VI. Two fmall tin veflels, containing each the
white of an egg, were put into the ftove heated to
224°. One of them was placed on a wooden feat
near the wall, and the other fufpended by a fixing
about the middle of the ftove. After ten minutes,
they began to coagulate ; but the coagulation was
fenfibly quicker and firmer in that which was fufpend¬
ed, than in that which was placed on the wooden feat.
The progrefs of the coagulation was as follows : it
was firft formed on the fides, and gradually extended
itfelf; the whole of the bottom was next coagulated ;
and laft of all, the middle part of the top.
“ VII. Part of the Ihell of an egg was peeled a-
way, leaving only the film which furrounds the white;
and part of the white being drawn out, the film funk
fo as to form a little cup. This cup was filled with
fome of the albumen ovi, which was confequently de¬
tached as much as poffible from every thing but_the
contaft of the air and of the film which formed the
cup. The lower part of the egg ftood upon fome
light tow in a common gallipot, and was placed on
the wooden feat in the ftove. The quickfilver in the
thermometer ftill continued at 2240. After remain¬
ing in the ftove for an hour, the lower part of the egg
which was covered with the Ihell was firmly coagula¬
ted, but that which was in the little cup was fluid and
tranfparent. At the end of another hour it was ftiil
fluid, except on the edges where it was thinneft ; and
here it was ftill tranfparent ; a fufficient proof that it
was dried, not coagulated.
“VIII. Apiece of.bees-wax, placed in the fame
fituation with the albumen ovi of the preceding expe¬
riment, and expofed to the fame degree of heat in
the ftove, began to melt in five minutes : another Heat,
piece fufpended by a fixing, and a third piece put in- —v~
to the tin veffel and fufpended, began likewife to li¬
quefy in five minutes.”
Even thefe experiments, though more accurate
than the former, do not Ihow the utmoft degrees
of heat which the human body is capable of endu¬
ring^ Some others, ftill more remarkable "(as in them
the body was expofed to the heat without clothes),
by Drs Fordyce and Blagden, are alfo recorded in the
Philofophical Tranfaftions. They were made in rooms
heated by flues in the floor, and by pouring upon it
boiling water. There was no chimney in them, nor
any vent for the air, excepting through crevices at the
door. In the firft room were placed three thermome¬
ters, one in the hotteft part of it, another in the cool-
eft part, and a third on the table, to be ufed occafion-
ally in the courfe of the experiment. Of thefe ex¬
periments, the twCT following may be taken as a fpe-
cimen.
“ About three hours after breakfaft, Dr Fordyce
having taken off all his clothes, except his ftlirt, and
being furnifhed with wooden ftioes tied on with lift,
went into one of the rooms, where he ftaid five mi¬
nutes in a heat of 90°, and begun to fweat gently.
He then entered another room, and ftood in a part of
it heated to ito°. In about half a minute his fliirt
became fo wet that he was obliged to throw it afide,
and then the water poured down in ftreams over his
whole body. Having remained in this heat for ten
minutes, he removed to a part of the room heated
120° ; and after ftaying there 20 minutes, found that
the thermometer placed under his tongue, and held in
his hand, ftood juft at 100°, and that his urine was
of the fame, temperature. His pulfe had gradually
rifen to 145 pulfations in a minute. The external cir¬
culation was greatly increafed, the veins had become
very large, and an univerfal rednefs had diffufed itfelf
all over the body, attended with a ftrong feeling of
heat; his refpiration, however, was little affe&ed. He
concluded this experiment by plunging in water heated
to ioo° ; and after being wiped dry, was carried home
in a chair; but the circulation did not fubfide for two
hours.
“ Dr Blagden took off his coat, waiftcoat, and
ftiirt, ar.d went into one of the rooms, as foon as the
thermometer had indicated a degree of heat above
that of boiling water. The firft impreffion of this
hot air upon his body was exceedingly difagreeable, but
in a few minutes all his uneafinefs was removed by the
breaking out of a fweat. At the end of 12 minutes
he left the room very much fatigued, but no otherwife
difordefed. His pulfe beat 136 in a minute, and the
thermometer had rifen to 220 degrees.
In others of thefe experiments it was found, that a
heat even of 260° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer could
be fubmitted to with tolerable eafe. But it muft be
obferved, that in thefe great heats every piece of me¬
tal they carried about with them became intolerably
X x 2 hot.
(a) The fcale of the thermometer, which wasTufpended by the firing about the middle of the room, was of
metal; this was the only one I could then procure on which the degrees ran fo high as'to give any fcope to the
experiment. The fcale of the other thermometer, which was employed for afeertaining the 'nations in the ani-
Bi*I-heat, was of ivory.
H E A [ 356 ] H E A
hot. Small quantities of water placed in metalline ther invelligation, pronounced mixture the foie caufe
' Teffels quickly boiled ; but in a common earthen vef- of animal heat. Various, however, were the opinions, ”
fel it required an hour and an half to arrive at a tern- not only refpefting the place where the mixture hap-
perature of 140°, nor could it ever be brought near pened, but alfo concerning the nature of the fluid* of
the boiling point. Neither durfl. the people, who with which it confifted. Van Helmont, Sylvius, and feve-
impunity breathed the air of this very hot room at ral others, fuppofed that the mixture took place in
264 degrees, bear to put their fingers into the boiling the inteftinal tube ; and afcribed it to an effervefcence
water, which indicated only a heat of 212°. So far between the pancreatic juice and the bile. Others
from this, they could not bear the touch of quickfil- difcovered acids in one place, and alkalies in another;
ver heated only to 120°, and could but juft bear fpirit but the general opinion for near two centuries was,
cf wine at 130°. That acefcent fluids taken in, meeting with others of
Animal Heat. Of this there are various degrees ; an alkaline nature already prepared in the body, gave
fome animals preferving a heat of ioo° or more in all rife to the degree of heat peculiar to animals. But
the different temperatures of the atmofphere ; others thofe who are in the leaft acquainted with the laws of
keep only a few degrees warmer than the medium the animal economy, need not be told that thefe opi-
which furrounds them ; and in fome of the more
perfect animals, the heat is fcarcely one degree above
the air or water in which they live.
The phenomenon of animal-heat hath, from the
earlieft ages, been the fubjeft of philofophical difcuf-
fion ; and, like mod other fubjeifts of this nature, its
caufe is not yet afcertained. The beft treatifes that
have appeared on the fubjeft are thofe of Dr Du-
gud Lellie, publifhed in 1778 ; and Mr Adair Craw¬
ford, in 1779. From the fir ft of thefe performances,
the following account of the different opinions on this
j fnbjeft is extrafted.
Opinions of M The ancients poffeffed not the requifites for mi-
the ancients nutely inveftigating the fcitnce of nature 5 and, prone
tonceming to fUperftition, attributed every phenomenon which
heasT1' eluded their inveftigation, to the influence of a fuper-
natural power. Hippocrates, the father and founder
of medicine, accounted animal heat a myftery, and be¬
llowed on it many attributes of the Deity. In treat¬
ing of that fubjedl, he fays in exprefs terms, u what
we call heat, appears to me to be fomething immortal,
which underftands, fees, hears, and knows every thing
prefent and to come.”—Ariftotle feems to have confi-
dered the fubjeft particularly, but nothing is to be
met with in his works that can be faid to throw light
upon it.— Galen tells us that the difpute between the
philofophers and phyficians of his time was, “ whether
animal-heat depended on the motion of the heart and
arteries; or whether, as the motion of the heart and
arteries was innate, the heat was not alfo innate.”
Both thefe opinions, however, he rejedls; and attempts to that caufe.
nions are mere conjedlures, founded on fadls gratui-
toufly affumed. No experiments have (hown either an
acefcency or alkalefcency in the bile that is fufficient
to unite with the other animal juices, and generate
the heat of animals. But though we (hould admit
the fuppofition in its full extent, ftill it would by no
means he fufficient to account for the liability of ani¬
mal heat in different climates and feafons; its equa¬
bility all over the body when in health; its partial in-
creafe in topical inflammation* ; or hardly indeed for
any one phenomenon attending its produdlion.
“ Since, then, it appears that the fluids fuppofed to
be mixed, the place in which the mixture is made, and
every other circumftance relating to it, are neither
afcertained nor feconded by analogy, none will, we
prefume, hefitate to rejedl every hypothefis of the
caufe of animal heat founded on the effedls of mix¬
ture.
“ 2. Fermentation. When a more accurate and ex-
tenfive knowledge of the various operations of nature
had convinced phyfiologifts of -the abfurdity of ex¬
plaining the vital fundlions of animals, and the feveral
changes which take place in the living body by the
effedts of chemical mixture, fermentation was fubfti-
tuted in its ftead. All had obferved, that fermenta¬
tion was generally accompanied by heat; and few
were ignorant, that that identical procefs, or one ex¬
tremely fimilar to it, was conftantly going forward in
living animals ; and it was not without fome appear-
of truth, that phyfiologifts attributed animal heat
1 folution of the queftion on his favourite fyftem,
namely, the peripatetic philofophy : but his leading
principles being erroneous, his dedudlions are of courfe
inadmiffible.
“ To enter into a minute detail of all the opinions
offered by the moderns on the caufe of animal-heat,
would far exceed our limits. Moft of them, how¬
ever, may be referred to one or other of the three ge¬
neral caufes of heat, viz. mixture, fermentation, and
mechanical means, each of which we fhall particular¬
ly confider.
“ 1. Chemical mixture. When chemical philofophy
firft came into vogue, and prevailed in the theory as
well as pradtice of medicine, ahnoft every operation in
the animal machine was faid to be the effedt of fer¬
ment or mixture. From obferving, that on the
Formerly there were various modifications of this
opinion ; but of late it has been chiefly confined to
one fpecies of fermentation, viz. the putrefadlive,
which indeed is more confentaneous to experience and
found philofophy. For although animal fubdance$■
are either diredlly or indiredtly produced from vege¬
tables, as all animals live on vegetables, or on animals
that have lived on them; and though they may be ul¬
timately refolved into the fame principles; yet they arc
certainly combined in a different manner : for they con-
ftitute compounds, the natures of which are effentially
different ; and of the three ftages of fermentation, the
vinous, acetous, and putrid, the laft is the only one to'
which they fhovv a tendency. Milk indeed tends to the
acetous, and even to the vinous fermentation ; but as*
it can hardly be confidered as perfectly animalized, it
ing of certain bodies far below the temperature of ought not to be confidered as an exception to the ge-
the human body, a degree of heat fometimes rifing to neral pofition. And though it be readily admitted, that
aflual inflammation was produced; they, without fur- animal matter is extremely apt to putrefy, and that even
rH E A
in the living body there is a tendency to that procefs ;
*' yet it may be fhown, that the degree to which it
takes place can have little or no fhare in generating
r 3S7 1
H E A
hours; and, even at the expiration of 15 hours, had
only fallen to 85°, though the furrounding medium "
did not exceed 60°. The examples alfo of thofe who
the heat of animals. In the firlt place, the effedt of are fuffocated by fixed air, entirely overturn not only
any degree of putrefadlion in producing heat, is to
this day fo ill afcertained, that, with many ingenious
philofophers, it is altogether problematical, whether or
not animal fubftaiices, during the putrefaftive procefs,
do ever genferate heat. Neither M. Beaume nor Dr
Pearfon, who made feveral accurate experiments with
a view to afcertain this point, could, by the affiilance
of the moft fenfible thermometers, difcdver the lead;
difference betwixt the temperature of the putrefying
mixtures and the furrounding medium ; and were the
pntrefadlion of animal fubftances readily attended with
the generation of heat, we might expedt to find it
greater in proportion to the bulk of the putrefying mafs.
This, however, is not the cafe; for it has often been
found, that the largeft maffes of animal matter, fuch as
the carcafe of a large whale, laid out and expofed to
the air in fuch a putrid condition as to affedt all the
the mechanical fyftem, but almoft every other which
hath yet appeared on the fubjedt. [See the article
Blood, n° 31.3 ^
“ One or other of the abovementioned hypothefes Dr Cullen’s
continued to be adopted by phyficians, till Dr Cullen opinion,
attempted a folution on a new fet of principles; but, wit,h ob'
attentive to the diffidence with which novel opinions
ought to be broached, he delivered his as little more
than a mere conjedture. ‘ May it not (fays he) be 70f
fuppofed, that there is fome circumftance in the Wtal
principle of animals, which is in common to thofe of P
the fame clafs, and of like economy ; and which de¬
termines the effedf of motion upon the vital principle
to be the fame, though the motion adfing upon it may
be in different circumftances ?’ The dodlpr was
driven to this fuppofition from the difficulty he found
*" explaining how fo many animals of a different age.
neighbourhood with an intolerable (tench, did not to fize, and temperament, fhould poflefs very nearly the
.1... „„„r.— -l. fame degree of heat ; and in which it is impoffible to
(how, that the motion of the blood in all its circum¬
ftances is exadtly the fame ; or that in the different
animals in which the degree of heat is confiderably
different, the motion of the circulating mafs is in each
correfpondent to the difference of temperature. But,
granting that the degree of heat does not always ob¬
tain in an exadt ratio with the motion of the blood,
and that this is ati infuperable objedfion to its mecha¬
nical generation; yet there appear no plaufible grounds
for fuppofing that the effedf of motion may be the
fame, while the motion adting upon it is in different
the perfons handling it feel fenfibly hotter than the
circumambient air. But what at once overturns every
thing that can be advanced in favour of the generation
of animal heat on the principles of putrefaction is,
that heat is far more confiderable in a living than in a
dead body ; and no rational phyfiologift will deny,
that the putrid fermentation is going forward more
rapidly in the latter than in the former.
“ 3. The mechanical generation of heat. This opinion
firft took its rife from an obfervation, that animal
heat generally keeps pace with the ftate of the circu¬
lation : while the adtion of the heart and arteries con¬
tinues unimpaired, a high degree of animal heat is circumftances. By this Dr Cullen means, that the
produced ; but when that adlion becomes more lan- different temperature of different animals is owing to a
guid, the heat of the animal is diminiflied alfo. This, difference of the vital principle, infomuch that the ve-
till very lately, was the favourite opinion of phyficians,
and was introduced immediately after Harvey had
difctivered the circulation of the blood, and indeed
feems to be fupported by many linking fadts. Phy-
locity of the blood may be the fame in a frog as in a
man ; and yet, irt confequence of the different vital
principle, the heat produced may be different. The
fadls upon which he feems to lay the greateft ftrefs
ftologifts looked upon it as a matter almoft. capable of are, That neither where the furrounding medium
mathematical demonftration ; yet they could not a^ree
whether the heat of animals is occafioned by the fric-
H 1,1 „—3 4- H ..  /T" .1 „ ...1 ’ 1, * ‘
tion of the blood againft the veffels which contain it, in the heat of animals. Thefe, and fome fimilar fadls.
fiderably furpaffes the temperature of the living body,
nor where it is far below it, is there any fenfible change
or by the internal fridlion and agitation of the particles
among one another. Various hypothefes accordingly
in appearance countenance his hypothefis; yei we hare
no foiid reafon for imagining the principle of life to
were framed, and many ingenious arguments brought in be different in different animals. And how are we to
fupport of them : but all fuppofitions of the mechanical conceive, that the fame degree'of motion Ihould in one
kind are overthrown by fome thermometrical obferva- clafe of animals always produce a certain degree of
^ r TA. TT J -eu—i r  , an(j jn another c[afs as regUlarly a different one?
A propofition of fuch a nature fhould, no doubt, re¬
quire the moll obvious fadls and conclufive arguments
to eftablifh it; but, in the prefent inflance, we do not
perceive any probable reafon, even from analogy.
Befides, to fay that the principle of life ctCh generate
heat or cold, independent of chemical or mechanical
means, is contrary to experience, and feems in itfelf
abfurd.
“ In the 66th volume of the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions, Dr Hunter, after reciting fome experiments
concerning animal heat,, afferts, That certain animals
entirely deftitute of nerves, are endowed with a power
of generating their own heat; and this he brings as
3 an
tions of De Haen and others, from which it appeared,
that the heat of the body was fometimes greater than is
ufual with healthy people, at the time the perfon was
juft expiring, when the adlion of the v.effels was very
weak ; nay, even after he ifcas dead, when it had en¬
tirely ceafed. The abovementioned phyfician relates
two very remarkable cafes of this kind. In the one, he
found that the temperature of his patient, which du¬
ring the courfe of an inflammatory fever had never
exceeded 103 degrees, at the time he expired, and for
two minutes after, flood at 106. From the other it
appeared, that the heat of a perfon who was dying
of a lingering diftemper, rofe in the laft agony from
100 to 101, and continued there ftationary for two
H E A t 3jS ] H E A
an argumentum crucls againft thofe who account the the doftrine they are meant to eftablifh : and the Cub-
' nervous fyftem the feat of animal-heat. If this is fequent animadverfions on Dr Black’s theory at large, ——V"**-
really a fa£t, it muft, no doubt, have all the weight will, it is hoped, fufficc to Ihow, that it is not only
he afcribes to it; but it is plain that no ftrefs can be founded on dubious and controvertible principles, but
that it is, in every point of light, clogged with unfur-
mountable difficulties.
“ I. Many and various are the proofs which evince
the improbability of the lungs being the fource or ela-
boratory of animal heat : for, though it be granted,
that there fubfills a very ftriking connection between
laid upon it, unlefs it was better afcertained, which it
is evident it never can be. For though wc can pofi-
tively affert that nerves exift where we fee them, yet
Ave cannot affirm with equal certainty that they do not
alfo exill where we are not able to difcover them. For
all anatomills allow, that there are thoufands of nervous
filaments fo finely interwoven into the compofition of the ftate of refpiration and the degree of heat in ani-
the more perfect animals of every fize, that they elude
not only the knife and naked eye, but even the bell
optical intlruments hitherto invented. Since then we
admit the prefence of nerves in one tribe of animals,
though we can only perceive them in their efFe&s;
what folid reafon have we to deny them in another,
in which we have the very fame evidence, viz. certain
indication, of fenfe .and motion ?
“ Another theory, and perhaps the bell fupported
4 t which hath yet appeared on the fubjeft, is that of Dr    r    —   — ^ 
SDr Black* That excellent chemift having obferved, that is not abfolutely neceffary to the produ&ion of heat in
opinion. only breathing animals are of all others the warm- animals.
mals, and that they are even in proportion to one ano¬
ther ; yet it by no means enfues, that the former is
pofitively the caufe of the latter. For, were that
really the cafe, it is obvious, that thofe animals which
are deftitute of the organs of refpiration would gene¬
rate no heat. That, however, is not true in fad : for
thofe fifties which are even deftitute of gills, appear
from various experiments to be warmer than the ordi¬
nary temperature of the element in which they live ;
irrefragable proof that the fund ion of refpiration
eft, but alfo that theye fubfifts fuch a clofe and ftriking
connedion between the ftate of refpiration and the de¬
gree of heat in animals, that they appear to be in an
exad proportion to one another, was led to believe,
that animal heat depends on the ftate of refpiration ;
that it is all generated in the lungs by the adion of
the air upon the principle of- inflammability, in a man¬
ner little diffimilar. to what he fuppofed to occur in
adual inflammation ; and that it is thence diffufed
by means of the circulation over the reft of the vital
fyftem.
“ This opinion is fupported by many forcible argu¬
ments. I. It is pretty generally known to naturalifts,
that a quantity of mephitic phlogifticated air is con-
ftantly exhaling from the lungs of living animals.—
Since, therefore, atmofpherical air, by palfxng through
the lungs, acquires the very fame properties as by paf-
iing through burning fuel, or by being expofed to any
other procefs of phlogiftication, it is obvious, that the
•change which the common air undergoes in both cafes
muft be attributed to one and the fame caufe, viz., its
combination with phlogifton. 2. It has likewife been
urged in favour of the fame hypothefis, that the ce¬
lerity with which the principle of inflammability
II. If the heat of living animals be generated
folely in the lungs, two things neceflarily follow : the
firft, That it can only be communicated to the other
parts of the body through the channel of the arterial
fyftem ; the fecond, That the heat muft decreafe as it
recedes from its fuppofed centre. And a clear and fa-
tisfadory evidence of both thefe points will, no doubt,
be deemed requifite to render Dr Black’s opinion in
any degree probable. So far, however, are we from
meeting with thofe. pofitive and convincing proofs
which we had reafon to exped, that we are not pre-
fented with a Angle plaufible argument in favour of
either of the points. Oh the contrary, it is more con¬
formable to fads, that the venal blood is, if not warmer,
at leaft as warm as the arterial. Dr Stevenfon, an
ingenious and accurate phyfiologift, with a view to
afcertain this matter, laid bare the jugular vein and
carotid artery of a calf, and then tied and cut them oft
at once, in order to let equal quantities of blood flow,
in a given time, into veflels of an equal capacity, in
each of which he had placed a well-adjufted thermo¬
meter ; the refult of the experiment was, that the
thermometer immerfed in the venous blood rofe feverai
degrees above that placed in the arterial. But though
feparated in refpiration, is very clofely conneded with it is probable that there is not fuch a difference as that
the degree of heat peculiar to each animal. Thus,
man, birds, and quadrupeds, vitiate air very fall; fer-
pents, and all the amphibious kind, very flowly ; and
the latter are of a temperature inferior to the former,
and breathe lefs frequently. 3. The moft cogent ar¬
guments that have been brought in fupport of this
opinion are, that no heat is generated till the fundion
of refpiration is eftablifhed; and that the foetus in
■utero derives all its heat from the mother.”
Upon this theory our author makes the fol¬
lowing obfervations, which we lhall give in his own
words.
ObjeiStions
tp it.
experiment feems to make, yet feverai reafons incline
me to think, that the venous blood, inftead of being
colder, as Dr Black maintains, is in fa£l fomewhat
warmer, than the arterial; and what entirely overturns
his opinion is, that no experiment, though many have
been made, has ever ffiown that the temperature of
the blood is higher in the left venticle of the heart
than in the right, which muft neceffarily be the cafe,
were all the heat of the animal body generated in the
lungs.
“ III. Having thus rendered it improbable that
the generation of animal-heat Ihould be entirely con-
Thefe arguments may, perhaps, on a fuperficial fined to the lungs, we {hall venture a ftep farther, and
view of the queftion, appear conclufive; but a found endeavour to fhow, that the vital fluid, fo far from
reafoner, who lhall coolly and impartially weigh every acquiring all its heat in the pulmonary fyftem, com-
circumftance, will, I am confident, allow that they municates no inconiiderable portion of what it had re-
enjy afford a very ambiguous and imperfect evidence of ceived iu the courfe of the circulation to the air al¬
ternately
H E A [ 3J9 ] H E A
ternately entering into that organ and ifluing from it.
Various are the arguments which tend to evince this
Opinion. Were the blood heated in the lungs, we
(hould certainly need lefs of their function in a warm
than in a cold atmofphere : but we are taught by ex¬
perience, that when the air is extremely hot, and we
wi(h to be cooled, we breathe full and quick ; and
that when it is intenfely cold, our refpiration is flow
and languid; which, were the blood heated in the
lungs by the aftion of the air upon it, furely fttould
not be the cafe. It is therefore more confonant with
reafon and experience, that the air which we infpire,
by carrying off a quantity of evolved phlogifton from
the lungs, rather contributes to diminiih than increafe
the heat of breathing animals. Refpiration, for this
reafon, has been very properly compared, by an in¬
genious phyfioiogilt, Dr Duncan of Edinburgh, to
the blowing of bellows on a hot body. In both cafes
a confiderable degree of heat is communicated to the
air : but in neither can the air be faid to generate
any heat; for if it did, the heat of breathing animals
fhould increafe in proportion to the quantity of air in¬
haled, and a piece of inert matter heated to a certain
degree fhould become hotter by ventilation^
“ IV. The foetus in utero, according to Dr Black’s
hypothefis, genetates no heat. The arguments by
which he. fupports that pofition, how ingenious foever
they may be, feem not fufficiently cogent to produce
convi&ion ; and as the queftion from its nature hardly
admits of any direft experiment, our reafoning upon
it mult neceffarily be analogical. Hence ariles our
embarraffment; for, as the difcovering of analogies
depends on the quicknefs and fertility of fancy, and
the truth of all analogical ratiocination on the acute-
nefs and nicety of judgment, two powers of the foul
feldom united in an eminent degree, we cannot wonder
that arguments of this kind,, which to one man feera
unanfwerable, (hould to another appear futile.
“ The only plaufible objediion to the generation
of heat in the foetus, is, the fuppofition that it would
in a Ihort time accumulate in fuch a manner as to be¬
come incompatible with life.
“ This argument, however, is more fpecious than
.olid ; for, granting that the circulation which is car¬
ried on between the foetus and the mother, tranfmits
very nearly the temperature of her blood, that by
no means entirely fuperfedes the neceffity of heat be-
.ing generated,in it. Various reafons lead to this opi¬
nion.— It is an axiom, that heat decreafes as it recedes
from the fource from which it fprang. Now, if we
admit for a moment Dr Black’s opinion, and believe
the heat of animals to be generated folely in the lungs,
is it not obvious, that before it reaches the uterus,
paffes through the very minute tubes by which that
organ is conne&ed to the placenta, circulates through
the umbilical veffels, and pervades the extreme parts
of the foetus, it muff be too much diminilhed to fup^
port that equilibrium which obtains in every part of
the living lyftem. Befides, as the foetus in utero may
properly enough be accounted a part of the mother,
the fame objeftions that are brought againfl: the ge- Heat,
neration of heat in it would hold equally good againll ’
the production of heat in any part or organ of her
body, except the lungs. But fuch a multitude of
accurate thermometrical obfervations have evinced the
partial increafe of heat in local inflammations, that
no room is left to doubt, that in every individual part
of the vital frame heat is generated ; and if the foetus
be, from any caufe whatever, liable to topical inflam¬
mation, a thing which no phyfioldgift has ever pre¬
tended to deny, what flradow of reafon is there for
doubting that fuch affections are accompanied with
the fame effects before as after birth, and confequently
with a partial increafe of heat ?”
Our author having now, as he fuppofes, refuted then,. du_
opinions of others, after Ihowing that heat, though gud’s thct
generated, cannot accumulate in the foetus, proceeds to ory*
lay down his own theory, which depends on the fol¬
lowing principles.
1. That the blood does contain phlogifton.
2. That this phlogifton is evolved, extricated, or
brought into a ftate of aCtivity and motion by the ac¬
tion of the blood-veffels to which it is fubjefted in
the courl'e of circulation
3. That the evolution of phlogifton is a caufe which
throughout nature produces heat, whether that heat
be apparently excited by mixture, fermentation, per-
cuffion, fridion, . inflammation, ignition, or any fimi-
lar caufe.
4. That this heat, which muft be produced in con-
fequence of the evolution of the phlogifton from the
blood of different animals, is in all probability equal to
the higheft degree of heat which thefe animals in any
cafe poffefs ( b ). ^
The firil and fecond of thefe propofitions will rea- Objtdtier.^
dily be granted : but the third is liable to a very greattoit>
obje&ion, namely, that from putrefying bodies, phlo¬
gifton is evolved, in quantity fufficient to reduce to their
metallic form the calces of fome metals expofed to the va¬
pour, as Dr Dugud hath acknowledged ; yet he him-
fell affirms, that no fenfible heat is produced by putre^
fying animal fubftances. To thishe is obliged to reply,
that phlogifton is extricated more flowly from mixtures
undergoing the putrid fermentation, than from fuch as
are undergoing the vinous and acetous ones ; and that
the volatile alkali produced from putrefying r fubftances
likewife hinders the a&ion of the phlogifton. But
the firft part of this anfwer is not proved, and is what
he himftlf calls only a probable conjetlure. Neither doth
the fecond appear to be well founded: for putrefying
fubftances, urine excepted, afford but little volatile
alkali; and even putrid urine itfelf, which affords fuch
a large portion* is not colder than other putrid matters.
It is however needlefs to inflft farther on this theory,
fince his fundamental principle, namely, That the ve¬
nous blood is warmer than the arterial, hath been
Ihown to be falfe by Mr Adair Crawford, of whofe
hypothefis we muft now give an account. g
This gentleman, who, in his general do£Irine of heat, Mr Craw*
feems- to agree with Dr Irvin,of Glafgow, begins withford’6 th*‘
(b) Thefe theories, inferted in the laft edition of this work, we thought it proper to retain, as there feems ftill
apojjibility of the phlogifiic doftrine regaining its ground, though now threatened with being expelled from the-
lyftem of nature. A particular account of the difpute concerning Phlogiston is given under that article*
H E A r 36
an explanation of his terms. The words heat and
f,re, he tells us, are ambiguous. Heat in common
language has a double fignification. It is ufed indif-
criminateljr to exprefs a fenfation of the mind, and an
unknown principle, whether we call it a quality or a
Juhftance, which is the exciting caufe of that fenfation.
The latter, he, with Dr Irvin, calls abfolute heat;
the former, fenfible heat. The following are the ge¬
neral facts upon which his experiments are founded.
x. Heat is contained in great quantities in all bodies
when at the common temperature of the atmofphere.
2. -Heat has a conftant tendency to difFufe itfelf
over all bodies, till they are brought to the fame de¬
gree of fenfible heat.
3. If the parts of the fame homogeneous body have
the fame degree of fenfible heat, the quantities of ab¬
folute heat will be proportionable to the bulk or quan¬
tity of matter. Thus the quantity of abfolute heat
contained in two pounds of water, muft be conceived
to be double of that which is contained in one pound,
when at the fame temperature.
4. The mercurial thermometer is an accurate mea-4
fure of the comparative quantities of abfolute heat
which are communicated to the fame homogeneous
bodies or feparated from them, as long as fuch bo¬
dies continue in the fame form. If therefore the fen¬
fible heat of a body, as meafured by the mercurial
thermometer, were to be diminilhed the one half, or
the one third, or in any given proportion, the abfo¬
lute heat would be diminiihed in the fame proportion.
5. The comparative quantities of abfolute heat
which are communicated to different bodies, or fepara¬
ted from them, cannot be determined in a diredl man¬
ner by the thermometer. Thus, if the temperature of
a pound of mercury be raifed one degree, and that
of a pound of water one degree, as indicated by the
thermometer, it does not by any means follow, that
equal quantities of abfolute heat have been communi¬
cated to the water and the mercury. [See Heat and
Thermometer.]—Tf a pint of mercury at ioo° be
mixed with an equal bulk of water at 50°, the change
produced in the heat of the mercury will be to that
produced in the water as three to two: from which
it may be inferred, that the abfolute heat of a pint of
mercury is to that of an equal bulk of water as two
to three; or, in other words, that the comparative
quantities of their abfolute heats are reciprocally pro¬
portionable to the changes which are produced in their
fenfible heats, when they are mixed together at diffe¬
rent temperatures. This rule, however, does not ap¬
ply to thole mixtures which generate fenlible heat or
cold by chemical aftiori.
From the above pofition, fays Mr Crawford, it fol¬
lows,'that equal weights of heterogeneous fubftances,
as air and water, having the fame temperature, may
contain unequal quantities of abfolute heat. There
muft, therefore, be certain effential differences in the
nature of bodies, in confequence of which fome have
the power of collecting and retaining the element of
fire in greater quantities than others, and thefe diffe¬
rences he calls throughout his treatife the capacities of
bodies for containing heat.
Having premifed thefe general faffs, our author
gives an account of a ndmber of experiments made,
N° 149-
0 ] H E A
in order to afeartain the quantity of abfolute heat
contained in different bodies. Thefe experiments *
were made by mixing the bodies to be examined with
water, heated to different degrees ; and by the tem¬
perature of the mixture, he found the proportion of
the capacity of the bodies for containing heat, to wa¬
ter, and, of confequence, to one another. Thus he
found the capacity of wheat for containing heat to
be to that of water as 1 to 2.9 ; and, of confequence,
the abfolute heats of the two fubftances to be in the
fame proportion. The abfolute heat of oats to that
of water he found as 1 to 2y ; of barley, as 1 to 2.4 ;
of beans, as 1 to 1.6; of flefh, as 1 to 1.3 ; of milk,
as 1 to 1.1 5 and of a mixture of venous and arterial
blood from a Iheep, as 25.4 to 24.4. By other experi¬
ments he determined, that the abfolute heat of venous
blood was to that of water only as too to 112,
whereas the abfolute heat of arterial blood was to
that of water as 100 to 97.08.
By experiments made with air of different kinds
contained in bladders, and immerfed in water, he found
( that the abfolute heat of atmofpherical air was exceed-
ingly great, being to that of water as 18.6 to 1 ; that
of dephlogifticated air was (till greater, being to the
heat of common atmofpherical air as 4.6 to 1. The
heat of phlogi (Heated and fixed air was much lefs; that
of the latter, particularly, being to the heat of atmo¬
fpherical air only as 1 to 67.
From other experiments made on metals, Mr Craw¬
ford concludes, that the abfolute heat of tin, in its
metallic (late, is to that of water as 1. to 14.7 ; but the
heat of calcined tin is to that of water as 1 to 10.4. In
like manner, the heat of iron was to that of water on¬
ly as 1 to 8 ; but that of the calx of iron was to the
heat of water as i to 3.1, &c. And from thefe expe¬
riments he is of opinion, that the more phlogifton that
is added to any body, the lefs is its capacity for con¬
taining heat.
From thefe experiments our author deduces the fol¬
lowing theory of animal heat.—“ It has been proved,
that the air, which is exfpired from the lungs of
animals, contains lefs abfolute heat than that which
is inhaled in infpiration. It has been fhown, particu¬
larly, that in the procefs of refpiration, atmofpherical
air is converted into fixed air ; and that the abfolute
heat of the former is to that of the latter as 67 to i.
“ Since therefore the fixed air which is exhaled by
exfpiration is found to contain only the one fixty-
feventh part of the heat which was contained in the
atmofpherical air previous to infpiration, it follows,
that the latter muft; neceffarily depofit a very great
proportion of its abfolute heat in the lungs. It ha*
moreover been (hown, that the abfolute heat of florid
arterial blood is to that of venous as to 10. And
hence, as the blood, which is returned by the pulmo¬
nary vein to the heart, has the quantity of its abfolute
heat increafed, it is evident that it muft have acquired
this heat in its paffage through the lungs. We may
conclude, therefore, that in the procefs of refpiration,
a quantity of abfolute heat is feparated from the air
and abforbed by the blood.
“ That heat is feparated from the air in refpiration,
is farther confirmed by the experiment with phlogifti-
cated air j from which, compared with Dr Prieftley’s
dif-
H E A [ 361 ] H E A
Heiit. dircoveries, it is manifeft, that the power of any fpe-
  cies of air in fupporting animal life, is nearly in pro-
'portion to the quantity of abfolute heat which it con¬
tains, and is confequently proportionable to the quan¬
tity which it is capable of depofiting in the lungs.
“ The truth of this conclufion will perhaps appear
in a clearer light from the following calculation, by
which we may form fome idea of the quantity of heat
yielded by atmofpherical air when it is converted into
fixed air, and alfo of that which is abforbed during
the converfion of venous into arterial blood.
“ We have feen, that the fame heat which raifes
atmofpherical air one degree, will raife fixed air nearly
67 degrees; and confequently that the fame heat
which raifes atmofpherical air any given number of de¬
grees, will raife fixed air the fame number of degrees
multiplied by 67. In the Peterfburgh experiment of
freezing quickfilver, the heat was diminifhed 200 de¬
grees below the common tempeiature of the atmo-
fphere. We are therefore certain, that atmofpherical
air, when at the common temperature of the atmo-
fphere, contains at lead 200 degrees of heat. Hence,
if a certain quantity of atmofpherical air, not in con-
taft with any body that would immediately carry off
the heat, fhould fuddenly be converted into fixed air,
the heat which was contained in the former would raife
the latter 200 degrees multiplied by 67, or 13400
degrees. And the heat of red-hot iron being 1050,
it follows that the quantity of heat, which is yielded
by atmofpherical air when it is converted into fixed
air, is fuch (if it were not diflipated) as would raife
the air fo changed to more than 12 times the heat of
red-hot iron.
“ If therefore the abfolute heat which is difengaged
from the air in refpiration, were not abforbed by the
blood, a very great degree of fenfible heat would be'
produced in the lungs.
“ Again, it has been proved, that the fame heat
which raifes venous blood 115 degrees, will raife ar¬
terial only too degrees ; and confequently, that the
fame heat which raifes venous blood any given num¬
ber of degrees, will raife arterial a lefs number, in the
proportion of too to 115, or 20 to 23. But we know
that venous blood contains at leaft 230 degrees of heat.
Hence, if a certain quantity of venous hlood, not in
contaCf with any body that would immediately fupply
it with heat, fhould fuddenly be converted into arterial,
the heat which was contained in the former would
raife the latter only -I-t or 23° degrees, or 200 de¬
grees ; and confequently the fenfible heat would fuffer
a diminution equal to the difference between 230 and
200, or 30 degrees. But the common temperature of
blood is 96 : when, therefore, venous blood is con¬
verted into arterial in the lungs, if it were not fupplied
by the air vrith a quantity of heat proportionable to
the change which it undergoes, its fenfiblc heat would
be diminifhed 30 degrees, or it would fall from 96
to 66.
“ That a quantity of heat is detached from the air,
and communicated to the blood, in refpiration, is more¬
over fupported by the experiments with metals and
their calces: from which it appears, that when bodies
are joined to phlogifton, they lofe a portion of their
abfoiute heat; and that, when the phlogifton is again
Vol. VIII. Part I.
difengaged, they reabforb an equal portion of heat from
the furrounding bodies.
“ Now it has been demonftrated by Dr Prieftley,
that in refpiration, phlogifton is feparated from the
blood, and combined with the air. During this pro-
cefs, therefore, a quantity of abfolute heat muft necef-
farily be difengaged from the air by the adtion of the
phlogifton ; the blood, at the fame moment, being left
at liberty to unite with that portion of heat which the
air had depofited.
“ And hence animal heat feems to depend upon a
procefs fimilar to a chemical ele&ive attradfion. The
air is received into the lungs, containing a great quan¬
tity of abfolute heat. The blood is returned from
the extremities, highly impregnated with phlogiftoh.
Xhe attradion of the air to the phlogifton is greater
than that of the blood. This principle will, there¬
fore, leave the blood to combine with the air. By the
addition of the phlogifton, the air is obliged to depo-
fit a-part of its abfolute heat; and as the capacity of
the blood is at the fame moment increafed by the fe-
paration of the phlogifton, it will inftantly unite with
that portion of heat which had been detached from
the air.
“ We learn from Dr Pr f**n?riments with re-
fpedt to refpiration, that arterial bioou nat> a u.ong at-
traftion to phlogifton : it will confequently, during
the circulation, imbibe this principle from thofe parts
which retain it with leaft force, or from the putrefeent
parts of the fyftem: and hence the venous blood,
when it returns to the lungs, is found to be highly
impregnated with phlogifton. By this impregnation,
its capacity for containing heat is diminifhed. In pro¬
portion, therefore, as the blood, which had been de-
phlogifticated by the procefs of refpiration, becomes
again combined with phlogifton in the courfe of the
circulation, it will gradually give out that heat which
it had received in the lungs, and diffufe it over the
whole fyftem.
“ Thus it appears, that, in refpiration, the blood
is continually difeharging phlogifton and abforbino-
heat; and that, in the courfe of circulation, it is con¬
tinually imbibing phlogifton and emitting heat.
“ It may be proper to add, that as the blood, by
its impregnation with phlogifton, has its capacity for
containing heat diminifhed ; fo, on the contrary, thofe
parts of the fyftem from which it receives this prin¬
ciple, will have their, capacity for containing heat in¬
creafed, and will confequently abforb heat.
“ Now if the changes in the capacities, and the
quantities of matter changed in a given time, were
fuch, that the whole of the abfolute heat feparated
from the blood were abforbed, it is manifeft that no
part of the heat which is received in the lungs would
become fenfible in the ceurfe of the circulation.
“ That this, however, is not the cafe, will, 1 think,
be evident from the following confiderations :
“ We know that fenfible heat is produced by the
circulation of the blood ; and we have proved, by ex¬
periment, that a quantity of abfolute heat is commu¬
nicated to that fluid in the lungs, and is again difen¬
gaged from it in its progrefs through the fyftem. If,
therefore, the whole of the abfolute heat, which is
feparated from the blood, were abforbed by thofe parts
Y y -of
H E A
[ 362 ]
H E A
Heat. 0f t]ie fydem from which it receives the phlogifton, it confiderable degree of heat always felt in digging to
would be neceflary to have recourfe to fome other great depths in the earth, is agreed upon by all natu-
caufe, to account for the fenfible heat which is pro¬
duced in the circulation. But* by the rules of philo-
fophifing, we are to admit no more caufes of natural
things than fuch as are both true and fufficient to ex¬
plain the appearances; for nature delights in fimplicity,
and affefts not the pomp of fuperfluous caufes.
“ We may, therefore, fafely conclude, that the ab-
. folute heat which is feparated from the air in refpira'
ralifts : but the quantity of this heat hath feldom been
meafured in any part; much lefs is it known, whether
in digging to an equal depth in different parts of the
earth, the heat is found always the fame. In digging
mines, wells, &c. they find that at a little depth below
the furface it feels cold. A little lower it is colder
ilill, as being beyond any immediate influence of the
fun’s rays ; infomuch that water will freeze almofl at
tion, and abforbed by the blood, is the true caufe of any feafon of the year; but when we go to the depth
animal-heat. of 40 or 50 feet, it begins to grow warm, fo that no
“ It mud neverthelefs be granted, that thofe parts ice can bear it; and then the deeper we go, flill the
of the fy Hem which communicate phlogiflon to the greater the heat, until at la't refpiration grows difii-
blood, will have their capacity for containing heat in- cult, and the candles go out.
creafed ; and therefore, that a part of the abfolute r"' ' ’
heat which is feparated from the blood will be ab¬
forbed.
“ But from th£ quantity of heat, which becomes
fenfible in the courfe of the circulation, it is manifeft
This heat of the earth hath been varioufly explain¬
ed. Some have had recourfe to an immenfe body of
fire lodged in the centre of the earth, which they con-
fider as a central fun, and the great principle of the
generation, vegetation, nutrition, &c. of foffil and
that the portion of heat which is thus abforbed is vegetable bodies. But Mr Boyle, who had been at the
very inconfiderable.
“ It appears, therefore, that the blood, in its pro-
grefs through the fyftem, gives out the heat which it
had received from the air in the lungs: a fmall portion
bottom of fome mines himfelf, fufpe’&s that this degree
of heat, at lead in fome of them, may arife from the
peculiar nature of the minerals generated therein. To
confirm this, he tndances a mineral of a vitriolic kind,
of this heat is abforbed by thofe particles which im- dug up in large quantities in many parts of England,
part the phlogidon to the blood; the red becomes
redundant, or is converted into moving and fenfible
9 heat.”
The fubjedt Mr Crawford’s theory, which doth not effentially
{till unctr- differ from Dr Black’s, feems to be the bed that hath
tain- yet appeared. There is, however, one difficulty which
feems common to them all, and which, even on Mr
Crawford’s principles, feems not to admit of folution.
If animal heat entirely depends on fomething peculiar
to a living body, why doth it fometimes continue af¬
ter life hath ceafed ? If heat depends on the evolution
of phlogidon by the adlion of the blood-vedels, ac¬
cording to Dr Dugud, why Ihould it remain when
thefe veffels ceafe to aft, as, according to Dr Dugud
himfelf, it fometimes doth ? If, according to Mr Craw¬
ford, it is every moment attrafted from the air, why is
which by the bare affufion of common water will grow
fo hot, that it will almod take fire.—Thefe hypothe-
fes are liable to the following objeftions. 1. If there
is within the earth a body of aftual fire, it feems dif¬
ficult to fltow why that fire fhould not confume and
moulder away the outer fltell of earth, till either the
earth was totally dedroyed, or the fire extinguifhed.
2. If the internal heat of the earth is owing to the
aftion of water upon mineral fubdances, that aftioti
through time mud have ceafed, and the heat have to¬
tally vaniflied’; but we have no reafon to think that
the heat of the earth is any thing lefs jud now than it
was a thoufand years ago. The phenomenon is eafily
explained by the propofitions laid down under the ar¬
ticle Heat. If heat is nothing elfe than a certain mode
of aftion in the ethereal fluid, or the matter of light, by
it not always in proportion to the refpiration? Or, if which it flows out from a body in all diteftions as r
fixed air contains fuch a fmall proportion of abfolute dii drawn from the centre to the circumference of a
heat as, by Mr Crawford’s experiments, it feems t6 do, circle ; it will then follow, that if an opaque body
why doth it impart fuch a drong and lading degree of abforbs any confiderable quantity of light, it mud ne-
lieat to the bodies of thofe who are killed by it ? See ceffarily grow hot. The reafon of this is plain. The
Blood, m° 31. body can hold no more than a certain quantity of
Other objeftions have been made by Mr Pearfon, ethereal matter ; if more is continually forcing itfelf in,
which are related in the Medical Journal. They are that which has already entered mud go out. But it
founded on fome appearances found on the diffeftion cannot eafily get out, becaufe it is hindered by the
of morbid bodies; where it has been found that the
pulmonary artery, and even the lungs themfelves, have
been totally dedroyed by difeafe, and yet the perfon
has furvived for fome time. In thefe cafes, however,
it is probable, that the blood had dill an opportunity
of abforbing the vital principle from the air, which
might make thofe produce heat alfo by fome mecha-
nifm unknown to us. The whole of Dr Crawford’s
doftrine of latent heat has alfo been attacked in a
Treatife by Mr Leopold Vacca Berlinghieri. His
objeftions are derived from the calculations of Di
particles of the bqdy among which it is detained. It
makes an eflbrt therefore in all direftions to feparate
thefe particles from each other; and hence the body
expands, and the effort of the fluid to efcape is felt
when we put our hands on the body, which we then
fay is hot. Now, as the earth is perpetually abforbing
the ethereal matter, which comes from the fun in an
immenfe dream, and which we call his lights it is plain,
that every pore of it mud have been filled with this
matter long ago. The quantity that is lodged in the
earth, therefore, mud be continually endeavouring t»
Crawford himfelf; but our limits will not admit of feparate its particles from each other, and confequent-
our entering into this difpute.
Internal Huat of the Earth. That there is a very
ly mud make it hot. The atmofphcre, which is perpe¬
tually receiving that portion of the ethereal matter
which
H E A r 363 ] H E A
teeat, which iffues from the earth, countera£ls the force of the Pains and Terrors of Death, Arraignment, &c.
. Hcath- the internal heat, and cools the external furface of the for the Maintenance of the juft and legal Government
earth, and for a confiderable way down; and hence the of thefe Kingdoms both in Church and State, 166^,
earth for 20 or 30 feet down, ftiowsnbne of that heat i2mo. The reafon why fuch writers as our author
which is felt at greater depths. See Heat. continue to be read, and will probably always be read.
Heat, in medicine. Great heats are not fo much is not only becaufe Hijloria quoquo modo fcnpta dehtlat;
the immediate, as the remote, caufe of a general fick- but alfo becaufe in the meaneft hiftorian there will al-
nefs, by relaxing the fibres, and difpofing the juices to ways be found fome fafts, of which there will be no
putrefa&ion ; efpecially among foldiers and perfons caufe to doubt the truth, and which yet will not be
expofed the whole day to the fun : for the_greateft found in the beft. Thus Heath, who perhaps had
heats are feldom found to produce epidemic difeafes, nothing but pamphlets and newfpapers to compile
till the perfpiration is flopped by wet clothes, fogs, from, frequently rtlates fadls that throw light upon
dews, damps, &c. and then fome bilious or putrid dif- the hiftory of thofe times, which Clarendon, though
temper is the certain confequence, as fluxes and ardent he drew every thing from the moft authentic records,
intermitting.fevers. Neverthelefs, it mull be allowed, has omitted.
that heats have fometimes been fo great as to prove the Heath (Thomas), an aldermen of Exeter, and
more immediate caufe of particular diforders; as when father of John Heath, Efq; one of the judges of the
centinels have been placed without cover or frequent Common pleas, was author of An Effay towards a
reliefs in fcorching heats; or w'hen troops march or are new Englifh Verfion of the Book of Job from the
exercifed in the heat of the day; of when people im- original Hebrew, wdch fome account of his Life, 1755,
prudently lie down and lleep in the fun. All thefe 8vo.—His brother Benjamin, a lawyer of eminence,
circumftances are apt to bring on diftempers, varying and town clerk of Exeter, was likewife an author"
according'to the feafon of the year. In the begin- and wrote, 1. An Effay towards a demonftrative Proof
ning of fummer, thefe eryors pioduce inflammatory fe- of the Divine Exiftence, Unity, and Attributes; to
vers ; and in autumn, a remitting fever or dyfentery. which is premifed, A fhort Defence of the Argument
To prevent, therefore, the effects of immoderate heats, commonly called a priori, 1740. 2. The Cafe of the
commanders have found it expedient fo to order the County of Devon wdth refpeft to the Confequences of
marches, that the men come to theif ground before the , the New Excife Duty on Cyder and Perry. Publifhed
heat of the day ; and to give ftri£l orders, that none by the dire&ion of the Committee appointed at a
of them deep out of their tents, which, in fixed en- General Meeting of that County to fuperintend the
campments, may be covered with boughs to (hade them Application for the Repeal ofthat Duty, 1763, 4to.
from the fun. It is likewife a rule of great importance 3. Not a five LeQ/ones ad Tragicorum Gracorum veterum,
to have the foldiers exercifed before the cool of the JEfchyli, &c. 1752, qto; a work which places the au-
morning is over; for by that means not only the fultry thor’s learning and critical Ikill in a very confpicuous
heats are avoided, but the blood being cooled, and the light. The fame folidity of judgment apparent in the
fibres braced, the body will be better prepared to bear preceding, diftinguifhed the author’s laft produ£lion.
the heat of the day. Laftly, in very hot weather, it 4. A Revifal of Shakefpeare’s Text, wherein the al-
has often been fo^ind proper to fliorten the centinels terations introduced into it by the more modern
duty, when obliged to ftand in the fun. editors and critics are paticularly confidered, 1765,
Heath, in botany. See Erica. 8vo.
Berry-bearing Heath. See Empetrum. HEATHENS, in matters of religion. See Pa-
HEATH (James), an Englifh hiftorian, was born cans.
1629 at London; where his father* who was the king’s HEAVEN, literally fignifies the fexpanfe of the fir-
cutler, lived. He was educated at Weftminfter fchool, mament, furrounding our earth, and extended every
and became a ftudent of Chrift-church, Oxford, in way to an immenfe diftance.
1646. In 1648, he was ejedled from thence by the Heaven,*among Chriftian divines and philofophers,
parliament vifitors for his adherence to the royal is confidered as a place in fome remote part of infinite
caufe ; lived upon his patrimony till it was almoft fpace, in which the omniprefent Deity is faid to af-
fpent; and then marrying, was obliged to write books ford a nearer and more immediate view of himfelf,
and correft the prefs in order to maintain his family, and a more fenfible manifeftation of his glory, than
He died of a confumption and dropfy at London in in the other parts of the univerfe. This is often call-
Auguft 1664, and left feveral children to the parifh. ed the empyrean, from that fplendor with which it
• His principal publications were, 1. A brief Chronicle is fuppofed to be invefted ; and of this place the in-
of the late Inteftine War in the Three Kingdoms of fpired writers give us the moft noble and magnificent
England, Scotland, and Ireland, &c. 1661, 8vo; af- defcriptions.
terwards enlarged by the author, and completed from The Pagans confidered heaven as the refidence only
1637 to 1663, in four parts, 1663, in a thick 8vo. of the celeftial gods, into which no mortals w-ere ad-
To this was again added a continuation from .1663 to mitted after death, unlefs they were deified. As for
] 675 by John Philips, nephew by the mother to Mil- the fouls of good men, they were configned to the ely-
ton, 1676, folio. 2. Flagellum: or, The Life and fian fields. See EirsM'N-Fiefds. °
Death, Birth and Burial, of Oliver Cromwell, the late Heaven, among aftronomers, called alfo the cetKereal
Ufnrper, 1663. The third edition came out with ad- and ftarry heaven, is that immenfe region wherein the
ditions in 1665, 8v0- 3- A New Book of Loyal ftars, planets, and comets, are difpofed. See ^rnoivo-
Engliflr Martyrs and Confefibrs, who have endured Mr,pq//itn.
Y y 2 This
H E B L 364 ] H E B
Heaven, Tins is what Mofes calls the firmament, fpeaking of
Hebdoma* jt as tjle WOJ.jc Qf feCond day’s creation ; at leatf it
. iTJ' is thus the word rp"1 is ufually rendered by his inter¬
preters ; though fomewhat abufively, to countenance
their own notion of the heavens being firm or folid.
The word, it is certain, properly fignifies no more
than expanfe or extenfion ; a term very well adapted
by the prophet to the impreffion which the heavens
make on our fenfes ; whence, in other parts of fcrip-
ture, the heaven is compared to a curtain, or a tent
ftretched out to dwell in. The LXX firll added to
this idea of expanfion that of firm or folid ; render¬
ing it by npiufix, according to the philofophy of thofe
times; in which they have been followed by the mo¬
dern tranflator*.
The later philofophers, as Des Cartes, Kircher, &c.
have eafily demonflrated this heaven not to be folid, but
fluid ; but they ilill fuppofe it full, or perfeftly denfe,
without any vacuity, and cantoned out into many vor¬
tices. But others have overturned not only the fo-
lidity, but the fuppofed plenitude, of the heavens. Sir
Ifaac Newton has abundantly fhown the heavens void
of almoft all refiftanae, and, confequently, of almoft all
matter : this he proves from the phenomena of the
celeitial bodies ; from the planets perfiiling in their
motions without any fenfible diminution of their ve¬
locity ; and the comets freely palling in all dire&ions
towards all parts of the heavens.
Heaven, taken in a general fenfe, for the whole ex¬
panfe between our earth and the remoteft regions of
the fixed liars, may be divided into two very unequal
parts, according to the matter found therein ; viz. the
atmofpherc, or aerial heaven, poflclTed by air; and the
as the real heaven, pofleffed by a thin, unrelifting me¬
dium, called <tlher.
Heaven is more particularly ufed, in aftronomy,
for an orb, or circular region, of the aethereal heaven.
The ancient aftronomers afinmed as many different
heavens as they obferved different motions therein.
Thefe they fuppofed all to be folid, as thinking they
could nototherwife fuftain the bodies fixed in-them ; and
fpherical, that being the moft propef form for motion.
Thus we had feven heavens for the feven planets; viz.
the heavens of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The eighth was for the
fixed liars, which they particularly called \)citfirmament.
Ptolemy adds a ninth heaven, which he called the/>/-/-
mum mobile. After him two cryltalline heavens were
added by king Alphonfus, &c. to account for fome ir¬
regularities in the motions of the other heavens; and
laftly, an empyrean heaven was drawn over the whole,
for the refidence of the Deity; which made the num¬
ber twelve. But others admitted many more heavens,
according as their different views and hypothefes requi¬
red. Eudoxus fuppofed 23, Calippus 30, Regiomon¬
tanus 33, Ariftotle 47, and Fracallor no lefs than 70.
ft muft be added, however, that the aftronomers did
not much concern themfelves whether the heavens
they thus allow of were real or not ; provided they
ferved a purpofe in accounting for any of the celeftial
motions, and agreed with the phenomena.
HEBDOMADARY, Hebdomadarius, oeHeb-
domadius, a member of a chapter or convent, whofe
week it is to officiate in the choir, to rehearfe the
anthems and prayers, and to perform the ufual
fundtions which the fuperiors perform at folemn feafts, Htbdonae
and other extraordinary occafions. The word is form- , ^.r
ed of the Greek which fignifies the number He)rai
fie-ven ; of fieven.
The hebdomadary generally collates to the benefices
which become vacant during his week; though it is
ufually looked upon as an abufe.
In cathedrals, the hebdomadary was a canon or
prebendary, who had the peculiar care of the choir,
and the infpcdlion of the officers for his week.
In monafteries, the hebdomadary is he who waits at
table for a week, or other Hated period; diredls and
affills the cook, &c.
HEBDOME, a folemnity of the ancient Greeks, in
honour of Apollo, in which the Athenians fung hymns
to his praife, andcarried in their handsbranches of laurel.
The word fignifies the feventb day, this folemnity be¬
ing obferved on the feventhday of every lunar month.
HEBE, in ancient mythology, a goddefs, the idea
of whom, among, the Romans, feems to have been
much the fame with that of eternal youth,, or an im¬
mortality of blifs; agreeably to which, (he is repre*
fented on a gem, in the great duke’s collection at Flo¬
rence, with a young airy look, and drinking out of a
little bowl; or, according to Milton’s expreffion,
“ Quaffing immortality and joy.” She is fabled ta
have been a daughter of Jupiter and Juno. According
to fome (he was. the daughter of Juno only, who con¬
ceived her after eating lettuces. As fire was fair and
always in the bloom of youth, flue was called the god¬
defs of youth, and made by her mother cup-bearer to
all the gods. She was difmifled from her office by Ju¬
piter, becaufe (he fell down in an indecent pofture as
Ihe was pouring ne£lar to the gods at a grand feftival;
and Ganymedes, the favourite of Jupiter, fucceeded
her as cup-bearer. She was employed by her mother
to prepare her chariot, and to harnafs her peacocks
whenever requifite. When Hercules was raifed to the
rank of a god, he was reconciled to Juno by marrying
her daughter Hebe, by whom he had two fons, Alexi-
ares and Anicetus. As Hebe had the power of re-
ftoring gods and men to the vigour of youth, fne, at
the inllance of her hulband, performed that kind of¬
fice to lolaus his friend. Hebe was werihipped at
Sicyon, under the name of Dia, and at Rome under
that of Juventas.
HEBENSTRETIA, in botany : A genus of the
angiofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 48th order, aggregate. The calyx is emarginated,
and divided- below ; the corolla unilabiate ; the lip
rifing upwards, and quadrifid ; the capfule difper-
mous; the ftamina inferted into the margin of the
limb of the corolla.
-HEBER, the fon of Salah, and father of Peleg,
from whom the Hebrews derived their name, accord¬
ing to Jofephus, Eufebius, Jerome, Bede, and moft;
of the interpreters of thefacred writings; but Huet bi-
fhop of Avranches, in his Evangelical Demonftration,
has attempted to prove, that the Hebrews took their
mame from the word beber, which fignifies beyond, be-
caule they came from beyond the Euphrates. Heber
is fuppofed to have been born 2281 years B. C. and to
have lived 464 years.
HEBRAISM, an idiom, or manner of fpeakiug,
peculia^
H E B [ 365 ] H E B
Hebrew peculiar to the Hebrew language. See the next ar- On the other fide, or for the primitive antiquity of Hebrew.
—y— tide. the fquare character, are the two Buxtorfs, Leufden,    *
HEBREW, fomething relating to the Hebrew. Calovius, Hottinger, Spanheim, Lightfoot, &c. They
See Hebrews. Thus we fay, Hebrew Bible. See urge, from Matthew v. 18. that jod is really the leall
of the confonants in the preient Hebrew, whereas
it is one of the largeft characters in the Samaritan al¬
phabet : but Walton replies, that if our Saviour here
fpeaks of the lealt letter of the alphabet, we can only
infer, that the Chaldee character was ufed in our Savi-
Bible.
Hebrew CharaBer. There are two kinds of He¬
brew charadters : the ancient, called alfo the fquare ;
and the modern, or rabbinical charadters.
1. The fquare Hebrew takes its denomination from the
figure of its characters, which ftand more fquare, and our’s time, which is not denied by thofe who main-
have their angles more exadt and precife than the tain the Samaritan to be the original. They alfo al-
other. This charadter is ufed in the text of holy lege, that the Jews were too obftinate and fuperftuious
feripture, and their other principal and moft important to allow their iacred charadter to be altered; but if
writings. When both this and the rabbinical charac- this was done under the diredtion and authority of
ter are ufed in the fame work, the former is for the Ezra, the argument will be much invalidated. Far-
text, or the fundamental part; and the latter for the ther, they fay that Ezra could not alter the ancient
accefibry part, as the glofs, notes, commentaries, &c. charadter, becaufe it was impollible to make the alte-
The beft and mod beautiful charadters of this kind, rations in all their copies. This argument, however,
are thofe copied from the charadters in the Spanilh is contradicted by faft; fince the old Englifh black
manuferipts ; next, thofe from the Italian manuferipts; letter is adtually changed for the Roman. They fay,
then thofe from the French ; and laltly, thofe of the likewife, that Ezra was not difpofed to profane the
Germans, whofe charadters are much the fame, with facred writings with a heathen charadter: but this
refpedt to the other genuine fquare Hebrew charac- fuppofes that Ezra was fo fuperftitiqus as to imagine,
ters, that the Gothic or Dutch charadters are with that there was fome peculiar fanctity in the fhape of
lefpedt to the Roman. the letters. Moreover, the advocates for this opinion
Several authors contend, that the fquare charadter appeal to ancient coins found in Judaea, with a legend
is not the real ancient Hebrew charadter, written from in the Chaldee or Affyrian character. But the ge-
the beginning of the language to the time of the Ba- nuinenefs of thefe coins is much fufpedted.
bylonifh captivity; but that it is the Affyrian, or The learned Jefuit Souciet maintains, with great
Chaldee charadter, which the Je\ys affumed, and ac- addrels, that the ancient Hebrew charadter is that
cuflomed themfelves to, during the captivity, and found on the medals of Simon, and others, commonly
retained afterwards. They fay, that the Jews, during called dawanVaw medals; but which, he afferts, were
their captivity, had quite difufed their ancient charac- really Hebrew medals, {truck by the Jews, and not
ter ; fo that Ezra found it neceffary to have the facred the Samaritans.
books tranferibed into the Chaldean fquare charadter. Buxtcrf endeavours to reconcile thefe two opinions,
Thefe authors add, that what we call the Samaritan by producing a variety of paffages from the rabbies to
charadter, is the genuine, ancient Hebrew. Of this prove, that both thele characters were anciently ufed;
' opinion are Scaliger, Bochart, Cafaubon, Voffius, Gro- the prelent fquare charadter being that in which the
tius, Walton, Capellus, &c. and among the ancients tables of the law, and the copy depolited in the ark,
Jerome and Eufebius. On this fide it is urged, that wTere written ; and the other character being ufed in
the prefent charadters are called Affyrian by the an- the copies of the law which were written for private
cient Jcwifh writers of the Talmud, and therefore and common ufe, and in civil affairs in general; and'
mult have been brought from Affyria; but to this that after the captivity, Ezra enjoined the former to
argument it is replied, that there were two forts of be ufed by the Jew's on all occafions, leaving the latter
charadters anciently in ufe, viz. the facred or prefent to the Samaritans and apoftates. But it can hardly be'
fquare charadter, and the profane or civil, which we allowed by any who confider the difference between
call Samaritan ; and that the facred is called Alfyrian, the Chaldee and Samaritan charadters, with refpedt to
becaufe it firft began in Affyria to come into common convenience and beauty, that they were ever ufed at
ufe. It is farther alleged, that the Chaldee letters, the fame time. After all, it is of no great moment
which the Jews now ufe, were unknown to the ancient which of thefe, or whether either of them, were the
Jews before the captivity, from Dan. i. 4. More- original characters ; fince it appears, that no change
over, it is inferred from 2 Kings, xvii. 28. whence we of the words has arifen from the manner of w riting
learn that a Jewifh prieft was fent to teach the Sama- them, becaufe the Samaritan and Jewilh Pentateuch
ritans the worfhip of Jehovah ; on which occafion he almolt always agree after fo many ages. It is moll
muft have taught them the law ; and yet no mention probable that the form of thefe charadlers has varied in
occurs of his teaching them the language or character different periods; this appears from the teftimony of
that the law w7as then wiitten in, the charadler which Montfaucon, in his Hexapla Otigenis, vol. i. p. 22.
the Samaritans u'ed. But the chief argument is taken &c. and is implied in Dr Kennicot’s making the cha-
from fome ancient Jewilh Ihekels, with a legend on radters in which manuferipts are written one tell of
one fide “ The Ihekcl of Ifrael,” and on the other their age.
“ Jerulaltm the holy,” both in Samaritan charadlers. 2. The modern, or rabbinical, is a good neat cha-
Thefe Ihekels, it is faid, mull have been coined before radler, formed of the fquare Hebrew, by rounding it,-
the divifion of the two kingdoms of Judah and Ifrael, and retrenching moll of the angles or corners of the
or at lealt before the Affyrian captivity, becaufe the letters, to make it the more eafy and flowing. The
Samaritans never afterwards reckoned Jerufalem holy, letters ufed by the Germans are very different from the:
4x rabbi*-
i
H E B [ 366 I H E B
Hi brew, rabbinical character ufed every where elfe, though all
v-— formed alike from the fquare charadter, but the Ger¬
man in a more flovenly manner than the reil—The
rabbins frequently make ufe either of their own, or the 1
fquave Hebrew charadter, to write the modern lan¬
guages in. There are even books in the vulgar tongues
printed in Hebrew charadters ; .inftances whereof are
feen in the French king’s library.
Hebrew Language, that fpoken by the Hebrews,
-and wherein the Old Teftament is written.
This appears to be the molt ancient of all the lan¬
guages in the world, at lead we know of none older;
and fome learned men are of opinion, that this is the
language in which God fpoke to Adam in Paradife.
Hr Sharpe adopts the opinion that the Hebrew was
the original language; not indeed that the Hebrew is
the unvaried language of our firft parents, but that it
was the general language of men at the difperfion ;
and however it might have been improved and altered
from the firft fpeech of our firft parents, it was the
original of all the languages, or almoft all the lan¬
guages, or rather dialedts', that have fince arifen in the
world.
The books of the Old Teftament are the only pieces
to be found, in all antiquity, written in pure He¬
brew ; and the language of many of thefe is extreme¬
ly fublime : it appears perfedtly regular, and particu¬
larly fo in its conjugations. Indeed, properly fpeak-
ing, it has but one conjugation ; but this is varied in
each feven or eight different ways, which has the effeft
of fo many different conjugations, and affords a great
variety of expreflions to reprefent by a fxngle word
the different modifications of a verb, and many ideas
which in the modern and in many of the ancient and
learned languages cannot be expreffed without a peri-
phrafis.
The primitive words, which are called roots, have
feldom more than three letters or two fyllables.
In this language there are 22 letters, only five of
which are ufually reckoned vowels, which are the fame
with ours, vix. a, e, i, 0, u; but then each vowel is
divided into two, a long and a fhort, the found of the
former being fomewhat grave and long, and that of
the latter fhort and acute : it muft however be remark¬
ed, that the two laft vowels have founds that differ in
other refpe<fts befides quantity and a greater or lefs
elevation. To thefe 10 or 12 vowels maybe added
others, called femi-wivels, which ferve to conned! the
confonants, and to make the eafier tranfitions from one
to another. The number of accents in this language
are indeed prodigious: of thefe there are near 40,
the ufe of fome of which, notwithftanding all the in¬
quiries of the learned, are not yet perfectly known.
We knowq in general, that they ferve to diftinguifh
the fentencejs like the points called commas, femicolous,
&c. in our language ; to determine the quantity of the
fyllables ; and to mark the tone with which they are
to be fpoken or fung. It is no wonder, then, that there
are more^ accents in the Hebrew than in other lan¬
guages, fince they petform the ofijee of three different
things, which in other languages are called by different
names.
A? we have no Hebrew but what is contained in
the Scripture, that language to us wants a great many
words ; not only becaufe in thofe primitive times the Hebrew. j
languages were not fo copious as at prefent; but alfo  
on this account, that the infpired writers had no oc-
cafion to mention many of the terms that might be in
the language.
The Chaldee, Syriac, Ethiopic, &c. languages, are
by fome held to be only dialefts of the Hebrew ; as
the French, Italian, Spanifh, &c. are dialefts of the
Latin. It has been fuppofed by many very learned
men, that the Hebrew charadlers or letters were often
ufed hieroglyphically, and that each had its feveral di- ;
ftindt fenfe underftood' as a hieroglyphic. Neuman,
who feems to have taken infinite pains to find out this
fecret meaning of thefe letters, gives the following ex¬
plication : k alepb, he fays., is a charadter denoting mo¬
tion, readinefs, and adtivity ; 3 beth, fignifies, 1. Mat¬
ter, body, fubftance, thing ; 2. Place, fpace, or ca¬
pacity ; and, 3. In, within, or contained: J gimel,
ftands for flexion, bending, or obliquity of any kind :
dalcth, fignifies any protrufion made from without,
or any promotion of any kind : n he, ftands for pre¬
fence, or demonftrative effence of any thing: 1 vau,
Hands for copulation or growing together of things:
t dfaln, expreffes vehement protrufion and violent com-
preffion, fuch as is occafioned by at once violently
difeharging and conftringing a thing together; it alfo
fignifies fometimes the ftraitening of any figure into a
narrow point at the end : n cheth, exprelfes affocia-
tion, fociety, or any kind of compofition or combi¬
nation of things together : 0 teth, Hands for the with¬
drawing, drawing back, or recefs of any thing : 'jod,
fignifies extenfion and length, whether in matter or
in time : 3 caph, expreffes a turning, curvednefs, or
concavity : ^ lamech, ftands for an addition, accefs,
impulfe, or adverfation, and fometimes for preffure :
>3 mem, expreffes amplitude, or the amplifying any
thing in whatever fenfe ; in regard to continuous qua¬
lities, it fignifies the adding length, breadth, and cir¬
cumference ; and in disjundt qualities it fignifies mul¬
titude': 3 nun, fignifies the propagation ef one thing
from another, or of the fame thing from one pet fon
to another: D famech, expreffes cindture and coarcta¬
tion : J> ain, ftands for obfervation, objedtion, or obvia¬
tion : a pe, ftands for a crookednefs or an angle of any
figure : x tfade, expreffes contiguity and clofe fuccef-
fion : p koph, exprefl'es a circuit or ambit : ** rejh, ex¬
preffes the egrefs of any thing, as alfo the exterior
part of a thing, and the extremity or end of any
thing : w JIAn, fignifies the number three, or the third
degree, or the utmoft perfedtion of any thing : n tau,
expreffes a fequel, continuation, or fucceffion of any
thing.
According to this explication, as the feveral parti¬
cular letters of the Hebrew alphabet feparately fignify
the ideas of motion, matter, fpace, and feveral modi¬
fications of matter, fpace, and motion, it follows, that
a language, the words of which are compofed of fuch
expreffive charadters, muft neceffarily be of all lan¬
guages the molt peifedt and expreflive, as the words
formed of fuch letters, according to their determinate
feparate fignifications, mull convey the idea of all the
matters contained in the fenfe of the feveral charac¬
ters, and be at once a name and a definition, or fuc-
cindt defeription of the fubjedt, and all things mate-
H E B [ 367 ] H E B
: Hebrew rial as well as fpiritual, all obje&s in the natural and
II. moral world, mud be known as foon as their names
! H'dinfo3- are knownj and their feparate letters confidered.
J ' The words uritn and thummhn are thus eafily explain¬
ed and found, perhaps the moll appofite and expref-
five words that were ever formed.
Rabbinical, or modern Hebrew, is the language ufed
by the rabbins in the writings they have compofed.
The bafis or body hereof is the Hebrew and Chaldee,
with divers alterations in the words of thefe two lan¬
guages, the meanings whereof they have confiderably
enlarged and extended. Abundance of things they
have borrowed from the Arabic: the reft is chiefly
compofed of words and exprdfions, chiefly from the
Greek ; fome from the Latin ; and others from the
other modern tongues; particularly that fpoken in the
place where each rabbin lived or wrote.
The rabbinical Hebrew muft be allowed to be a very
copious language. M. Simon, in his Hift. Crit. du Vieux
Teftam. liv. iii. chap. 27. obferves, that there is fcarce
any art or faience but the rabbins have treated there¬
of in it. They have tranflated moft of the ancient
philofophers, mathematicians, aftronomers, and phyfi-
cians ; and have written themfelves on moft fubjedls :
> they do not want even orators and poets. Add, that
this language, notwithftanding it is fo crowded with
foreign words, has its beauties vifible enough in the
■works of thofe who have written well in it.
HEBREWS, the defcendants of Heber, common¬
ly called Jews. See Heber. and Jews.
Hebrews, or Epijlle to the Hebrews, a canonical
book of the New Teftament.
Though St Paul did not prefix his name to this
epiftle, the concurrent teftimony of the bell authors
ancient and modern afford fuch evidence of his being
the author of it, that the obje&ions to the contrary
are of little or no weight.
The Hebrews, to whom this epiftle was wrote, were
the believing Jews of Paleftine ; and its defign was to
convince them, and by their means all the Jewifh con¬
verts wherefoever difperfed, of the infufficiency and
abolHhment of the ceremonial and ritual law.
HEBRIDES, the general name of fome iflands ly¬
ing to the north-weft of Scotland, of which kingdom
they conftitute a part. They are fituated between the
55th and 59th degrees of latitude, are fuppofed to be
about 300 in number, and to contain 48,000 inhabi¬
tants. The names of the largeft are Skie, Mull,
I lav, and Arran. Of thefe iilands Mr Pennant hath
given the following hiftory.
“ All the accounts left us by the Greek and Roman
writers are inveloped with obfcurity: at all times brief
even in their defcriptions of places they had eafieft ac-
cefs to, and might have defcribed with the moft fatis-
fadlory precifion; but in remote places, their relations
furnilh little more than hints, the food for conjefture
to the vifionary antiquary.
“ That Pytheas, a traveller' mentioned by Strabo,
had vifited Great Britaia, I would wilh to make only
apocryphal. He afferts that he vifited the remoter parts;
and that he had alfo feen Thule, the land of romance
amongft the ancients: which all might pretend to have
feen ; but every voyager, to fwell his fame, made the
ifland he faw laft the Ultima Thule of his travels. If
Pytheas had reached thefe parts, he might have ob-
ferved, floating in the leas, multitudes of gelatinous Hebrides,
animals, the medufa of Linnasus, and out of thefe have v '
formed his fable. He made his Thule a compofition of
neither earth, fea, nor air; but like a compofition of them,
all: then, catching his fimile from what floated before
him, compares it to the lungs of the fea, the Ariftote-
lian idea of thefe bodies; and from him adopted by
naturalifts, fucceffors to that great philofopher. Strabo
very juftly explodes thefe abfurd tales } yet allows him
merit in defcribing the climate of the places he had
feen. As a farther proof of his having vifited the He¬
brides, he mentions their unfriendly iky, that prohibits
the growth of the finer fruits; and that the natives are
obliged to carry their corn under ihelter, to beat the
grain out, left it ihould be fpoiled by the defeft of fun
and violence of the rains. This is the ’probable part
of his narrative ; but when the time that the great
geographer wrote is confidered, at a period that thefe
iilands had been neglefted for a very long fpace by the
Romans, and when the difficulties of getting among a
fierce and unfriendly nation muft be almoft infuperable,
doubts innumerable refpeding the veracity of this
relater muft arife. All that can be admitted in favour of
him is, that he was a great traveller: and that he might
have either vifited Britain from fomc of the nations
commercing with our iile 5 or received from them ac¬
counts, which he afterwards dreffed out, mixed with
the ornaments of fable. A traffic muft have been car¬
ried on with the very northern inhabitants of our iflands
in the time of Pytheas; for one of the articles of com¬
merce mentioned by Strabo, the ivory bits, were made
either of the teeth of the walrus, or of a fpecies of
whale native of the northern feas.
“ The geographer Mela, who flouriffied in the reign
of Claudius, is the next who takes notice of our leffer
iflands. 'He mentions the Orcades as confiding of 30;
the ^Emodae of feven. The Romans had then made a
conqueft of the former, and might have feen the latter:
but, from the words of the hiftorian, it is probable that
the Shetland iflands were thofe intended; for he in¬
forms us, that the “ aEmodas were carried out over
againft Germany :” the fite of the Hebrides will not
admit this defcription, which agrees very well with
the others; for the ancients extended their Germany,
and its imaginary iflands, to the extreme north.
“ Pliny the elder is the next that mentions thefe re¬
mote places. He lived later than the precedino-wri¬
ters, and of courCe his information is fuller; by means,
of intervening difcoveries, he has added- ten more to
the number of the Orcades; is the firft writer that
mentions the Hcebudes, the iflands in queftion ; and
joins in the fame line the iEmodae, or, as it is in the
beft editions more properly written, the Hcmodee, or ex¬
treme point of the Roman expeditions to the north,
as the Shetland ifles in the higheft probability were.
Pliny and Mela agree in the number of the iEmodx,
or Acmodae : the former makes that of the Hcebudes
30; an account extremely near the truth, deduding
the little ifles, or rather rocks, that furround moft of
the greater, and many of them fo indiftindl as fcarcely
to be remarked, except on an aftual furvey.
“ Solinus fucceeds Pliny. If he, as is fuppofed, was
cotemporary with Agricola, he has made very ill ufe
of the light he might have received from the expedi¬
tions of that great general: his officers might have
6 fur-
H E B L 368 ] H E B
Hebrides, furnifhed the hiftorian with better materials than thofe
he has communicated. Hejias reduced the number of
the Hcebudes to five. He tells us, that “ the inhabi¬
tants were unacquainted with corn : that they lived
only on fifh and milk: that they had one king, as
the iflands were only feparated from each other by
narrow tlraits: that their prince was bound by cer¬
tain rules of government, to do juftice ; and was pre¬
vented by poverty from deviating from the true courfe,
being fupported by the public, and allowed nothing
that he could call his own, not even a wife ; but then
he was allowed free choice, by turns one out of every
diftrift, of any female that caught his affe&ion ; which
deprived him of all ambition about a fucceffor.
“ By the number of thefe illands, and by the mi¬
nute attention 'given by the hiftorian to the circum-
ftance of their being feparated from each other by very
narrow {trails, I firould imagine, that which is now
called the Long IJland, and includes Lewis, North Uift,
Benbecula, South Uift, and Barra, to have been the
five Hoebudes of Solinus ; for the other great iflands,
fuch as Skie, &c. are too remote from each other to
form the preceding very charafteriftic defcription of
that chain of iflands. Thefe might naturally fall un¬
der the rule of one petty prince; almoft the only pro¬
bable part of Solinus’s narrative.
“ After a long interval appears Ptolemy, the E-
gyptian geographer. He alfo enumerates five Ebudte;
and has given each a name : the Weftern Ebuda, the
Eaftern, Ricina, Maltos, Epidium- Cambden conjec¬
tures them to be the modern Skie, Lewis, Rathry or
Racline, Mull, and Hay: and I will not controvert
his opinion.
“ The Roman hiftorians give very little light into
the geography of thefe parts. Tacitus, from whom
moft might have been expe&ed, is quite filent about
the names of places; notwfthftanding he informs us,
that a fleet by the command of Agricola performed
the circumnavigation of Britain. All that he takes
notice of is the difcovery and the conqueft of the
Orkneys: it ftiould feem, that with the biographers
of an ambitious-nation, nothing feemed worthy of no¬
tice but what they could dignify with the glory of
viftory.
“ It is very difficult to affign a rcafon for the change
of name from Ebuda to Hebrides : the laft is modern ;
and feems, as the annotator on Dr Macpherfon fuppo-
fes, to have arifen from the error of a tranfcriber, who
changed the u into ri.
“ From all that has been colledled from the an¬
cients, it appears, that they were acquainted with little
more of the Hebrides than the bare names: it is pro¬
bable, that the Romans, either from contempt of fuch
barren fpots, from the dangers of the feas, the violence of
the tides, and horrors of the narrow founds, in the in¬
experienced ages of navigation, never attempted their
conqueft, or faw more of them than what they had in
fight during the few circumnavigations of Great Bri¬
tain, which were expeditions more of oftentation than
of utility.
“ The inhabitants had probably for fome ages
their own governors; one little king to each ifland,
or to each groupe, as neceffity required. It is reafon-
able to fuppofe, that their government was as much
divided as that of Great Britain, which, it is well
N° 150.
known, was under the dire&ion of numbers of petty Heb
princes before it was reduced under the power of the
Romans.
“ No account is given in hiftory of the time thefe
iflands were annexed to the^overnment of Scotland.
If we may credit our Saxon hiftorians, they appear to
have been early under the dominion of the Pi£ts; for
Bede and Adamnanus inform us,that foon after the arri¬
val of St Golumba in their country, Brude, a Pidlifh
monarch, made the faint a prefent of the celebrated
ifland of Iona. But neither the holy men of this
ifland, nor the natives of the reft of the Hebrides, en¬
joyed a permanent repofe after this event. The firlt
iuvafion of the Danes does not feem to be eafily afcer-
tained. It appears that they ravaged Ireland, and the
ifle of Rathry, as early as the year In the fol¬
lowing century, their expeditions became more fre¬
quent : Harold Harfager, or the light-haired, purfued,
in 875, feveral petty princes, whom he had expelled
out of Norway ; who had taken refuge in the Hebri¬
des,. and molefted his dominions by perpetual defcents
from thofe iflands. He feems to have made a rapid
conqueft : he gained as many vi&ories as he fought
battles; he put to death the chief of the pirates, and
made an indifcriminate flaughterof their followers. Soon
after his return, the iflanders repoffeffed their ancient
feats : and, in order to reprefs their infults, he fent
Ketil tht Jlat nofed with a fleet and fome forces for
that purpofe. He foon reduced them to terms, but
made his victories fubfervient to his own ambition : he
made alliances with the reguli he had fubdued ; he
formed intermarriages, and confirmed to them their
old dominions. This effe&ed, he fent back the fleet
to Harold; openly declared himfelf independent;
made himfelf prince of the Hebrides; and caufed
them to acknowledge him as fuch, by the payment
of tribute and the badges of vaffalage. Ketil re¬
mained, dining life, mailer of the iflands ; and his
fubjefts appear to have been a warlike fet of freeboot¬
ers, ready to join with any adventurers. Thus when
Eric, fon of Harold Harfager, after being driven out
of his own country, made an invafion of England, he
put with his fleet into the Hebrides, received a large
reinforcement of people fired with the hopes of prey,
and then proceeded on his plan of, rapine. After the
death of Ketil, a kingdom was in aftertimes compo-
fed out of them, which, from the refidence of the little
monarch in the ifle of Marr, was ftyled that of Man*
The iflands became tributary to that of Norway for a
confiderable time, and princes were fent from thence
to govern ; but at length they again {hook off the
yoke. Whether the little potentates ruled indepen¬
dent, or whether they put themfelves under the pro-
teftion of the Scottifh monarchs, does not clearly ap¬
pear ; but it is reafonable to fuppofe the laft, as Do-
nald-bane is accufed of making the Hebrides the price
of the affiftance given him by the Norwegians againlt
his own fubje&s. Notwithftanding they might occa-
fionally feek the prote&ion of Scotland, yet they ne¬
ver were wfithout princes of their own : policy alone
directed them to the former. From the chronicles of
the kings of Man we learn, that they had a fucceffion
of princes.
“ In 1089 is an evident proof of the independency
of the iflanders on Norway ; for, on the death of Lag- .
man,
H E B [ 369 ] H E B
iHebridss. nan, one of their monarchs, they fent a deputation to
i—y— O’Brian king of Ireland, to requeft a regent of royal
blood to govern them during the minority of their
young prince. They probably might in turn com¬
pliment in fome other refpefts their Scottilh neigh¬
bours : the iflanders mult have given them forne pre¬
tence to fovereignty ; for,
“ In 1093, Donald-bane, king of Scotland, calls
in the afliftance of Magnus the Barefooted, king of
Norway, and bribes him with the promife of all the
iflands. Magnus accepts the terms ; but at the fame
time boafls, that he does not come to invade the ter¬
ritories of others, but only to refume the ancient rights
of Norway. His conquefts are rapid and complete ;
for, befides the iflands, by an ingenious fraud he adds
Cantyre to his dominions.
“ The Hebrides continued governed by a prince
dependent on Norway, a fpecies of viceroy appointed
by that court; and who paid, on affuming the dignity,
ten marks of gold, and never made any other pecuni¬
ary acknowledgment during life: but if another vice¬
roy was appointed, the. fame fum was exacted from
him. Thefe viceroys were fometimes Norwegians,
fometimes natives of the ifles. In 1097 we find, that
Magnus deputes a nobleman of the name of /nge-
muncl: in after times we learn, that natives were ap¬
pointed to that high office. Thus were the Hebrides
governed, from the conqueft by Magnus, till the year
1263, when Acho, or Haquin, king of Norway, by
an unfortunate invafion of Scotland, terminating in
his defeat at Largs, fo weakened the powers of his
kingdom, that his fucceffor Magnus IV. was content
to make a ceffion of the iflands to Alexander III. ;
but not without flipulating for the payment of a large
fum, and of a tribute of xoo merks for ever, which
bore the name of the annual of Norway. Ample
provifion was alfo made by Magnus in the fame trea¬
ty, for the fecurity of the rights and properties of his
Norwegian fubje&s, who chofe to continue in the ifles;
where many of their pofterity remain to this day.
“ Notwithftanding this revolution, Scotland feems to
have received no real acquifition of ftrength. The
iflands ftill remained governed by powerful chieftains,
the defeendants of Somerled, thane of Heregaidel,
or Argyle, who, marrying the daughter of Olave,
king of Man, left a divided dominion to his fons Du-
gal and Reginald : from the firft were defeended the
Macdougals of Lorn ; from the laft, the powerful
clan of the Macdonalds; The lordfliip of Argyle, with
Mull, and the iflands north of it, fell to the fliare of
the firft; Hay, Cantyre, and the fouthern ifles, were
the portion of the laft : a divifion that formed the di-
ftinftion of the Sudereys and Nordereys, (as farther
noticed in the article Iona).
“ Thefe chieftains were the fcourges of the king¬
dom ; they are known in hiftory but as the devafta-
tions of a tempeft ; for their paths were marked with
the moft barbarous defolation. Encouraged by their
dift^hce from the feat df royalty, and the turbulence
of the times, which gave their monarchs full employ,
they exercifed a regal power, and often aflumed the
title; but are more generally known in hiftory by the
ftyle of the lords of the ifles, or the earls of Rofs ; and
fometimes by that of the Great Macdonald.
Hiftorians are filent about their proceedings,
Vol.VIII. Part I.
from the retreat of the Danes, in 1263, till that of Hebrides.
I33J, when John, lord of the ifles, withdrew his al-
legiance. In the beginning of the next century his
fucceflbrs were fo independent, that Henry IV. en¬
tered into a formal alliance with the brothers Donald
and John. This encouraged them to commit freffi
hoftilities againft their natural prince. Donald, under
pretence of a claim to the earldom of Rofs, invaded
and made a conqueft of that county ; but penetrating
as far as the fhire of Aberdeen, after a fierce but un-
decifive battle with the royal party, thought proper
to retire, and in a little time to fwear allegiance to his
monarch James I. But he was permitted to retain
the county of Rofs, and aflume the title of earl. His
fuccefibr, Alexander, at the head of 10,000 men, at¬
tacked and burnt Invernefs; at length, terrified with
the preparations made againft him, he fell at the royal
feet, and obtained pardon as to life, but was com¬
mitted to ftritt confinement.
“ His kinfman and deputy, Donald Balloch, re¬
lenting the imprifonment of his chieftain, excited ano¬
ther rebellion, and deftroyed the country with fire
and fword : but on his flight was taken and put to
death by an Irilh chieftain, with whom he fought pro-
te&ion.
“ Thefe barbarous inroads were very frequent with
a fet of banditti, who had no other motive in war but
the infamous inducement of plunder.
“ la the reign of James II. in the year 1461,
Donald, another petty tyrant, an earl of Rofs, and
lord of the ifles, renewed the pretence of independency;
furprifed the caftle of Invernefs ; forced his way as far
as Athol; and obliged the earl and qountefs, with the
principal inhabitants, to feck refuge in the church of
St Bridget, in hopes of finding fecurity from his
cruelty by the fan&ity of the place: but the barba¬
rian and his followers fet fire to the church, put the
ecclefiaftics to the fword, and, with a great booty,
carried the earl and countefs prifoners to his caftle of
Claig, in the ifland of Hay. In a fecond expedition,
immediately following the firft, he fuffered the penalty
of his impiety : a tempeft overtook him, and over¬
whelmed moft of his affociates ; and he, efcaping to
Invernefs, periftied by the hands of an Irifti harper:
his furviving followers returned to Hay, conveyed the
earl and countefs of Athol to the fanduary they had
violated, and expiated their crime by reftoring the
plunder, and making large donations to the fhrine of
the offended faint.
“ John, fucceffor to the laft earl of Rofs, entered
into alliance with Edward IV. and fent ambaffadors to
the court of England, where Edward empowered the
biflrop of Durham and earl of Winchefter to conclude
a treaty with him, another Donald Balloch, and his
fon and heir John. They agreed to ferve the king
with all their power, and to become his fubje&s: the
earl was to have loo marks fterling for life in time of
peace, and 200I. in time of war; and thefe ifland
allies, in cafe of the conqueft of Scotland, were to
have confirmed to them all the poffeffions benorth of
the Scottiih fea ; and in cafe of a truce with the Scot-
tifti monarch, they were to be included in it. But
about the year 1476, Edward, from a change of po¬
litics, counted the alliance of James III. and dropt his
new allies. James, determined to fubdue this rebel-
Z i~ lious
H E B [ 37°
Hebrides, lious race, fent againft them a powerful army under
the earl of Athol > and took leave of him with this
good wifh, Furth, Fortune, and Jill the fetters ; as much
as to fay, “ Go forth, be fortunate, and bring home
many captives which the family of Athol have ufed
ever fince for its motto. Rofs was terrified into fub-
miflion ; obtained his pardon ; but was deprived of his
earldom, which by aft of parliament was then decla¬
red unalienably annexed to the crown : at the fame
time the king reftored to him Knapdale and CarAtyre,
which the earl had refigned ; and inverted him anew
with the lordfhip of the ifles, to hold them of the king
by fervice and relief.
“ Thus the great power of the ifles was broken;
yet for a confiderable time after, the petty chieftains
were continually breaking out into fmall rebellions,
or haraffed each other in private wars; and tyranny
feems but to have been multiplied. James V. found
it neceflary to make the voyage of the ifles in perfon
in 1536, feized and brought away with him feveral
of the moft confiderable leaders, and obliged them to
find fecurity for their own good behaviour and that of
their vaflals. The names of thefe chieftains were
(according to Lindefay), Mydyart, Mac-connel, Mac-
loyd, of the Lewis; Mac-niel, Mac-lane, Mac intojh,
John Mudyart, Mac-kay, Mac-kenzie, and many others:
but by the names of fome of the above, there feem to
have been continental as well as infular malecontents.
He examined the titles of their holdings ; and finding
feveral to h»ve been ufurped, reunited their lands to
the crown. In the fame voyage he had the glory of
caufing a furvey to be taken of the coafts of Scotland,
and of the iflanrls, by his pilot Alexander Lindefay;
which were publilhed in 1583, at Paris, by Nicholas de
Nicholay geographer to the French monarch.
“ The troubles that fucceeded the death of James
occafioned a negleft of thefe infulated parts of the
Scottifli dominions, and left them in a ftate of anarchy.
In 1614, the Mac-donalds made a formidable infur-
reftion, oppugning the royal grant of Cantyre to the
earl of Argyle and his relations. The petty chieftains
continued in a fort of rebellion ; and the fword of the
greater, as ufual in weak governments, was employed
againft. them : the encouragement and proteftion given
by them to pirates, employed the power of the Camp¬
bells during the reign of James VI. and the beginning
of that of Charles I. (a).
“ But the turbulent fpirit of the old times conti¬
nued even to the prefent age. The heads of clans
were by the divifions, and a falfe policy that predomi¬
nated in Scotland during the reign of William III.
flattered with an unreal importance : inftead of being
treated as bad fubjefts, they were courted as defirable
allies : inftead of feeling the hand of power, money
was allowed to bribe them into the loyalty of the times.
Theywould have accepted the fubfidies, notwithftanding
they detefted the prince that offered them. They were
taught to believe themfelves of fuch confequence, that
In thefe days turned to their deftruftion. Two recent
5
1 H E B
rebellions gave legiflature a late experience of the folly Hebrides,
of permitting the feudal fyftem to exift in any part of "*—V’*"
its dominions. The aft of 1748, for abolifliing heri¬
table jurifdiftions, at once deprived the chieftains of
all power of injuring the public by their commotions.
Many of thefe Reguli fecond this effort of legiflature,
and negleft no opportunity of rendering themfelves
hateful to their unhappy vaffals, the former inftruments
of their ambition.”
“ The fitiration of thefe iflands in the great Atlantic Smallct'.
Ocean renders the air cold and moift in the greater Moa'.//j/f. ■
part of them. In the moft northerly ifles the fun, at MS0* &c*
the fummer folftice, is not above an hour under the
horizon at midnight, and not longer above it at mid-day
in the depth of winter. The foil of the Hebrides varies
alfo in different ifles, and in different parts of the fame
ifland : foipe are mountainous and barren, producing
little elfe than heath, wild myrtle, fern, and a little
grafs; while others, being cultivated and manured with
fea-weed, yield plentiful crops of oats and barley.
“ Lead mines have been difeovered in fome of tliefe
iflands, but not worked to much advantage; others
have been found to contain quarries of marble, lime-
ftone, and free-ftone; nor are they deftitute of iron,
talc, cryftals, and many curious pebbles, fome of
which emulate the Brafilian topaz.
“ With refpeft to vegetables, over and above the
plentiful harvefts of corn that the natives earn from
agriculture, and the pot- herbs and roots that are planted
in gardens for the fuftenance of the people, thefe
iflands produce fpontaneoufly a variety of plants and
fimples, ufed by the iflanders in the cure of their dif-
eafes; but there is hardly a fhrub or tree to be feen,
except in a very few fpots, where fome gentlemen have
endeavoured to rear them with much more trouble'
than fuccefs.
“ The animals, both of the land and fea, domeftic
and wild, quadrupeds, fowls, and fifties, found in and
about thefe iflands, are of the fame fpecies, fize, and
configuration, with thofe of the Orkneys.
“ The people inhabiting thefe iflands are of the
fame race with thofe who live in the Highlands of
Scotland; fpeak the fame language, wear the fame
habit, and obferve the fame cuftoms. [See the article
Highlands.]
“ The commodities which may be deemed the ftaples
of this country are black cattle, ftieep, and fifti, which
they fell to their fellow-fubjefts of Scotland. Part of
the wool they work up into knit-ftockings, coarfe
cloth, and that variegated fluff called tartan. They
likewife fait mutton in the hide, and export it in boats
or barklings to different parts of the main-land. Cod,
ling, mackarel, whiting, haddock, and foies, are here
caught in abundance, together with a fmall red cod,
remarkably voracious, of a very delicate flavour: there
are likewife two kinds of white fifti, which feem to be
peculiar to this coaft, known by the names of lithe and
cea, efteemed good eating. But the greateft treafure
the ocean pours forth is the prodigious quantity of her¬
rings.
(a) In the beginning of the laft century the iflanders were continually harafling Ireland with their plunder¬
ing invafions, or landing there to fupport rebellions: at length it was made treafon to receive thefe Hebridiaa
Redftianks as they were ftyled.
H E B L 371 J H E B
rings, which, at one feafon of the year, fwarm in all
the creeks and bays along the weftern (hore of Scotland.
Thefe are counted the largeft, fatteft, and fineft her¬
rings caught in any part of the northern feaa. This
fifhery employs a great number of hands, and brings a
confiderable advantage to the kingdom. The fifh are
caught, cured, barrelled up, and exported : but whe¬
ther from want of Hull, or a proper fait for pickling,
the Scotch-cured herrings of this coaft, though fupe-
rior to all others in their natural ftate, are counted in¬
ferior to thofe which are dreffed and pickled by the
Dutch fifhermen.
“ How mean and contracted foever the commerce
and produce of thefe iflands ‘may be at prefent, they
are perhaps more capable of improvement in both
articles than any part of the Britiih dominions in Eu¬
rope. The inhabitants are fo little (killed in hulbandry,
that the foil, though generally good in the low grounds,
yields nothing but fcanty crops of oats and barley 5 and
great traCts of land lie altogether uncultivated. If a
very fmall number of judicious farmers would fettle in
fome of the moft confiderable iflands, they would foon
raife fuch harvefts as would enrich themfelves; employ
and maintain all the idle people, a great number of
whom are obliged to repair to foreign countries for
fubfiftence 5 afford fufhcient bread for the inhabitants,
and even fupply the barren parts of the oppofite con¬
tinent. The foil in many places would produce wheat,
and almofl every where would give good pafturage,
infomuch that, with proper culture, the people might
provide hay and fodder for their cattle, which during
the feverity of the winter die in great numbers for want
of provifion. Improvements of this kind would be
the more eafily made, as the fea-fhore abounds with'
{hells for lime and fea-weeds for manure ; and the la¬
bourers would be eafily fubfifted by the fifh that fwarm
not only in the ocean which furrounds thefe iflands,
but likewife in the numerous lakes and rivers of frefh
water. Martin declares, that he knew 100 families
in this country maintained by as many little farms, the
rent of each not exceeding 5 s. one fheep, and a few
pecks of oats.
“ The commerce of thefe iflands might be extended
in fuch a manner as to render them a ftaple of trade,
and an excellent nurfery for feamen. They are fur-
nifhed with an infinite number of bays, creeks, and har-
hours, for the convenience of navigation : the inhabi¬
tants are numerous, ftrong, aftive, and every way
qualified for the life of a mariner. The fea affords
myriads of fifh for exportation: the lands might afford
plenty of paltuiage for black cattle, horfes, and fheep,
as well as plenteous harvefts of corn and other grain :
woollen and linen manufactures might be profecuted
to great advantage, where labour is cheap and provi-
fions are reafonable. The iflands afford good ftone and
lime ; and fome parts of the oppofite main land, tim¬
ber for building. They have plenty of fuel, not only
for the ordinary purpofes of life, but alfo for falt-pans,
which might be ereCted on different parts of the coaft;
and for burning fea-ware for the ufe of a glafs or foap
manufacture. Finally, the fituation of thefe iflands
is fo commodious for trade, that the navigator is im¬
mediately in the open fea, and almoft in the neigh¬
bourhood of Denmark, Sweden, Hamburgh, Hol¬
land ; nay, with a favourable wind, he can reach the
coafts of France and Spain in a week’s failing; if he Hebriu’e*,
is bound for the Britifh plantations, or indeed for any Hebran.
part of the known globe, he is at once difencumbered »"1^
of the land, and profecutes his voyage through the
open fea without obftruCtion or difficulty.”
To the ncgleCted ftate of thefe iflands, and to theif
great importance in various natural refpeCts, the atten¬
tion of government has been called within thefe few
years by the reprefentation and efforts of different pa¬
triotic noblemen and gentlemen, and a regular efta-
blifhment has been formed under the name of the Bri-
tifh Society for extending the Fifheries and improving
the Sea-coafts of the Kingdom; in confequence of
which many ufeful plans for the improvement of thofe
iflands have been adopted, and are gradually carrying
into execution.
Netv Hebrides, a clufter of iflands lying in the
Great South Sea, or Pacific Ocean. The norther*
iflands of this archipelago were firft difeovered by that
great navigator Quiros in 1606, and not without rea-
fon confidered as a part of the fouthern continent,
which at that time, and till very lately, was fuppofed
to exift. They were next vifited by M. de Bougain¬
ville in 1768, who, befides landing on the ifland of
Lepers, did no more than difeover that the land was
not connected, but compofed of iflands, which he call¬
ed the Great Cyclades. Captain Cook, befides afeer-
taining the extent and fituation of thefe iflands, added
the knowledge of feveial in this group which were be¬
fore unknown. He explored the whole clufter ; and
thinking himfelf thereby intitled to affix to them a ge¬
neral appellation, he named them the New Hebrides.
They are fituated between latitudes of 14 deg. 25. min.
and 20 deg. 4 min. fouth; and between 166 deg. 41
min. and 170 deg. 21 min. eaft longitude; and extend
125 leagues in the direction of north-north-weft and
fouth-fouth-eaft. The moft northern part of this archi¬
pelago was called by M. de Bougainville the Peat of
the Etoile. The whole clufter conlifts of the following
iflands ; fome of which have received names from
the different European navigators; others retain the
names which they bear among the natives, to*. Tierra
del Efperitu Santo, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, Ifle
of Lepers, Aurora, Whitfwntide, Ambrym, Immer,
Apee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Montagu, Hinchin-
brook, Shepherd, Eorramanga, Irronan, Annatom, and
Tanna.
HEBRON (anc. geog.), a very ancient city fitua¬
ted in the hilly country of the tribe of Judah to the
fouth. Its more ancient name was Kiriath Arba, or
Cariath Arba. In antiquity this city vied with the
moft ancient cities of Egypt, being feven years prior
to Zoan, tranflated Tunis by the Seventy. Jofephus
makes it not only older than Tanis, but even than
Memphis. It flood to the weft of the lake Afphaltites,
and was for fome time the royal refidence of David.
After the captivity it fell into the hands of the Edomites,
as did all the fouth country of Judea. It isnowcalledifa-
broun, fituated feven leagues to the fouth of Bethlehem.
The Arabs call it El-kalil, “ the well beloved;” which
is the epithet they ufually apply to Abraham, whofe
fepulchral grotto they ftill fhow. Habroun is feated
at the foot of an eminence, on which are fome wretched
ruins, the mifliapen remains of an ancient caftle. The
adjacent country is a fort of oblong hollow, five or fix
Z z 2 leagues
H E C [ 372 J H E C
Hebron leagues in length, and not difagreeably varied by rocky
II hillocks, groves of fir-trees, Hunted oaks, and a few
Hecatefia, pjanUtjons Qf vjnes an!j 0i;ve trees. '1’hefe vineyards
' T are not cultivated with a view to make wine, the in¬
habitants being fuch zealous Mahometans as not to
permit any Chriilians to live among them : they are
only of ufe to procure dried raifins, which are badly
prepared, though the grapes are of an excellent kind.
The peafants cultivate cotton likewife, which is fpun
by their wives, and fold at Jerufalem and Gaza. They
have alfo fome foap manufadtories, the kali for which
is fold them by the Bedouins; and a very ancient glafs-
houfe, the only one in Syria. They make there a
great quantity of coloured rings, bracelets for the
wrifts and legs, and for the arms above the elbows,
befides a variety of other trinkets, which are fent even
to Conftantinople. In confequence of thefe manufac¬
tures, Mr Volney informs us, Habroun is the moll
powerful village in all this quarter ; and is able to arm
800 or 900 men, who adhere to the fa&ion Kaifi, and
are the perpet ual enemies of the people of Bethlehem.
This difcord, which has prevailed throughout the
country from the earlieft times of the Arabs, caufes a
perpetual civil war. The peafants are incelfantly ma¬
king inroads on each other’s lands, deftroying their
corn, dourra, fefamum, and olive trees, and carrying
off their Iheep, goats, and camels. The Turks, who
are every where negligent in repi effing fimilar diforders,
are the lefs attentive to them here, fince their autho¬
rity is very precarious. The Bedouins, whofe camps
occupy the level country, are continually at open ho-
llilities with them ; of which the peafants avail them-
felves to refill their authority, or do mifchief to each
other, according to the blind caprice of their igno¬
rance or the intereft of the moment. Hence arifes an
anarchy which is Hill more dreadful than the defpotifm
which prevails elfewhere, while the mutual devallations
of the contending parties render the appearance of this
part of Syria more wretched than that of any other.
HEBRUS (anc. geog.), the largeft river of Thrace,
riling from mount Scombrus; running in two channels
till it comes to Philippopolis, where they unite. It
empties itfelf at two mouths into the iEgean Sea, to
the north of Samothrace. It was fuppofed to roll its
waters upon golden fands. The head of Orpheus was
thrown into it after it had been cut off by the Cico-
nian women.
HECATE (fab. hill.), a daughter of Perfes and
Alleria, the fame as Proferpine or Diana. She was
called Luna in heaven, Diana on earth, and Hecate
or Proferpine in hell; whence her name of Diva triformis,
tergemina, triceps. She was fuppofed to prefide over
magic and enchantments. She was generally reprefent-
ed like a woman, with the head of a horfe, a dog, or
a boar ; and fometimes Ihe appeared with three differ¬
ent bodies, and three different faces, with one neck.
Dogs, lambs, and honey, were generally offered to her,
efpecially in ways and crofs roads ; whence Ihe obtain¬
ed the name of Trivia. Her power was extended over
heaven, the earth, fea, and hell; and to her kings and
nations fuppofed themfelves indebted for their pro-
fperity.
HECATESIA, a yearly feftival obferved by the
Stratonicenfians in honour of Hecate. The Athenians
paid alfo particular worlhip to this goddefs, who was
deemed the patronefs of families and of children. From Hecatomb-
this circumllance the llatues of the goddefs were erec- ^
ted before the doors of the houfes; and upon every ec'a* f
new moon a public fupper was always provided at the ’
expence of the richell people, and fet in the llreets,
where the pooreft of the citizens were permitted to re¬
tire and feall upon it, while they reported that Hecate
had devoured it. There were alfo expiatory offerings,
to fupplicate the goddefs to remove whatever evils might
impend on the head of the public, See.
HECATOMB, in antiquity, a faciifice of an hun¬
dred bealts of the fame kind, at an hundred altars, and
by an hundred priells or facrificers.--The word is formed
of the Greek which properly fignifies a fump-
tuous or magnificent facrifice.—Others derive it from
the Greek txarov centum, “ a hundred,” and bos,
“ bullock,” &c. ; on which footing the hecatomb
Ihould be a facrifice of 100 bullocks.—Others derive
the word from EnaToi- and wvj pes, “ footand on
that principle hold, that the hecatomb might confift of
only 25 four footed beafts. They add, that it did not
matter what kind of beafts were chofe for vi&ims, pro¬
vided the quota of feet were but had.
Pythagoras is faid to have facrificed a hecatomb to
the mufes of 100 oxen, in joy and gratitude for his
difeovering the demonftration of the 47th propofition
of the firll book of Euclid, to*, that in a re6tangled
triangle the fquare of the hypothenufe is equal to the*
fquares of the two other fides.
For the origin of hecatombs: Strabo relates, that
there were 100 cities in Laconia, and that each city
ufed to facrifice a bullock every year for the common
fafety of the country; whence the inftitution of the ce¬
lebrated facrifice of 100 vidlims, called Aero/om&r. O-
thers refer the origin of hecatombs to a plague, where¬
with the 100 cities of Peloponnefus were afflidted; for
the removal whereof,* they jointly contributed to fo
fplendid a facrifice.
Julius Capitolinus relates, that for a hecatomb they
erected too altars of turf, and on thefe facrificed 100-
ftieep and too hogs. He adds, that when the empe¬
rors offered facrifices of this kind, they facrificed zoo
lions, too eagles, and 100 other beafts of the like kind.
HECATOMBjEON was the firft month of the A-
thenian year, confifting of 30 days ; beginning on the
firft new moon after the fummer folftice, and confe-
quently anfwering to the latter part of our June and
the beginning of July. It had its name from the great
number of hecatombs facrificed in it. See Hecatomb,
HECATOMPOLIS (anc. geog.), a furname of the
ifland of Crete, from its zoo cities. The territory of
Laconia alfo had anciently this name for the fame reafon;
and the cuftom of thefe too cities was to facrifice a
hecatomb annually.
HECATOMPYLOS (anc. geog.), the metropolis
of Parthia, and royal refidence of Arfaces, fituated at
the fprings of the Araxes. Thebes in Egypt had alfo
the fame name from its 100 gates.
HECK, an engine to take fifti. A falmon heck is
a grate for catching that fort of fifti.
HECKLE, among hemp-dreffenx See Hatchel.
HECLA, a volcano of Iceland, and one of the molt
furious in the world, fituated on the fouthern part of
ifland. See Iceland.
It was viiited in the year 1772 by Dr Van Trail, a
Swedilh
H E C [ 373 ] H E D
Heck. Swedifh gentleman, along with Mr (now Sir Jofepb)
“"’V"”-’ Banks, Dr Solander, and Dr James Lind of Edinburgh.
On their firft. landing they found a trafl of land 60 or 70
miles in extent entirely ruined by lava, which appeared to
have been in the higheft date of liquefadf ion. Having
undertaken a journey to the top of the mountain, they
travelled 300 or 360 Englifh miles over an uninter¬
rupted tract of lava ; and had at length the pleafure of
being the firlt who had arrived at the fummit of the
mountain.
Hecla, according to the accounts of thefe gentle¬
men, is fituated in the fouthern part of the ifland, a-
bout four miles from the fea-eoaft, and is divided into
three parts at the top, the middle point being the
highelt ; and, according to an exadl obfervation with
Rami'elen’s barometer, is 5000 feet above the level of
the fea. They were obliged to quit their horfes at the
firft. opening from which the fire had burft. They de-
feribe this as a place with lofty glazed walls and high
glazed cliffs, unlike any thing which they had ever feen
before.
A little higher up they found a large quantity of
. grit and ftones t and ftill farther on another opening,
which, though not deep, defeended lower than that of
the higheft point. Here they imagined they plainly
difeerned the effefts of boiling water ; and not far from
thence the mountain began to be covered with fnow,
excepting fome fpots which were bare. The reafon of
this difference they foon perceived to be the hot vapour
afeending from the mountain.^ As they afeended high¬
er they found thefe fpots become larger ; and about
200 yards below the fummit, a hole about a yard and
an half in diameter was obferved, from whence iffued
fo hot a fleam, that they could not meafure the degree
of heat with the thermometer. The cold now began
to be very intenfe ; Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which,
at the foot of the mountain was at 54, now fell to 24;
the wind alfo became fo violent, that they were fome-
times obliged to lie down for fear of being blown down
the moil dreadful precipices. On the very fummit they
experienced at the fame time a high degree of heat and
cold; for, in the air, Fahrenheit’s thermometer flood
conflantly at 24, but when fet on the ground, rofe to
153; the barometer flood at 22.247. Though they
were very much inclined to remain here for fome time,
it could by no means be done with fafety ; for which
reafon they were obliged to defeend very quickly.
The mountain feems to be made up, not of lava, but
of fand, grit, and afhes; which are thrown up with the
flones partly difcoloured, and partly melted by the fire.
Several forts of pumice flones were found on it, among
which was one with fome fulphur. Sometimes the pu¬
mice was fo much burnt, that it was as light as tow.
Its form and colour was fometimes very fine, but at
the fame time fo foft, that it was difficult to remove it
from one place to another. The common lava was
found both in large pieces and fmall bits; as likewife
a quantity of black jafper burned at the extremities,
and refembling trees and branches. Some flate of a
flrong red colour was obferved among the flones thrown
out by the volcano. In one place the lava had taken
the form of chimney-flacks half broken down.—As
they defeended the mountain they obferved three open¬
ings. In one, every thing looked as red as brick; from
another, the lava had flowed in a ftreaia about 50 yards
broad, and after proceeding for fome way, had divided Heck
into three large branches. Further on they perceived 11
an opening, at the bottom of which was a mount; in H?dera'
in form of a fugar-loaf, in throwing up of which the 'r~"
fire appeared to have exhaufied itfelf.
We have already obferved, that our travellers were
the firft who afeended to the top of this mountain.
The reafon that no one before them had ever done fo
was partly founded in fuperftition, and partly tbe-fteep-
nefs and difficulty of the afeent, which wts greatly fa-
cilited by an eruption in 1766. Moil kinds of lava
found in other volcanic countries are to be met with
about Hecla, or other Iceland volcanoes; as the grey,
dark perforated kind, fimilar to the Derbyihire load-
flone ; the Iceland agate, pumex vitreus both the «/<*■«•
and virldis. Some have conjedlurtd this to be the lapis
obfideanus of the ancients, which they formed into
flames.
The lava is feldom found near the openings whence
the eruptions proceed, but rather loofe grit and afhes;
and indeed the greater part of the Icelandic mountains
confift of this matter ; which, when it is grown cold,
generally takes an arched form. The upper cruft
frequently grows hard and folid, whilft the melted mat¬
ter beneath it continues liquid. This forms great ca¬
vities, whofe walls, bed, and roof, are of lava, and where
great quantities of flaladtite lava are foui d. There are
a vaft number of thefe caves in the ifland, fome of which
are very large, and are made ufe of by the inhabitants
for flickering their cattle. The largefl in the ifland is
5034 feet long, and from 50 to 54 in breath, and be¬
tween 34 and 36 in height.—There are fome prodigi¬
ous clefts left by the eruptions, the largeft of which is
called Almeneggaa, near the water of Tingalla, in the
fouthweftern part of the ifland. It is 105 feet broad
and very long. The direftion of the chafm itfelf is
from north to foath. Its weftern wall, from which the
other has been perpendicularly divided, is 107 feet fix
inches in height, and confifts of many flrata, of about
10 inches each in height, of lava grown cold at different
times. The eaftern wall is only 45 feet four inches in
height, and that part of it which is diredtly oppoiite
to the higheft part of the other fide is no more than
36 feet 5 inches high.
HECTIC Fever. See (the/Wex fobjoined to)
Medicine.
HECTOR, the fon of Priam and Hecuba, and the
father ef Aftyanax, is celebrated for the valour with
which he defended the city of Troy againft the Greeks.
He was killed by Achilles, who dragged his body, fa¬
ttened to his chariot, thrice round the walls of Troy,
and afterwards reftored it to Priam for a large ran-
fom. See Troy.
HEDERA, Ivy, in botany : A genus of the mo-
nogynia ordor, belonging to the pentandria dafs of
plants ; and in the natural method giving name to the *
46th order, Hederacea. There are five oblong petals j
the berry is pentafpermous, girt by the calyx.
Specks. 1. The helix, or common ivy, grows na¬
turally in many parts of Britain ; and, where it metis
with any fupport, will rife to a great height, fending
out roots on every fide, which ftrike into the joints of
walls or the bark of trees. If there is no fupport, they
trail on the ground, and take root all their length, fo
that they clofelymover the furface, and are difficult to
eradicate-
H E D [ 376 ] H E D
and in autumn to be well manured with dung or lime, ally preferve the defencelefs willow from being browfed Hedgci.
or both (for it cannot be made too rich), and be neatly upon by cattle. —j
formed into a ridge before winter. “ As it will be neceffary to keep the narrow ridge,
“ Having prepared the ground in this manner, it upon which the hedge is planted, in culture for one
will be in readinefs to receive the hedge, which ought year at leaft, that the plants of eglantine may not be
to be planted as early in winter as can be got conve- choked by weeds, and that the roots of the willow
niently done ; as the willow is much hurt by being may be allowed to fpread with the greater eafe in the
planted late in the fpring. But before you begin to tender mold produced by this means, it will be proper
make a fence of this kind, it will be neceffary to pro- to ftir the earth once or twice by a gentle horfe-hoe in
vide a fufficient number of plants : which will be beft the beginning of fummer ; and, in the month of June,
done by previoufly rearing them in a nurfery of your it may be fowed with turnips, or planted with cole-
own, as near the field to be inclofed as you can conve- worts, which will abundantly repay the expence of
niently have it; for as they are very bulky, the car- the fallow.” I0
riage of them would be troublefome if they were The fame author alfo gives the following ufeful di- Of planting
brought from any confiderable diftance. The belt reftion# for planting hedges in fituations very much he<%es
kinds of willow for this ufe, are fuch as make the expofed to the weather, and recovering them when on
longeft and ftrongeil fhoots, and are not of a brittle the point of decaying. “ Thofe who live in an open and reco¬
nature. All the large kinds of hoop-willows may be uncultivated country, have many difficulties to encoun-vering
employed for this ufe ; but there is another kind with ter, which others who inhabit more warm and lhelter-‘hem when
ftronger and more taper Ihoots, covered with a dark ed regions never experience ; and, among thefe diffi-
green bark when young, which, upon the older fhoots, culties, may be reckoned that of hardly getting hedges pt
becomes of an alh-gray, of a firm texture, and a little to grow with facility. For, where a young hedge is
rough to the touch. The leaves are not fo long, and much expofed to violent and continued gufts of wind,
a great deal broader than thofe of the common hoop- no art will ever make it rife with fo much freedom, or
willow, pretty thick, and of a dark-green colour, grow with fuch luxuriance, as it would do in a more
What name this fpecies is ufually known by, I cannot fheltered fituation and favourable expofure.
tell; but as it becomes very quickly of a large lize at “ But although it is impoffible to rear hedges in
the root, and is flrong and firm, it ought to be made this fituation to fo much perfe&ion as in the others,
choice of for this purpofe in preference to all other yet they may be reared even there, with a little atten-
kinds that I have feen. The fhoots ought to be of tion and pains, fo as to become very fine fences,
two or three yeras growth before they can be properly “ It is advifable in all cafes, to plant the hedges
ufed, and fhould never be lefs than eight or nine feet in upon the face of a bank ; but it becomes abfolutely
length. Thefe ought to be cut over clofe by the neceffary in fuch an expofed fituation as that I have
ground immediately before planting, and carried to now defcribed : for the bank, by breaking the force of
the field at their whole length. The planter having the wind, fcreens the young hedge from the violence
flretched a line along tl\e middle of the ridge which of the blaft, and allows it to advance, for fome time at
was prepared for their reception, begins at one end firit, with much greater luxuriance than it otherwife
thereof, thrufling a row of thefe plants firmly into the could have done.
ground, clofe by the fide of the line, at the diftance of “ But as it may be expefted foon to grow as high
18 or 20 inches from one another; making them all as the bank, it behoves the provident huibandman to
flant a little to one fide in a direftion parallel to the prepare for that event, and guard, with a wife forecall,
line. This being finifhed, let him begin at the oppo- againft the inconvenience that may be expe&ed to
file end of the line, and plant another row in the inter- arife from that circumftance.
vals between the plants of the former row; making “ With this view, it will be proper for him, inftead
thefe incline as much as the others, but in a dire&ion of making a fingle ditch, and planting one hedge, to
exadUy contrary; and then, plaiting thefe balket-ways, raife a pretty high bank, with a ditch on each fide of
-work them into lozenges like a net, fattening the tops it, and a hedge on each face of the bank ; in which fi-
by plaiting the fmall twigs with one another, which tuation, the bank will equally Ihelter each of the two
with very little trouble may be made to bind together hedges while they are lower than it; and, when they
very firmly The whole, when finilhed, alfumes a at length become as high as the bank, the one hedge
very beautiful net-like appearance, and is even at firft will in a manner afford ftielter to the other, fo as to
a tolerable good defence : and, as thefe plants im- enable them to advance with much greater luxuriance
mediately take root and quickly increafe in fize, it than either of them would have done fingly.
becomes, after a few years, a very ftrong fence “ To effe&uate this ftill more perfedly, let a row
which nothing can penetrate. This kind of hedg* of fervicc-trees be planted along the top of the bank,
I myfelf have employed ; and find that a man may at the diftance of 18 inches from each other, with.a
plant and twift properly about a hundred yards in a plant of eglantine between-each two fervices. This
day, if the plants be laid down to his hand : and, in plant will advance, in fome degree, even in this expo-
a fituation fuch as I have defcribed, I know no kind fed fituation; and by its numerous ffioots, covered
of fence which could be reared at fuch a fmall expence, with large leaves, will effe&ually fcreen the hedge on
fo quickly become a defence, and continue fo long in each fide of it, which, in its turn, will receive fome
good order. But it will be greatly improved by put- fupport and ftielter from them ; fo that they will be
ting a plant of eglantine between each two plants of enabled to advance all together, and form, in time, a
willow, which will quickly climb up and be fupported clofe, ftrong, and beautiful fence,
by them ; and, by its numerous prickles would effe&u- “ The firvice is a tree but little known in Scotland;
N° 150. although
H E T> [3
'Hedges, although k is one of thofe that ought perhaps to be
often cultivated there in preference to any other tree
whatever, as it Is more hardy, and, in an expofed fitu-
ation, affords more flicker to other plants than almoft
any other tree I know : for it fends out a great many
ftrong branches from the under part of the ftem,
which, in time, affume an upright dire&ion, and con¬
tinue to advance with vigour, and carry many leaves to
tl^e very bottom, almoft: as lon£ as the tree cxifts; fo
that if it is not pruned, it rifes a large clofe bufli, till
it attains the height of a foreft tree.
“ It is of the fame genus with the rawn-tree—and
has a great refemblance to it both in flower and fruit;
its branches are more waving and pliant—its leaves un¬
divided, broad and round, fomewhat refembling the
elm, but white and mealy on the under fide. It de¬
serves to be better known than it is at prefent.
“ But if, from the poornefs of the foil in which
your hedge is planted, or from any other caufe, it
ihould fo happen, that, after a few years, the hedge
becomes fickly, and the plants turn poor and ftinted
in appearance, the eafieft and only effedtual remedy for
that difeafe, is to cut the ftems of the plants clean over,
at the height of an inch or two above the ground; af¬
ter which they will fend forth much ftronger fhoots
than they ever would have done without this operation.
And if the hedge be kept free of weeds, and trained
afterwards in the manner above defcribed, it will, in
almoft every cafe, be recovered, and rendered frefh and
vigorous.
“ This amputation ought to be performed in au¬
tumn, or the beginning of winter ; and in the fpring,
when the young buds begin to fhow themfelves, the
flumps ought to be examined with care, and all the
buds be rubbed off, excepting one or two of the ftrong-
eft and bed placed, which fhould be left for a ftem.
For if the numerous buds that fpring forth round the
Hem are allowed to fpring up undifturbed, they will
become in a few years as weak and ftinted as before ;
and the hedge will never afterwards be able to attain
any confiderable height, ftrength, or healthfulnefs.—
I have feen many hedges, that have been repeatedly
'cut over, totally ruined by this circumftance not having
been attended to in proper time.
“ If the ground for 16 or 20 feet on each fide of
the hedge be fallowed at the time that this operation
is performed, and get a thorough dreffing with rich
manures, and be kept in high order -for fome years
afterwards by good culture and meliorating crops, the
hedge will profper much better than if this had been
omitted, efpecially if it has been planted on the level
II ground, or on the bank of a ftiallow ditch.”
■3f the ' Mr Miller greatly recommends the black alder as
biatkalder, fijperiorto any other that can be employed in moift
foils. It -may either be propagated by layers or trun¬
cheons about three feet long. The beft time for plant¬
ing thefe laft is in February or the month of March.
They ought to be fharpened at their largeft end, and
the ground well loofened before they are thruft into
it, left the bark ftiould be torn off, which might occa-
fion their mifcarriage. They fhould be fet at leaft
twm feet deep, to prevent their being blown out
of the ground by violent winds after they have made
flrong fhoots; and they fhould be kept clear of tall
weeds until they have got good heads, after which
Voi. VIII. Pm I.
77 ] H E D
they will require no farther care. When raffed by Hedge*
laying down the branches, it ought to be done in the ‘“"-v*”1
month of October; and by that time twelvemonth
they will have roots fufficient for tranfplantation, which
mull be done by digging a hole and loofening ths
earth in the place where the plant is to ftand. The
youhg fets muft be planted at leaft a foot and an half
deep ; and their top fhould be cut off to within about
nine inches of the ground ; by which means they will
flioot out many branches. This tree may be trained
into very thick and clofe hedges, to the height of
20 feet and upwards. It will thrive exceedingly on
the fides of brooks ; for it grows beft when part of
its roots are in water ; and may, if planted there, as
is ufual for willows, be cut for poles every fifth or
fixth year. Its wood makes excellent pipes and ftaves;
for it will laft a long time underground or in water:
and it is likewife in great eftimation among plough-
wrights, turners, &c as well as for making feveral of
the utenfils neceffary for agriculture. Its bark alfo
dies a good black. ^
The birch is another tree recommended by Mr Mil- of the
ler as proper for hedges; and in places where the birch,
young plants can be eafily procured, he fays that the
plantation of an acre will not coft 40 fhillings, the af¬
ter expence will not exceed 20 fhillings : fo that the
whole will not come above three pounds. A fli-trees ought
never to be permitted in hedges, both becaufe they
injure the corn and grafs by their wide extended roots,
and likewife on account of the property their leaves
have of giving a rank tafte to butter made from the
milk of fuch cattle as feed upon the leaves. No afh-
trees are permitted to grow in the good dairy-coun,.
ties.
Where there are plenty of rough flat ftones, the Of hedges
fences which bound an eftate or farm are frequently raffed on
made with them. In Devonfhire and Cornwall it isj,he t0P
common to build as it were two walls with thefe ftones
laid upon one another; firft two and then one be¬
tween : as the walls rife they fill the intermediate fpace
with earth, beat the ftones in flat to the fides, which
makes them lie very firm, and fo proceed till the
whole is raifed to the intended height. Qujck hedges,
and even large timber trees, are planted upon thefe
walls, and thrive extremely well. Such inclofures are
reckoned the beft defence that can be had for the
ground and cattle; though it can fcarce be fuppofed
but they muft be difagreeable to the eye, and ftand in
need of frequent repairs by the ftones being forced
out of the way by cattle. The beft way to prevent
this is to build fuch wall in the bottom of a ditch
made wide enough on purpofe, and Hoped down on
each fide. Thus the deformity will be hid; and as
the cattle cannot ftand to face the wall fo as to attempt
to leap over it, the ftones of which it is compofed will
be lefs liable to be beaten down. The earth taken out
of the ditch may be fpread on the adjacent ground,
and its fides planted with fuch trees or underwood as
will beft fuit the foil. By leaving a fpace of feveral
feet on the infide for timber, a fupply of that valuable 14
commodity may be had without doing any injury to Method of
the more valuable pafture. conftruc-
The following is an excellent method of making a‘“1^" ^
durable and beautiful fence in graffy places. Dig fence in
pieces of turf four or five inches thick, the breadth ofgraffy
} A the4”’
H E D [ 378 ] H E D
Hedges, the fpade, and about a foot in length. Lay thefe turfs
even by a line on one fide, with the grafs outward, at
the diftance of ten or twelve inches within the mark at
which the ditch afterwards to be dug in the folid
ground is to begin. Then lay, in the fame manner,
but with their grafs fides turned out the contrary way,
another row of turf, at fuch a diftance as to make a
breadth of foundation proportioned to the intended
height of the bank. Thus, even though the ground
fhould prove defeftive, the bank would be prevented
from giving way. A ditch may then be dug of what
depth and breadth you pleafe ; or the ground may be
lowered with a flope on each fide ; and in this cafe
there will be no lofs pf pafture by the fence ; becaufe
it may be fowed with hay-feeds, and will bear grafs
on both fides. Part of the earth taken out of the
ditches or Hopes will fill the chafm between the rows
of turf, and the reft may be fcattered over the adjacent
ground. Three, four, or mcfre layers of turf, "may be
thus placed upon one another, and the interval be¬
tween them filled up as before till the bank is brought
to its defired height; only obferving to give each fide
of it a gentle flope for greater ftrength. The top of
this bank fhould be about two feet and a half wide,
and the whole of it filled up with earth except a fmall
hollow in the middle to retain fome rain. Quickfets
fhould then be planted along this top, and they will
foon form an admirable hedge. By this means a bank
four feet high, and a flope only two feet deep, will
make, befides the hedge, a fence fix feet high, through
which no cattle will be able to force their way : for
the roots of the grafs will bind the turf fo together,,
that in one year’s time it will become entirely folid ;
and it will yet be much ftronger when the roots of the
quick (hall have (hot out among it. The only pre¬
cautions nece(fary to be obferved in making this bank
are, x. Not to make it when the ground is too
dry; becaufe, if a great deal of wet (hould fuddenly
follow, it will fwell the earth fo much as perhaps to
endanger the falling of fome of the outfide; which,
however, is eafily remedied if it (hould happen.. 2. If
fhe flope be fuch as (heep can climb up, fecure the
young quicks, at the time of planting them, by a fmall
dead hedge, either on or near the top, on both fides.
If any of the quicks (hould die, which they will hard¬
ly be more apt to do in this than in any other fitua-
tion, unlefs perhaps in extremely dry feafons, they
may be renewed by fome of the methods already men¬
tioned.— Such fences will anfwer even for a park;, ef-
pecially if we place pofts and rails, about two feet high,
a little (loping over the fide of the bank, on or near its
top : no deer can creep through this, nor even be able
to jump over it. It is likewife one of the beft fences
for fecuring cattle ; and if the quicks on the bank be
kept clipped, it will form a kind of green wall pleafing
to the eye.
Elms re- In the firft volume of the Bath Papers we find elms
commend- recommended for fences; and the following method
of railing them for this purpofe is faid to be the beft.
When elm timber is felled in the fpring, fow the chips
made in trimming or hewing them green, on a piece
of ground newly ploughed, as you would corn, and
harrow them in. Every chip which lias an eye, or
bud-knot, or fome bark on it, will immediately (hoot
like the cuttings of potatoes j an^. the plants thus
raifed having no tap-roots, but (hooting their fib«s Hedge?,
horizontally in the richeft part of the foil, will be more v—-«*
vigorous, and may be more fafely and eafily tranfplant-
ed, than when raifed from feeds, or in any other me¬
thod. The plants thus raifed for elm fences have
greatly the advantage of others ; as five, fix, and fome-
times more, ftems will arife from the fame chip ; and
fuch plants, if cut down within three inches of the
ground, will multiply their fide (hoots in proportion,
and make a hedge thicker, without running to naked
wood, than by any other method yet pradtifed. If
kept clipped for three or four years, they will be al-
moft impenetrable. ,5
In the.fecond volume of the fame work, we meetObferva-
with feveral obfervations on quick-hedges by a gentle-tio.ns on
man near Bridgewater. He prefers the white and black S11^*
thorns to all other plants for this purpofe ; but is of ^
opinion, that planting timber-trees in them at proper
intervals is a very eligible and proper method. He
raifed fome of his plants from haws in a nurfery;
others he drew up in the woods, or wherever they
could be found. His banks were made flat, and three
feet wide at the top, with a (loping fide next the ditches,
which laft were dug only two feet below the furface,
and one foot wide at bottom. The turfs were regu¬
larly laid, with the grafs downwards, on that fide of
the ditch on which the hedge was to be raifed, and
the bell of the mould laid at top. The lets were
ftraight, long, fmooth, and even growing ones, plant¬
ed as foon as poffible after taking K>p. They were
planted at a foot diftance; and about every 40 feet
young fruit-trees or thofe of other kinds, fuch as afti,
oak, elm, beech, as the foil fuited them. A fecond
row of quickfets were then laid on another bed of frefli
earth at the fame time, and covered with good mould;,
after which the bank was finiftied and fecured properly
from injuries by a dead hedge well wrought together,
and fattened by (lakes of oak-trees on the top of the
bank at three feet diftance. Wherever any of the
quickfets had failed or were of a dwindling appearance,
he had them replaced with frefli ones from the nur¬
fery ; as well as fuch of the young trees as had been
planted on the top of the bank, and cleared the whole
from weeds. Thofe mod deftru&ive to young hedges
are the white and black bryony, bindweed, and the
traveller’s joy. The root of white bryony is as big as
a man’s leg, and runs very deep: that of black bryony
often grows to 30 feet long, and with a kind of ten¬
drils takes hold of the root of the young quick, and
chokes it. This root muft be dug very deep in order
to deftroy it. The third is ftill more deftru&ive to
young quicks than the other two, overftiadowfng the
hedge like an arbour. Its root is fmaller than that of
the two former, but muft be dug out very clean, as the )
lead piece left will fend up frefh (hoots. It is very
defttudlive to hedges to allow cattle to browze upon
them, which they are very apt to do;.but where cattle
of fome kind muft be allowed accefs to them, horfes
will do by far the lead mifehief. _
With regard to the advantage arifing from hedges,
out' author obferves, that “ if they were of no farther trees re-
ufe than as mere fences, it would be the farmer’s inte- commend*
reft to keep them up carefully; for the better they are,^'"
the more fecure are his cattle and crops. But if a ju¬
dicious mixture of cider fruit-trees were planted in
hedges,.
H E D t 379 1 H E D
^Hedges, hedges, the profit arifing from them only would abun- root, and grow up fo as to ftrengthen the hedge In A Hedges,
■“■“"v ■* dantly repay the coft of the whole without any lofs of moft effe&ual manner. ^
ground. It may pofiibly be objefted by fome, that “ The operator begins at one end of the field, and
the hedges would often be hurt by the boys climb- proceeds regularly forward, bending all the ftems irt
ing up to get the fruit: but thofe who make it one direftion, fo that the points rife above the roots of
ftould remember, or be told, that the bell kinds of the others, till the whole wattling is completed to the
cider-fruit are fo hard and auftere at the time of their fame height as the uprights.
being gathered, that nobody can eat them, and even “ An expert operator will perform this work with
hogs will hardly touch them.- But the greateft bene- much greater expedition than one who has not feen it
fit, where no fruit trees are planted, arifes from the done could eafily imagine. And as all the diagonal
‘ thorns and wood which quick hedges yield for the fire wattlings continue to live and fend out (hoots from
and other purpofes.” many parts of their ftems, and as the upright (hoots
The author of the Effays on Hu(bandry recommends that rife from the (tumps of thofe plants that have been
18
Method of
railing'
hornbeam
hedges in
Germany.
the hornbeam plant as one of the beft yet known for
making fences, according to the method pra&ifed in
Germany, where fuch fences are common. “ When
the German hufoandman (fays he) erefts a fence of
this nature, he throws up a parapet of earth, with a
ditch on each fide, and plants his hornbeam fets in
fuch a manner, that every two plants may be brought
to interfeft each other in the form of St Andrew’;
r quickly ruflr up through the whole hedge,
thefe ferve to unite the whole into one entire mafs,
that forms a ftrong, durable, and beautiful fence.
“ This is the beft method of recovering an old
negle&ed hedge that hath as yet come to my know¬
ledge.
“ In fome cafes it happens that the young (hoots of
a hedge are killed every winter; in which cafe it foon
crofs. In that partwherethe twoplants crofs each other, becomes dead and unfightly, and can never rife to any
he gently ferapes off the bark, and binds them with confiderable height. A remedy for this difeafe may
ftravv thwart-wife. Here the two plants confolidate -1--—f-—1 
in a kind of indiffoluble knot, and pu(h from thence
therefore be wifhed for.
“ Young hedges are obferved to be chiefly affefted
horizontal (lanting (hoots, which form a fort of living with this diforder ; and it is almoft always occafioned
*9
Dr Ander-
Sbn’s me¬
thod of
mending
decayed
hedges.
palifado or Chevaux de frtfe ; fo that fuch a protection
may be called a rural fortification. The hedges being
pruned annually, and with diferetion, wall in a few
years render the fence impenetrable in every part.
“ It fometimes happens (fays Dr Anderfon) that a
hedge may have been long negle&ed, and be in general
by an injudicious management of the hedge, by means
of which it has been forced to fend out too great a
number of (hoots in fummer, that are thus rendered fo
fmall and weakly as to be unable to refift the fevere
weather in winter.
“ It often happens that the owner of a young hedge.
in a healthy ftate, but full of gaps and openings, or fo with a view to render it very thick and clofe, cuts it
thin and draggling, as to form but a very imperfeft over with the (hears a few inches above the ground the
fort of fence. On thefe occafions, it is in vain to hope firft winter after planting; in confequence of which.
to fill up the gaps by planting young quicks; for thefe
would always be outgrown, choaked, and ftarved, by
many fmall (hoots fpring out from each of the ftems
that has been cut over:—Each of which, being after-
the old plants : nor could it be recovered by cutting wards cut over in the fame manner, fends forth a (till
clear over by the roots, as the gaps would dill con¬
tinue where they formerly were. The only methods
that I know of rendering this a fence are, either to
mend up the gaps with dead wood, or to plajh the
hedge ; which lad operation is always the moft eli¬
gible where the gaps are not too large to admit of be¬
ing cured by this means.
“ The operation I here call plq/bing, may be de-
-fined, *. a wattling made of living wood.” To form
this, fome ftems are firft fele&ed, to be left as (lakes at
proper diftances, the tops of which are all cut over at
the height of four feet from the root. The draggling
greater number of (hoots, which are fmaller and fmaller
in proportion to their number.
“ If the foil in which the hedge has been planted is
poor, in confequence of this management, the branches,
after a few years, become fo numerous, that the hedge
is unable to fend out any (hoots at all, and the utmoft
exertion of the vegetative powers enables it only to
put forth leaves. Thefe leaves are renewed in a iickly
ftate for fome years, and at laft ceafe to grow at all—
the branches become covered with fog, and the hedge
perifties entirely.
" But if the foil be very rich, notwithftanding this
fide-branches of the other part of the hedge are alfo great multiplication of the ftems, the roots will (till
lopped away. Several of the remaining plants are then have fufficient vigour to force out a great many fmall
-cut over, clofe by the ground, at convenient diftances; (hoots, which advance to a great length, but never at-
and the remaining plants are cut perhaps half through, tain a proportional thicknefs. And as the vigour of
fo as to permit them to be bent to one fide. They the hedge makes them continue to vegetate very late in
are then bent down almoft to a horizontal pofition, autumn, the frofts come on before the tops of thefe
and interwoven with the upright (lakes, fo as to retain dangling (hoots have attained any degree of woody
them in that pofition. Care ought to be taken, that c~ f“ r1 ’ ’ " • - ■
thefe be laid very low at thofe places where there were
firmnefs, fo that they are killed almoft entirely by it:
, - the whole hedge becomes covered with thefe long dead
formerly gaps; which ought to be farther ftrengthened (hoots, which are always difagreeable to look at, and
by fome dead (lakes or truncheons of willows, which
will frequently take root in this cafe, and continue to
Jive. And fometimes a plant of eglantine will be able
to overcome the difficulties it there meets with, ftrike
ufually indicate the approaching end of the hedge.
“ The caufes of the diforder being thus explained,
it will readily occur, that the only radical cure is am¬
putation ; which, by giving an opportunity to begin
3 A 2 with
H E D f 380 1 H E D
Hedge*.
!10
ILord
Karnes’s
cbferva-
tions.
fence for a
jgeer-park.
with training the hedge anew, gives alfo an oppor-
m tunity of avoiding the errors that occafioned it. In
this cafe, care ought to be taken to cut the plants as
clofe to the ground as poffible, as there the ftemj will
be lefs numerous than at any greater height. And
particular attention ought to be had to allow very few
Ihoots to arife from the ftems that have been cut over,
and to guard carefully againft fhortening them.
“ But as the roots, in the cafe here fuppofed, will
be very ftrong, the (hoots that are allowed to fpring
from the ftems will be very vigorous, and there will be
fome danger of their continuing to grow later in the
feafon than they ought in fafety to do; in which cafe,
fome part of the top of the {hoot may perhaps be kill¬
ed the firft winter, which ought if poffible to be pre¬
vented. This can only be effe&ually done by giving
a check to the vegetation in autumn, fo as to allow the
young (hoots to harden in the points before the winter
approaches. If any of the leaves or branches r ~ a tree
are cut away while it is in the (late of vegetation, the
whole plant feels the lofs, and it fuffers a temporary
check in its growth in proportion to the lofs that it
thus fuftains. To check, therefore, the vigorous vege¬
tation at the end of autumn, it will be prudent to
choofe the beginning of September for the time of
lopping off all the fupernumerary branches from the
young hedge, and for clipping off the fide-branches
that have fprung out from it; which will, in general,
be fufficient to give it fuch a check in its growth at
that feafon, as will prevent any of the (hoots from ad¬
vancing afterwards. If the hedge is extremely vigo¬
rous, a few buds may be allowed to grow upon the
large (lumps in the fpring, with a view to be cut off at
this feafon, which will tend to ftop the vegetation of
the hedge dill more effeftually.
“ By this mode of management, the hedge may be
preferved entire through the firft.winter. And as the
.Ihoots become lefs vigorous every fucceffive feafon,
there will be lefs difficulty in preferving them at any
future period. It will always be proper, however, to
trim the fides of a very vigorous hedge for fome years
while it is young, about the famCj feafon of the year,
which will tend powerfully to prevent this malady.
But when the hedge has advanced to any confiderable
height, it will be equally proper to clip it during any
of the winter-months, before Candlemas.”
Lord Karnes, in his work intitled the Gentleman
Farmer, gives feveral direftions for the railing and
mending of hedges confiderably different from thofe
above related. For a deer-park he recommends a wall
^of (lone coped with turf, having laburnums planted
clofe to it. The heads of the plants are to be lopped
off, in order to make the branches extend laterally, and
interweave in the form of a hedge. The wall will pre¬
vent the deer from breaking through ; and if the hedge
be trained eight feet high, they will not attempt to
leap over. He prefers the laburnum plant, becaufe
no bead will feed upon it except a hare, and that only
when young and the buffi tender. Therefore, no ex¬
traordinary care is neceffary except to preferve them
from the hare for four or five years. A row of alders
may be planted in front of the laburnums, which no
hare nor any other bead will touch. The wall he re¬
commends to be built in the following manner, as be¬
ing both cheaper and more durable than one conftruc-
ted entirely of done. Raife it of done to the height Hedgesi
of two feet and a half from the ground, after which it
is to be coped with fod as follows. Firft, lay on the
wall, with the graffy fide under, fod cut with the fpade
four or five inches deep, and of a length equal to the
thicknefs of the wall. Next, cover this fod with loofe
earth rounded like a ridge. Third, prepare thin fod,
caft with the paring fpade, fo long as to extend, be-
yoad the thicknefs of the wall, two inches on each fide.
With thefe cover the loofe earth, keeping the graffy^
fide above ; place them fo much on the edge, that
each fod (hall cover part of another, leaving only about
two inches without cover : when 20 or $0 yards are
thus finiffied, let the fod be beat with mallets by two
men, one on each fide of the wall, ftriking both at tht
fame time. By this operation the fod becomes a com-
padl body that keeps in the moifture, and encourages
the grafs to grow. Laftly, cut off the ragged ends of
the fod'on each fide, of the wall, to make the covering
neat and regular. The month of Odlober is the pro¬
per feafon for this operation, becaufe the fun and
wind, during fummer, dry the fod, and hinder the
grafs from vegetating. Moift foil affords the heft fod.
Wet foil is commonly too fat for binding; and, at
any rate, the watery plants it produces will not thrive
in a dry (ituation. Dry foil, on the other hand, be¬
ing commonly ill bound with roots, (hakes to pieces in
handling. The ordinary way of coping with fod,
which is to lay them flat and fingle, looks as if intend¬
ed to dry the fod and kill the grafs ; not to mention
that the fod is liable to be blown off the wall by every
high wind.
Where the wall itfelf is to be ufed as a fence without Of a wait"
any hedge, a ditch is to be made on each fide, begin¬
ning a foot from the root of the wall, and (loping out¬
ward to the depth of three feet, or at leaft two and an hedge,
half. The ditch (hould be equally (loped on the other
fide, fo as to be four feet wide. A rood of this
fence, including every article, may be done for three
(hillings or thereabouts ; and a field of 10 acres thus
inclofed, for about 301. which by a (tone wall would,
coft upwards of 50 1. It will alfo (land many years
without any need of reparation ; while (lone walls re¬
quire no lefs than per cent, of the original coft ex¬
pended annually to keep them up. 33
The advantages of a thorn hedge, according to our Advan-
author, are, that it is a very quick grower, whea“^°^a
planted in a proper foil; (hooting up fix or feven feet.j^g^
in a feafon. Though tender, and apt to be hurt by
weeds when young, it turns ftrong, and may be cut
into any ffiape. Even when old, it is more difpofed
than other trees to lateral (hoots; and laftly, its prickles
make it the mod proper of all for a fence. None of
thefe thorns ought to be planted in a hedge till five
years of age, and it is of the utmoft importance that
they be properly trained in the nurfery. The beft.
foil for a nurfery, his Lordffiip obferves, is between
rich and poor. In the latter the plants are dwarfiffi
in the former, being luxuriant and tender, they are.
apt to be hurt during the feverity of the weather ; and.
thefe imperfections are incapable of any-remedy. Am
effential requifite in a nurfery is free- ventilation. 24
“ How common (fays his Lordffiip) is it to find nur-Of a pro
feries in hollow ffieltered places, furrounded with wa^s ^,errr”|5jfl^r^
pnd high plantations, more fit for pine-apples than [heoUnu.
barren.
fence witfew
H E D [ 3*1 1 H E D
barren trees ! The plants thruft out long {hoots, but ftratum be, as the plants draw no nourifhment from Hedged
feeble and tender: when expofed in a cold fituation, it. Go on to finilh the ditch, preffing down care- ■* * 1
they decay, and fometimes die. But there is a reafon fully every row of earth thrown up behind the
for every thing: the nurferyman’s view is to make hedge, which makes a good folid mound impervious
profit by faving ground, and by impofing on the pur- to rain. It is a fafeguard to the young hedge to
chafer tall plants, for which he pretends to demand raife this mound as perpendicular as poflible ; and for
double price. It is fo difficult to purchafe yvholefome that reafon, it may be proper, in loofe foil, when the
and well nurfed plants, that every gentleman farmer mound is raifed a foot or fo, to bind it with a row of
ought to raife plants for himfelf. the tough fod, which will fupport the earth above till
 b “ As thorns will grow pleafantly from roots, I it become folid by lying. In poor foil more care is
them from bave long pra&ifed a frugal and expeditious method of neceffary. Behind the line of the ditch the ground in-
*i" *' railing them from the wounded roots that muft be cut tended for the fcarfement and border ffiould be fum-
off when thorns are to be fet in a hedge. Thefe roots, mer fallowed, manured, and cleared of all grafs roots ;
cut into fmall parts, and put in a bed of freffi earth, and this culture will make up for the inferiority of the
will produce plants the next fpring no lefs vigorous foil. In very poor foil, it is vain to think of planting
Hedges.
«f raifing
of old
hedge?
than what are produced from feed ; and thus a perpe¬
tual fucceffion of plants may be obtained without any
more feed. It ought to be a rule, never to admit into
a hedge plants under five years old : they deferve all
the additional fum that can be demanded for them.
Young and feeble plants in a hedge are of flow growth;
and, befides the lofs of time, the paling neceffary to
fecure them from cattle muff be renewed more than
once before they become a fence. A thorn hedge
may be planted in every month of -winter and fpring
Unlefs it be froft. But I have always obferved, that
thorns planted in O&ober are more healthy, puffi more
vigoroufly, and fewer decay, than at any other time.
a thorn hedge. In fuch ground there is a neceffity
for a ftone fence.
“ The only reafon that can be given for laying
thorns as above deferibed, is to,give the roots fpace to
pufh in all directions ; even upward’into the mound of
earth. There may be fome advantages in this; but*
in my apprehenfion, the difadvantage is much greater
of heaping fo much earth upon the roots as to exclude
not only the fun, but the rain which runs down the
Hoping bank, and has no accefs to the roots. In-
ftead of laying the thorns fronting the ditch, would it
not do better to lay them parallel to it ; covering the
roots with three or four inches of the beft earth, which
In preparing the thorns for planting, the roots ought would make a hollow between the plants and the flo-
tr> Kp I..fV po ns nnffihle. and nothincr cut awav T)in£? bank ? This hnllnw would int-pi-oprir pvprrr tl.t-i-i
26
Proper m
thod of
planring.
to be left as entire as poffible, and nothing cut away
but the ragged parts.
ping bank ? This hollow would intercept every drojl
of rain that falls on the bank, to fink gradually among
“ As a thorn hedge fuffers greatly by weeds, the the roots. Why at any rate flrould a thorn be put in-
ound where they are planted ought to be made per- to the ground floping ? This is not the pra&ice with.
ground
feftly clean,
leave eight
ditch, termed a fcarfement
, . „ _ ground floping ? This is not the praftice with.
The common method of planting, is to regard to any other tree; and I have heard of no experi-
nine inches along a fide of the intended ment to perfuade me that a thorn thrives better floping
and behind the fcarfement than ere<ff. There occurs, indeed, one objeftion againii
to lay the furface foil of the intended ditch, cut into plantiag thorns eredt, that the roots have no room to
fquare fods two or three inches deep, its graffy furface extend themfelves on that fide where the ditch is. But
under. Upon that fod, whether clean or dirty, the does it not hold, that when, in their progrefs, roota
thorns are laid, and the earth of the ditch above them.
The grafs in the fcarfement, with what weeds are in
the moved earth, foon grow up, and require double di¬
ligence to prevent the young thorns from being cho¬
ked. The following method deferves all the addition¬
al trouble it requires. Leaving a fcarfement as above that thorns planted ereft may foener be made a com-
meet with a ditch, they do not puflr onward; but*,
changing their direction, puffi downward at the fide of
the ditch ? If fo, thefe downward roots will fupport-
the ditch, and prevent it from being mouldered down,
by froft. One thing is evident without experiment.
of 10 inches, and alfo a border for the thorns, broad
or narrow according to their fize ; lay behind the
border all the furface of the intended ditch, champed
plete fence than when laid floping as ufual. In the.
latter cafe, the operator is confined to thorns that do -
not exceed a foot or 15 . inches ; but thorns five or fix .
fmall with the fpade, and upon it lay the mouldery feet high may he planted ered ; and a hedge of fuch.
thorns, well cultivated in the nurfery, will in three,
years arrive to greater perfe&ion than, a hedge mana¬
ged in the ordinary way will do in twice that time.”
After the hedge is finiffied, it is abfolutely neceffary7 . .
to fecure it for fome time from the depredations ofheXT®
cattle ; and this is by no means an eafy matter. “ The after it V
ordinary method of a paling, (fays his Ibrdffiip) is noPlanted»
earth that fell from the fpade in cutting the faid fur-
face. Cover the fcarfement and border with the under
earth, three inches thick at lead ; laying a little more
on the border to raife it higher than the fcarfement, in
order to give room for weeding. After the thorns are
prepared by fmoothing their ragged roots with a
knife, and lopping off their heads to make them grow , o v ^  _ ^
huffiy, they are laid fronting the ditch, with their roots fufficient defence againft cattle : the moft gentle make
on the border, the head a little higher than the root., it a rubbing poft, and the vicious wantonly break it
Care muft be taken to fpread the roots among the fur- down with their horns. The only effeflual remedy is
face-earth taken out of the ditch, and to cover them exptnfive; Wz. two ditches and two hedges, with a
with the mouldery earth that lay immediately below, mound of earth between them. If this remedy, how-
This article is of importance, becaufe the mouldery ever, be not palatable, the paling ought at lea ft to be.
earth, is the fineft of all. Cover the ftems of the thorns of the ftrongeft kind. I recommend the following as
with the next ftratum of the ditch, leaving always an the beft I am acquainted with: Drive into the grounds
lack at the top free. It ia no matter how poor this ftrong flakes three feet and. an half long, with, intervals-
fionv.
H It D [ 382 ] H E D
Hedges, from eight to twelve inches, according to the fize of
.fc*—the cattle that are to be inclofed ; and all precifely of
the fame height. Prepare plates of wood fawed out
of logs, every plate three inches broad arid half an
inch thick. Fix them on the head of the flakes with
a nail driven down into each. The flakes will be
united fo firmly, that one cannot be moved without
the whole ; and will be proof accordingly againft the
rubbing of cattle. But, after all, it is no fence againft
vicious cattle. The only proper place for it is the fide
of a high road, or to fence a plantation of trees. It
will indeed be a fufficient fence againft flieep, and en¬
dure till the hedge itfelf becomes a fence. A fence
thus completed, including thorns, ditching, wood,
nails, &c. will not much exceed two (hillings every
. fix yards.”
©f training His lordfhip difcommends the ordinary method of
up hedges/ training hedges by cutting off the top and fhortening
the lateral branches in order to make it thick and
bufliy. This, as well as the method of cutting off the
items two or three inches above the ground, indeed
produces a great number of (hoots, and makes a very
thick fence, but which becomes fo weak when bare of
leaves, that cattle break through it in every part. To
determine the bed method of proceeding in this cafe,
his lordfhip made an experiment on three hedges,
which were twelve years old at the time he wrote.
The firft was annually pruned at the top and fides; the
fides of the fecond were pruned, but not the top; and
the third was allowed to grow without any pruning.
The firft, at the time of writing, was about four feet
broad, and thick from top to bottom; but weak in
the ftems, and unable to refill any horned bead : the
fecond was ftrong in its ftems, and clofe from top to
bottom: the third was alfo ftrong in its ftems, but
bare of branches for two feet from the ground ; the
lower ones having been deprived of air and rain by the
thick (hade of thofe above them. Hence he directs
that hedges (hould be allowed to grow till the ftems
be five or fix inches in circumference, which will be
in ten or twelve years; at which time the hedge will
be fifteen feet or more in height. The lateral branches
next the ground muft be pruned within two feet of the
Item; thofe above muft be made (horter and (horter in
proportion to their diftance from the ground; and at
five feet high they muft be cut clofe to the ftem, lea¬
ving all above full freedom of growth. By this
dreffing the hedge takes on the appearance of a very
deep roof; and it' ought to be kept in that form by
pruning. This form gives free accefs to rain, fun,
and air: every twig has its (hare, and the whole is
preferved in vigour. When the ftems have arrived at
their proper bulk, cut them over at five feet from the
ground, where the lateral branches end. This anfwers
two excellent purpofes: the firft is to ftrengthen the
hedge, the fap that formerly afeended to the top being
now diftributed to the branches ; the next is, that a
tall hedge ((agnates the air, and poifons both corn and
grafs near it. A hedge trained in this manner is im-
penetrable even by a bull.
Plalhing of With regard to the praftice of plajhing an old hedge
hedges dif- recommended by Dr Anderfon, his lordflrip obferves
commend- t}lat « ;t makesagood interim fence, but at the long-
run is deftruftive to the plants; and accordingly there
is fcarcely to be met with a complete good hedge
where plaftiing has been long pradlifed. A thorn is a Hedges,
tree of long life. If, inftead of being maffacred by
plaftiing, it were raifed and dreffed in the way here
deferibed, it would continue a firm hedge perhaps 500
years.
“ A hedge ought never to be planted on the top of Hedges
the mound of earth thrown up from the ditch. It ought to be
has indeed the advantage of an awful fituation ; but Vented °n
being planted in bad foil, and deftitute of moifture, it^ebank^
cannot thrive; it is at bed dwarfilh, and frequently and no ’
decays and dies. To plant trees in the line of the trees allow-
hedge, or within a few feet of it, ought to be abfo-ed*n them,
lutely prohibited as a pernicious pradlice. It is ama¬
zing that people (hould fall into this error, when they
ought to know that there never was a good thorn-
hedge with trees in it. And how (hould it be other-
wife ? An oak, a beech, an elm, grows fafter than a
thorn. When fuffered to grow in the midft of a thorn-
hedge, it fpreads its roots every where, and robs the
thorns of their nourifnment. Nor is this all: the tree,
overftiadowing the thorns, keeps the fun and air from
them. At the fame time, no tree takes worfe with
being overflradowed than a thorn.
“ It is fcarce neceffary to mention gaps in a hedge, of g]*n„
becaufe' they will feldom happen where a hedge is Up gaps/
trained as above recommended. But in the ordinary
method of training, gaps are frequent, partly by the
failure of plants, and partly by the trefpaffing of
cattle. The ordinary method of filling up gaps is to
plant fweet briar where the gap is fmall, and a crab
where it is large. This method I cannot approve for
an obvious reafon : a hedge ought never to be com-
pofed of plants which grow unequally. Thofe that
grow fall, overtop and hurt the flow growers; and with
refpeft, in particular, to a crab and fweet briar, nei¬
ther of them thrive under the (hade. It is a better
method to remove all the withered earth in the gap,
and to fubftitute frelh fappy mould mixed with fome
lime or dung. Plant upon it a vigorous thorn of equal
height with the hedge, which in its growth will equal
the thorns it is mixed with. In that view there (hould
be a nurfery of thorns of all fizes, even to five feet
high, ready to fill up gaps. The heft feafon for this
operation is the month of October. A gap filled with
fweet briar, or a crab lower than the hedge, invites
the cattle to break through and trample the young
plants under foot; to prevent which, a paling raifed
on both fides is not fufficient, unlefs it be raifed as high
as the hedge.
“ Where a field is too poor to admit of a thorn- in
hedge, if there be no quantity of Hones eafily procu- cafes whin*
rable, whins are the only refource. Thefe are com-arc nec<d*
monly placed on the top of a dry earth-dyke, in which fary*
fituation they feldom thrive well. The following
feems preferable. Two parallel ditches three feet
wide and two deep, border a (pace of twelve feet.
Within this fpace raife a bank at the fide of each ditch
with the earth that comes out of it, leaving an inter¬
val between the two banks. Sow the banks with whin
feed, and plant a row of trees in the interval. When
the whins are pretty well grown, the hedge on one of
the banks may be cut down, then the other as foon as
it becomes a fence, and fo on alternately. While the
whins are young, they will not be difturbed by cattle,
if paffages be left to go out and in. Thefe paffages
3 “a7
Hedges.
j{finals of
Agriculture,
lb. p. 494.
Of hedges
in ftony
and gravel¬
ly foils.
H E D f 3*3 1 H E D
may be clofed up when the hedge is fufficiently birch, however, he particularly recommends, as grow- Hedges^
ftrong to be a fence. A whin-hedge, thus mana- ing equally on the drieft and on the wetteft foils, ~—
ged, will laft many years, even in ftrong froft, un- propagating itfelf in fuch numbers, that were they
lefs very fevere. There are many whin-hedges in the not deilroyed, all the fandy waftes of this king-
fhire of Kincardine not fo fkilfully managed, and dom would be quickly covered with them. He re-
yet the pofleffors appear not to be afraid of froft. commends particularly the keeping of a nurfery for 35
Such fences ought to be extremely welcome in the fuch plants as are commonly ufed for hedges. “ I gene-Of a proper
fandy grounds of the {hire of Moray, where there is rally (fays he) pick out a bit of barren land, and af-nur^ery*
fcarce a ftone to be found. The few earth-fences that ter ploughing it three or four times to bury and de-
are there raifed, compofed moftly of fand, very foon ftroy the heath, I find it anfwer extremely well for a
crumble down.” nurfery. Into this fpot I tranfplant quick, hollies, and
In the fourth volume of MrYoung’s NorthernTour, every tree which I ufed for fences or plantations. By
the author recommends the tranfplantingof old hedges, eftabliftiing fuch a nurfery, a gentleman will always be
which his correfpondent Mr Beverly fays he has tried able to command a fufficiency of ftrong and hardy
with prodigious fuccefs. plants which will not deceive his expeftations. 1 look.
Mr Bakewell, we are told, is very1-curious in his fences, upon thorns of five or fix years old, which have been
and plants his quicks in a different manner from what is twice tranfplanted from the feed-bed, to be the be ft
common in various parts of the kingdom. He plants of all; but as it may be neceffary to fill up cafual gaps
one row at a foot from fet to fet, and making his ditch, in hedges that have been planted feveral years, a pro-
lays the earth which comes out of it te> form a bank on vifion (hould be made of plants of every age, to 12 or
the fide oppofite to the quick. In the common me- 14 years old. All plants which are intended to be
thod the bank is made on the quick fide above it. moved, {hould be tranfplanted every two or at molt
Reafons are not wanting to induce a preference of this three years ; without' this attention, they attach them-
method. The plants grow only in the furface the felves fo firmly to the foil as renders a fubfequent ope-
Carth uncovered from the atmofphere, which muft ne- ration dangerous. All who tranfplant quicks or hol-
ceffarily be a great advantage ; whereas, in the ufual lies ought to begin their labours as early as convenient
way of planting, that earth, which is always the beft, in the autumn ; for I have found by repeated expe¬
ls loaded by a thick covering obliquely of the earth rience that neither of thefe plants fucceed fo well in the
out of the ditch. If the roots {hoot in the beft foil, fpring.”
they will be out of the reach of the influences of the Where the fences of a track of ground are in a very Of repair*
air; the confequence of which is, that they cannot ruinous condition, it is abfolutely neceffary to fcower in8 ruinouSf
have fo large a fpace of that earth as if fet on the flat, the ditches, throw up the banks, and fecure the whole hedge3*
The way to have a tree or a quick thrive in the beft immediately by the firmeft dead fences we can procure,
manner poffible, is to fet it on the furface, without If there is a total want of living plants, the cultivator
any ditch or trench, that cuts off half its pafture. But can do nothing but plant new hedges; but if, as is
if a ditch is neceffary, the next beft way muft of courfe generally the cafe, the banks are furniftied with a mul-
be ftill to keep it on the flat furface; and the worft titude of old ftems, though totally unconnected as a
way to cover up that furface,- by loading it with the fence, the time and labour requilite for the intended
dead earth out of a trench. To fay that there are improvement will be confiderably abridged. All the
good hedges in the common method is not a conclu- ftraggling branches which add no folidity to the fence
five argument, unlefs both were tried on the fame foil are to be cut off; after which the reft of the ftems
and expofure. muft be ftiortened to the height of three or four feet.
In the 7th volume of the fame work, a correfpon- The method of cutting down every thing to the
dent, who figns himfelf M. M. obferves, that notwith- ground, which is now fo general, our author highly
{landing all the improvements that have been made condemns. “ Such a fence (fays he) has within it
in the conftruClion of hedges and fences, there are no principle of ftrength and connexion ; it is equally
many foils in England, which, from their fandy and expofed in every part to depredations of cattle and
gravelly natures, are little adapted to any of the plants fportfmen ; and even {hould it efcape thefe, the firft
in common ufe, and are therefore fubjeCl to all the fall of fnow will nearly demolifti it.. On the contrary,
inconveniences of dead hedges and gaps. Of this wherever thefe vegetable palifades can be left, they
kind are all the fandy and gravelly inclofures, which are impenetrable either for man or horfe, and form fo
conftitute fo large a part of many diftn'Cls in the many points of union which fupport the reft.”
ifland. For thefe our author recommends a. triple Another method of ftrengthening defective fences, is
row of furze ; though, notwithftanding its advantages, to bend down fome of the lateral {hoots in a horizon-
he fays it is liable to be deftroyed by fevere winters, tal diredtion, and to fpread them along the line of the
contrary to the affertion of Lord Karnes above-related, farm like efpalier trees in a garden. A fingle ftem,
“ It is liable (fays he) to be fo completely cut off by when it rifes perpendicularly, will not fecure a fpace
a fevere winter, that I have feen tracks of many hun- of more than two or three feet, but when bent longi-
dred acres laid open in the fpace of a few weeks, and re- tudinally, they will form a barrier at leaft fufficient to
duced to as defencelefs a ftate as the furrounding waftes. repel all cattle but hogs for 12 or 14 feet on each
On fuch foils therefore he recommends the holly; the fide. By bending down, our author does not mean Plarimig of:
only difad vantage of which, he fays, is its flow growth, the common plajhing method, which is very injurious heJ«e8 dlf-
On moft of thefe foils alfo the black thorn will rife to the plants; but the fpreading two or three of the c"mraelld'
fpontaneoufly; and even the quick, though flowly, will moft convenient branches along the hedge, and fallen-ed*
advance to a fufficient degree of perfeftion. The ing them down either by pegs or tying, without in-
HE©
[ 3*4 1
H E B
fv-1sres.
s*
•Of thicken¬
ing hedges
•by laying
idewn the
jroung
JRiffots.
proper.
jury to the ftem, until they habitually take the pro-
■ pofed dire&ion, Thofe who make the experiment
for the firft time will be aftonifiied how fmall a num¬
ber of plants may be made to fill a bank, with only
trifling intervals. The birch is particularly ufeful for
this purpofe ; being of fo flexible a nature, that fhoots
of to or 12 feet in length may be eafily forced into
a horizontal dire&ion ; and if the other fhoots are
pruned away, all the juices of the plant will be ap¬
plied to nourifh the fele&ed few: by. which means
they will in a few years acquire all the advantages of
pods and rails, with this material difference, that in-
llead of decaying, they become annually better. It k ’
befides the property of all inclined branches to fend up
a multitude of perpendicular fhoots; fo that by this
horizontal inclination, if judicioufly made, you may
acquire almod all the advantages of the thickeft fence;
but when the ftems are too old and brittle to bear this
operation, it will be advifable to cut off all the ufelefs
ones clofe to the ground, and next fpring they will
i>e fucceeded by a number of young and vigorous ones.
Seleft the befl of thefe to be trained in the manner
•^Veady directed, and extirpate all the reft, to increafe
their vigour. The fhoots of fuch old ftems as have
been jult now-4efcribed will attain a greater fize in
three or four years than. any young ones that can be
planted will do in twelve.
Another method which our author has pra&ifed
with the greateft: fuccefs is the following. The ten¬
der fhoots of moft trees, if bended downwards and co¬
vered with earth, will put forth roots, and being di¬
vided from the parent ftem at a proper time become
frefh plants ; an operation well known to gardeners,
under the name of laying. This may be as advan¬
tageous to the farmer, if he will take the very mode¬
rate trouble of laying down the young and flexible
branches in his fences. Moft fpecies of trees, proba¬
bly all, will be propagated by this method; but par¬
ticularly the withy, the birch, the holly, the white
thorn, and the crab, will alfo take root in this method,
though more flowly ; the latter being an excellent
plant for fences, and not at all nice in the foil on
which it grows. The advantage of laying down
branches in this manner over the planting of young
ones is, that when you endeavour to fill up a gap by
the latter method, they advance very flowly, and are
in danger of being ftifled by the fhade of the large
trees ; whereas, if you fortify a gap by fpreading the
branches along it in the manner juft mentioned, and
«t the fame time infert fome of the moft thriving fhoots
in the ground, they will advance with all the vigour
of the parent plant, and you may allow them to grow
until they are fo fully rooted as to be free from danger
of fuffocation.
It frequently happens, that the fences of an eftate
have been negle&ed for many years, and exhibit no¬
thing but ragged and deformed ftems at great inter¬
vals. In this cafe it will be proper to cut them all off
level with the ground: the confequence of this is, that
next year they will put forth a great number of fhoots,
which may be laid down in every dire&ion, and trained
for the improvement of the fence. When this ope¬
ration is performed, however, it ought always to be
done with an ax, and not with a faw ; it being found
that the latter ioflrument generally prevents the vege-
&To i jp.
tation of the plant. All the fhoots laid down in this Hefy**.
manner fhould be allowed to remain for feveral years, —-v'**J
that they may be firmly rooted. Thus they will make
prodigious advances; and it is to be obferved, that the
more the parent plant is divefted of all luperfluous
branches, the greater will be the nourifhment tranfmit-
ted to the fcions.
Our author, however, is inclined to fufpeA that
the moft perfeft form of an hedge, at lead in all but
thofe compofed of thorns and prickly plants, is to
train u£> as many ftems as will nearly touch each other.
The force of every fence confifts chiefly in the up¬
right ftems i where thefe are fufficiently near and
ftrong, the hedge refills all oppofition, and'vvill equally
repel the violence of the bull, and the infidious at¬
tacks of the hogs. It is absolutely proper that all
hedges fhould be infpeded once a-year; when not
only the ditch ought to be thrown out, and the bank
fupported, but the draggling fhoots of all the live
plants ought to be pruned. By thefe are meant all
fuch as projed over the ditch beyond the line of the
hedge, and which add nothing to its ftrength, though
they deprive the ufeful ftems of part of their nourifh¬
ment. Where an hedge is compofed of plants of in¬
ferior value, it will be proper to train thofe in the
manner juft now recommended, and to plant the bank
with quick or holly. When thefe laft have attained
a fufficient fize, the others may be extirpated ; which
is heft done by cutting down all the fhoots repeated¬
ly in the fummer, and leaving the roots to rot in the
hedge. 40
In the 13th volume of the Annals, W. Erfliine, Efq; Mr Er-
gives an account of a method of fencing very much re- flue’s
fembling that recommended by Lord Karnes, and which ^onftruc-
has been already defcribed. That gentleman is oftinghedgaii
opinion, that in fome cafes deadJlone walls, as they are
called, are more advantageous than hedges. “ That
hedges (faya he) are more ornamental, cannot be de¬
nied ; and they are generally allowed to afford more
fhelter: but the length of time, the conftant atten¬
tion, and continual expence of defending them until
they bear even the refemblance of a fence, induces
many people in thofe places where the materials are
eafily procured, to prefer the dry ftone walls; for though
the firft coft is confiderable, yet as the farmer reaps
the immediate benefit of the fence (which is undoubt¬
edly the moft fecure one), they are thought on the
whole to be the leaft expenfive ; befides, the cattle in
expofed fituations, and efpecially in thefe northern
parts, are fo impatient of confinement at the com¬
mencement of the long,. cold, wet nights, that no
hedges I have ever yet feen, in any part of this ifland,
are fufficient to keep them in.”
From confiderations of this kind, the late Sir George
Suttie of Eaft Lothian was induced to think of a fence
which might join the ftrength of the wall to the or¬
nament of the hedge. His thorns were planted in the
ufual manner on the fide of the ditch : but inftead of
putting behind them a poll and rail or paling on the
top of the bank, he ere&ed a wall two feet and a
half high; and being well fituated for procuring lime,
he ufed it in the conftru&ion of thefe walls which Mr
Erikine greatly recommends; “ as the fatisfa&ion they
afford, by requiring no repairs, and the duration of
them, more than repay the expenoe: but where the
price
H E D [ 385 ] H E D
price of lime is high they may be built without any wall as quickly in that feafon as poffible (the fpring in Hedge*,
cement, and anfwer the purpofe very well if the work this country can fcarcely be faid to begin till the end **"—\r—
is properly executed.” of March). It is almoft impoffible to imagine the ra¬
in making a new fence of this kind, the furface of pidity with which hedges grow in favourable fituations.
the ground ihould be pared off the breadth of the Mr Erikine had one cut over in the fpring, and by the
ditch, and likewife for two feet more, in order to pre- end of the year it was almoit as high as the wall. In
vent as much as poflible the thorns from being injured three years he fuppofed, that, not even the Highland
by the growth of grafs and weeds. The ditch ihould fheep, who eafily overleap a wall of four feet and
be five feet broad, two and an half in depth, and one an half in height, would have been able to break
foot broad at the bottom. Leave one foot for an through it. 4,
edging or fcarcement, then dig the earth one fpit of Notwithfianding. the reafons that have been given Reafons for
a fpade for about one foot, and put about three inches already againft the planting of timber trees in hedges, P1;ulting
of good earth below the thorn, which fhould be laid we find the praftice recommended by fome authors asj^j t™€sia
nearly horizontal, but the point rather inclining up- one of the bed fituations for raifing (hip-timber. The 8
wards, in order to let the rain drip to the roots; then reafons are, that the roots have free range in the ad-
add a foot of good earth above it: leave three or four joining inclofures, and the top is expofed to the ex¬
inches of a fcarcement before another thorn is planted; ercife of the winds ; by which means the trees are at
It muft not be dire&ly over the lower one, but about once enabled to throw out ilrong arms, and have a
mine inches or a foot ta one fide of it: then throw a large fpreading head at the fame time; fo that we
foot of good earth on the thorn, and trample it well thus at once obtain quicknefs of growth, with ftrength
down, and level the top of the bank for about three and crookednefs of timber. Well trained timber trees
feet and an half for the bafe of the wall to reft on. This it is alleged are not prejudicial to hedges, though pol-
bafe (hould be about nine or ten inches, but muft not lards and low fpreading trees are deftru£live to the
exceed one foot from the thorn. The wall ought to hedge-wood which grows under them ; neither are
be about two feet thick at the bottom and one foot at high trees prejudicial to corn-fields like high hedges
the top; the cope to be a Angle (lone laid flat; then and pollards, which prevent a proper circulation of
covered with two fods of turf, the grafs of the under- air; and in Norfolk, where the cultivation of grain
moft to be next the wall, and the other fod muft have is carried oh in great perfeftion, fuch lands are faid to
the grafs fide uppermoft : the fods (hould be of fome be 'wood-bound. But when an hedge is trimmed down
thicknefs, in order to retain moifture ; fo that they may to four or five feet high, with oaks interfperfed, a cir-
adhere together, and not be eafily difplaced by the culation of air is rather promoted than retarded by it;
wind : the height of the wall to be two feet and an and a trimmed hedge will thrive quite well under tall
half, exclufive of the fods; which together ihould be ftemmed trees, particularly oaks. For arable inclo-
from four to fix inches', by which means the wall would fures, therefore, hedges are recommended of four or
be near to three feet altogether. The expence of the five feet high, with oak-timbers from ty to 25 feet
fences cannot fo esfily be counted, on account of the ftem. Higher hedges are more eligible for grafs lands:
difference of the prices of labour in different parts, the graffes affedf warmth, by which .their growth is
Mr Erikine had them done with lime, every thing in- promoted, and confequently their quantity isincreafed,
eluded, from ic^-d. to 13d. per ell (which is equal to though perhaps their quality may fuffer fome injury.
37 inches 2 parts), according to the cafe or difficulty A tall fence likewife affords fhelter to cattle, provided
of working the quarry, and the diftance of it from the it be thick and clofe at the bottom; but otherwife, by
place where the fence is ere&ed. The lime coils about admitting the air in currents, it does rather harm than
6d. per boll of about 4.0872667 ' buihels; and from good. The (hade of trees is equally friendly to cattle
15 to 16 bolls of lime are ufed to the rood, of 36 in fummer; for which reafon it is recommended in
fquare ells Scots meafure ; and there are upwards of grafs inclofures to allow the hedge to make its natural
43 Scotch ells, or 44 Engliflr yards. When the com- ihoots, and at the fame time to have oak-trees planted
mon round or flint ftones are made ufe of, as they re- in it at proper intervals. Upon bleak hills, and in ex-
quire more lime, it is neceffary to ufe 30 or 35 bolls pofed fituations, it will be proper to have two or even
of lime to the rood. The thorns are fold from five to three rows of hedgewood, about four feet diftant from
ten ihilliqgs per thoufand, according to their age, each other ; the middle row being permitted to reach,
reckoning fix fcore to the bundled. Making the and always to remain at, its natural height: whilft,the
ditch, laying the thorns, and preparing the top of the fide rows are cut down alternately to give perpetual
wall, generally coft from yd. to 8d. every fix ells, fecurity to the bottom, and afford a conilant fupply of
About 50 carts of ftones, each cart carrying from 7 materials for dead hedges and other purpofes of un¬
to 9 cwt. will build a rood; the carriage 2d. per derwood.
cart for half a mile’s diftance. Much has been faid of the excellency of the holly Beft me-
Warmth is undoubtedly as beneficial to hedges as a material for hedges; and indeed the beauty of'ted of
as trees; and the walls give an cffeftual (belter, the plant, with, its extreme clofenefs, and continuingpia"tir?£
‘which in expofed fituations is abfoluteiy neceffary for green throughout the winter, evidently give it the pr^hofl^for
rtaiing young hedges; and they likewife preferve a ference to all others; and could it be raifed with equal hedges,
proper degree of moifture about the roots. If the eafe, there is no doubt that it would come into uni¬
hedges have been planted for fix or feven years before verfal practice. Befides the above properties, the
the wall is built, cut them over to two or three inches holly will thrive almoft upon any foil; but thin-foiled
above the ground with a (harp tool, either in Otlober ftony heights feem to be its natural fituation ; and it
cf November, or early in the fpring; and ere ft the may properly enough, be faid, that holly will grow
Vol.V111. Parti. 3B where*
H E D [ 386 1 H E E
;Hedges wherever corn will. Its longevity is likewife exceffive;
II and being of flow growth, it does not fuck the land, as
Hcdyotb. j-jjg farmers exprefs it, or deprive the crop of its nou-
— rilhment, as other hedges do. The difficulty of raifing
holly may be obviated by planting it under crabs,
which have a tendency to grow more upright than
hawthorns, and confequently affording more air, will
not impede its progrefs though they afford ihelter.
It may even be raifed alone without any great diffi¬
culty ; only in this cafe the dead fence, to fecure it,
muff be kept up at leaft ten or twelve years, inllead
of fix or feven, as in the other cafe ; and indeed, con-
fidering the advantages to be derived from fences of
this kind, they feem to merit all the additional trouble
requifite.
The holly may be raifed either under the crab or
hawthorn in two ways, viz. by lowing the berries
when the quick is planted, or by inferting the plants
themfelves the eofuing midfummer. The former is by
much the more fimple, and perhaps upon the whole
the better method. The feeds may either be fcat-
tered among the roots of the deciduous plants, or
be fown in a drill in front: and if plants of holly
be put in, they may either be planted between thofe
of the crab, or otherwife in front in the quincunx
manner.
Where furze or whins are to be ufed either as a
fence by themfelves or an affiftant to another, it is
better to ufe the French feed than that produced in
this country, as the former feldom ripens in this coun¬
try, and confequently cannot like the latter over-run
the adjacent inclofure. It may be had at the feed-
ftiops in London for about tyd. per pound, and one
pound will fow 40 llatute rods. When ufed as an
affiilant to an hedge, it is more proper to fow it on the
back of the bank than on the top of it; as in this cafe
it is more apt to overhang the young plants in the face
of the bank ; whilft in the other it is better fituated
for guarding the bank, and preventing it from being
torn down by cattle. The method of fowing is as
follows : Chop a drill with a fharp fpade about two-
thirds of the way up the back of the'' bank, making
the cleft gape as wide as may be without breaking off
the lip ; and having the feed in a quart bottle, llopt
with a cork and goofe quill, or with a perforated
wooden ftopper, trickle it along the drill, covering it
by means of a broom drawn gently above and over
the mouth of the drill. Clofing the drill with the
back- of the fpade, ihuts up the feeds too much from
the air, and thus keeps them too long from rifing.
HEDGK-Hog See Erinaceus.
Hedge-Sparrow. See Motacilla.
HEDYCARYA, in botany: A genus of the po-
!yandria ordervbelonging to the dicecia clafs of plants.
The calyx- of the male is cleft in eight or ten parts;
there is no corolla, nor are there any filaments; the
antherae are in the~bottom of the calyx, four furrowed,
and bearded at top. The calyx and corolla of the fe¬
male are as in the male ; the germs pedicellated ; the
nuts pedicellated and monofpermous.
HEDYOTIS, in botany: A genus of the mono--
gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 47th
order, Stellate. The corolla is monopetalous and fun-
nel-fhaped ; the capfule is bilocular, polyfpermous, in- Hedyfaruta
ferior. II
HEDYSARUM, in botany: A genus of the de-
candria order, belonging to the diadelphia clafs of
plants ; and in' the natural method ranking under the
3 2d order, Papilionaceee. The carina of the corolla is
tranfverfely obtufe; the feed-veffel a legumen with mo¬
nofpermous joints. There are 59 fpecies of this plant,
of which the moft remarkable are, 1. The gyrans, or
fenfitive hedyfarum, a native of the Eaft Indies, where
it is called burrum chundalli. It arrives at the height
of four feet, and in autumn produces bunches of yellow
flowers. The root is annual or biennial. It is a tri-
folious plant, and the lateral leaves are fmaller than
thofe at the end, and all day long they are in conftant
motion without any external impulfe. They move up
and down and circularly. This laft motion is perform¬
ed by the twilling of the footftalks; and while the one
leaf is rifing, its affociate is generally defcending. The
motion downwards is quicker and more irregular than
the motion upwards, which is Heady and uniform.
Thefe motions are obfervable for the fpace of 24 hours
in the leaves of a branch which is lopped off from the
ftirub if it is kept in water. If from any obftacle the
motion is retarded, upon the removal of that obftacle it is
refumed with a greater degree of velocity. 2. The coro-
narium, or common biennial French honeyfuckle, hath
large deeply-ftriking biennial roots; upright, hollow,
fmooth, very branchy ftalks, three or four feet high,
garnilhed with pinnated leaves; and from between
the leaves proceed long fpikes of beautiful red flowers,
fucceeded by jointed feed-pods.
Culture. The firft fpecies being a native of hot cli¬
mates, requires the common culture of tender exotics ;
the fecond is eafily raifed from feed in any of the com¬
mon borders, and is very ornamental.
HEEL, in anatomy, the hind part of the foot- See
Anatomy, n° 66.
Heel of a Horfe, the lower hinder-part of the foot
comprehended between the quarters and oppofite to the
toe. The heel of a horfe fhould be high and large, and
one fide of it Ihould not rife higher than the other up¬
on the paftern. To recover the heels of a horfe that
is hoof-bound, you Ihould take out his foie and keep
his heels very wide, by which they will be reftored in
a month.
Heel of a Horfeman. This being the part that is
armed with the fpur, the word is ufed for the fpur it-
felf; “ This horfe underftands the heel well.” To
ride a horfe from one heel to another, is to, make him
go fideways, fometimes to one heel and fometimes to
another.
Heel, in the fea-language. If a (hip leans on one
fide, whether fire be aground or afloat, then it is faid
ihe heels a-ftarboard, or a-port ; or that fire heels off-
wards, or to the Ihore ; that is, inclines more to one
fide than to another.
HEELER, or Bloody-Heel Cock, a fighting cock,
that ftrikes or wounds much with his fpurs.
The mailers know fuch a cock, even while a chick¬
en, by the ftriking of his two heels together in his
going.
HEEM (John David), an able painter, born at
Utrecht in '.604. He excelled in painting flowers,
4, fruity
HEX r 387 ] . HEX
fi Heemfkirk fru;t, vafes, and inftruments of mufic, which he per- trigue. Having had an opportunity of vifiting the prin-
I Heidegger. ^ormec* *n fLlch a perfect manner, that a perfon was apt cipal cities of Europe, he acquired a tafte for elegant and
  to attempt taking them in his hand. His colouring is refined pleafures, as they are called, which, united to a
agreeable, and the infe&s in his piftures appear alive, ftrong inclination for voluptuoufnefs, by degrees quali-
He died at Antwerp in 1674. him for the management of public amufements. In
Cornelius de Hf.em, his fon, was alfo a good painter, 1708, when he was near 50 years old, he came tq
though inferior to his father. England on a negotiation from the Swifs at Zurich j
HEEMSKIRK. See Hemskirk. but, failing in his embafly, he entered as a private fol-
HEGIRA, in chronology, a celebrated epoch a- dier in the guards for prote&ion. By his fprightly
mong the Mahometans. The word Arabic, formed of engaging converfation and infinuating addrefs, he
nun, hagirah, flight; of un, to fly, quit one’s country, foon worked himfelf into the good graces of our
family, friends, &c. young people of fafhion ; from whom he obtained the
The event which gave occafion to this epocha, was appellation of “ the Swifs Count.” He had the ad-
Mahomet’s flight from Mecca. The magiftrates of drefs to procure a fubfcription, with which, in 1709,
that city, fearing his impoftures might raife a fedition, he was enabled to furnifli out the opera of “ Thomy-
refolved to expel him : this, accordingly, they effec- ris,” which was written in Engliflr, and performed at
ted in the year of our Lord 622, on the evening of the queen’s theatre in the Haymarket. The mufic,
the 15th or 16th of July. See Arabia, n'5 44. however, was Italian ; that is to fay, airs fele&ed from
To render this epocha more creditable, the Maho- fundry of the foreign operas by Bunoncini, Scariatti,
metans aifeft to ufe the word hegira in a peculiar fenfe Steffani, Gafparini, and Albinoni. Heidegger by
for an aft of religion, whereby a man forfakes his this performance alone was a gainer of 500 guineas,
country, and gives way to the violence of perfecutors The judicious remarks he made on feveral defefts in
and enemies of the faith r they add, that the Corafliites, the conduft of our operas in general, and the hints he
being then the Itrongeft party in the city, obliged threw out for improving the entertainments of the
their prophet to fly, as not being able to endure his royal theatre, foon eftabliflied his charafter as a good
abolifliing of idolatry. This flight was not the firft of critic. Appeals were made to his judgment; and
Mahomet’s, but it was the moft famous. It happened fome very magnificent and elegant decorations intro-
In the 14th year from his affiiming the charafter of duced upon the ftage in confequence of his advice
prophet and apoftle, and promulgating his new religion, gave fuch fatisfaftion to George II. who was fond of
The orientals do not agree with us as to the time of operas, that, upon being informed to. whofe genius he
the hegira. Among the Mahometans, Amafi fixes it was indebted for thefe improvements, his majefty was
to the year of Chrift 630, and from the death of Mo- pleafed from that time to countenance him, and he
fes 2347 ; and Ben Caflem to the year of the world foon obtained the chief management of the opera-
5800 : according to the Greek computation, among houfe in the Haymarket. He then fet about impro-
the Chriftians, Said Ebn Batrik refers the hegira to ving another fpecies of diverfion, not lefs agreeable to
the year of Chrift. 614, and of the creation 6114. the king, which was the mafquerades, and over thefe
Khondemir relates, that it was Omar, the fecond he always prefided at the king’s theatre. He was
caliph, that firft eftabliihed the hegira as an epoeha, likewife appointed mailer of the revels. The nobi-
and appointed the years to be numbered from it: at lity now carefled him fo much, and had fuch an opi-
the time he made this decree, there were already feven nion of his tafte, that all fpkndid and elegant enter-
years elapfed. This eftablilhment was made in imita- tainments given by them upon particular occaiions and
tion of the Chriftians, who, in thofe times, reckoned all private affemblies by fubfcription, were fubmitted
their years from the perfccution of Dioclefian. to his direftion. From the emoluments of thefe fe-
But there is another hegira, and that earlier too, veral employments, he gained a regular confiderable
though of lefs eminence. Mahomet, in the 14th year of income, amounting, it is faid, in fome years, to 50001.
his miflion, was obliged to relinquilh Medina: the Co- which he fpent with much liberality ; particularly
ralhites had all along oppofed him very vigoroufly, as in the maintenance of a fomewhat too luxurious table-
an innovator and difturber of the public peace ; and fo that it may be faid he raifed an income, but never
many of his difciples, not enduring to be reputed fol- a fortune. At the fame time his charities ought not
lowers of an impoftor, defired leave of him to abandon to pafs unnoticed, which were frequent and ample
the city, for fear of being obliged to renounce their After a fuccefsful mafquerade, he has been known to
religion. This retreat makes the firft hegira. Thefe give away feveral hundred pounds at a time. “ You
two hegiras the Mahometans, in their language, call know poor objefts of diftrefs better than I do,” he
legiratan. _ would frequently fay to a particular acquaintance;
The years of the hegira confift only of 354 days. “ be fo kind as to give away this money for me.”
To reduce thefe years to the Julian kalendar, i. e. to This well known liberality, perhaps, contributed much
find what Julian year a given year of the hegira an- to his carrying on that diverfion with fo little oppofi-
fwers to, reduce the year of the hegira given into days, tion as he met with. He died in 1749, at the advan-
by multiplying by 354, divide the produft by 365, ced age of 90 years.
and from the quotient fubtraft the intercalations, i. e. As this perfon was long the Arliter Elegantiarum
as many days as there are four years in the quotient; of England, and is alluded to in many publications of
and laftly, to the remainder add 622. See Year." his time, fome account of him, it was thought, might
HEIDEGGER (John Jfames), was the fon of a cler- be here expefted : but to add all the anecdotes that
gyman, and a native of Zurich in Switzerland, where he have appeared concerning him, would enlarge this ar-
married, but left his country in confequence of an in- tick beyond the limits to. which it is intitled. One
3 ^ 2 or
Heidegger.
H E I [ 388 ] H E I
flciden- or two of the moft remarkable, however, are fubjoined
in a note (a), as they may afford entertainment to ma-
■ °‘ny of our readers.
‘ HEIDENHEIM, a town of Germany, in Swa¬
bia, and in the territory of Brentzhall, with a hand-
fome palace or caftle, belonging to the houfe of Wir-
temberg. E- Long. 10. 19. N. Lat. 48. 37.
HEIDLEBERG, a confiderable and populous
town of Germany, capital of the Lower Palatinate,
with a celebrated univerfity. It is noted for its great
ton, which holds 800 hogfheads, generally kept full
of good Rhenifh wine. It ftands in a pleafant rich
country, and was a famous feat of learning : but it has
undergone fo many calamities, that it is nothing now
to what it was formerly. It was firft reduced to a
heap of ruins in 1622 by the Spaniards ; and the rich
library was tranfported partly to Vienna, and partly
to the Vatican at Rome. After this it enjoyed the
benefits of peace, till the Proteftant eledtoral houfe
became extindf, and a bloody war enfued, in which
not only the caftle was ruined, but the tombs and bo¬
dies of the electors were fhamefully violated and pilla¬
ged. This happened in 1693 ; and the people of the
, Palatinate were obliged to leave their dwellings, and to
go for refuge into foreign countries. To add to thefe
: ( a) Heidegger’s countenance Was peculiarly unpleafing, from
an unufual harthnefs of features. There is a mezzotinto of him
by J. Faber, 1742, from a painting by Vanloo, a ftriking like-
nefs; and his face is introduced in more than one of Hogarth’s
prints.— Heidegger was, however, the firfl to joke upon his
own uglinefs; and he once laid a wager with the earl of Che-
-fterfield, that within a certain given time his lordfhip would not
be able to produce fo hideous a face in all London. After ftritft
ftarch, a woman wac found, vvhofe features were at firfl: fn-ht
thought Wronger than Heidegger’s; but upon clapping her
head-drefs uj on himielf, he was univerfally allowed to have won
the wager. Jolly, a well-known taylor, carrying his bill to a
noble duke; his grace, for evafion, faid, “ Damn your ugly
face, 1 never will pay you till you bring me an uglier fellow
than yourfelf!” Jolly bowed and retired, wrote a letter, and
fent it by a fervant to Heidegger; faying, “ His grace wifhed
to fee him the next morning on particular bufinefs.” Heideg¬
ger attended, and Jolly was there to meet him ; and in confe-
quence, as foon as Heidegger’s vifit was over. Jolly received
the caflt.
The late facetious duke of Montagu (the memorable author
of the Bottle-Conjurer at the theatre in the Haymarket) gave
an entertainment at the Devil-tavern, Temple-bar, to feveral of
the nobility and gentry, feleiling the moft convivial, and a few
hard-drinkers, who were all in the plot. Heidegger was in¬
vited, and in a few hours after dinner was made fo dead-drunk
that he was carried out of the room, and laid infenfibk upon a
bed. A profound fleep enfued; when the late Mrs Salmon’s
daughter was introduced, who took a mould from his face in
plafter of Paris. From this a malk was made, and a few days
before the next mafquerade (at which the king promifed to be
prefent, with the countefs of Yarmouth) the duke made appli¬
cation to Heideggei’s valet-de-chambre, to know what fuit of
cloaths he was likely to wear; and then procuring a fimilar
drefs, and a perfon of the fame ftature, he gave him his inftruc-
tions. On the evening of the mafquerade, as foon as his majefty
was feated (who was always known by the conductor of the en¬
tertainment and the officers of the court, though concealed by
his drefs from the company), Heidegger, as ufual, ordered the
mufic to play “ God fave the king;” but his back was no foon-
er turned, than the falfe Heidegger ordered them to ftrike up
“ Chariy o’er the water.” The whole company were inftantly
thunderftruck, and ail the courtiers not in the plot were thrown
into a ftupid confternation. Heidegger flew to the mufic-gal-
lery, fwore, ftamped, and raved, accufingthe nn.iicians of drunk-
ennefs, or of being fet on by fome fecret enemy to ruin him
The king and the countefs laughed fo immoderately, that they
misfortunes, tr.e ele&or refided at Manbeim, and car- Height
ried moft of the people of diftin&ion along with him,Iicl|iLCClus^
fo that it is uncertain whether Heidleberg will ever re- ’ • ^
cover itfelf or not, though they have begun to rebuild
fome of the fortifications. The great ton was broke
to pieces in 1693 by the French, and at great ex¬
pence in 1729 was repaired. The town ftands on the
river Neckar, over which there is a handfome bridge.
E. Long. 8. 48. N. Lat. 49. 25.
HEIGHT, in general, fignifies the difference be¬
tween the ground and the top of any objedft meafured
perpendicularly.
Methods of meafuring Heights. See Geometry,.
Trigonometry, Barometer, Mountain, &c.
HEILA, a town of royal Pruffia, in Caffubia,
feated at the mouth of the river Viftula, on the Baltic.
Sea, and fubjeft to Poland, 12 miles'north of Dant*
zic. E. Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 54. 53.
HEILEGEN-have, a fea-port town of Germany,
in Lower-Saxony, and in Wageria, feated on the Bal¬
tic Sea, over againft the ifland of Termeren. E. Long,
u- 15. N. Lat. 57. 30.
HEINECCIUS (John Gotlieb), one of the great-
eft civilians of the 18th century, was born at Eifen-
berg, in the principality of Altenburg, in 1681. Af¬
ter
hazarded a difeovery. While Heidegger ftaid in the gallery,
“ God fave the King” was the tune ; but when, after letting
matters to rights, he retired to one of the dancing-rooms, to ob-
ferve if decorum was kept by the company, the counterfeit
ftepping forward, and placing himfelf upon the floor of the
theatre, juft in front of the mulic gallery, called out in a moft
audible voice, imitating Heidegger, damned them for block¬
heads, had he not juft told them to play “ Chariy o’er the
water?” A paufe enfued; the muficians, who knew his cha¬
racter, in their turn thought him either drunk or mad ; but as
he continued his vociferation, “ Chariy” was played again. At
this repetition of the fuppofed affront, fome of the officers of the
guards, who always attended upon thefe occafions, were for
afeending die gallery and kicking the muficians out; hut the
lateNduke of Cumberland, who could hardly contain himftlf,
interpofed. The company were thrown into great confufion.
“ Shame! Shame!” refounded from all parts, and Heidegger
once more flew in a violent rage to that part of the theatre
facing the gallery. Here- the duke of Montagu, artfully ad-
dreffing himfelf to him, told him, “ The king was in a violent
paffion; that his heft way was to go inftantly and make ail
apology, for certainly the muficianswere mad, and afterwards to
difeharge them.” Almoft at the fame inftant, he ordered the
falfe Heidegger to do the fan^e. The feene now became truly
Comic in the circle before the king. Heidegger had no fooner
made a genteel apology for the infolence of his muficians, but
the falfe Heidegger advanced, and, in a plaintive tone, cried
out, “ Indeed, Sire, it was not my fault, but that devil’s in my
likenefs.” Poor Heidegger turned round, flared, ftaggeied,
grew pale, and could not utter a word. The duke then hu¬
manely vvhifpered in his ear the fum of his plot, and the coun¬
terfeit was ordered to take off his mafk. Here ended the fro¬
lic ; but Heidegger fwore he would never attend any public
amufement, if that witch ihe wax-work woman did not break
the mould, and melt down the maik before his face.
Being once at fupper with a large company, when a queftion
was debated, Which nationalift of Europe had the greateft in¬
genuity? to the furprife of all prefent, he claimed that charac¬
ter for the Swifs, and appealed to himfelf for the truth of it.
“ I was born a Swifs (faid he), and came to England without a
farthing, where 1 have found means to gain 5000 1. a-year, and
to fpend it. New 1 defy the moft able Englifhman to go to
Switzerland, and either to gain that income or to fpend it
there.”—Heidegger is laid to have had io remarkable a memory,
that he once walked from Charing-crofs to Temple-bar, and
back again ; and when he came home, wrote down every figu
on each fide of the ftreet.
H E I [ 389 ] H E L
Heinetfcen, ter having ftudied at Goflar and Leipfick, he was de-
, Heinfms. ggngd f0r the miniitry, and began to preach; but dif-
V—v—— j;^jng profeffion, he laid it aiide, and applied
hitnfelf entirely to the ftudy of philofophy and the ci¬
vil law. In 1710, he became profefibr of philofophy
at Hall; and in 172 r, he was made profeffbr of civil
law, with the title of counfellor of the tourt. His great
reputation made the ftutes of Friefland invite him to
Franeker in 1724; but three years after, the king of
Prnfiia prevailed on him to accept of a profefforlhip of
law at Francfort on the Oder, where he diftinguifhed
himfelf till the year 1733. Becoming again profeffor at
Hall,, he remained there till his death, which happened
in 1741, notwithftanding his being invited to Marpurg,
Denmark, and three academies in Holland. He wrote
many works, all of them much efteemed. The princi¬
pal are, 1. Antiquitatum Romanarvm jurifprudentiam tllu-
Jlmntium fyntagma. It was this excellent abridgement
that gave rife to his reputation in foreign countries.
2. Element a juris civilis fecundum ordinem injlitutionum &
pandetlarum. 3. Fundament a Jlyli cultioris. There are
few works fo ufeful as this for forming a Latin ftyle.
4. Elementa philofcphi/e rationalis £5° moralis, qutbus
pramiffa hijloria philofophica. 5. Hijloria juris civilis
Romani ac Germanici. 6. Elementa juris nature iff gen-
tium, &c.
HEINETKEN (Chriftian), an extraordinary child,
the prodigy of the North, was born at Lubeck in
1721. tie fpoke his maternal tongue fluently at 10
months. At one year old, he knew the principal
events of the pentateuch ; in two months more, he was
mailer of the entire hiftory. of the Old and New Tefta-
ments; at ttyo years and an half, he anfwered the prin¬
cipal queftions in geography and in ancient and mo¬
dern hillory; and he fpoke Latin and French with great
facility before the commencement of his fourth year.
His conftitution w'as fo delicate, that he w^.s not
weaned till a few months before his death. M. Mar¬
tini of Lubec pubiithed a pamphlet in 1730, in which
he endeavoured to give natural reafons for the extra¬
ordinary capacity of this infant, who died in his fifth
year.
HEINSIUS (Daniel), profeflbr of politics and hi¬
ftory at Leyden, and librarian to the univerfity there,
was born at Gand in Flanders in 1580. He became a
fcholar to Jofeph Scaliger at Leyden, and was indebt¬
ed to the encouragement and care of that great man
for the perfe&ion to which he attained in literature,
and which at the beginning of his life there wns little
reafon to hope from him. He diftinguiftied himfelf as
a critic by his labours on many claffical authors; and
was highly honoured as well abroad as at home : Gu-
ftavus Adolphus king of Sweden gave him a place a-
mong his counfellors of ftate ; the republic of Venice
made him a knight of the order of St Mark ; and pope
Urban VIII. made him great offers, if he would come,
as he expreffed it, “ to refcue Rome from barbarifm.,,
He died in 1666, leaving feveral works of his own,
both in poetry and profe.
Heinsius (Nicholas), the fon of Daniel Heinfius,
was born at Leyden ; and became as great a Latin
poet, and a greater critic, than his father. His poems
have been feveral times printed, but the bell edition is
that of Amfterdam in 1666. He gave editions of fe¬
veral of the claffics, with notes j his Claudian is dedi¬
cated in a Latin poem to queen Chriftina of Sweden, Heir
and his Ovid to Thuanus. At his death, which hap- pjej^na>
pened in 1681, he difclaimed all his works, and ex-
preffed the utmoft regret at having left behind him fo
many “ monuments of his vanity,” as he called them.
He was as much diftinguiflied by his great employ-
ments in the ftate, as by his talents, learning, and good
qualities.
HEIR, in law, fignifics the perfon who fucceeds
another by defcent to lands, tenements, and heredi¬
taments, being an eftate of inheritance, or an eftate in
fee ; becaufe nothing paffes by right of inheritance but
in fee. See the articles Consanguinity, Descent,
Fee, Succession ; and Law, N° Ixxvi. & clxxx. etfeq.
Heir-Apparent, is a perfon fo called in the ..lifetime
of his anceitor, at whole death he is heir at law.
H£iR-Prefumptive, is one who, if the anceftot fhould
die immediately, would, in the prefent circumltances of
things, be his heir; but whofe right of inheritance may
be defeated by the contingency of fome nearer heir be¬
ing born.
Heir-Loom, (formed of heir and the Saxon loom, de¬
noting limb or members) in our law-books, fignifies fuch
goods and perfonal chattels as are not inventoried after
the owner’s deceafe, but neceffarily come to the heir
along with the houfe.
Heir loom comprehends divers implements; as ta¬
bles, preffes, cupboards, bedfteads, furnaces, wainfcot,
and fuch like ; which in fome countries have belonged
to a houfe for certain defcents, and are never invento¬
ried after the deceafe of the owner, as chattels are, but
accrue by cuftom, not by common law, to the heir,
with the houfe itfelf. The ancient jewels of the crowa
are held to be heir-looms, and are not devifable by will,
but defcend to the next fucceffor.
HEIRESS, a female heir to one who has an eftate
in lands, &c. See Heir.
Stealing an Heiress. See Forcible Marriage.
HEIRSHIP moveables, in Scots law, the heft of
certain kinds of moveables, which the heir of line is
intitled to take, befides the heritable eftate. See
Law, N° clxxx. 7.
HEISTERIA, in botany: A genus of the mono-
gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 12th or¬
der, Holoracen. The calyx is quinquefid, the petals
five; the fruit is a plum on a very large coloured
calyx.
HELENA, or St Helena, an ifland in the At¬
lantic Ocean, belonging to the Englilh Eaft India,
company, and fituated in W. Long. 6. 30. S. Lat.
16". The greateft length of the ifland is about eight
miles, and its circumference about 20. It hath fome
high mountains, particularly one called Diana's peak,
which is covered with woods to the very top. Other
hills there are which bear evident marks of a volcanic
origin ; and fome have huge rocks of lava, and a kind-
of half-vitrified flags. The country, according to Mr
Forfter, has a fine appearance ; the foil is in many
places a rich mould, from fix to ten inches deep, and
a variety of plants thrive in it luxuriantly. He found
many plants here which he had not obferved in other
parts of the world. Among thefe were fome called
by the natives cabbage-trees, gum-trees, and red wood.
The former thrive in moift places} but the latter are al-
0 ways
H E L [ 39® 1 H E L
Meleha. ways found on the ridges of hills, where the foil is dry.
“—*  The cabbage-tree has rather large leaves; but after
many inquiries Mr Forfter could net find that it was
ufed for any other purpofe than that of fuel, and no
reafon could be afligned why it had obtained that
name. It muft not be confounded with the cabbage-tree
of America, India, and the South Seas* which is a
fpecies of palm.
The ifland is laid out entirely in gardens and paf-
turage. Peaches are the only European fruits that
thrive here.' Cabbages and other greens, which thrive
extremely well, are devoured by caterpillars ; and every
fpecies of corn is deftroyed by rats. All the paftures
were over-run with furze; which, though in our coun¬
try a very ufelefs and even pernicious plant, was of
Angular advantage to the inhabitants of St Helena.
Before the introdudtion of that plant, the ground was
parched by the intenfe heat, and all kinds of grafs
and herbage were ihrivelled up. But the furze-bufhes,
which throve as it were in defpight of the fun, pre-
ferved a degree of moifture in the ground ; by which
means the grafs fprung up vigoroufly, and the coun¬
try became covered w'ith a rich and beautiful fod.
The furze is now no longer wanted, and the people
afiiduoufly root it out for fuel. The number of peo¬
ple on St Helena does not exceed 2000 perfons, in¬
cluding 50b foldiers and 600 flaves ; and it is iaid that
the number of females born on the ifland confiderably
exceeds that of the males. By the arrival of the In¬
dia (hips, which they fupply with refreihments, they
are in return provided with all forts of manufactures
and other neceflaries ; and the Company annually or¬
der one or two of their ftiips to touch there in their
way to India, in order to fend them a fufficient quan¬
tity of European goods and provifions. Many of their
flaves are employed in catching fiih, which are very
plentiful; and, by the help of thefe, together with
their poultry, cattle, roots, and fait provifions, they
fubfift through the year. Their life (fays Mr For¬
fter) feems to pafs along very happily ; free from the
multitude of cares which diftrefs their countrymen in
England, and blefled.with quiet and content.
St Helena was firft difeovered by the Portuguefe
in 1502, on St Helen’s day ; whence its name. They
ftocked it with different kinds of ufeful animals ; but
whether they ever fettled a colony on it or not, is un¬
certain. The Portuguefe having either abandoned
or never taken poffefiion of it, the Dutch became its
mafters ; and kept poffefiion of it till the year 1600,
when they were driven out by the Englilh. In 1673,
the Dutch took it by furprife ; but a ftiort time after
it was recovered by the brave captain Munden, who
alfo took three Dutch Eaft Indi&nen then lying in
the harbour. On this occafion the Hollanders had
fortified the landing-place, of which there is only one
on the ifland; and ere&ed batteries of great guns to
prevent a defeent: but the Englilh having knowledge
of a fmall creek, where only two men abreaft could
creep up, climbed to the top of the rock in the night;
and appearing the next morning behind the batteries,
the Dutch were fo terrified, that they threw dowm
their arms, and furrendered at diferetion. This creek
has been fince fortified, and a battery of large cannon
placed at the entrance of it; fo that now the ifland is
rendered perfe&Iy fecure agatnft all regular approaches Helen
or fudden attacks. II
HELEN, (in fab. hift.) the daughter of Tyndarus Helenu^
and Leda, was married to Menelaus king of Sparta, but -
was ftolen from him by Thefeus, 1235 B. C. She was
reftored foon after; but carried off again by Paris, the
Trojan prince ; which occafioned the famous Trojan
war. See Troy.
St Helen’s. See Hellens.
HELENIUM, bastard sun-flower i A genus
of the polygamia fuperflua order, belongi ig to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compofite. The recep¬
tacle is naked in the middle ; under the radius paleace¬
ous ; the pappus confifts of five fhort awns ; the calyx
is fimple and multipartite ; the florets of the radius fe-
mitrifid.
Species. 1. The autumnale, with fpear-fhaped nar¬
row leaves. 2. The latifolium, with pointed, fpear-
ftiaped, fawed leaves.—Both thefe are natives of North
America, where they grow wild in great plenty.
They rife to the height of feven or eight feet in good
ground. The roots, when large, fend up a great
number of ftalks, which branch toward the top ; the
upper part of the (talk fuftains one yellow flower,
ftiaped like the fun-flower, but much fmaller, having
long rays, which are jagged Itfetty deep into four or
five fegments.
Culture. Thefe plants may be propagated by feeds,
or by parting their roots; the latter is generally prac-
tifed in this country. The beft feafon to tranlplant
and part the old roots is in O&ober when their leaves
are paft, or i» the beginning of March juft before
they begin to flioot. They delight in a foil rather
moift than dry, provided it is not too itrong, or does
not hold the wet in wu'nter.
HELENUS (fab. hift.), a celebrated foothfayer,
fon of Priam and Hecuba. He was greatly refpedted
by all the Trojans. When Deiphobus was given in
marriage to Helen in preference to himfelf, he refol-
ved to leave his country, and retired to mount Ida,
where Ulyffes took him prifoner by the advice of Cal-
chas. As he was well acquainted with futurity, the
Greeks made ufe of prayers, threats, and promifes, to
induce him to reveal the fecrets of the Trojans; and
either the fear of death, or gratification of refentment,
feduced him to difclofe to the enemies of his country,
that Troy could not be taken whilft it was in poffefiion
of the Palladium, nor before Polydedles came from his
retreat at Lemnos and afilfted to fupport the fiege.
After the ruin of his country, he fell to the lhare of
Pyrrhus the fon of Achilles, and faved his life by
warning him to avoid a dangerous tempeft, which in
reality proved fatal to all thofe who fet fail. This
endeared him to Pyrrhus; and he received from his
hand Andromache the widow of his brother Heftor,
by whom he had a fon called Cejlrinus. This marriage,
according to fome, was confummated after the death
of Pyrrhus, who lived with Andromache as with a
wife. Helenus was the only one of Priam’s fons who
furvived the ruin of his country. After the death of
Pyrrhus he reigned over part of Epirus, which he call¬
ed Chaonia in memory of his brother Chaon, whom he
had inadvertently killed. Helenus received JEneas as
H E L [ 39i ] H E L
HeJepolis he voyaged towards Italy, and foretold him fome of
Heliaftse t^ie ca^am*t'es which attended his fleet. The manner
> in which he received the gift of prophecy is doubtful.
HELEPOLTS, in the ancient art of war, a ma¬
chine for battering down the walls of a place befieged,
the invention of which is afcribed to Demetrius Po-
liorcetes.—Diodorus Siculus fays, that each fide of
the Helepolis was 405 cubits in breadth and go in
height; that it had nine ftages, and was carried on
four ftrong folid wheels eight cubits in diameter; that
it was armed with large battering rams, and had two
roofs capable of fupporting them; that in the lower
ftages there were different forts of engines for cafting
ftones; and in the middle they had large catapultas for
difcharging arrows, and fmaller ones in thofe above,
with a number of expert men for working all thefe
machines.
HELLADES, in mythology, the daughters of the
Sun and Clymenes, according to the poets. They
were fo affliAed, as they fay, with the death of their
brother Phaeton, that the gods, moved with compaf-
fion, transformed them into poplars on the banks of
the river Eridanus.
HELIiEA, in Grecian antiquity, was the greateft
and moll frequented court in Athens for the trial of
civil affairs. See Heliast.*.
HELIACAL, in aftronomy, a term applied to
the rifing and fetting of the ftars ; or, more ftri&ly
fpeaking, to their emerfion out of and immerfion into
the rays and fuperior fplendor of the fun.—A ftar is
faid to rife heliacally, when, after having been in com
qunftion with the fun, and on that account inviiible, it
comes to be at fuch a dillance from him as to be feen
in the morning before fun-riling ; the fun, by his ap¬
parent motion, receding from the ftar towards the call.
On the contrary, the heliacal fetting is when the fun
approaches fo near a ftar as to hide it with his beams,
which prevent the fainter light of the ftar from being
perceived ; fo that the terms apparition and occultation
would be more proper than rifing and fetting.
HELIANTHUS, the great sunflower: A ge¬
nus of the polygamia fruftanea order, belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compofitte. The recep¬
tacle is paleaceous and plane ; the pappus diphyllous ;
the calyx imbricated; the fcales Handing a little out
at the tops. There are 12 fpecies, moft of which are
now very common in our gardens, though all of them
are natives of America. They are all very hardy, and
will profper in almoft any foil or fituation. They
may be propagated either by feeds or by parting their
roots.
HELIASTaE, in antiquity, the judges of the
court Heli^a. They were fo called, according to
fome authors, from a Greek word which figniiies to
affetnble in a great number; and, according to others,
from another word which ffgnifies tlx fun, becaufe
they held their affemblies in an open place. They
compofed not only the moft numerous, but like wile
the moft important of the Athenian tribunals; for their
province was either to explain the obfcure laws, or to
give new vigour and authority to thofe Which hadbeen
violated. The Thefmothetae convoked the affembly
of the Heliaftae, which fometimcs amounted to xoco,
fometimes to 1500, Judges. Mr Blanchard is of opi¬
nion, that, to make this number, the Thefuiothetse Heliaftse.
fornetimes fummoned thofe of each tribe who had lail  'fm~
quitted the public offices which they had exercifed in
another court.
However that may be, it appears that the affemblies
of the Heliaftx were not frequent, as they would have
interrupted the jurifdiftion of the Hated tribunals and
the common courfe of affairs.
The Thefmotheta: -paid to each member of this
affembly, for his attendance, three oboli : which arc
equal to two Roman fefterces, or to half a drachma.
Hence Ariftophanes terms them the brothers of the
triobulus. They were likewife condemned to pay a
fine if they came too late ; and if they did not prefent
themfelves till after the orators had begun to fpeak,
they were not admitted. Their attendance was re¬
quited out of the public treafury, and their pay wa»^
called miflhos heliafticus.
The affembly met, at firft, according to Arifto¬
phanes, at the rifing of the fun. If the judges were
obliged to meet under cover on account of fr ft and-
fnow, they had a fire ; but there is not a paffage in
ajiy ancient author which informs us of the place;
where thefe affemblies were held either in the rigo¬
rous or in the mild fealons. We only learn, that there
was a double enclofure around the affembly, that it
might not be difturbed. The firft was a kind of arbor-
work, from fpace to fpace, feparated by doors,, over
which were painted in red the ten or twelve firft letters
of the Greek alphabet, which directed the entrance of
the officers who compofed the tribunal, each of them
entering under the letter which diltinguilhed his tribe.
The beadles of the court, to whom they {bowed the
wands which had been fent them by the Thefmotheta:
as a fummons to meet, examined its mark, to fee if it
was authentic, and then introduced them. The fecond
inclofure, which was at the diftance of 20 feet from
the former, was a rope or cord; that the people who
flood round the firft inclofure, and were defirous to
fee what paffed within the fecond, might not be
prevented from gratifying their curiofity at a proper
diftance. Thus the attention of the judges was not
interrupted by the concourfe of the multitude, many of *
whom were heated by views of intereft-or of party.
To each-of the members of the affembly were diftri-
buted two pieces of copper; one of which was perfo¬
rated, not certainly.that it might be diii inguiffi. d from
the other by feeling, for thefe affemblies met at the
rifing and were d-ffolved at the fetting of the fun.
Thofe pieces of copper had been fubftituted for little
fea-ftrells, which were at firft in ufe. The king was
prefent at the affembly, at whofe command it had been
fummoned. The Thefmothetae read the names of thofe
who were to compofe it, and each man took his place
as he was called. The Thefmothetae were then fent
for, whofe function it was to obferve prodigies and to
fuperintend the facrifices ; and if they gave their fanc-
tion, the deliberations were begun. It is well known,
that the officers CdWtd Exegeta were often corrupted by
thofe who were interefted in the debates of the affembly ;
and that they excited fuch tumults as were railed by the
Roman tribunal in the popular affemblies convoked by
the confuls. .
Of all the monuments which remain relating to the
Heliaftas, the moft curious is the oath which thofe:
j-udges s
H E L l 392 1 H E L-
jtidgcs took before the Thefmothetse: Demofthenes
hath prefervei it in his oration againit Timocrates,
who having been bribed by thofe who had been in¬
truded with the effe&s taken on board a vefiel of
Naucra'tis, and refufed to give an account of them,
got a law pafl’ed, by which an enlargement was granted
to prifoners for public debts on giving bail. De¬
mofthenes, in making his oration againft that law,
ordered the oath of the Heliaftae to be read aloud, as
a perpetual auxiliary to his arguments, and happily
calculated to intereft the multitude and inflame their
paffions. This oath we ftiall quote, that our readers
may know how refpe&able a tribunal that of the He-
Jiaftse was, and the importance of their decifions..
“ I will judge according to the laws and decrees of
the people of Athens, and of the fenate of 500. I
will never give my vote for the eftabliftiment of a tyrant,
nor of an oligarchy. Nor will I ever give my appro¬
bation to an opinion prejudicial to the liberty or to-the
union of the people of Athens. I will not fecond
thofe perfons who may propofe a redudtion of private
debts, or a diftribution of the'lands or houfes of the
Athenians. I will not recal exiles, nor endeavour to
procure a pardon for thofe who {hall be condemned to
die. Nor will I force thofe to retire whom the laws
:and the fuffrages of the people (hall permit to remain
in their country. I will not give my vote to any can¬
didate for a public fun&ion who gives not an account
of his conduct in the office which he has previoufly
filled ; nor will I prefume to folicit any truft from the
commonwealth without fubje&ing myfelf to this con¬
dition, which I mean as obligatory to the nine archons,
to the chief of religious matters, to thofe who are bal¬
loted on the fame day with the nine archons, to the
herald, the ambaffador, and the other officers of their
com t, I will not fufftr the fame roan to hold the fame
office twice, or to hold two offices in the fame year.
I will not accept any prefent, either myfelf or by ano¬
ther, either dire&ly or indiredly, as a member of the
Heliaftic aflembly. I fokmnly declare that I am 30
■years old. I will be equally attentive and impartial
to the accufer and the aceufedj I will give my fentence
jigoroufly according to evidence. Thus I fwear, by
Jupiter, by Neptune, and by Ceres, to ad. And if I
violate any of my engagements, I imprecate from thefe
deities ruin on myfelf and myiamily ; and I requeft
them to grant me every kind of profperity, if I am
faithful to my oath.”
The reader ffiould perufe what follows this oath to
fee with what eloquence Demofthenes avails himfelf of
it, and how he applies its principles to the caufe which
he defends.
Here we have one of the motives of the meeting of
this aflembly, Ar>ftotle informs us of another; which
was by the public authority deputed to them, to eled:
a magiftvate in the room of one dead. It is furprifing,
that Paufanias, who enters fo often into details, gives
i;s no particular account of this aflembly. All that he
fays of it is, that the raoft numerous of the Athenian
jiffeniblies was called Helke,
We t£re told by Diogenes Laertius, in his life of
Solon, that it was before one of thefc Heliaftic aflem-
blies that Pififtratus prefented himfelf, covered with
wounds and contufions (for thus he had treated him¬
felf and the mules which drew his car), to excite the
N° 5JO.
indignation of the people againft his pretended ene- HeKafl*;
mies, who, jealous, as he alleged, of the popularity H':licon-
he had acquired by aflerting the rights of his poorer
fellow-citizens, in oppofition to the men in power,
had attacked him while he was hunting, and had
wounded him in that barbarous manner. His defign
fueceeded : a guard was appointed him; by the afiiit-
ance of which he acquired the fovereignty or tyranny
of Athens, and kept it 33 years. The power of the
aflembly appeared remarkably on that occalion ; for
Solon, who was prefent, oppofed it with all his efforts,
and did not fucceed.
As to the manner in which the judges gave their
fuffrages, there was a fort of veffel covered with an
ofier mat, in which were placed two urns, the one of
copper, the other of wood. In the lid of thefe urns
there was an oblong hole, which was large at the top,
and grew narrower downwards, as we fee in fome old
boxes of our churches. The fuffrages which condemned
the accufed perfon were thrown into the wooden urn,
which was termed kyrios. That of copper, named akyroi,
received thefe which abfolved him.
Ariftotle obferves, that Solon, whofe aim was to
make his people happy, and who found an ariftocracy
eftablifhed by the eltrftion of the nine archons (annual
officers, whofe power was almoft abfolute), tempered
their fovereignty, by inftituting the privilege of ap¬
pealing from thm to the people, who were to be af.
fembled by lot to give their fuffrage; after having
taken the oath of the Heliaftae, in a place near the
Panathenaeum ; where Hiffus had, in former days,
calmed a fedition of the people, and bound them to
unanimity by an oath. It has likewife been remarked,
that the god Apollo was not invoked in the oath of
the Heliaftae, as in the oaths of the other judges. We
have obferved, that he who took the oath of the He¬
liaftae, engaged that he would not be corrupted by fo-
licitation or money. Thofe who violated this pait of
their oath were condemned to pay a fevere fine. The
decemvirs at Rome made fuch corruption a capital
crime. But Afconius remarks, that the punifhtnent
denounced againft them was mitigated in later times;
and that they were expelled the fenate, or baniihed for
a certain time, according to the degree of their guilt.
HELICON, in ancient geography, the name of a
mountain in the neighbourhood of Parnaffus and Cy-
theron, facred to Apollo and the mufes, who are thence
called Heliconides. It is fituated in Livadia, and now
called Zagura or Zaguya.—Helicon was one of the
moil fertile and woody mountains in Greece. On it
the fruit of the adrachnus, a fpecies of the arbutus or of
the ftrawberry-tree,’ was uncommonly fweet; and the
inhabitants affirmed, that the plants and roots were all
friendly to man, and that even the ferpents had their
poifon weakened by the innoxious qualities of their
food. It approached Parnaffus on the north, wh.re
it touched on Phocis; and refembkd that mountain in
loftinefs, extent, and magnitude.—Here was the fhaly
grove of the mufes and their images; with ftatues af
Apollo and Bacchus, of Linus and Orpheus, and the
illuftrious poets who had recited their verfes to the
harp. Among the tripods, in the fecond century, was
that confecrated by Hefiod. . On the left-hand going
to the grove was the fountain Aganippe ; and about
twenty itadia, or two nliles and a half, higher up, the
violet.
H E L [ 393 1 H E L
HcUconia tiolet-colourcd Hippocrene. Round the grove were
.Jl houfes. A feftival was celebrated there by the Thef-
Ve°me" pi^ans with games called Mufea. The vallies of He-
u—y— licon are defcribed by Wheler as green and flowery in
the fpring; and enlivened by pleafing cafcades and
ftreams, and by fountains and wells of clear water.
The Boeotian cities in general, two or three excepted,
were reduced to inconfiderable villages in the time of
Strabo. The grove of the mufes was plundered under
the aufpices of Conftantine the Great. The Helico¬
nian goddeffes were afterwards confumed in a fire at
Conftantinople, to which city they had been removed.
Their ancient feat on the mountain, Aganippe and
Hippocrene, are unafcertained.
HELICONI A, in botany; a genus of the monogynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants. The
fpatha is univerfal and partial; there is no calyx ; the
corolla has three petals, and the ne&arium two leaves;
the capfule is three-grained.
HELICTERES, the screw-tree: A genus of
the decandria order, belonging to the gynandria clafs
of plants; and in the natural method ranking under
the 37th or&tr, Columnifera. The calyx is monophyl-
lous and oblique ; there are five petals, and the nedta- *
rium confifts of five petal-like leaflets; the capfules are
intorted or twifted inwards.—There are four fpecies,
all natives of warm climates. They are ftmibby plants,
rifing from five to fourteen feet in height, adorned with
flowers of a yellow colour. They are propagated by
feeds; but are tender, and in this country muft be kept
in a ftove during the winter.
HELIOCARPUS, in botany : A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
37th order, Cblumnifera. The calyx is tetraphyllous;
the petals four ; the llyles fimple ; the capfule bilocu¬
lar, compreffed, and radiated lengthwife on each fide.
HELIOCENTRIC latitude of a Planet, the in¬
clination of a line drawn between the centre of the fun
and the centre of a planet to the plane of the ecliptic.
Heliocentric Place of a Planet, the place of the
ecliptic wherein the planet would appear to a fpecfator
placed at the centre of the fun.
HELIOCOMETES, a phenomenon fometimes-ob-
ferved about fun-fetting; being a large luminous tail or
column of light proceeding-from the body of the fun,
and dragging after it, not unlike the tail of a comet;
whence the name.
HELIODORUS of Phoenicia, biflrop of Trica in
Theflaly, better known by the romance he compofed
in his youth intitled JEthtopics, and relating the amours
ofTheagenes and Chariclea. Some fay he was depo-
fed by a fynod becaufe he would not confent to the
fuppreifing that romance. The fable has a moral ten¬
dency, and particularly inculcates the virtue of chaftity.
As it was the firft of this fpecies of writing, he is ityled
the Father of Romances. He was alfo a good Latin poet.
He lived in the 4th century.
HELIOMETER, formed of and I
meafure, the name of an inftrument called alfo ajlrometer,
invented by M. Bouguer in 1747* for meafuring with
-particular exadtnefs the diameters of the ftars, and efpe-
cially thofe of the fun and moon.
This iuftrument is a kind of telefcope, confifting of
two objedt-glaffes of equal focal diftance, placed one of
them by the fide of the other, fo that the fame eye-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
glafs ferves for both. The tube of this inftrument is Heliome
of a conic form, larger at the upper end, which re- ter
ceives the two .objeft-glaffes, than at the lower, which Heliopolis
is furnilhed wjth an eye-glafs and- micrometer. By ^ "t
the conftru&ion of this inftrument two diftinft images
of an objedt are formed in the focus of the eye-glafs,
whofe diftance, depending on that of the two objedl-
glafles from one another, may be meafured with great
accuracy: nor is it neceflary that the whole dife of
the fun or moon come within the field of view; fince,
if the images of only a fmall part of the dife be form¬
ed by each objeft-glafs, the whole diameter may be
eafily computed by their pofition with refpeft to one
another : for if the objedt be large, the images will
approach, or perhaps lie even over one another; and
the objedt-glaffes being moveable, the two images may
always be brought exadtly to touch one another, and
the diameter may be computed from the known diftance
of the centres of the two glafies. Befides, as this in¬
ftrument has a common micrometer in the focus of
the eye-glafs, when the two images of the fun or moon'
are made in part to cover one another, that pai;t which
is common to both the images may be mealured with
great exadtnefs, as being viewed upon a ground that
is only one half lefs luminous than itfolf; whereas, in
general, the heavenly bodies are viewed upon a dark
ground, and on that account are imagined to be larger
than they really are. By a fmall addition to this inftru¬
ment, provided it be of a moderate length, M. Bouguer
thought it very pofiible to meafure angles of three or four
degrees; which is of particular confequence in taking the
diftance of ftars from the moon. With this inftrument
M. Bouguer, by repeated obfervation, found, that the
fun’s vertical diameter, tho’ fomewhat diminiihed by the
aftronomical refra&ion, is longer than the horizontal
diameter; and, in afeertaining this phenomenon, he
alfo found, that the upper and lower edges of the fun’s
dife are not fo equally defined as the other parts ; on
this account his image appears fomewhat extended in
the vertical dire&ion. This is owing to the decom-
pofition of light, which is known to confift of rays dif¬
ferently refrangible in its paffage through, our atmo-
fphere. Thus the blue and violet rays, \Uiich proceed,
from the upper part of the difo at the fame time with
thofe of other colours, are fomewhat more refrafted
than the others, and therefore feem to us to have pro¬
ceeded from a higher point; whereas, on the contrary,
the red rays proceeding from the lower edge of the
dife, being lefs refra&ed than the others, feem to proceed .
from a lower point;' fo that the vertical diameter is ex¬
tended, or appears longer, than the horizontal diameter.
Mr Sefvington Savery difeovered a limilar method
of improving the micrometer, which was communicated
to the Royal Society in 1743. See Micrometer.
HELIOPHILA, in botany : A genus of the fili-
quofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
39th order, Siliquofe. There are two nedaria recur-
vated towards the velieular bafe of the calyx.
HELIOPHOBI, a name given to the white ne¬
groes or albinos, from their averfion to the light of
the fun. See Albino.
HELIOPOLIS (anc. geog.), fo called by Hero¬
dotus and Diodorus Siculus, by Mofes On, and in
Jeremiah Bethfenus; city of Egypt, to the fouth-eaft:
of the Delta, and call of Memphis; of a very old
3 C ftanding,
H E L [ 394 ] H E L
Handing, its origin terminating in fable. Here flood
the temple of the fun, held in religious veneration.
The city flood on an extraordinary mount, but in
Strabo’s time was defolate. It gave name to the Nomos
Helifipolitcs.— There was another Heliopolis in Ccelo-
fyria, near the fprings of the Orontes ; fo called from
the worfhip of the fun, which was in great vogue over
all Syria.
HELIOSCOPE, in optics, a fort of telefcope, pe¬
culiarly fitted for viewing the fun without hurting the
eyes. See Telescope.
As the fun may be viewed through coloured glaffes
without hurt to the eyes, if the obje& and eye glaffes of
a telefcope be made of coloured glafe, as red or green,
fuch a telefcope will become an heliofcope.
But Mr Huygens only ufed a plain glafs, blacked
at the flame of a candle on one fide, and placed be¬
tween the eye-glafs and the eye ; which anfwers the
defign of an heliofcope very well.
HELIOSTATA, in optics, ah inftrument invented
by the late learned Dr S. Gravefande; who gave it this
name from its fixing, as it were, the rays of the fun in
an horizontal dire&ion acrofs the dark chamber all the
while it is in ufe. See G;ptics (Index.)
HELIOTROPE {helioiropium), among the ancients,
an inftrument or machine for flowing when the fun
arrived at the tropics and the equinoctial line. This
name was alfo ufed for a fun-dial in general.
Heliotrope is alfo a precious ftone, of a green co¬
lour, ftreaked with red veins. Pliny fays it is thus
called, becaufe, when caft into a veffel of water, the
fun’s rays falling thereon feem to be of a blood colour;
and that, when out of the water, it gives a faint re¬
flexion of the figure of the fun ; and is proper to ob-
ferve eclipfes of the fun as a heliofcope. The helio¬
trope is alfo called oriental jafper, on account of its
ruddy fpots. It is found in the Eaft Indies, as alfo in
Ethiopia, Germany, Bohemia, &c. Some have afcribed
to it the faculty of rendering people invifible, like
Gyges’s ring.
HELIOTROPIUM, turnsole : A genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
41ft order, Hfperifolix. The corolla is falver-fhaped and
quinquefid, withleffer dents interjeXed alternately; the
throat cloftd up by fmall arches formed in the corolla
itfelf. There are a number of fpecies, all of them natives
of warm countries. Only one, called the tricoccum, grows
in Europe; and is a native of France, Spain, and Italy.
It is only remarkable for the property of its berries,
of which an account is given under Colour-Making,
nc36.
HELIX, in geometry, a fpiral line. See Spiral.
•—The word is Greek, '>-4, and literally fignifies “ a
wreath or winding;” of sxiiro-a involvo, li I environ.”
In architeXure, fome authors make a difference be¬
tween the helix and the fpiral. A flair-cafe, accord-
ing to Daviler, is in a helix, or is helical, when the
flairs or fteps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas
the fpiral winds round a cone, and is continually ap¬
proaching nearer and nearer its axis.
Helix is alfo applied, in architeXure, to the cauli-
cules-or little volutes under the flowers of the Corin¬
thian capital; called alfo urilla.
Helix, in anatomy, is the whole circuit or extent
of the auricle or border of the ear outwards. In op*
pofition to which, the inner protuberance furrounded
thereby, and anfwering thereto, is called antbelix. See
Anatomy, n’ 141.
Helix, the Snail, in zoology, a genus belonging
to the order of vermes teftacea. The fhell confilts of
one fpiral, brittle, and almoft diaphanous valve; and
the aperture is narrow. There are 60 fpecies, prin¬
cipally diitingui(lied by* the figure of their (hells. They
aie of various fizes, from that of a fmall apple tolefs
than half a pea. Some of them live on land, frequent¬
ing woods and gardens, or inhabiting clefts of rocks
and dry fand-banks. Others of them are aquatic, in¬
habiting ponds, deep rivers, and the ocean. The prin¬
cipal fpecies are,
1. The janthina, with a violet-coloured (hell, is re¬
markable for the extreme thinr.efs of its texture, which
breaks with the lead prefi’ure, and feems therefore en¬
tirely calculated to keep the open fea, or at leafi to fhun
rocky fliores. It inhabits the feas of Europe, efpe-
cially the Mediterranean ; thofe of Alia and Africa ;
and alfo the ocean. The living animal, when touched,
exfudes a juice which ftains the hands of a violet colour.
Dr Hawkefworth, in his account of Cooke’s voyage,
miflakes this fhell for that which yielded the purpura
of the ancients. But whoever looks into Pliny, can
never have the leaft idea that the thin fhell aforemen¬
tioned could be the fame with it. They had feveral
(hells which yielded the purple dye: but thefe were all
rock-(hells *, and very different both in figure and‘See Bk«-
hardnefs from the little helix jacintha ; which is not cinum ami
calculated for the neighbourhood of rocks, as already M*™*-
mentioned. Vid. Plin. lib. v. cap. 1. and lib. ix. cap. 60,
61. See alfo Don Ant. Ulloa’s Voyage to South A-
merica. book iv. ch. 8.
2. The pomatia, or exotic fnail, with five fpires,
mofi remarkably ventricofe, and fafeiated with a lighter
and a deeper brown, is a native of France, where
it inhabits the woods; but has been naturalized in
England, where it inhabits the woods of the fouthern
counties. It was introduced, as it is faid, by Sir
Kenelm Digby ; whether for medical purpofes, or as
food, is uncertain : tradition fays, that to cure his be¬
loved wife of a decay was the objeX. They are quite
confined to our fouthern counties. An attempt was
made to bring them into Northampton (hire, but they
would not live there.—Thefe are ufed as a food in feveral
parts of Europe during Lent; and are preferved in an
efcargatoire, or a large place boarded in, with a floor
covered half a foot deep with herbs, in which the fnails
neftle and fatten f.—They were alfo a favourite di(h
with the Romans,"who had their cochlearia, a nurfery rdv' 272‘
fimilar to the above. Fulvius Hirpinus J was the firft 1 Pliny,l.x.
inventor of this luxury, a little before the civil warsc •56>
between Cssfar and Pompey. The fnails were fed with
bran and fodden wine. If we could credit Varro ||, ||,I*
they grew fo large, that the (hells of fome would hokH *4-
ten quarts! People need not admire the temperance
of the fupper of the younger Pliny §, which confided 5 Epift.xv,
of only a lettuce a-piece, three fnails, two eggs, a
barley cake, fweet wine and fnow,—in cafe his fnails
bore any proportion in fize to thofe of Hirpinus.—Its
name is derived not from any thing relating to an
orchard, but from »•«,*«, an operculum, it having a very
ftrong one. This feems to be the fpecies defenbed by
H EX, L 39? 1 H E L
PUny, Ub. viii. c. 39. which he fays was fcarce 5 that
it covered itfelf with the opercle, and lodged under
ground ; and that they were at full found only about
the maritime Alps, and more lately near Velitrx. [See
Plate CCXXXIV. the figure half the natural fize.]
3. Thehortenfis, or garden-fnail^ is in form like the
laft, but lefs, and not umbilicated and clouded, or
mottled with browns. It abounds with a vifcid flimy
juice, which it readily gives out by boiling in milk or
water, fo as to render them thick and glutinous. The
decoctions in milk are apparently very nutritious and
demulcent, and have been recommended in a thin acri-
monimis ftate of the humours, in confumptive cafes and
emaciations.
The eyes of fnails are lodged in their horns, one at
the end of each horn, which they can retradl at plea-
fure. The manner of examining thefe eyes, which are
four in number, is this: when the horns are out, cut
off nimbly the extremity of one of them ; and placing
it before the microfcope, you may difcover the black
fpot at the end to be really a femiglobular eye.—The
diffe&ion of this animal is very curious; for by this
means the microfcope not only difcovers the heart
beating juft againft the round hole near the neck, which
feems the place of refpiration, but alfo the liver, fpleen,
ftomach, and inteftines, with the veins, arteries, mouth,
and teeth, are plainly obfervable. The guts of this
creature are green, from its eating of herbs, and are
branched all over with fine capillary white veins : the
mouth is like a hare’s or rabbit’s, with four or fix
needle-teeth, refembling thofe of leeches, and of a fub-
ftance like horn.—Snails are all hermaphrodites, having
both fexes united in each individual. They lay their
eggs with great care in the earth, and the young ones
are hatched with Ihells completely formed. Cutting
off a fnail’s head, a little (tone appears, which is fup-
pofed to be a great dieuretic, and good in all nephritic
diforders. Immediately under this ftone the heart is
feen beating; and the auricles are evidently diftinguffh-
able, and are membranous, and of a white colour; as
are alfo the veffels which proceed from them.
Snails difeharge their excrements at a hole in their
neck ; they alfo breathe by this bole, and their parts
of generation are fituated very near it. The penis is very
long, and in (hape refembles that of a whale. In the
procefs of generation, it has been obferved, that with
the male and female part there iffues, at the aperture
of the neck, a kind of fpear, flraped like the head of
a lance, and terminating in a very acute point: and
when the two fnails turn the clefts in their necks to¬
wards each other, the fpear iffuing from one pricks the
other, and then either drops to the ground or is carried
off by the fnail it has pricked. This fnail inftantly
withdraws, but foon after rejoins the other, which it
pricks in its turn; and after 1'uch mutual pun&ure, the
copulation never fails of being confummated. Snails
are faid to couple three times at the diftance of about
fifteen days from each other, nature producing a new
fpear for each time of copulation, which lafts ten or
twelve hours. At the eiid of about eighteen days they
bring forth their eggs by the aperture of their neck.
So fmall an animal as the fnail is not free from the
plague of fupporting other fmaller animals on its body;
and as in other animals we find thefe fecondary ones
either living only on their furface, as lice, &c. or only
in the inteftines, as worms, it is very remarkable that He!!,
this creature infefts the fnail in both thefe manners; —-v—■
being found fometimes on the furface of its body and
fometimes within its inteftines. There is a part of the
common garden fnail, and of other of the like kinds,
commonly called the collar. This furrounds the neck
of the fnail, and is confiderably thick, and is the only
part that is vifible when the animal is retired quietly
into its (hell. In this ftate of the animal thefe infeds
which infeft it are ufually feen in confiderable numbers
marching about very nimbly on this part: befides, the
fnail, every time it has occafion to open its anus, gives
them a place by which to enter into its inteftines, and
they often feize the opportunity.
Snails are great deftroyers of fruit in our gardens,
efpecially the better forts of wall-fruit. Lime and
allies fprinkled on the ground where they moft refort
will drive them away, and deftroy the young brood of
them: it is a common pra&ice to pull off the fruit
they have bitten ; but this (hould never be done, for
they will eat no other till they have wholly eat up this
if it be left for them.
HELL, the place of divine punilhment after death.
As all religions have fuppofed a future ftate of exift-
ence after this life, fo all have their hell or place of
torment in which the wicked are fuppofed to be pu-
niflied. The hell of the ancient heathens was divided
into two manfions; the one called Elyjium, on the right
hand, pleafant and delightful, appointed for the fouls
of good men; the other called Tartara, on the left, a
-region of mifery and torment appointed for the wicked.
The latter only was hell, in the prefent reftrained fenfc
of the word. See Elysium.
The philofophers were of opinion, that the infernal
regions were at an equal diftance from all the parts of
the earth ; neverthelefs it was the opinion of fome,
that there were certain paffages which led thither, as
the river Lethe near the Syrtes, and the Acherufian
cave in Epirus. At Ele'rmoine it was thought, that
there was a very ftiort way to hell; for which reafon
the people of that country never put the fare into the
mouths of the dead to pay their paffage.
The Jews placed hell in the centre of the earth,
and believed it to be fituated under waters and moun¬
tains. According to them, there are three paffages
leading to it: the firft is in the wildernefs, and by that
Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, defeended into hell;
the fecond is in the Tea, becaufe Jonah, who was
thrown into the fea, cried to God out of the belly of
hell; the third is in Jerufalem, becaufe it is faid the
fire of the Lord is in Zion, and his furnace is in Je¬
rufalem. They likewife acknowledged feven degrees
of pain in hell, becaufe they find this place called by
feven different names in feripture. Though they be¬
lieved that infidels, and perfons eminently wicked, will
continue for ever in hell; yet they maintained, that
every Jew who is not infefted with fome herefy, and
has not a&ed contrary to the points mentioned by the
rabbins, will not be punifhed therein for any other
crimes above a year at moft.
The Mahometans believe the eternity of rewards and
punilhments in another life. In the Koran it is faid,
that hell has feven gates, the firft for the Muffulmans,
the fecond for the Chriftians, the third for the Jews,
the fourth for the Sabians, the fifth for the Magians,
3 C 2 the
H E L r 396 ] H E L
Hell, the fixth for the Pagans, and the feventh for the hy-
II pocrites of all religions.
He e‘ Among Chriftians, there are two controverted que-
ftions in regard to hell; the one concerns locality, the
other the duration of its torments. 1. The locality of
hell, and the reality of its fire, began nrft to be con¬
troverted by Origen. That father, interpreting the
fcripture account metaphorically, makes hell to confift,
not in external puniihmentg, but in a confcioufnefs or
fenfe of guilt, and a remembrance of paft pleafures.
Among the moderns, Mr Whiflon advanced a new
hypothefis. According to him, the comets are fo
many hells appointed in their orbits alternately to car¬
ry the damned into the confines of the fun, there to
be fcorched by its violent heat, and then to return
with them beyond the orb of Saturn, there to ftarve
them in thefe cold and diimal regions. Another mo¬
dern author, not fatisfied with any hypothefis hither¬
to advanced, affigns the fun to be the local hell. 2. As
to the fecond quettion, viz. the duration of hell tor¬
ments, we have Origen again at the head of thofe
who deny that they are eternal; it being that father’s
opinion, that not only men, but devils, after a due
courfe of punifhment luitable to their refpedtive crimes,
lhall be pardoned and reftored to heaven. The chief
principle upon which Origen built his opinion, was the
nature of punilhment, which he took to be emenda-
tory, applied only as phyfic for the recovery of the
patient’s health. The chief objeftion to the eternity*
of hell torments among modern writers, is the difpro-
portion between temporary crimes and eternal pu-
nilhments. Thofe who maintain the affirmative,
ground their opinions on fcripture accounts, which
reprefent the pains of hell under the fighre of a worm
which never dies, and a fire which is not quenched ;
as alfo upon the words, “ Thefe lhall go away into
everlafting punilhment, but the righteous into life
eternal.”
HELL ANICUS of Mitylene, a celebrated Grdek
hillorian, born before Herodotus, floijrilhed about
480 B. C. He wrote a hiftory of the ancient kings
and founders of cities, but which hath not come down
to us.
HELLAS, (anc. geog.), an appellation comprifing,
according to the more ancient Greeks and Romans,
Achaia and Peloponnefus, but afterwards reftrained to
Achaia. It was bounded on the weft by the river
Achelous, on the north by mounts Othrys and Ofta,
on the eaft by the Egean fea, and on the fouth by the
Saronic and Corinthian bays, and by the ifthmus
which joins it to Pelopohnefus. It was called Hellas,
from Hellen the fon of Deucalion ; or from Hellas, a
diftrift of Theffaly ; whence Hellenes' the gentilitious
name, denoting Greeks. Now called Liyadia.
HELLE, (fab. hift.) a daughter of Athamas king
of Thebes by Nephele. She fled from her father’s
houfe with her brother Phryxus, to avoid the cruel
oppreffion of her mother-in-law Ino. According to
fome accounts Hie was carried through the air on a gold¬
en ram which her mother had received from Neptune,
and in her paffage Ihe became giddy and fell from her
feat into that part of the fea which from her received the
name of Hellefpont. Others fay that fhe was carried
on a cloud, or rather upon a Ihip, from which Ihe fell
into the fea and was drowned. . Phryxus, after he had
given his filler a burial on the neifrhbouring coafts, Hellebore,
purfued his journey and arrived in Colchis. Helleborut*
HELLEBORE. See Helleborus.  *  
White- HRLLKBORE. See VeRATRUM.
HELLEBORUS, hellebore: A genus of the
polygynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
26th order, Mult'ifiliqme. There is no calyx ; but five
or more petals; the ne&aria are bilabiated and tubu¬
lar ; the capfules polyfpermous, and a little eredt.
Species. The moft remarkable fpecies of this plant
is the niger, commonly called Chrtjlmas rofe. It hath
roots compofed of many thick flelhy fpreading fibres,
crowned by a large clutter of lobed leaves, confifting
each of feven or eight obtufe flelhy lobes, united to
one foot-ftalk ; and between the leaves feveral thick
flelhy flower-ftalks three or four inches high, furmount-
ed by large beautiful white flowers of five roundifh pe¬
tals, and numerous filaments, appearing in winter, a-
bout or foon after Chriftmas.
Culture. This plant may be propagated either by
feeds or parting the roots, ft profpers in the open
borders, or may be planted in pots to move when in
bloom in order to adorn any particular place; but it
alway flowers faireft and moft abundantly in the front
of a warm funny border. The plants may be remo¬
ved, and the roots divided for propagation, in Sep¬
tember, Odtober, or November; but the fooner in au¬
tumn it is done, the ftronger will the plants flower at
their proper feafon.
Ufts. The root of this plant was anciently ufed as
a cathartic. The tafte of it is acrid and bitter. Its
acrimony, as Dr Grew obferves, is firft felt on the tip
of the tongue, and then fpreads itfelf immediately to
the middle, without being much>perceived in the inter¬
mediate part. On chewing the root for a few minutes,
the tongue feems benumbed, and affedted with a kind
of paralytic ftupor, as when burnt by eating any thing
too hot. The fibres are more acrimonious than the
head of the root from whence they ilfue. 'Black hel¬
lebore root, taken from 15 to 30 grains, proves a llrong
cathartic ; and, as fuch, has been celebrated for the
cure of maniacal and other difordeis proceeding from
what the ancients called the atrabilis; in which cafes,
medicines of this kind are doubtlefs occafionally of ufe,
though they are by no means pofleffed of any fpecific
power. It does not however appear, that our black
hellebore ails with fo much violence as that of the an¬
cients ; whence many have fuppofed it to be a diffe¬
rent fpecies of plant: and indeed the deferiptions
which the ancients have left us of their hellebore, do
not agree w ith thofe of any of the forts ufually taken
notice of by modern botanifts. Another fpecies has
been difeovered in the eaftern countries, which Tourne-
fort diftinguiflies by the name of helleborus niger orien-
talis, ampliffinw folio, caule preealto, fore purpurafeente,
and fuppofes to be the true ancient hellebore, from its
growing in plenty about mount Olympus, and in the
ifland of Anticyra, celebrated of old for the produc¬
tion of this antimaniacal drug: he relates, that a fcruple
of this fort, given for a dofe, occafioned convulfions.—
Our hellebore is at prefent looked upon principally as
an alterative; and in this light is frequently employed,
in fmall dofes, for attenuating vifeid humours, promo¬
ting the uterine and urinary difeharges, and opening
inve-
H E L l 397 ] H E L
Hellen inveterate obfiruftions of the remoter glands. It often
if Hell no Provt8 a Powerful emmenagogue in plethoric habits,
I dica,°* w^ere *8 ineffedfual or improper. In fome parts
/ v—^„ of Germany, a fpecies of black hellebore has been
made ufe of, which frequently produced violent, and
fometimes 'deleterious, effe&s. It appears to be the
fetid kind of Linnaeus, called in Englifh fettlenvcrt,fet-
terivorl, or bajlard hellebore. The roots of this may be
diftinguifhed from thofe of the true kind, by their be¬
ing lefs black.
HELLEN, the fon of Deucalion, is faid to have
given the name of Hellenifts to the people before called
Greeks, 1521 B. C. See Greece.
HELLENISM, in matters of language, a phrafe in
the idiom, genius, or conltrudtion of the Greek tongue.
This word is only ufed when fpeaking of the au¬
thors who, writing in a different language, exprefs
thenifelves in a phrafeology peculiar to the Greek.
HELLENISTIC language, that ufed by the
Grecian Jews who lived in Egypt and other parts where
the Greek tongue prevailed. In this language it is
faid the Septuagint was written, and alfo the books
of the New Teftament; and that it was thus denomi¬
nated to (how that it was Greek filled, with Hebraifms
and Syriacifms.
HELLENISTS (Hellenijlie), a term occurring in
the Greek text of the New Teftament, and which in
the Englifh verfion is rendered Grecians.
The critics are divided as to the fignification of the
word. (Ecumenius, in his Scholia on Adis vi. 1. ob-
ferves, that it is not to be underftood as fignifying thofe
of the religion of the Greeks, but thofe who fpoke
Greek, Tvr i-KKimqi rfiyluniyvi. The authors of the Vul¬
gate verfion, indeed, render it like ours, Graci; but
MeffieursDu Port Royal more accurately, Juifs Greet,
Greek or Grecian Jews; it being the Jews who fpoke
Greek that are here treated of, and who are hereby
diftinguifhed from the Jews called Hebrews, that is,
who fpoke the Hebrew tongue of that time.
The Helleniils, or Grecian Jews, were thofe who
lived in Egypt and other parts where the Greek tongue
prevailed. It is to them we owe the Greek verfion of
the Old Teftament, commonly called the Septuagint, or
that of the feventy.
Salmafius and Voftius are of a different fentiment
with regard to the Hellenifts. The latter will only have
them to be thofe who adhered to the Grecian interefts.
Scaliger is reprefented, in the Scaligerana, as affert-
ing the Hellenifts to be the Jews who lived in Greece
and other places, and who read the Greek Bible in
their fynagogue, and uf<d the Greek language in fa-
cris ; and thus they were oppofed to the Hebrew Jews,
who performed their public worfhip in the Hebrew
tongue ; and in this fenfe St Paul fpeaks of himfelf
as a Hebrew of the Hebrews, Phil. iii. 5. i. e. a He¬
brew both by nation and language. The Hellenifts
are thus properly diftinguifhed from the Hellenes or
Greeks, mentioned John xii. 20. who were Greeks
by birth and nation, and yet profelytes to the Jewifh
religion.
HELLENODICiE, eax»»oJ(x«i, ;n antiquity, the
directors of the Olympian games. At firft there was
only one,,afterw&rds the number increafed to two and
to three, and at length to nine. They affembled in a
place called in the Elean forum, where
they were obliged to refide ten months before the ce- Hellefpont
lebration of the games, to take care that fuch as offer- A
ed themfelves to contend, performed their rugoyo/^iatur,. Helrn' ,
’■«. or preparatory exercifes, and to be inftru&ed in all v ~
the laws of games by certain men called J. e.
“ keepers of the laws.” And the better to prevent all
unjuft pradices, they were farther obliged to take an
oath, that they would ad impartially, would take no
bribes, nor difeover the reafon for which they difliked
or approved of any of the contenders. At the fulem-
nity they fat naked, having before them the vidorial
crown till the exercifes were finifhed, and then it was
prefented to whomfbever they adjudged it. Neverthe-
lefs, there lay an appeal from the hellenodicae to the
Olympian fenate.
HELLESPONT, a narrow ftrait between Afia and
Europe, near the Propontis, which received its name
from Helle who was drowned there in her voyage to
Colchis. It is celebrated for the love and death of
Leander, and for the bridge of boats which Xerxes
built over it when he invaded Greece. The folly of this
great prince is well known in beating and fettering the
waves of the fea, whofe impetuofity fettered his fliips,
and rendered all his labours ineffedual. It is now
called the Dardanelles. It is about 33 miles long, and
in the broadeft parts the Afiatic coaft is about one mile
and a half dillant from the European, and only half
a mile in the narrowtft, according to modern invefti-
gation, and the cocks are heard crowing from the op-
pofite rtiores.
HELLEN'S (St) a town of the Ifle of Wight, in
Eaft-Medina, has a bay which runs a confiderable way
within land, and in a war with France is often the
ftation and place of rendezvous for the royal navy. At
the mouth of the bay is that clufter of rocks called the
Mixen. It had an old church fituated at the extre¬
mity of the coaft, which was endangered to be waflied
away, as was a great part of the church-yard, which
occafioned a new church to be built in 1719. The
priory to which the old church belonged is now-
converted into a gentleman’s feat; is in a remarkably
pleafant fituation, and commands a fine profpe& of
Portfmouth and the Road at Spithead. St Helen’s
appears to have been of more confideration in former
times than at prefent.
HELM, a long and flat piece of timber, or an af-
femblage of feveral pieces, fufpended along the hind-
part of a flop’s ftern-poft, where it turns upon hinges
to the right or left, ferving to dire£t the courfe of the
veffel, as the tail of a filh guides the body.
The helm is ufually compofed of three parts, viz. the
rudder, the tiller, and the wheel, except in fmall vef-
fels, where the wheel is unneceffary.
As to the form of the rudder, it becomes gradually
broader in proportion to its diftance from the top, or
to its depth under the water. The back, or inner part
of it, which joins to the ftern-poft, is diminilhed into
the form of a wedge throughout its whole length, fo
as that the rudder may be more eafily turned from one
fide to the other, where it makes an obtufe angle with
the keel. It is fupported upon hinges; of which thofe
that are bolted round the ftern-poft to the after-ex¬
tremity of the ftiip, are called googings', and are fur-
nilhed with a large hole on the after-part of the ftern-
poft. The other’ parts of the hinges, which are bolted-
to
H E L [ 398 ] H E L
Helm, to the back of the rudder, are called fintlesy being
ftrong cylindrical pins, which enter into the googings,
and reft upon them. The length and thicknefs of the
rudder is nearly equal to that of the ttern-poft.
The rudder is turned upon its hinges by means of a
long bar of timber, called the tiller, which is fixed ho¬
rizontally in its upper end within the veffel. The
movements of the tiller to the right and left, accord¬
ingly, direft the efforts of the ruder to the govern¬
ment of the fhip’s courfe as (he advances; which, in
the fea-language, is called fleering. The operations of
the tiller are guided and affifted by a fort of tackle,
communicating with the (hip’s fide, called the tiller-
rope, which is ufually compofed of untarred rope yarns
for the purpofe of travelling more readily through the
blocks or pullies.
In order to facilitate the management of the helm,
the tiller-roptfi in all large veffels, is wound about a
wheel, which afts upon it w-ith the powers of a crane
or wirrdlafa. The rope employed in this fervice being
conveyed from the fore-end of the tiller k, to a fingle
block i, on each fide of the (hipf, is farther commu-
‘ ' nicated to the wheel, by means of two blocks fuf-
pended near the mizen maft, and two holes immediate¬
ly above, leading up to the wheel, which is fixed upon
an axis on the quarter-deck, almoft perpendicularly
over the fore-end of the tiller. Five turns of the tiller-
rope are ufually wound about the barrel of the wheel;
and, when the helm is amidihip, the middle turn is
nailed to the top of the barrel, with a mark by which
the helmfman readily difeovers the fituation of the
helm, as the wheel turns it from the (larboard to the
larboard fide. Tfle fpokes of the wheel generally
reach about eight inches beyond the rim or circumfe¬
rence, ferving as handles to the perfon who (leers the
veffel. As the effeA of a lever increafes in propor¬
tion to the length of its arm, it is evident that the
power of the helmfman to turn the wheel will be in-
creafed according to the length of the fpokes beyond
the circumference of the barrel.
Plate When the helm, inftead of lying in a right line
CCXXVI. the keelj ;s turned to one fide or the other, as
in BD, fig. l. it receives an immediate (hock from
the water, which glides along the (hip’s bottom in
running aft from A to B ; and this fluid pu(hes it
towards the oppofite fide, whilft it is retained in this
pofition: fo that the (tern, to which the rudder is con¬
fined, receives the fame imprellion, and accordingly
turns from B to £ about fome point c, whilft the head
of the (hip paffes from A to a. It muft be obferved,
that the current of water falls upon the rudder oblique¬
ly, and only ftrikes it with that part of its motion
which a&s according to the fine of incidence, puihing
it in the dire&ion NP, with a force which not only
depends on the velocity of the (hip’s courfe, by which
this current of water is produced, but alfo upon the
extent of the fine of incidence. This force is by con-
fequence compofed of the fquare of the velocity with
which the (hip advances, and the fquare of the fine of
incidence, which will neceffarily be greater or fmaller
according to circumftances; fo that if the veffel runs
three or four times more fwlftly, the abfolute (hock of
the water upon the rudder will be nine or 16 times
ftronger under the fame incidence : and, if the inci¬
dence is increafed, it will yet be augmented in a greater
proportion, beeaufe the fquare of the fine of incidence
is more enlarged. This imprefiion, or, what is the
fame thing, the power of the helm, is always very
feeble, when compared with the weight of the veffel;
but as it operates with the force of a long lever, ita
efforts to turn the (hip are extremely advantageous.
For the helm being applied to a great diftance from
the centre of gravity G, or from the point about which
the veffel turns horizontally, if the direction PN of the
impreffion of the water upon the rudder be prolonged,
it is evident that it will pafs perpendicularly to R,
widely diftant from the centre of gravity G : thus the
abfolute effort of the water is very powerful. It is not
therefore furprifing, that this machine impreffes the
(hip with a confiderable circular movement, by pufhing
the (lern from B to b, and the head from A to a; and
even much farther whilft (he fails with rapidity, becaufe
the effedl of the helm always keeps pace with the velo¬
city with which the veffel advances.
Amongft the feveral angles that the rudder makra.
with the keel, there is always one pofition more fa¬
vourable than any of the others, as it more readily pro¬
duces the ddired effedt of turning the (hip, in order to
change her courfe. To afeettain this, it,muft be con*
fidered, that if the obliquity of the rudder with the
keel is greater than the obtufe angle ABD, fo as to
diminifh that angle, the adtion of the water upon the
rudder will increafe, and at the fame time oppofe the
courfe of the (hip in a greater degree; becaufe the
angle of incidence will be more open, fo as to prefent
a greater furface to the (hock of the water, by oppo-
fing its paffage more perpendicularly. But at that time
the direction NP of the efforfc of the helm upon the
(hip will pafs with a fmaller diftance from the centre
of gravity G towards R, and lefs approach the per¬
pendicular NL, according to which it is abfolutely ne-
ceffary that the power applied fhould adl with a greater
effedl to turn the veffel. Thus it is evident, that if
the obtufe angle ABD is too much inclofed, the great-
eft impulfe of the water will not counterbalance the
lofs fuftained by the diftance of the diredlion NP from
NL, or by the great obliquity which is given to the
fame diredlion NP of the abfolute effort of the helm
with the keel AB. If, on the contrary, the angle
ABD is too much opened, the direction NP of the
force of the adlion of the helm will become more ad¬
vantageous to turn the veffel, becaufe it will approach
nearer the perpendicular NL; fo that the line pro¬
longed from NP will increafe the line GR, by remo¬
ving R to a greater diftance from the centre of gra¬
vity G : but then the helm will receive the impreffion
of the water too obliquely, for the angle of incidence
will be more acute; fo that it will only prefent a
fmall portion of its breadth to the (hock of the wa¬
ter, and by confequence will only receive a feeble ef¬
fort. By this principle it is eafy to conceive, that
the greateft diftance GR from the centre of gravity
G, is not fufficient to repair the diminution of force
occafioned by the too great obliquity of the (hock
of the water. Hence we may conclude, that when the
water either ftrikes the helm too diredtly, or too ob¬
liquely, it lofes a great deal of the effedl it ought to
produce. Between the two extremes there is there-
/
H E L
H«!m. fore a mean pofition, which is the moft favourable to
its operations.
The diagonal NP of the re&angle IL; reprefents the
abfolutc direftion of the effort of the water upon the
helm. NI expreffes the portion of this effort which is
oppofed to the fhip’s head-way, or which pufhes her
atlern, in a dire&ion parallel to the keel. It is eafily
perceived, that this part NI of the whole power of the
helm contributes but little to turn the veffti; for, if IN
is prolonged, it appears that its direction approaches
to a very fmall diftance GV from the centre of gravity
Gj and that the arm of the lever BN==GV, to which
tlie force is applied, is not in the whole more than
equal to half the breadth of the rudder ; but the rela¬
tive force NL, which adts perpendicular to the keel,
is extremely different. If the firft NI is almoft ufelefs,
and even pernicious, by retarding the velocity ; the
fecond NL is capable of a very great effeft, becaufe it
operates at a confiderable diftance from the centre of
gravity G of the fhip, and adts upon the arm of a le¬
ver GE, which is very long. Thus it appears, that
between the effedts NL and NI, which refult from the
abfolute effort NP, there is one which always oppofes
the (hip’s courfe, and contributes little to her motion
of turning ; whiift the other produces only this move¬
ment of rotation, without operating to retard her ve¬
locity.
Geometricians have determined the moft advantage¬
ous angle made by the helm with the line prolonged
from the keel, and fixed it at 540 44', prefuming that
the fhip is as narrow at her floating-line, or at the line
deferibed by the furface of the water round her bot¬
tom, as at the keel. But as this fuppofition is abfo-
lutely falfe, inafmuch as all veffels augment their
breadth from the keel upward to the extreme breadth,
where the floating-line or the higheft water-line is ter¬
minated ; it follows, that this angle is too large by a
certain number of degrees. For the rudder is impref-
fed by the water, at the height of the floating line,
more diredfly than at the keel, becaufe the fluid exadfly
follows the horizontal outlines of the bottom ; fo that
a particular pofition of the helm might be fuppofed
neceffary for each different incidence which it encoun¬
ters from the keel upwards. But as a middle pofition
may be taken between all thefe points, it will be fuffi-
cient to confider the angle formed by the fides of the
fhip, and her axis, or the middle-line of her length, at
the furface of the water, in order to determine after¬
wards the mean point, and the mean angle of inci¬
dence.
It is evident that the angle 540 44' is too open, and
very unfavourable to the fhip’s head-way, becaufe the
water aifts upon the rudder there with too great a fine
of incidence, as being equal to that of the angle which
it makes with the line prolonged from the keel below :
but above, the fhock of the water is almoft perpendi¬
cular to the rudder, becaufe of the breadth of the bot¬
tom, as we have already remarked. If then the rud¬
der is only oppofed to the fluid, by making an angle
of 450 with the line prolonged from the keel, the im-
preffion, by becoming weaker, will be lefs oppofed to
the fhip’s head-way, and the direction NP of the
abfolute effort of the water upon the helm drawing
nearer to the lateral perpendicular, will be placed mere
advantageoufly, for the reafons above mentioned. On
H E L
the other hand, experience daily teftifies, that a fliip
fleers well when the rudder makes the angle DBE e-
qual to 350 only.
It has been already remarked, that the effedt of
moving the wheel to govern the helm increafes in pro¬
portion to the length 6f the fpokes; and fo great is
the power of the wheel, that if the helmfman employs
a force upon its fpokes equivalent to 30 pounds, it
will produce an effect of 90 or 120 pounds upon the
tiller. On the contrary, the adtion of the water is col-
ledted into the middle of the breadth of the rudder,
which is very narrow in edmparifon with the length of
the tiller; fo the effort of the water is-very little re¬
moved from the fulcrum B upon which it turns; where¬
as the tiller forms the arm of a lever 10 or 15 times
longer, which alfo increafes the power of the helmfman
in the fame proportion that the tiller bears to the lever
upon which the impulfe of the water is diredfed. This
force then is by confequence 10 or 15 times ftronger;
and the effort of 30 pounds, which at firft gave the
helmfman a power equal to 90 or 120 pounds, becomes
accumulated to one of 900 or 1800 pounds upon the
rudder. This advantage then arifes from the fhortnefs
of the lever upon which the adtion of the water is im-
preffed, and the great comparative length of the tiller,
or lever, by which the rudder is governed; together
with the additional power of the wheel that diredts the
movements of the tiller, and ftill farther accumulates
the power of the helmfman over it. Such a demon-
ftration ought to remove the furprife with which the
prodigious effedt of the helm is fometimes confidered,
from an inattention to its mechanifm : for we need only
to obferve the preffure of the water, which adts at a
great diftance from the centre of gravity G, about
which the fhip is fuppofed to turn, and we (hall eafily
perceive the difference there is between the effort of
the water ■againft the helmfman, and the effedt of the
fame impulfe againft the veffel. With regard to the
perfon who fleers, the water adts only with the arm of
a very fhort lever NB, of which B is the fulcrum : on
the contrary, with regard to the fhip, the force of the
water is imprefled in the diredtion NP, which paffes to
a great diltance from G, and adts upon a very long
lever EG, which renders the adtion of the rudder ex¬
tremely powerful in turning the veffel; fo that, in a
large (hip, the rudder receives a fhock from the water
of 2700 or 2800 pounds, which is frequently the cafe
when {he fails at the rate of three or four leagues by
the hour; and this force being applied in E, perhaps
100 or no feet diftant fromthe centre of gravity G,
will operate upon the (hip, to turn her about, with
270,000 or 308,000 pounds; whiift, in the latter cafe,
the helmfman adfs with an effort which exceeds not 30
pounds upon the fpokes of the wheel.
After what has been faid of the helm, it is eafy to
judge, that the more a (hip increafes her velocity with
regard to the fea, the more powerful will be the effedt
of the rudder; becaufe it a&s againft the water with a
force, which increafes as the fquare of the fwiftnefs of
the fluid, whether the fhip advances or retreats ; or, in
other words, whether fhe has head way or ftern-way ;
with this diftindtion, that in thefe two circumftances
the effedts will be contrary. For if the veffel retreats,
or moves aftern, the helm will be impreffed from 1 to
N; and inilead of being pufhed, according to NP, it
5 will
I 3S9 1
H E L L 400 ] H E L
will receive the effort of the water from N towards R ;
fo that the ftern will be tranfported to the fame
movement, and the head turned in a contrary direc¬
tion.
When the helm operates by itfelf, the centre of ro¬
tation of the fhip, and her movement, are determined
by eftimating the force of this machine ; that is to fay,
by multiplying the furface of the rudder by the fquare
of the (hip’s velocity.
There are feveral terms in the fea-language relating
to the helm ; as, Bear up the helm; that is, Let the
fhip go more large before the wind. Helm a mid-Jhip,
or right the helm : that is, Keep it even with the mid¬
dle of the fhip. Port the helm, Put it over the left fide
of the fhip. Starboard the helm, Put it on the right fide
of the fhip.
HELMET, an ancient defenfive armour worn by
horfemen both in war and in tournaments. It co¬
vered both the head and face, only leaving an a-
percure in the front fecured by bars, which was called
the vifor.
In atchievements, it is placed above the efcutcheon
for the principal ornament, and is the true mark of
chivalry and nobility. Helmets vary according to the
different degrees of thofe who bear them. They are al-
fo ufed as a bearing in coats of arms. See Heraldry.
HELMINTHOLITHUS, in natural hiftory, a
name given by Linnaeus to petrified bodies refembling
worms.
Of thefe he reckons four genera, t . Petrified li-
thophyta, found in the mountains of Sweden. 2. Pe¬
trified (hells. 3. Petrified zoophytes. 4. Petrified
reptiles.
HELMONT (John Baptift Van), a celebrated
Flemilh gentleman, was born at Bruffels in 1577. He
acquired fueh (kill in natural philofophy, phyfic, and
chemiftry, that he was accounted a magician, and
thrown into the inquifition : but having with difficul¬
ty juftified himfelf, as foon as he was releafed he retired
to Holland; where he died in 1644. He publifhed,
l. De magnelica corporum curatione. 2. Febrium doBrina
inaiidita. 3. Ortus medidnje. 4. Parodoxa de aquis
fpadanis ; and other works, printed together in one vo¬
lume folio.
Helmont, a fmalltown in the Netherlands, in Dutch
Brabant, and capital of the diflridt of Peeland, with a
good catlle. It is feated on the river Aa, in E. Long.
5. 37. N. Lat. 51. 31-
HELMSTADT, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Brunfwick, built by Charlemagne, in E. Long. 1 1.
1 o. N. Lat. 52. 20.
HeImstadt, a ftrong maritime town of Sweden,
and capital of the province of Holland, feated near
the Baltic Sea; in E. Long. 21. 5. N. Lat. 56. 44.
HELONIAS, in botany : A genus of the trigynia
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 10th order,
Corona rid. The corolla is hexapetalous; there is no
calyx ; and the capfule is trilocular.
HELOISE, famous for her unfortunate affeftion
for her tutor Abelard, and for her Latin letters to .him
after they had retired from the world. She died abbefs
of Paraclet in 1163. See Abelard.
HELOS, (anc. geog.), a maritime town of La¬
conia, fituated between Trinafus and Acrise, in Pau-
N° 150.
fanias’s time in ruins. The diftri£k was called Helotea, Helot*
and the people Helotes, Helota, Held, and Hcleat*, U •
by Stephanus ; and Ilota, by Livy. Being fubdued Helvetic.^
by the Lacedaemonians, they were all reduced to a ^ '
ftate of public flavery, or made the (laves of the public,
on thefe conditions, viz. that they neither could re¬
cover their liberty nor be fold out of the territory of
Sparta. Hence the term in Harpocration,
for being in a ftate of flavery ; and hence alfo the La¬
cedaemonians called the flaves of all nations whatever
helotes. Heloticus is the epithet.
HELOTS, in Grecian antiquity, the flaves of the
Spartans. See Helos.—The freemen of Sparta were
forbidden the exercife of any mean or mechanical em¬
ployment, and therefore the whole care of fupplying
the city with neceffaries devolved upon the Helots.
HELSINBURG. See Elsimburg.
HELSINGIA, a province of Sweden, bounded on
the north by Jempterland and Medelpadia, on the eaft
by the Bothnia gulf, and on the fouth and weft by
Dalecarlia and Geftricia. It is full of mountains and
forefts, and the inhabitants are almoft conftantly em¬
ployed in hunting and filhing. It has no cities : the
principal towns are, Hudwickvald, Alta, and Dilfbo.
HELSINGIC character, a peculiar kind of cha-
racfter found infcribed on ftones in the province of Hel-
lingia. The Runic and Helfingic charadters may be
eafily transformed into each other.
HELSTON, a town of Cornwall in England, feat¬
ed on the river Cober, near its influx into the fea. It
is one of thofe appointed for the coinage of tin, and the
place of affembly for the weft divifion of the {hire. By
a grant of Edward III. it has a market on Saturday,
and fairs on March 13th, July 20th, September 9th,
November 8th, the fecond Saturday before St Thomas’s
day, and the Saturday before Midlent-Sunday, Palm-
Sunday, and Whit-Monday. It had formerly a priory
and a caftle, and fent members to parliament in the
reign of Edward I. but was not incorporated till the
27th of queen Elizabeth, who appointed a mayor, to
be chofen on September 29. and four aldermen, who
are to be of the common-councilmen, and to chufe 24
affiftants; it was re-incorporated Auguft 16. 1774.
Here is a large market-houfe and a guild-hall, and four
ftreets that lie in the form of a crofs, with a little chan¬
nel of water running through each. The fteeple of the
church, with its fpire, is 90 feet high, and a fea-mark.
A little below the town there is a tolerable good har¬
bour, where feveral of the tin-fhips take in their lading.
King John exempted this place from paying toll any
where but in the city of London ; and from being im¬
pleaded any where but in their own borough. It con¬
tains about 400 houfes, is well inhabited, and fends two
members to parliament.
HELVELLA, in botany ; a genus of the natural
order of fungi, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of
plants. The fungus is of the fhape of a top.
HELVETIC, fomething that has a relation to the
Switzers, or inhabitants of the Swifs cantons, who were
anciently called Hehetii.—The Helvetic body compre¬
hends the republic of Switzerland, confifting of 13 can¬
tons, which make io many particular commonwealths.
By the law's and cuftoms of the Helvetic body, ail dif¬
ferences between the feveral dates and republics are- to
be decided within themfelves, without the intervention
x of
H E L [ ] HE M
’Kclvetii of any foreign power. The government of this body
is chiefly democratic, with fome mixture of the arifto-
^Helvoet. .. 1
. cratic.
HELVETII, a people of Belgica, in the neighbour¬
hood of the Allobroges and the Provincia Romana;
famed for bravery and a turn for war. Called Civitas
Helvetia, and divided into four Pagi or Cantons; fitu-
ated to the fouth and weft of the Rhine, by which they
were divided from the Germans; and extending to¬
wards Gaul, from which they were feparated by mount
Jura on the weft, and by the Rhodanus and Lacus Le-
m^nus on the fouth, and therefore called a Gallic na¬
tion (Tacitus, Csefar, Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny.) For¬
merly a part of Celtic Gaul, but by Auguftus affigned
to Belgica.
J1ELVETIUS (Adrian), an eminent phyfician,
born in Holland. After having ftudied phyfic at Ley¬
den, he went to Paris, where he acquired great reputa¬
tion in his profefiion. He introduced in France the
ufe of ipecacuanha in the cure of dyfenteries; a reme¬
dy which he at firft kept fecret, but was ordered to
make it public, and on that account received a grati¬
fication from the king of icoo louis d’ors. He was
made infpe&or-general of the hofpitals in Flanders,
phyfician to the duke of Orleans, regent of France,
&c.; and died at Paris, in 1727., aged 65. He wrote
a treatife on the moft common difeafes, and the reme¬
dies proper for their cure (the bell edition of which
is that of 1724, in twovolumesodlavo); and otherworks.
Helvetius (John-Claude), fon of the above, was
born in 1685, and died in 1755. He was firft phyfi¬
cian to the queen, and greatly encouraged by the town
as well as court. He was, like his father, infpedlor-
•general of the military hofpitals. He was of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences at Paris, of the Royal Society in
London, and of the Academies of Prufiia, Florence,
and Bologne. He is the author of 1. Idee Generals- de
f economic animals, 1722, 8vo. 2. Principia Phyjico-Me¬
dic a, in tyronum Medicina gratiam confcripta, 2 vols. 8vo.
We may juft mention alfo, that he is the father of
the Monf. Helvetius, who wrote the celebrated book
DeTEfprit; and whom Voltaire calls “ a true philofo-
pherbut whofe book was ftigmatized by the authors
of the Journal de Trevoux, and fuppreffed by the go¬
vernment.
HELVICUS (Chriftopher), profeffor of divinity,
Greek, and the Oriental tongues, in the univerfity of
Giffen, died in the flower of his age in 1617 ; after
having publilhed feveral books, and proje&ed more.
The Hebrew language was fo familiar to him, that he
fpoke it as fluently as his mother tongue. He was riot
only a good grammarian, but alfo an able chronologer.
His chronological tables have been greatly efteemed,
though they are not free from errors.
HELVIDIANS, a fe£t of ancient heretics, deno¬
minated from their leader Helvidius, a difdple of Aux-
entius the Arian, whofe diftinguilhing principle was,
that Mary, the mother of Jefiu, did not continue a vir¬
gin, but had other children by Jofeph.
HELVOET-sluys, a fea port town of the United
Netherlands, feated on the ifland of Voorn, in the
province of Holland, and where the Englilh packet-
boat always goes. It is but a fmall place,, confifting
only of a handfome quay, and two or three little
Vol. VIII. Part II.
ftreets. But it is very well fortified, and efteemed the Hemath
fafeft harbour in the country. The largeft men of 11
war may come up to the middle of the town ; and yet Hemero-
it has but very little trade, becaufe the merchants choofe 1US' .
to live higher up the country. E. Long. 4. o. N.
Lat. 51. 44.
HEMATH, or Hamatu, (anc. geog.), the name
of a city (whofe king was David’s friend, 2 Sam. ix.)
to the fouth of Lebanon ; from which a territory was
called Nemath, on the north of Canaan and fouth of
Syria, as appears by the fpies, Numb. xiii. 1 Kings viii.
Ezek. xlvli. Whether one or more cities and di-
ftricts of this name lay in this trad, neither interpre¬
ters nor geographers are agreed. The eaftern part
Was CdMed. Hematb 'zoba, 2 Chron. viii. unlefs we fup-
p»fe that there was a city in Zoba of this name forti¬
fied by Solomon. In defining the boundary of Pale-
ftine, it is often {-axi., from the entering of Hamath ; as
a province to be entered into through a ftrait or defile.
And if there was fuch, the next queftion is, From what
metropolis it was called Hemath ? Antioch, capital bf
Syria, is fuppofed to be called Hemath or Amatha,
(Jonathan, Targum, &c.); and again, Epiphania,
(Jofephus.) Both were to the north of Lebanon ; con-
fequently not the Hemath of Scripture, the immediate
boundary of Paleftine to the north, and lying to the
fouth of Lebanon.
HEMATITES, See H/ematites.
HEMELAR (John), an eminent antiquarian, and
canon of Antwerp, in the 17th century, was born at
the Hague; and wrote a work, entitled, Expofilio Nu-
mfmatum imperatorum Romanorum d Julio Cafare ad
Heraclium ; which is very fcarce, though it has had feve»
ral editions.
HEMEROBAPTISTS, a fe£l among the ancient
Jews, thus called from their wafhing and bathing every
day, in all feafons; and performing this cuftom with
the greateft folemnity, as a religious rite neceffary to
falvation.
Epiphanius, who mentions this as the fourth herely
among the Jews, obferves, that in other points thefe
heretics had much the fame opinions as the Seribes
and Pharifees ; only that they denied the refurreflion
of the dead, in common with the Sadducees, and re¬
tained a few other of the improprieties of thefe laft.
The fe6ls who pafs in the Eaft under the denomina¬
tion of Sabians, calling themfelves Mendai liahi, or the
difciples of John, and whom the Europeans entitle the
Chrifiians of St John, becaufe they yet retain fome
knowledge of the gofpel, is probably of Jewifti origin,
and feems to have been derived from the ancient He-
merobaptifts; at leaft it is certain, that that John, whom
they confider as the founder of their feft, bears no fort
of fimilitude to John the Baptift, but rather refemblea
the perfon of that name whom the ancient writers
reprefent as the chief of the Jewifh Hemerobaptifts.
Thefe ambiguous Chriftians dwell in Perfia and Ara¬
bia, and principally at Bafibra ; and their religion con-
fifts in bodily wafhings, performed frequently, and
with great folemnity, and attended with certain ce¬
remonies which the priefts mingle with this fuperftiti-
ous fervice.
HEMEROBIUS, in zoology : A genus of infefls
of the neuroptera order ; the characters of which are
3 D thefe.
HEM E
Hemerocal thefe. The mouth is furniflied with two teeth ; the
1!ii> pi are four ; the wings are defie&ed, but not plaited ;
droniL* an<^ t^ie antenn2E are briftly, and longer than the bread;.
 There are 1,5 fpecies, principally didinguidied by their
plate colours.—-This infe£t takes, the name of hemerobius from
GCXXXIVthe fltortnefs of its life, which, however, continues fe-
veral days. In the date of larva it is-a great devourer
c£ plant-lice, for which it has had bedowed upon it the
appellation of lion of the plant-lice. The hemerobii, even
after their transformation, preferve their carnivorous in¬
clination. Not fatisfied with making war upon the
loftas.
403 } HEM
to fee that there were no enemies lying in wait to fur- Hemero*.
prife them. dromi
Hemerodromi were alfo a fort of couriers among •(
the ancients, who only travelled one day, and then deli- He™1°bo'’~
vered their packets or difpatches to a frelh man, who t ~ ,
run his day, and fo on to the end of the journey. The J
Greeks had of thefe fort of couriers, which they derived
from the Perlians, who were the inventors thereof, as
appears from Herodotus. Augudus. had the fame ; atj
lead he edablifhed couriers, who, if they did not relieve,
each other from day to day, yet did it from fpace to
plant-lice, who tamely let themfelves be devoured, they fpace, and that fpace was not very great,
do not fpare each other. The eggs of this infe£t are HEMEROTRQPHIS, in antiquity, a meafure of -
borne upon fmall pedicles, which are nothing but a capacity, the fame with the chcenix. It was fo called
gum fpun out by the hemerobius by railing up the from its holding one day’s food. The word is corn--
hinder part of its abdomen, and-by that means the egg, pounded of a day, ani Tp°t» food.-
remains fadened to the upper part of the thread. Thofe HEMI, a word ufed in the. compofition of divera*
eggs are depofited upon leaves, and fet in the form, of terms. It fignifies. the fame with femi.ox demi, \\z,.
bunches. They have been taken for parafitic plants. “ halfbeing an abbreviature of which-
fignities-“ the fame.” The Greeks retrenched the laft.
The larva, when hatched, finds there its food in the
midd of plant-lice. In 15 or 16 days it has attained
to its full growth. With its fpinning-wheel at its. tail,
it makes itfejf a, fmall,. round, white, filky cod, of a
clofe texture. In fummer, at the end of. three weeks,
the hemerobius iffues forth with its wings; but when
the cod has not been fpun till autumn, the chryfa-r
lis remains in it the whole winter, and. does not un¬
dergo its final metamorphofis till the enfuing fpring.
The flight of this infeft is heavy: fome fpecies have
an excrementitious fmell. One goes by the name of
the water-hemzrobius, becaufe it lives modiy at the
water fide.
. HEMEROCALLIS, day-liey, or lily-afphodel
A genus of the monogynia order, belonging to the
hexandria clafs of plants; and in the natural method
ranking under the 10th order, Coronaria. The corolla
is campanulated, with the tube cylindrical; the damina
declining downwards.
Species. 1. The flava, or yellow day-lily, hath
ftrong fibrous roots, fending up large hollow keel-
fyllable of the wordin the compofition of words ;
and after their example,, we have done fo too in mod,
of the compounds borrowed from them..
HEMICRANIA, in medicine, a fpecies of cepha¬
lalgia, or head-ach ; wherein only one fide of the head ,
is affedted; and owing to a congedion of blood in the.
veffels of that half.
HEMICYCLE, Herucyclium, compounded of.
half, and circle, a femicircle.
Hemicycle is particularly applied, in architecture,
to vaults in the cradle form ; and arches or fweeps of
vaults, condituting a perfect femicircle. To condrudf.
an arch of hewn done, they divide the hemicycle into,
fo many vouffoirs ; taking care to make them an uneven,
number, that there be, no joint in the middle, where the.
key-ftone fhould be. See Key and Bridge.
Hemicyclium $vas alfo a part of the orchedra in
the ancient theatre. Scaliger, however, obferves, it was.
no danding part of the orchedra; being only ufed.
in dramatic pieces, where fome perfon was fuppofed to
fhaped leaves, two feet long, upright, leaflefs firm be arrived from fea, as in Plautus’s Rudens.
flalks, two feet high ; dividing at top into leveral foot- The ancients had alfo a fort of fun-dial, called hemi-
ftalks, each terminated by one large filaceous yellow cyclium. It was a concave femicircle, the upper end.
flower of an agreeable odour. Of this there is a va- or cufp whereof looked to the north. There was a.
riety called the hemerocallis minor, or fmall yellow day- ftyle, or gnomon, iffuing from the middle of the hemi-,
lily. 2. The fulva, reddfih, or copper-coloured day- cycle, whereof that point correfponding to the centre
lily, hath roots compofed of drong fleflvy fibres and of the hemicycle reprefented the centre of the earth ;.
large oblong tubes ; radical, keel-fhaped, hollow, point- and its (hadow projected on the concavity of the hemi-i
ed leaves, a yard long, reflefted at top; with leaflefs. cycle, which reprefented the fpace beeween one tropic
ftalks three or four feet high, and large copper-co- and another, the fun’s declination, the day of the month,
loured filaceous flowers. Thefe have large damina, hour of the day, &c.
charged with a kind of brown-coloured farina; which, HEMIMERIS, in botany ; a genus of the angio-.
on being touched or fmelled to, is difcharged in great fpermia order, belonging to the didynamia clals of
plenty all over the hands and face. plants. The capfule is bilocular, with one of the cel's.
Culture. Both thefe fpecies are hardy, and will
thrive any where. They may be eafily propagated by
parting their roots in autumn, or almod any time af¬
ter flowering, or before they begin to flower.
HEMERODROMI, (compounded of “day,”
and fpvn®' “ courfe,” &c.) among the ancients, were
centinels or guards, appointed for the fecurity and pre-
fervation of cities and other places. They went out of
the city every morning, as foon as the gates were open-
more gibbous than the other : the corolla is wheel-
fhaped; with one divifion greater, and inverfe heart-
fhaped; the interdice of the divifions neftar-bearing.
HEMINA, in Roman antiquity, a liquid meafure,
which, according to Arbuthnot, was equal to half a
wine-pint Englifh meafure; its contents being 2..818
folid inches.
HEMIOBOLON, a weight often mentioned by
the ancient writers in medicine, and exprefling the half
ed, and kept all day patrolling round the place; fome- of their obolus, or the twelfth part of a dram, that is,
times, alfo making excurfions farther into the country, five grains.
HEMI-
H E M
iHemioiiitlJ HEMIONITIS, in botany: A genus of the natu-
II ral order of filices, belonging to the cryptogamia clafs
^ Hemp. 0f plantS. The fru&ifications are in lines decuffating
r“_'v'""w or crofling each other.
HEMIPLEGIA, or Hemiplexia, among phyfi-
cians, a pally of one half of the body. See (the Index
-fubjoined) to Medicine.
HEMIPTERA, derived from ww kalf, and
wing, in the Linnaean fyftem, the fecond order of in¬
fers. comprehending twelve genera, viz. the blatta,
mantisi, gryllus, fulgora, cicada, notomcla, nepa, cimex.
t 4°3 ]
H E
Clean hemp
Outlhot
Half-clean
Hemp-codille
M
[Poods.
1,038,791
37.382
18,374
I9>251
I.H3.7?8
, the quantity juft
Now, allowing 63 poods to a ton,
mentioned will amount to 17,695 tons; and fuppofing
it to take five acres to produce a ton of hemp, the
whole quantity of ground requifite for this purpofe
dphisi chermes, coccus, and thrips, and a great number of would amount to 88,475 acres.
fpecies. See Entomology, Insects, and Zoology. By other accounts, the annual export of hemp lo Annals of
HEMISPHERE, (PIemisph^rium, compounded England is valued at 400,000 l ; but by a computa- Agriculturfm
of nuurv; half, and fphere, in geometry, is one tion of the whole imported into Britain and Ireland in
half of a globe or fphere, when ^divided into two by a 1788, it would feem that a confiderably greater quan-
plane palling through its centre. tity muft fall to the lhare of England. In that year
Hemisphere, in aftronomy, is particularly ufed for the quantity amounted to no lefs than 58,464 tons;
one half of the mundane fphere. which at 2d. per ton amounted to 1,269,280!. We
The equator divides the fphere into two equal parts, cannot wonder at this vaft confumpt, when it is con-
called the northern and fouthern hemifpheres. The hori- fidered that the fails and cordage of a firft rate man of
zon alfo divides the fphere into two parts, called the war require i8o,ooolb. of rough hemp for their con-
vpper and the lower hemifpheres. ftru&ion; but even this will fcarce account for the
Hemisphere is alfo ufed for a map, or projeflion, enormous confumpt in France, which in the year 1783
of half the terreftrial globe, or half the celeftial fphere, is faid to have amounted to upwards of 400 millions
Hemifpheres are frequently called plani- of pounds, or 200,000 tons; of which more than one
third was imported.
on a plane.
Jpheres.
HEMISTICH, in poetry, denotes half a verfe, or
a verfe not completed.
Of this there are frequent examples in Virgil’s iE-
neid ; but whether they were left unfinilhed by defign
or not, is difpiited among the learned : fuch are, Ferro
accintta vocat, vEn. II. v. 614. And, Italiam non fponte
Jequor, iEn. IV. v. 361.
In reading common Englifh verfes, a fliort paufe is
required at the end of each hemiftich or half- verfe.
HEMITONE, in the ancient mufic, was what we
now call a half note or ferpitone.
HEMITRITiEUS, in medicine, a kind of fever,
denoting the fame as femi-tertian, returning twice every
day. The word is Greek, and compounded of
“ half,” and “ third or tertian.”
HEMLOCK, in botany. See Cicuta and Co-
NIUM.
HEMOIPTOTON. See Oratory, n° 77.
HEMP. See Cannabis.—It does not appear that
Only the coarfer kinds of hemp are employed in
making cordage, the betterTorts being ufed for linen,
which though it can never be made fo fine as that from
flax, is yet incomparably ftronger, and equally fufcep-
tible of bleaching both in the old and new way. Cloths
made of hemp have alfo this property, that their co¬
lour improves by wearing, while that of linen decays.
The prices of hemp-linen are various; from rod. to
4s. 6d. per yard. The low-priced kinds are very ge¬
nerally worn in Suffolk (where hemp is cultivated) by
hufbandmen, fervants, Sic. thofi^from is. 6 d. to 2 s.
by farmers and tradefmen; and thofe from 2 s. 6d. to
4 s. 6d. are frequently preferred by gentlemen to flax-
linen, on account of their ftrength and warmth. The
Engliflr hemp is much fuperior in ftrength to that
which grows in any other^country. Next to it is the
Ruffian, from which lacking is ufually made, as it is
fometimes alfo from the offal of the Engliflr kind, but
of the Suffolk hemp is ever made into cordage.
•the ancients were acquainted with the ufe of hemp, in on account of its finenefs. A confiderable quantity of
refpeft of the thread it affords. Pliny ,who fpeaks of the Ruflia flreeting is imported into England merely on
plant in his natural hiftory, lib. xx. cap. 23. fays not ^ account of its ftrength, and is much coarfer at the
word of this; contenting himfelf with extolling the vir- price than any other foreign linen.
tues of its ftem, leaves, and root.1’ In effedt, what fome
writers of the Roman antiquities remark, viz. that the
hemp neceffary for the ufe of war w^s all ftored up in
two cities of the weftern empire, viz. at Ravenna and
Vienne, under the diredlion of two procurators, call¬
ed /iW/£f/7, muft be underltood of linum or
flax.
The ufe of hemp is fo extenfive and important, that
vaft quantities of it are annually imported into this and
Befides thefe ufes of hemp, it is faid to poflefs a pro¬
perty as a plant which renders it almoft invaluable ;
vi%. that of driving away ahnoft all infe&s that feed
upon other vegetables. Hence in fome places of the
continent they fecure their crops from thefe mifchie-
vous attacks, by fowiug a belt of hemp round their
gardens, or any particular fpot which they wiflt to
preferve.
The important ufes of hemp, and the fuperiority of
othef kingdoms from thofe countries where it grows that produced in Britain to other kinds, have rendered
in greateft plenty, of which Ruflia is one. In the year the culture of it an objeft of attention to government.
1763, the quantity imported into England alone Accordingly in the year 1787, a bounty of threepence
Annals of amounted to 11,000 tons. Sir John Sinclair informs
■Agriculture, us, that in the year 1785, the quantity exported from
'voi.xi.i. Peterlburg in Britiflr flrips was as follows.
l>.jo8.
per ftone was allowed on all the hemp railed in Eng¬
land ; and probably with a view to encourage the
growth of Englilh hemp, duties have been laid on
3 D 2 that
HEM [ 4°4 1 HEM
Hemp, that which comes from abroad. Dreffed hemp in a
““-v—— Britifh fhip pays 2l. 4s. per cwt. import duty ; in a
foreign one 2 1. 6 s. 9d.; and in both cafes a drawback
of xl. 19s. is allowed. Undrelfed hemp in a Britilh
{hip pays 3 s. 8d.; and in a foreign one 3 s. »1 d. In
both cafes the drawback is 3 s. 4d. The export of
Britifli hemp is free.
The ufual height of the plant when growing is from
five to fix feet, but this varies very confiderably ac¬
cording to circumftances. That which is cultivated
near Bifchwiller in Alface is fometimes more than 12
feet high, and upwards of three inches in circumfe¬
rence, the ftalks being fo deeply rooted that a very
flrong man can fcarce pull them up. Mr Arthur
Young, in a tour through Catalonia in Spain, fays, that
where the country is well watered, the crops of hemp
are extraordinary ; and that the plants generally rife to
the height of feven feet. In Italy hemp is generally
cultivated, though the Bolognefe only can pretend to
any fuperiority in the management of it. It is there
fown upon their beft lands, wdiich are rich ftrong loams;
and on which they are at all poffible pains to procure
a fine friable furface. For manure they ufe dung,
pieces of rotten cloth, feathers, and horns brought from
Dalmatia. The plant, however, may be cultivated
upon ground of every kind ; the poorer land produ¬
cing that which is finer in quality though in fmaller
quantity; whereas flrong and rich land produces a
great quantity, but coarfer. It does not exhauffc the
land on which it grows like flax, whence it is pro¬
bable, that if properly managed, and care taken in the
cultivation, it might be found to fuperfede flax en¬
tirely. A Suffex manufacturer, who writes on this
fubjeft in the Annals of Agriculture, informs us, that
it may be raifed for many years fucceflively on the
fame ground, provided it be well manured. An acre
requires from nine to twelve pecks, according to the
nature of the foil; the latter being the molt ufual,
though a variation in the quality of the foil makes an
alteration both in the quantity and quality of the
hemp. An acre produces cn an average 36 or 38
ftone. The abbe Btulle, in a Treatife upon the Cul¬
ture and Management of Hemp, printed by order of
the lords of the committee of council for trade and fo¬
reign plantations, informs us, that the feafon for fow-
ing it extends from the 25th of March to the 15th of
June. The feed ought always to be fown thin, not
exceeding two bufhels to an acre; and if you have the
advantage of a drill plough, Hill lefs will anfwer. As.
there are two kinds of hemp, the male and female, of
which the former only produces feed, fome regard rouft
be had to this circumftance. In Suffex the male and
female are pulled together about 13 weeks after the
lowing, but in thofejis they are frequently feparated.
This lalt method is recommended by the abbe Brulle,
who, for the more eafy accomplifhment of it, dire&s
that little paths fhould be made kngthwife through
the field at about feven feet diftanee from each other,
to allow a paffage for the perfon who pulls up the fe¬
male hemp from among the other ; the latter requi¬
ring to fland more than a month after for the purpofe
of ripening the feeds. The female hemp is known to
be ripe by the fading of the flowers, the falling of the
farina fecundans, and fome of the ftalks turning yel¬
low- After the whole oi this kind is jmlled, it.muft
be manufactured according to the directions to be af- Hemp.-
terwards given, and ought to be worked if poffible —v--*^
while green; the hemp thus produced being much
finer than that which is previoufly dried. The reafon
of this is, that the plant contains a great quantity of
glutinous matter; which being once dried, aggluti¬
nates the fibres in fuch a manner that they can never
be afterwards perfeftly feparated. The female hemp,
however, is always in fmaller quantity than the male ;
and therefore where the crop is large, it will be impof-
fible to work the whole as fall as it is pulled or cut.
It is known to be ripe by the Items becoming pale ;
but it muft be remembered, that hemp of any kind will
be much lefs injured by pulling the plants before they
are ripe than by letting them Hand too long.
The male hemp being ftripped of its leaves, &c. as
afterwards directed, will foon be dry for ftoring by
the heat of the atmofphere, though fometimes it may
be neceflary to ufe artificial means; but where thefe
are ufed, the utmoft care muft be taken, hemp when
dry being exceedingly inflammable. The ftored or
dried hemp mud be fteeped and treated in every other
refpeCi: as though it had been green; whence it is evi¬
dent that this operation ought never to be ufed but
in cafes of neceffity. It is like wife impofiible to make
hemp which has been dried previous to its being fteep¬
ed fo white as that which has been worked green.
With regard to the perfecting of hemp-feed for a MUPt Hup-
fubfequent feafon, it would feem proper to fet apart & t>anJry,
piece of ground for this purpofe; for M. Aimen, fromvo^ v"
40 plants raifed in the common way, had only a pound
and an half of feed, though the plants from which it
was taken might be deemed fine; whereas, from a
Angle plant which grew by itfelf, he had feven pounds
and an half. Some are of opinion, that by putting the
clutters which contain the hemp-feed to heat and fweat,
the quality is improved; as many of thofe feeds which
would otherwife wither and die, may thus arrive at per¬
fection. This, however, feems to be very problema¬
tical; as there are no experiments which (how that
feeds, when feparated from the vegetable producing
them have any power of meliorating themfelves.
After the hemp is pulled, it muft be taken in large
handfuls, cutting off the roots (though this is not ab-
folutely neceffary ), the leaves, feeds, and lateral branch¬
es, being dieffed off with a wooden fword or ripple.
It is then to be made up into bundles of twelve hand¬
fuls each, in order to be fteeped, like flax, in water.
This, or fomething ftmilar, is abfolutely neceffary, in-
order to feparate the bark; which is properly the
hemp, from the reed or woody part. In Suffolk, this
operation is called water-retting; but fometimes a mere
expofure to the air is fubftituted in its place, turning
the hemp frequently during the time it is expofed.
This is called dew^rettihg ; but the former method is
univerfaily deemed preferable. Such hemp as is de-
figned for feed is feldom water-retted^ though in the
opinion of the manufaClurer already quoted, it would
be better if it were fo. Dew-retted hemp is generally
{lacked and covered during the winter ; in January
and February it is fpread upon meadow land, and
whitens with the froft and fnow; though it is always
much inferior, to the other,; and proper for coarfer
yarns only. , _
The length of time required for fteeping hemp is-
various,.
HEM 1 405 ] HE M
various, and a complete knowledge of it can only be tow, the more beating rs neceflaiy. It is tken drefied Hemp,
attained by praftice. In Suffolk it is ufual to continue or combed by drawing it through heckles formed like ' v—
the immerfion four, five, or fix days; {landing w-ater the combs of wool-manufaftnrers, only fixed. Some-
is preferred, and the fame water will deep hemp three times it is divided into two or three forts of tow, and
times during the feafon, but the firft has always the fometimes the whole is worked together into one fort;
beft colour. The abbe Brulle prefers clear and run- the prices varying from 6d. to 1 s. 6-d. per pound.
The hemp thus manufaftured is fold to fpinners,
who reel their yarn as follows.
2 Yards make - 1 thread.
40 Threads - 1 lea.
20 Leas 5-j fkain.
3 Skains - 1 clue of48oO ^ards.
It is next delivered to the bleachers, who return it
ning water, efpecially if overhung with trees. 'The
bundles are to be laid crofswife upon each other, ta¬
king particular notice of the manner in which they lie
when put in, that they may be taken out without
difficulty. His time of lleeping is from fix to 11 days;
and here we mull obferve, that it is much better to let
it remain too long in the water than ,too ffiort a time.
The flendereft hemp requires the mod foaktng. The bleached on receiving 20 or 21 clues for every 12 co¬
operation is known to be finifhed by the reed fepara-
ting eafily from the bark.
After the hemp is thoroughly fleeped, the next
operation is to feparate the bark from the reed or
woody part; and this may be done in two ways, viz.
either pulling out the reed from every flalk with the
hand, or drying and breaking it like flax. The abbe
bleached. The prices of the hemp-yarn are as follow;.
1 Clue from
14 from do.
2 from do.
2t from do.
3 from do.
1 pound
yd. or 64d.
84d. or 8d.
94d. or Qd.
lOrd. or rod.
12d.
Chinefe Hemp, a newly difcovered fpecies of Cannabic,
Brulle is very particular in his diredlions for this laft of which an account is given in the y2d Volume of the
operation, which he calls reeding, and which may be Philofophical Tranfactions p. 46. In that paper Mr
performed either in a trough under water or upon a Fitz-Gerald, vice prefident of the fociety for eri~
table. The whole, however, may be reduced to the couraging arts, mentions his having received the
following, viz. preffing down the bundles either in the feeds from the late Mr Elliot; which being fown, ac-
trough or on a table by proper weights, to keep the
hemp fteady on the middle and top end. Then be¬
ginning at the upper part of the bundle,, pull out the
reeds one by one. As you proceed, the rind which
remains will prefs clofely upon the remaining unreeded
hemp, and keep it more fteady; fo that you may take
two, four, or even fix ftalks, at a time. The weight
is then to be removed from the top, and all the pieces
cording to his directions, produced plants 14 feet
high, and nearly feven inches in circumference. Thefe
being pulled up in November, and fteeped for a fort¬
night in water, were placed againft a fouthern wall to
dry. After this the hemp was found to feparate eafi¬
ly from the woody part; and fo great was the pro-,
duce, that 32 plants yielded three pounds and a quar¬
ter. In confequence of this fuccefs, Mr Fitzgerald
of reed which remain there having broken-off in the applied to the direftors of the India company to pro—
former operation, are to be-taken out. Laftly, the cure fome of the feeds from China; which being
middle weight is to be taken off, and any fmall pieces complied with, the fociety were furnifhed, in tySy,
which remain there taken out. If the reeding is per- with fome more of the feeds, which were diftributed to
formed on a table, the bundle muft be weeded frequent- feveral of the members ; but, notwithftanding their en-
ly, though {lightly; a continual dropping of water deavours, few of the plants appear to have ripened
would perhaps be the beft method. their feeds in this country. Two of the fpecies of
After the hemp is reeded, it muft next be freed from hemp, tried by the duke of Northumberland, rofe to
the mucilaginous matter with which it ftill abounds, the height of 14 feet feven inches, and would have
This is done by pouring water through it, fqueezing been much larger, had they not been hurt by an high
out the liquid after every affufiou, but taking care not wind: another kind arofe only to that of three feet
to let the threads twift or entangle each other, which
they will be very apt to do. The abbe is of opinion,
that foft foap ftiould be diffolved in the laft water, in
the proportion of an ounce to three pounds of dry
and an half, the ftem about the fize of a common,
wheat ftraw ; but though it flowered well, did not pro¬
duce any feed. Thefe kinds were fown in an hot-bed
here the heat was very ftrong, on the 14th of AprtL
hemp; which though not abfolutely neceffary, contri- They appeared above ground in four days, and were
butes much to the foftening and rendering the hemp
eafy and pleafant to drefs.
Hemp is broken by machinery, after being fleeped,
in a manner fimilar to flax ; but the inftruments ufed
for this purpofe in Suffolk are all worked by the hand.
That which breaks in the operation is called Jhorts,
and is about half the value of the long hemp. The
beft water-retted hemp fells for about 8 s. 6d. per
ftone; the other kind from one to two {hillings lower.
Beating of hemp is the next operation, which for¬
merly was performed entirely by hand, but now in
moft places by a water-mill, which ratfes three heavy
beaters that fall upon it alternately; the hemp being
turned all the while by a boy in order to receive the
ftrokes equally. The finer it is required to make the
tranfplanted into pots on the 25th. They were then,
put under an hot-bed frame where the heat had been,
gone off, to harden them for the natural ground, in
which they were planted on the 30th, by turning
them whole out of the pots ; letting them, three
together, be planted at two feet diftance every way ;,
covering them at times for about ten days, until they
were fuppofed to be rooted. Only a few feeds were
preferved from plants which had been kept conftantly
in a ftove.
Other trials were attended with little better fuc¬
cefs; but, in 1786, the Rev. Dr Hinton of North-
wold near Brandon, made a fuccefsful experiment with,
fome feeds he received from the fecretary of the fo¬
ciety. They were fown on the 17th of May, and ap¬
peared:
H E M [ 4c6 1 H E N
Iromp peared on the 6th or June.' The plants were few
II and fickly; and notwithjbinding fome fine fiiow-
. .J.-nifkgrck ers'^ continued to languith fo much that the ex-
" ^ peri men t was entirely abandoned, and buckwheat was
.harrowed into the ground for a fallow crop. In the
beginning of Oftober, however, the perfons employed
in,cutting the buck-wheat difcovered fome feed in the
heads of a few ftraggling hemp plants which had been
fuffercd to grow in the crop ; which being carefully
threfhed, afforded three pints of feed tolerably bright
and heavy. Thefe feeds were fown on the 10th of
May 1787. On the 19th they. appeared above the
•ground numerous and healthy. The male hemp was
.drawn on the 13th of Auguft, but the female not
till the 9th of Odfober; the fpot on which the
plants were fown meafured only 322 fquare yards,
and produced of marketable hemp no lefs than
95 Hone 7 pounds j 2 ounces ; being upwards of
one third more than the beft: crops of Englifh hemp
are ever known to produce. Thus it appeared, that
the feeds of the Chinefe hemp had retained their fu-
^Deriority over thofe of the Englifh.,; though how long
•they would continue to do fo cannot be determined
but by experience. For this experiment Dr Hinton
.received a filver medal from the fociety. Few of the
deeds either of Chinefe, or any other hemp, will vege¬
tate if two.years did at the time of fowing ; and to
this circumllance the Doctor -attributes the failure of
other, trials of Chinefe hemp.
//£ Me- Agrimony, a fpecies of eupatorium. See Eu-
• PATORIUM.
HEMPSTEAD, a town of Hartfordfliire in Eng-
Jand, Hands among hills, upon a fmall river called the
;Gade, and is feven miles to the weft of St Alban’s,
five miles fouth-eaft of Berkhamfted, and 20 north-
-weft of London. The church has a handfome tower
with a tall fpire, and a good ring of bells. It was, in
,the time of the Saxons, called by the name of Henam-
.fted, or Hean-Hemfted, i. e. High-Hemftead. In
William the Conqueror’s time, by the name of
Hemelamftede. Henry VIII. incorporated this vil-
Jage by the name of a bailiff; and be empowered the
inhabitants to have a common-feal, and a pye-powder
.court during its market and fairs. It has been rec¬
koned one of the greateft markets for wheat in this
county, if not in England, 20,0001. a week being of¬
ten returned in it only for meal. Eleven pair of mills
Hand within four miles of the place, which bring a
great trade to itbut the road is thereby fo continu¬
ally torn, that it is one of the worft turnpike ways
to London.
HEMSKERCK (Egbert), called the Old, a cele¬
brated Flemifti painter of drolls and converfations, of
whom, though fo univerfally known, we have no infor¬
mation as to the time in which he flourilhed, or the
fchool in which he was taught. Though the tafte of
his compofttions is but low, yet it ought to be confi-
.deed that he took his fubjedts from nature ; from per-
fons in the meaneft occupations, whofe drefs, a&ions,
and manners, could not furnifti the imagination with
any ideas of elegance : and to exprefs their pafiions
.and undifguifed humours, feems to Lave been the ut-
moft of his ambition. By frequenting fairs, merry-
jfneetings, gaming-houfes, and inns, he acquired a fur-
|>rifing power of connedling humorous circumftances.
He defigned and drew correftly, and his pi&ures have Hemftfeck
a ftrong effedt from his accurate management of the -||
chiaro obfcuro. Some of his pidlures have fuffered Henault.
from unlkilful cleaners, and many things ai-e fold as
his which diftionour him; but his genuine works, well
preferved, have a clearnefs and force equal to any of
the Flemiih artifts.
. Hemskerck .(Egbert), called the Young, 'was the • !
-difciple of Peter Grebber, but imitated the manner of
■Brouwer and of the elder Hemlkerck. He was born at
Haerlem in 1645, but fettled-at London, where for a
-long time his works were exceedingly efteemed, though
they are-now much funk in their value. He had a
whimfical imagination, and delighted in compoling
uncommon and fanciful fubjedis; fuch as the tempta¬
tion of St Anthony, nodlurnal intercourfes of witches
-and fpedfres, enchantments, &c. which he executed
with a free pencil and a fpirked touch. . It was cufto-
mary with him to introduce his own portrait among
the converfations he defigned ; and for that purpofe
had a fmall looking-gla!s placed near his cafe. He
died in 1704.
HEN, in ornithology. See Phasianus.
Guinea-Hrn. See Numida.
HEN-Bane. See Hyoscianus.
Hen-Harrier. See Falco.
Hen-Mould-foil, in agriculture, a term ufed by the
hulhandmen in Northamptonftiire, and other counties,
to exprels a black, hollow, fpongy, and mouldering
earth, ufually found at the bottoms of hills. It is an
earth much fitter for grazing than for corn, becaufe
it will never fettle clofe enough to the grain to keep
it fulEciently fteady while it is growing up, without
which, the farmers obferve, it either does not grow
well; or, if it feem to thrive, as it will in fome years, the
growth is rank, and yields much ftraw, but little ear..
It is too moift, and to that is principally to be attribu¬
ted this ranknefs of the crop in fome years ; and the
occafion of its retaining fo much moilture is, that it
ufually has a bed of ftiff clay, which will not let the
water run off into the under ftrata.
In fome places they alfo give this name to a black,
rich, and denfe earth, with ftreaks of a whitiih mould
in many parts. This fort of hen-mould is ufually
found very rich and fertile.
HENAULT (Charles John Francis), was fon of
John Remi Henault lord of Mouffy, and born at Paris
in 1685. He early difeovered a fprightly benevolent
difpofition, and his penetration and aptnefs foon diftin-
guifhed itfelf by the fuccefs of his ftudies. Claude de
Lifie, father of the celebrated geographer, gave him
the fame leffonsin geography and hiltory which he had
before given to the duke of Orleans afterwards regent;
and which have been printed in feven volumes, under
the title of “ Abridgment of Univerfal Hiftory.”
On quitting college, Henault entered the Oratory,
where he foon attached himfelf to the ftudy of elo¬
quence : and, on the death of the Abbe Rene, reformer
of La Trappe, he undertook to pronounce his pane¬
gyric ; which not meeting the approbation of father
Mafiilon, he quitted the Oratory after two years,
and his father bought for him, of marefchal Villeroi,
the “ lieutenance des chaffes,” and the government of
Corbeil. At the marlhal’s he formed connections, and
even intimate friendlhips, with many of the nobility,
.2 and
HEN [ 407 I HEN
fS HctKittlt. and pafled the early part of his life in agreeable amufe- fa&s, he attends only to thofe which form a chain of Henaulr;
‘ ments, and in the livelieft company, without having events that perfeft or alter the government and charac- —v—
his religious fentiments tainted. He alfociated with ter of a nation, and traces only the fprings which exalt
the wits till the difpute between Rouifeau and de la or humble a nation, extending or contra&ing the fpacs
Motte foon gave him a difgult for thefe trifling fo- . it occupies in the wo^d. His work has had the for-
cieties. In 1707, he gained the prize of eloquence- tune of thofe literary phasnomena, where novelty and
at the French Academy ; and another next year at merit united excite minds eager after glory, and fire the
the academy des jeux Floraux. About this time ardour of young writers to prefs after a guide whom
M. Reaumur, who was his relation, came to Paris, few can overtake. The firft edition of the work, the
and took leffons in geometry under the fame mailer, refult of 40 years reading, appeared in 174.4, under the
Guinee. Henault introduced him to the Abbe Big- aufpices of the chancellor Dagueffeau, with the modeft
non, and this was the firft ftep of his illullrious title of an Rffay. The fuccefs it met with furprifed
courfe. In 1713 he brought a tragedy on the ftage, him. He made continual improvements in it, and it
under the digaifed name of Fufelier. As he was has gone through nine editions, and been tranflated in-
known to the public only by fome flighter pieces, to Italian, Englifb, and German, and even into Chinefe.
“ Cornelia the Vcflal” met with no better fuccefs. He As the bell writings are not fecure from critic’Ttn, and
therefore locked it up without piiuting. In his old are indeed the only ones that deferve it, the author read
age his paflion for thefe fubjefts jeviving, and Mr Ho- to the academy of Belles Lettres a defence of his a-
race Walpole being at Paris in 1768, and having form- bridgement. All the ages and events of the French
ed a friendfhip with him as one of the moll amiable men monarchy being prefent to his mind, and his imagina-
of his nation, obtained this piece, and had it printed at a tion and memory being a vafl theatre whereon he be-
piefs which he had at his country feat, from whence held the different movements and parts of the a£lors in
a beautiful edition of Lucan had before iffued. In 1751 the feveral revolutions, he determined to give a fpeci-
M. Henault, under a borrowed name, brought out a fe- men of what pall in his own mind, and to reduce into
cond tragedy, intituled, “ Marius,” which was well re- the form of a regular drama, one of the periods of
ceived and printed. He had been admitted counfellor French hiftory, the reign of Francis II. which, though-
in parliament in 1706, with a difpenfation on account of happy only by being fhort, appeared to him one of the
age; and in lyioprelidentofthefirflchamberofinquefls. moft important by its confequences, and molt eafy to
Thefe impoitant places, which he determined to fill in a be confined within the flage bounds. His friend the
becomingmanner, engaged him in the moflfolid Audies. chancellor highly approved the plan, and wifhed it to
The excellent work of M. Domat charmed him, and be printed. It accordingly went through five editions ;
made him eager to go back to the fountain head. Pie the harmony of dates and fadls is exactly obferved in it,
fpent feveral years in making himfelf mailer of the and the paffions interefted without offence to hiftoric
Roman law, the ordonnancesofthe French king, their truth.
cuftoms, and public law. M. de Morville, procureur- In 1755, he was chofen an honorary member of the
general of the great council, being appointed ambafia- academy of Belles Lettres, being then a member of
dor 10 the Hague in 1718, engaged M. Henault to the academies of Nanci, Berlin, and Stockholm. The
accompany him. His perfonal merit foon introduced queen appointed him fuperintendant of her houfe. His
him to the acquaintance of the moft eminent perfona- natural fprightlinefs relieved her from the ferious at-
ges at that time there. The grand penfionary, Hein- tendance on his private morning, ledlures. The com-
lius, who, under the exterior of Lacedemonian fimpli- pany^ of perfons moft diftinguilhed by their wit and '
city, kept up all the haughtinefs of that people, loft birth, a table more celebrated for the choice of the
with him all that hauteur which France itftlf had ex- guefts than its delicacies, the little comedies fuggefted
perienced from him in the negociations of the treaty of by wit, and executed by refledlions, united at his houfe
Utrecht. The agitation which all France felt by Law’s all the pleafures of an agreeable and innocent life. All
fyflem, andtheconfequent fending of the parliament into the members of this ingenious fociety contributed to
exile, was a trial to the wife policy of the prefident He- render it agreeable, and the prefident was net behind
nault. His friendlhip for the firft prefident, De Mef- any. He compofed three comedies : La Petite Mai-
mes, led him to fecond all the views of that great magi- fin. La Jaloux de Soi me me, and Le Reveil d’ Epimenide.
ftrate : he took part in all the negociations, and was The fubjeil of the lafl was the Cretan philofopher,
animated purely by the public good, without any pri- who is pretended to have flept 27 years. He is intro-.
vate advantage. On the death of the cardinal du Bois, duced fancying that he had flept but one night, and
in 1723, he fucceeded in his place at the French Aca- altoniftied at the change in the age of all around him :
demy. Cardinal Fleury recommended him to fucceed he miftakes his miftrefs for his mother; but difeover-
himfelf as diredlor, and he pronounced the eloge of M. ing his miftake, offers to marry her, which Ihe refufes,.
de Malezieux. though he Hill continues to love her. The queen was
Hiftory was M. Henault’s favourite ftudy; not a bare particularly pleafed with this piece. She ordered the-
colledlion of dates, but a knowledgeof thelaws and man- prefident to reftore the philofopher’s miftrefs to her
ners of nations; to obtain which he drew inftrudlionfrom former youth : he introduced Hebe, and this epifode-
private converfations, a method he fa ftrongly recom- produced an agreeable entertainment.. He was now
mends in hia preface. After having thus difeufled the moft in fuch favour with her majefty, that on the place of. '
important points of our public law, he undertook to fuperintendant becoming vacant by the death of M.»
colleft and publifh the refult of his inquiries, and he is Bernard de Conbert matter of requefts, and the fum:
defervedly accounted the firft framer of chronological he had paid for it being loft to his family, Henault.:
abridgements; in which, without flopping at detached folicited it in favour of feveial perfons, till at laft the.
. queen »
HEN [ 4°S ] HEN
Ifcrrnuit queen bellowed it on himfelf, and confented that he
'fl ihould divide the profits with his predeceffor’s widow.
Henley. Qn tjie qllecu>s death he held the fame place under the
dauphintfs.
A delicate conflitution made him liable to much ill-
nefs; which, however, did not interrupt the ferenity of
liis mind. He made feveral journeys to the waters of
Plomhieres: in one of thefe he vifited the depofed king
Staniflaus at Luneville ; and in another accompanied
his friend the marquis de Pauliny, ambaffador to Swit¬
zerland; In 1763 he drew near his end. One morn¬
ing, after a quiet night, he felt an oppreflion, which
the faculty pronounced a fuffocating cough. His
confelfor being fent to him, he formed his refolution
without alarm. He has fince faid, that he recollefted
having then faid to himfelf, “ What do I regret?”
and called to mind that faying of Madame de Sevigne,
“ I leave here only dying creatures.” He received the
facraments. It was believed the next night would be
his laft ; but try noon next day he was out of danger.
“ Now (faid he) I know what death is. It will not
be new to me any more/’ He never forgot it during
the follo.wing feven years of his life, which, like all the
reft, were gentle and calm. Full of gratitude for the
favours of Providence, refigned to its decrees, offering
to the Author of his being a pure and fincere devotion;
he felt his infirmities without complaining, and per¬
ceived a gradual decay with unabated firmnefs. He
died Dec. 24. 1771, in his 86th year. He married in
1714 a daughter of M. le Bas de Montargis keeper of
the royal treafure, &c. who died in 1728 without lea¬
ving any iflTue.
HENDECAGON, in geometry, a figure that hath
eleven fides and as many angles.
HENED-penny, in our old writers, a cuftomary
payment of money inftead of hens at Chriftmas. It
is mentioned in a charter of king Edward III. Mon.
Angl. tom. ii. p. 327. Du-Cange is of opinion it may
be hen-penny, gallinagium, or u compofition for eggs ;
but Cowel thinks it is mifprinted hened-penny for heved-
penny, or hecul-penny.
HENLEY, a town of Oxfordfhire in England,
feated on the river Thames, over which there is a
handfome bridge. It fends malt, corn, and other
things, to London in barges. W. Long. o. 40. N.
'Lat. 51.34.
Henley, a town of Warwicklhire in England,
feated on the river Alne, in W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat.
52. 18.
Henley (John), better known by the appellation
of Orator Henley, a very fingular chara&er, was born at
Melton-Moubray, Leicefterlhire, in 1691. His father,
the Rev. Simon Henley, and his grandfather by his
mother’s fide (John Dowel, M. A.), were both vicars
of that parifh. Having palled his exercifes at Cam¬
bridge, and his examination for the degree of B. A.
with the particular approbation of Mr Field, MrSmales,
and the mailer of the college, he returned to his native
place, where he was firft defired by the truftees of the
fchool in Melton to affift in, and then to take the di¬
rection of that fchool; which he increafed and raifed
from a declining to a flourilhing condition. He efta-
blilhed here a practice of improving elocution by the
public fpeaking of palfages in the claffics, morning and
afternoon, as well as orations, &c. Here he was invited
Na iji.
by a letter from the Rev. Mr Newcombe to be a cart- Henlevv 1
didate for a fellowlhip in St John’s ; but as he had long v v—
been abfent, and therefore lelfened his perfonal intereft,
he declined appearing for it. Here likewife he began
his “ Univerfal Grammar,” and finilhed ten languages,
with dilfertationsprefixed, as the molt ready introduftion
to any tongue whatever. In the beginning of this in¬
terval he wrote his poem on “ Either,” which was ap¬
proved by the town, and well received. He was ordain¬
ed a deacon by Dr Wake, then bilhop of Lincoln ; and
after having taken his degree of M. A. was admitted to
prieft’s orders by Dr Gibfon, his fuccelfor in that fee.
He formed an early refolution to improve himfelf in
all the advantages of books and converfation the molt
effedtually, on the firft: opportunity, at London. But he
laid the bafis of future proficiency in affifting at the cu¬
racy of his native town ; where he preached many occa-
fional fermons, particularly one at the aflizes at Leicef-
ter : he then gave a voluntary warning for the choice
of a new mailer and curate, and came to town recom¬
mended by above 30 letters from the moft confiderable
men in the country, both of the clergy and laity ; but
againft the inclination of his neighbours and his fchool,
which was now, as from his firft entrance upon it, Hill
advancing : and his method being eftablilhed and ap¬
proved, one of his own fcholars was appointed to fuc-
ceed him.—In town he publilhed feveral pieces, as a
tranllation of Pliny’s Epiftles, of feveral works of Abbe
Vertot, of Montfaucon’s Italian Travels in folio, and
many other lucubrations. His moft generous patron
was the earl of Macclesfield, who gave him a benefice
in the country, the value of which to a refident would
have been above 801. a-year; he had likewife a lefture
in the city; and preached more charity-fermons about
town, was more numeroufty followed, and raifed more
for the poor children, than any other preacher, however
dignified or diftinguilhed. But when he prefled his
defire and promife from a great man of being fixed in
town, it pafled in the negative. Pie took the people
(it feems) too much from their parilh-churches ; and as
he was not fo proper for a London divine, he was very
welcome, notwithftanding all difficulties, to be a rural
pallor. But it was not for a fecond ruftication, as he
informs us f, that he left the fields and the fwains off Oratory
Arcadia to vifit the great city : and as he knew it was Tranfaa,
as lawful to take a licence from the king and parlia- P'
ment at Hicks’s-hall as at Dodlors Commons (fince
the minifterial powers of this kingdom are and ought
to be parliamentary only), he freely, without compul-
fion, or being defired or capable of being compelled to
refide in the country, gave up his benefice and ledtiire,
certainties for an uncertainty ; believing the public
would be a more hofpitable prote&or of learning and
fcience, than fome of the upper world in his own
order.
Mr Henley, in anfwer to a cavil (that he borrowed
from books), propofed, 11 that if any perfon would An¬
gle out any celebrated difeourfe of an approved writer,
dead or living, and point out what he thought excel¬
lent in it, and the reafons; he would fubmit it to the
world, whether the moft famed compofition might not
be furpafled in their own excellency, either on that or
any different fubjeCt.”
Henley preached on Sundays upon theological mat¬
ters, and on Wedaefdays upon all other fciences. He
3 declaimed
HEN [ 409 ] HEN
Hen'ey declaimed feme years againft. the greateft perfons, and
!| occafionally, fays Warburtonj did Pope that honour.
Henoti- p0et jn return-thUs blazons him to infamy :
  - “ But, where each fcience lifts its modern type^
“ Hihory her pat. Divinity his pipe,
“ While proud L’hilofophy repines to ihow,
« Diflioneft fight! his breeches rent below ;
“ Imbrown’d with native bronze, lo Henley {lands,
“ Tuning his voice, and balancing his hands.
“ How fluent nonfenfe trickles from his tongue !
“ How fweet the periods, neither faid n r furig !
« grill break the benches, Henley ! with thy drain,
“ While Ken;set. Hare, and Gibfon preach in vain.
O great redorer of the go d old dage,
“ Preacher at once and Zany of thy age !
“ O worthy theu of ^Egypt’s wife abodes,
“ A decent pried where monkies were the gods!
“■ But Fate with butchers plac’d thy priedly dall,
« Meek modern faith to murder, hack, and maul:
“ And bade thee live to crown Britannia’s praife,
“ In Toland’s, Tindal’s, and in Wooldon’s days.”
This extraordinary perfon (who died O&ober 14.
i75_6) ftruck medals, which he difperfed as tickets to
his fubferibers: a ftar rifing to the meridian, with this
motto, sfd fumma ; and below, Inveniam viam, aut fa¬
ct am. Each auditor paid 1 s. He was author of a
weekly paper called The Hyp Do&or, for which he
had tool, a year given him. Henley ufed every Sa¬
turday to print an advertifement in the Daily Adver-
tifer, containing an account of the fubje&s he intended
to difeourfe on the enfuing evening at his oratory near
Lincoln’s-inn-helds, with a fort of moTto before it,
which was generally a fneer at fome public tranfadh'on
of the preceding week. Dr Cobden, one of Geo. II.’s
chaplains, having, in 1748, preached a fermon at
St James’s from thefe words, “ Take away the wicked
from before the king, and his throne {hall be eftablifiied
in righteoufnefsit gave fo much difpleafure, that the
Do&or was ilruck out of the lift of chaplains ; and the
next Saturday the following parody of his text appear¬
ed as a motto to Henley’s advertifement:
“ Away with the wicked before the king,
“ And away with the wicked behind him;
“ His throne it will blefs
11 With righteoufnefi,
“ And we flialf know where to find him.”
His audience was generally compcfed of the loweft
ranks; and it is well known that he even colle&ed an
infinite number of fhoe-makers, by announcing that he
could teach them a fpeedy mode of operation in their
bufinefs, which proved only to be, the making of (hoes
by cutting off the tops of ready-made boots.
HENNA, or Alhenna. See Lawsonia.
HENNEBEKG, a county of Germany, in the
circle of Franconia. It is bounded on the north by
Thuringia, on the weft by Heffe, on the fouth by the
biftioprick of Werllburg, and on the eaft by that of
Bamberg. It, abounds in mountains and woods ; and
it is populous, and pretty fertile. Mainingen is the
capital town.
Henneberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of
Franconia, which gives title to a county of the fame
name with a caftle. E. Long. 9. 17. N. Lat. 50. 40.
HENNEBON, a town of France in Bretagne, in
the diocefe of Vannes. It is inhabited by rich mer¬
chants, and is feated on the river Blavet, in W. Long.
2. i 3. N. Lat. 47. 48.
HENOTICUM, (Hrorixer, q. d. “ reconciliative
of tvaa “ I unite”), in church hiftory, a famous edict of
the emperor Zeno, publiftied A. D. 482, and intended
Vol. VIII. Part II.
to reconcile and reunite the Eutychians with the Ca- Henricians
tholics. It was procured of the emperor by means of ||
Acacius, patriarch of Conltantinople, with the aflift- Htnry.
ance of the friends of Peter Mongus and Peter Trullo. J.
The fting of this edidt lies here ; that it repeats and
confirms all that had been enadted in the councils of
Nice, Conftantinople, Ephefus, and Chalcedon, againft
the Arians, Neftorians, and Eutychians, without ma¬
king any particular mention of the council of Chalce¬
don. It is in form of a letter, addreffed by Zeno to the
bifhops, priefts, monks, and people of Egypt and Li¬
bya. It was oppoftd by the catholics, and condemned
in form by pope Felix II.
HENRICIANS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, a feci fo
called from Henry its founder, who, though a monk
and hermit, undertook to reform the fuperftition and
vices of the clergy. For this purpofe he left Laufanne
in Switzerland, and removing from differsut places, at
length fettled at Tholoufe in the year 1147, and there
exercifed his minifterial fundtion, till being overcome by
the oppofition of Bernard abbot of Clairval, and con¬
demned by pope Eugenius III. at a council affembled
at Rheims, he was committed to a clofe prifon in 1148,
where he foon ended his days. This reformer rejedled
the baptifm of infants ; feverely cenfured the corrupt
manners of the clergy ; treated the feftivals and ceremo¬
nies of the church with the utmoft contempt, and held
clandeftine affeniblies for inculcating his peculiar doc¬
trines.
HENRY, or Cape-Henry, the fouth cape of Vir¬
ginia, at the entrance of Chefapeak-bay. W. Long.
74. 50. N. Lat. 37. o.
Henry, the name of feveral emperors of Germany,
and kings of England and France. See England,
France, and Germany.
Henry IV. emperor of Germany in 1056, ftyled
the Great, was memorable for his quarrels with pope
Gregory II. whom at one time he depofed, for ha¬
ving prefumed to judge his fovereign ; but at another,
dreading the effedls of the papal anathemas, he had
the vveaknefs to fubmit to the moft humiliating per-
fonal folicitations and penances to obtain abfolution ;
which impolitic meafure increafed the power of the
Pope, and alienated the affe&ions of his fubjedts:
thus circumftanced, he reaffum'ed the hero, but too
late ; marched with an army to Rome, expelled Gre¬
gory, depofed him, and fet up another pope. Gre¬
gory died foon after : but Urban II. and Pafcal II.
fucceffively, excited his ambitious fons, Conrad and
Henry, to rebel againft him, and the latter was crowned
emperor by the title of Henry V. in 1106 ;-and he
had the inhumanity to arreft his father, and to de¬
prive him, not only of all his dignities, but even of
the neceffaries of life. The unfortunate Henry IV.
was reduced to fuch extremities (after having fought
62 battles in defence of the German empire), that he
folicited the biftiop of Spire to grant him an under-
chaunter’s place in his cathedral, but was refufed. He
died the fame year at Liege, aged 55, a martyr to
the ignorance and fuperftition of the age, and to his
own blind confidence in favourites and miftreffes.
Henry IV. king of France (in 1589) and Navarre,
juftly ftyled the Gnat, was the fon of Anthony de '
Bourbon, chief of the branch of Bourbon (fo called
from a fief of that name which fell to them by maiu
riage with the heirefs of the eftate). His mother was
3 E the
HEN [ 1 HEN
Henry, the daughter of Henry d’Albert, king of Navarre;
—V— a woman of a mafculine genius; intrepid, fimple, and
ruftic in her manners, but deeply wrfed in politics,
and a zealous Proteftant. Forefeeing that her party
would want fuch a proteftor (for her hufband was a
weak indolent prince), (he undertook the care of the
education of the young hero ; his diet was coarfe ; his
clothes neat, but plain ; he always went bare-headed ;
(he fent him to fchool with the other children of the
fame age, and accuftomed him to climb the rocks and
neighbouring mountains, according to the cuftom of
the country. He was born in 1553 ; and in 1569, the
16th year of his age, he was declared the Defender
and Chief of the Proteftants at Rochelle. The peace
of St Germain, concluded in 1570, recalled the lords
in the Proteftant intereft to court; and in 1572 Henry
was married to Margaret de Valois, filler to Charles IX.
king of France. It was in the midft of the rejoicings
for thefe nuptials that the horrid maflacre of Paris
took place. Henry was reduced, by this infernal
ftroke of faife policy, to the alternative of changing
his religion or being put to death : he chofe the for¬
mer, and was detained prifoner of (late three years.
In 1587 he made his efcape; put himfelf at the head
of the Huguenot party, expofing himfelf to all the
rifles and fatigues of a religious war, often in want of
the necefiaries of life, and induring all the hardfhips
of the common foldier: but he gained a victory this
year at Courtras, which eftablifhed his reputation in
arms, and endeared him to the Proteftants. On the
death of Henry III. religion was urged as a pretext
for one half of the officers of the French army to re-
jeft him, and for the leaguers not to acknowledge
him. A phantom, the cardinal de Bourbon, was fet
up againft him ; but his mod formidable rival was the
duke de Mayenne : however, Henry, with few friends,
fewer important places, no money, and a very fmall
army, fupplied every want by his a&ivity and valour.
He gained feveral vidories over the duke ; particularly
that of Ivri in 1590, memorable for his heroic admo¬
nition to his foldiers : “ If you love your enfigns,
rally by my white plume, you will always find it in
the road to honcur and glory.” Paris held out againft
him, notwithftanding his fuccefles ; he took all the
fuburbs in one day ; and might have reduced the ertv
by famine, if he had not humanely fuffered his own
army to relieve the belieged; yet the bigotted friars
and priefts in Paris all turned foldiers. except four of
the Mendicant order; and made daily military review's
and proceffions, the fword in one hand and che cru¬
cifix in the other, on which they made the citizens
' fw'ear rather to die with famine than to admit Henry.
The fcarcity of provifions in Paris at laft degenerated
\ to an univerfal famine ; bread had been fold, whtlif
any remained, for a crown the pound, and at laft it
was made from the bones of the charnel-houfe of St
Innocents ; human fleih became the food of the ob-
ftinate Parifians, and mothers ate the dead bodies of
their children. In fine', the duke of Mayenne, feeing
that neither Spain nor the league would ever grant
him the crown, determined to affift in giving it to the
lawful heir. He engaged the dates to hold a con¬
ference with the chiefs of both parties; which ended
in Henry’s abjuration of the Proteftant religion at St
Dennis, and his confecration at Chartres in 1593.
The following year Paris opened its gates, to him ; in
1596, the duke of Mayenne was pardoned; and in Henry.
1598, peace was concluded with Spain. Henry now 1 
(bowed himfelf doubly worthy of the throne, by his
encouragement of commerce, the fine arts, and ma-
nufadures, and by his patronage of men of ingenuity
and found learning of every country : but though the
fermentations of Romifti bigotry were calmed, the
leaven w'as not deftroyed ; fcarce a year pafied with¬
out fome attempt being made on this real father of his
people ; and at laft the monfter Ravaillac (tabbed him
to the heart in his coach, in the ftreets of Paris, on
the 13th of May 16to, in the 57th year of his age
and 2 2d of his reign.
Henry ViII. king of England, was the fecond
fon 'of Henry VII. by Elizabeth the eldeft daughter
of Edward IV. He was born at Greenwich, on the
28th of June 1491. On the death of his brother
Arthur, in >502, he was created prince of Wales;
and the following year betrothed to Catharine of Ar-
ragon, prince Arthur’s widow, the Pope having
granted a difpenfation for that purpofe. Henry VIII.
acceded to the throne, on the death of his father,
the 22d of April 1509.. and his marriage, with Ca¬
tharine was folemnized about two months after, in
the beginning of his reigrr he left the government of
his kingdom entirely to his minifters ; and fpent his
time chiefly in tournaments, balls, concerts, and other
expenfive ariiufements. We are told that he was fo
extravagant in his pleafures, that, in a very (hort
time, he entirely diffipated 1',800,cool, which his fa¬
ther had hoarded. This will feem lefs wonderful,
when the reader is informed, that gaming was one of
his favourite diverfions. Neverthelefs he was not fo
totally abforbed in pleafure, but he found leifure to
facrifice to the refentment of the people two of his
father’s minifters, Empfon and Dudley. A houfe in
London, which had belonged to the former of thefe,.
was in 1510 given to Thomas Wolfey, who was now
the king’s almoner, and who from this period began
to infinuate himfelf into Henry’s favour. In 1 yi 3,
he became prime minifter. and from that moment
governed the king and kingdom with abfolute power.
In this year Henry declared war againft France, gained
the battle of Spurs, and took the towns of Terouenne
and Tournay ; but before he embarked his troops, he
beheaded the earl of Suffolk, who had been long con¬
fined in the tower. In 1521, he facrificecl the duke of
Buckingham to the refentment of his prime miniiler
Wolfey, and the fame year obtained from the Pope the
title o}' Defender of the Faith.
Henry, having been 18 years married, grew tired
of his wife, and in the year 1527 refolved to obtain a
divorce ; but after many fruitlefs folicitations, find¬
ing it impoffible to perfuade the Pope to annul his
marriage with Catharine,' he efpoufed Ann Bullen in
the year 1531. During this interval his favourite
Wolfey was difgraced, and died ; Henry threw off
the Papal yoke, and burnt three Proteftants for he-
refy. In 1535, he put to death Sir Thomas More,
Fifher, and others, for denying his fupremacy, and
fupprefled all the leffer monafteries.
His moti facred majefty, having now poffeffed his
fecond queen about five years, fell vi dently in love
with lady Jane Seymour. Ann Buiien was accufed
of adultery with her own brother, and with three
other perfons : ■ (he was beheaded the 19th of May,
153^
HEN [ 41
Henry. 1536. He married Jane Seymore the day following.
—v—' In 1537, he put to death five of the noble family of
Kildare, as a terror to the Irifh, of whofe difloyalty
he had fome apprehenfions; and In the year follow¬
ing he executed the marquis of Exeter, with four
other perfons of dlftin&ion, for the foie crime of cor-
refpondlng with cardinal Pole. In 1538 and 1539*
he fupprefied all the monafteries In England, and
feized their revenues for his own ufe. The queen ha¬
ving died in childbed, he this year married the prin-
cefs Ann of Cleves : but difllking her perfon, imme¬
diately determined to be divorced; and his obfequious
parliament and convocation unanimoufly pronounced
the marriage void, for reafons too ridiculous to be
recited : but this was not all; Henry was fo incenfed
with his minifter and quondam favourite, Cromwell,
for negociating this match, that he revenged himfelf
by the hand of the executioner. Yet this was not the
only public murder of the year 1540. A few days af¬
ter Cromwell’s death, fevcral perfons were burnt for de¬
nying the king’s fupremacy, and other articles of heVefy.
His majefty being once more at liberty to indulge
himfelf with another wife, fixed upon Catharine How¬
ard, niece to the duke of Norfolk. She was declared
queen in Auguft 1540 ; but they had been privately
married fome time before. Henry, it feems, was fo
. entirely fatisfied with this lady, that he daily blefled
God for his prefent felicity ; but that felicity was of
fhort duration : he had not been married above a year,
before the queen was accufed of frequent proftitution,
both before and fince her marriage : (he confeffed her
guilt, and was beheaded in February 1542. In Ju¬
ly 1 543, he married his fixth wife, the lady Catha¬
rine Parr, the widow of John Nevil lord Latimer, and
lived to the year 1 J47 without committing any more
flagrant enormities : but finding himfelf now' approach
towards diffolution, he made his will; and, that the
laid fcene of his life might referable the reft, he deter¬
mined to end the tragedy with, the murder of ttoo of
, his beft friends and moft faithful fubjedfs, the duke
of Norfolk and his fon the earl of Surrey. The earl
was beheaded on the 19th of January; and the duke
was ordered for execution on the 29th, but fortunate¬
ly efcapcd by the king’s death on the 28th. They
were condemned without the (hadow of a crime ; but
Henry’s political reafon for putting them to death,
was his apprehenfion that, if they were fuffered to
furvive him, they would counteradt fome of his regu¬
lations in religion, and might be troublefome to his
fon. Henry died on the 28th of January 1547, in
the 56th year of his age, and was buried at Windfor.
As to his charadter, it is pretty obvious from the
fadfs above related. Lord Herbert palliates his crimes,,
and exaggerates what he caHs his virtues. Bilhop
Burnet fays, “ he was rather to be reckoned among
the great than the good princes.” He afterwards ac¬
knowledges, that “ he is to be numbered among the
ill princesbut. adds, “ 1 cannot rank him with the
worft.” Sir Walter Raleigh, with infinitely more
jullice, fays, “ If all the pidtures and patterns of a
mercilefs prince were loft to the world, they might
again be painted to the life out of the hiftory of this
king.” He was indeed a mercilefs tyrant, a fcurvy
politician, a foolifti bigot, a horrible affaflin. See
' England, n° 253—292.
4
I ] hen
Henry of Huntingdon, an Englifh hiftorian, of Henry,
the 12th century, was canon of Lincoln, and after- ~ v""“‘
wards archdeacon of Huntingdon. He wrote, 1. A
hiftory of England, which ends with the year 1154.
2. A continuation of that of Bede. 3. Chronological
tables of the kings of England. 4. A fmall treatife
on the contempt of the world. 5. Several books of
epigrams and love-verfes. 6. A poem on herbs ; all'
which are ’written in Latin. His invocation of
Apollo and the goddeffes of Tempe, in 4he exordium
of his poem on herbs, may not be unacceptable as a
fpecimen of his poetry.
Vatum magne parens, herbarum Phoebe repertor,
Vofque, quibus refonant Tempe jocofa, Deae !
Si mihi ferta prius hedera florente paraftis,
Ecce meos flores, ferte parata fero.
Henry of Sufa, in Latin de Segujio, a famous ci¬
vilian and canonift of the J3th century, acquired fuch
reputation by his learning, that he was called thefource
and fplendor of the law. He was archbifhop of Em-
brun about the year 1258, and cardinal biftiop of
Oftia in 1262. He wrote A fummary of the canon and
civil law ; and a commentary on the look of the decretals^
compofed by order of Alexander IV.
Henry the Minjlrel, commonly called Blind Harry, an
ancient Scottifh author, diftinguifhed by no particular
furname, but well known as the compofer of an hifto-
rical poem reciting the atchievements of Sir William
Wallace. This poem continued for feveral centuries
to be in great repute; but afterwards funk into negledl,
until very lately that it has been again releafed from
its obfcurity by a very neat and corredb edition pub-
liftied at Perth under the infpedtion and patronage of
the earl of Buchan.
It is difficult to afcertain the precife time in which
this poet lived, or when he wrote his hiftory, as the
two authors who mention him fpeak fomewhat diffe¬
rently. Dempfter, who wrote in the beginning of the
laft century, fays that he lived in the year 1361 : but
Major, who was born in the year 1446, fays that he
compofed his book during the time of his infancy,
which we muft therefore fuppofe to have been a few
years pofterior to 1446 5 for if it had been compofed
that very year, the circumftance would probably have
been mentioned. As little can we fuppofe, from Mr
Hempfter’s words, that Henry was born in 1361 ; for
though he fays that he lived in that year, we muft na¬
turally imagine rather that he w&i then come to the
years of maturity, or began to diftinguiftr himfelf in
the world, than that he was only born at that time.
The author of the diflertation on his life, prefixed-to
the new edition of the poem, endeavours to reconcile
matters in the following manner: “ It is not indeed
impoffible that he might be born in or about that year
(1361). In the time of Major’s infancy he might be
about 83 years of age. In that cafe, it may be fup-
pofed that it was the work of his old age to coUedt and
put in order the detached pieces of his Hiftory of
Wallace, which he had probably compofed in thofe
parts of the country where the incidents were faid to
have happened.”
We are entirely ignorant of the family from which
Henry was defeended ; though, from his writings, wre
(hould be led to fuppofe that he had received a liberal
education. In them he difeovers fome knowledge in
3 E 2 divinity,
HEN [ 412 ] HEN
Henry, divinity, clafucal luftory, and aftronomy, as well as of
—V— the languages. In one place he boafts of his celibacy,
which feems to indicate his having engaged himfelf in
fome of the religious orders of that age. From what
Major fays further of him, we may fuppofe his profeffion
to hare been that of a travelling bard; though it does
not appear that he was Ikilled in mufic, or had no other
profeffion than that jult mentioned. His being blind
from his birth, indeed, makes this notjmprobable ;
though evennhis circumftance is not inconfiitent with
the fuppofition of his being a religious mendicant.
“The particulars (fays Major) which he heard related
by the vulgar, he wrote in the vulgar verfe, in which
he excelled. By reciting his hiftories before princes
. or great men, he gained his food and raiment, of
which he was worthy.” It is thus probable that he
would be a frequent vifitor at the Scottifh court; and
would be made welcome by thofe great families who
could boaft of any alliance with the hero himfelf, or
took pleafure in hearing his exploits or thofe of his
companions.
With regard to the authenticity of his hiftories,
Major informs us only that “he does not believe every
thing that he finds in fuch writings 5” but from other
teftimonies it appeals, that he confulted the very beft
authorities which could at that time be had. Though,
according to the moft early account of Henry, it ap¬
pears to have been at lead 56 years after the death of
Wallace that Henry was born ; yet he is faid to have
confulted with feveral of the defeendants of thofe who
had been the companions of that hero while he atchie-
ved his moft celebrated exploits, and who were ft ill
capable of afeertaining the veracity of what he publifh-
ed. The principal of thefe were Wallace of Craigie
and Liddle of that Ilk ; who, he fays, perfuaded him
to omit in his hiftory a circumftance which he ought
to have inferted. Befides thefe, he confulted with the
principal people of the kingdom ; and he utterly dif-
claims the idea of having adhered entirely to any un¬
written tradition, or having been promifed any reward
for what he wrote. His chief authority, according to
his own account, was a Latin hiftory of the exploits
of Sir William, written partly by Mr John Blair and
partly by Mr Thomas Gray, who had been the com¬
panions of the hero himfelf. Henry’s account of thefe
two authors is to the following purpofe : “ They be¬
came acquainted with Wallace when the latter was
only about 16 years of age, and at that time a ftudent
at the fchool of Dundee ; and their acquaintance with
him continued till his death, which happened in his
29th year. Mr John Blair went from the fchools in
Scotland to Paris, where he ftudied fome time, and
received priefts orders. He returned to Scotland in
1296, where he joined Wallace, who was bravely af-
ferting the liberties of his country. Mr Thomas Gray,
who was parfon of Libberton, joined Wallace at the
fame time. They were men of great wifdom and in¬
tegrity, zealous for the,freedom of Scotland; and were
prefent with Wallace, and affifting to him, in moft; of
his military enterprifes. They were alfo his fpiritual
counfellors, and adminiftered to him godly comfort.
The hiftory written by thefe two clergymen was at^
tefted by William Sinclair biftiop of Dunkeld, who had
himfelf been witnefs to many of Wallace’s adlions.
The bilhop, if he had lived longer, was to have feat
their book to Rome, for the purpofe of obtaining the
fanftion of the pope’s authority.”
The book which Henry thus appeals to as his prin¬
cipal authority is now loft, fo that we have no oppor¬
tunity of comparing it with what he has written. The
character given by Dempfter of Henry', however, is
more favourable than that by Major. He tells us, that
“ he was blind from his birth; a man of Angular happy
genius ; he was indeed another Homer. He did great
honour to his native country, and raifed it above what
was common to it in his age. He wrote, in the ver¬
nacular verfe, an elaborate and grand work, in ten
books, of the deeds of William Wallace.” In this
account there is a miftake; for the poem contains
eleven or twelve books: but Dempfter, who wrote in
a foreign coiintry, and had not a printed copy of
Henry’s work by him when he wrote his eulogium, is
excufable in a miftake of this kind.
With regard to his poetical merit, it muft undoubt¬
edly rank very far below that of Homer; whom indeed
he fearedy refembles in any other refpedts than that he
went about, as Homer is faid to have done, reciting
the exploits of the heroes of his country, and that he
was blind. In this laft circumftance, however, he was
ftill worfe than Homer; for Henry was born blind,
but Homer became blind after he had been advanced
in years. Hence Henry, even fuppofing his genius to
have been equal to that of Homer, mult have lain un¬
der great difadvantages; and thefe are very evident in
his works. The deferiptive parts are evidently defi¬
cient, and the allufions taken principally from the w’ay
in which nature affedls thofe fenfes of wdiich he was
poffeffed. Thus, fpeakirtg of the month of March, he
calls it the month of right digejlion, from the fuppofed
fermentation then begun in the earth. Of April he fays
that the earth is then able, or has obtained a power of
producing its different vegetables ; and of this produc¬
tive power he appears to have been more fenfible than
of the effe&s which commonly ftrike us moft fenfibly,
“ By the working of nature (fays he), the fields are
again clothed, and the woods acquire their worthy
weed of green. May brings along, with it great celef-
tial gladnefs. The heavenly hues appear upon the
tender green.” In another place he deferibes the
deity of fome river, whom he calls Nymphaus, “ build¬
ing his bower with oil and balm, fulfilled of fweet odour.”
By reafon of thefe difadvantages, he feldom makes ufe
of fimilies with which Homer abounds fo much ; and
few miraculous interpofitions are to be found in his
poem, though the prophecies of Thomas Lermont,
commonly called The Rhymer, and a prophetic dream
of Wallace himfelf, are introduced, as well as the ghoft
of Fawdon, a traitor who had joined Wallace, and
whom the latter in a fit of paifion had killed.. In
other refpefts, the fame inextingui/hable thirll of blood
which Homer aferibes to his hero Achilles is aferibed
to Wallace, though in all probability the mind of
Wallace was too much enlightened to admit of fuch
fentiments. A vaft degree of courage and perfonal
ftrength are aferibed to him, by means of which the
exploits of the whole army are in effeH transferred to
a Angle perfon. As long as he is invefted with the
command, the Scots are vi&orious and irrefiftible;
when deprived of it, they are enfiaved and undone.
After ftruggling for fome time againft an inveterate
and
HEN [4
Henry, and powerful faction, difdaining to feign fubmiffion,
"""V-— he is taken by treachery, and dies a martyr to the
freedom of his country. The poem,'on the whole, is
valuable, on account of our being able to trace, by its
means, the progrefs which the Englifh language had
made at that time in Scotland ; the manners of the
Scots in that age ; as the favourite drefs of green
which at that time was the tafte of the inhabitants of
Scotland, &c. With regard to the authenticity of his
relations, it is impoffible to fuppofe any other thing
than that they are partly true and partly falfe. The
general thread of the ?ory may undoubtedly be looked
upon to be genuine, though embellilhed with poetical
fictions and exaggerations; and his conflant appeals to
the book already mentioned, though it is now loft,
mull be looked upon as a ftrong teflimony in his favour:
for we cannot fuppofe that at the time he lived, when
we may fay that the tranfadtions which he relates were
recent, he would have had tire confidence to appeal to
a book which had not been generally known to have
an exiftence ; and its being now loft can never be any
argument againft it, when we confider the difficulty
there was of preferving books before the invention of
printing ; the confufions in which Scotland was fre¬
quently involved ; and that the exploits of Wallace,
who muft be fuppofed to have been a kind of rival to
the great Bruce, could not be fo agreeable to the
court as thofe of the more fuccef&fnl hero ; and there¬
fore the hiftory of them might be fuflered to fall into
oblivion, though written in elegant Latin, while a
moll ridiculous poem in that language on the battle of
Bannockburn has been preferved to this day.
Henri-- Prince of Wales, eldeft fon of Ling James VI.
of Scotland by his queen Anne fifter of the king of
Denmark, and one of the moil accomplifhed princes
of the age in which he lived, was born on the 19th of
Februaty 1594. The birth of the prince was announ¬
ced by embaffies to many foreign powers, with invi¬
tations to be prefent at the ceremony of his baptifm,
which was thus delayed for a confiderable time. Mr
Peter Young, who, along with the celebrated George
Buchanan, had been preceptor to his majefty, was
ftnt to the courts of Denmark, Brunfwic, and Mec¬
klenburg, the duke of Mecklenburg being great-grand¬
father to the prince by the mother’s fide ; the laird of
Fail Weems to France and England ; and Sir Robert
Keith, and captain Murray provoft of St Andrew’s,
to the States General, who at that time were ftrug-
gling againft the Spaniffi tyranny, and not yet declared
a free Hate. All thefe ambaifadors were cordially re¬
ceived, and others appointed in return except by the
courts of France and L'ngland. Henry IV. at that
time king of France, though the Scots ambaffador had
formerly been one of his own fervants, neither made
any prefent, nor appointed an ambaffador. Queen
Elizabeth had defigned to a£t in the fame manner till
ffie heard of the behaviour of Henry ; after which ffie
honoured James by appointing an’ambaffador of very-
high rank, Robert earl of Suffex. This ambaffador,
however, was fo long of making his appearance, that
the queen imagined the ceremony would be over before
his arrival; for which reafon ihe fent a meffage to the
earl, commanding him in that cafe not to enter Scot¬
land nor deliver her prefent. But James had been
jnore obfequiousj and not only delayed the ceremony
13 ] HEN
till the Engliih ambaffador arrived, but diftinguiffied
him from the reft by having a canopy carried over his
head at the proceffion, fupported by the lairds of Cefs-
ford, Buccleugh, Duddope, and Traquair. The ce¬
remony was performed with great magnificence ; after
which the ambaffadors prefented their gifts. That
from the United States was the moil valuable. It
coniifted of two gold cups worth 12,400 crowns, with
a box of the fame metal, weighing in all about 400
ounces, containing befides the grant of a penfion of
5000 florins annually to the prince for life. The Eng-
hih ambaffador gave a cupboard of plate curioufly
wrought, and valued at 3000I. fterling; and the Daniih
ambaffador two gold chains, one for the queen and
another for the prince. The baptifm was celebrated
on the 6th of September 1594, and the child named
Frederick-Henry and Henry-Frederick.
The young prince was now committed to the care
of the earl of Mar, who was affilled in this important
charge by Annabella countefs-dowager of Mar, dau ’•la¬
ter of William Murray of Tulhbardine, and paternal
anceftor of the prefent duke of Athol. This lady was
remarkable for the feverity of her temper, fo that the
prince met with little indulgence while under her tui¬
tion; notwithilanding which, he ffiowed great affe&ion
for his governefs all the time ihe had the care of him.
Next year, however (1595), the queen engaged the
chancellor, lord Thirleitane, in a fcheme to get the
prince into her own power; but the king having found
means to diffuade her majefty from the attempt, ffiowed
afterwards fuch marks of difpleafure to the chancellor,
that the latter fell into a languiihing diforder and died
of grief,
In his fixth year prince Henry was committed to
the care of Mr Adam Newton a Scotfman, eminently
ikilled in moil branches of literature, but particularly
diftinguiihed for his knowledge of the Latin language.
Under his tutorage the prince foon made great progrefs.
in that language, as well as in other branches of know¬
ledge ; infomuch that before he had completed his iixth
year his father wrote for his ufe the treatife intitled
Bafilikon Doron, thought to be the bed of all his works.
In his feventh year, prince Henry began his corre-
fpondence with foreign powers. His hrft letter was
to the States of Holland ; in which he expreffed his
regard and gratitude for the good opinion they had
conceived of him, and of which he had been informed
by feveral perfons who had vifited that country ; con¬
cluding with a requeft that they would make ufe uf
his intereft with his father in whatever he could ferve
them, promifing alfo his fervice in every other refped
in which he could be ufeful, until he fhould be able ta
give farther inftances of his good-will and affe&ion.
At this early period the prince began to add to his
literary accompliffiments fome of the more martial kind,
fuch as riding,- the exercife of the bow, pike, &c. as
well as the ufe of fire-arms; and indeed fuch was the
attachment he ffiowed throughout his whole lifetime to
military exercifes, that had he attained the years of
maturity, there can fcarce be a doubt that he would
have diltinguifhed himfelf in a moft eminent manner.
In all hi Si exercifes he made furprifing progrefs ; and
not only in thofe of the military kind, but in fmging,
dancing, &c. On lus ninth birth-day he Lnt a letter
iu Latin to the king, informing him that he had read
over -
Henry.
HEN [ 4H ] HEN
over Terence’s Hecyra, the third book of Phssdrua’s
Fables, and two books of CiceroM Epiftles ; and that
now he thought himfelf capable of performing fome-
thing in the commendatory kind of epiftles. His ac-
complilhments were foon fpoken of in foreign countries;
and thefe, along with the general fufpicion that James
favoured the Catholic party, probably induced pope
Clement VIII. to make an attempt to get him into
his hands. With this view he propofed, that if James
would entruft him with the education of the young
prince, he would advance fuch fums of money as would
effe&ually eftablifti him on the throne of England. This
happened a little before the death of Elizabeth; but
James,notwithftandinghisambition to poffefs the crown
of England, of which he was not yet altogether certain,
withftood the temptation. He alleged, that it would
be unnatural for him, as a father, to allow his fon to
be brought up in the belief of a doftrine which he
himfelf did not believe: and even though he ihould
aft in his private capacity in fuch an unnatural manner,
he could not anfwer for it to the nation, he being
heir-apparent to the crown, and the kingdom at large
much interefted in whatever concerned him. On the
death of the queen of England, James was obliged to
leave Scotland in fuch hafte, that he had no time to
take a perfonal leave of his fon, and therefore did fo
by letter, which was anfwered by the prince in Latin.
The queen, however, who had been defired to follow
the king to London in three weeks, but to leave the
prince in Scotland, thought proper to make another
attempt to get her fon into her own power. With
this view (he took a journey to Stirling,^ where the
prince refided, but was oppofed in her defigns by the
friends of the houfe of Mar ; and this affe&ed her fo
much, that fhe mifearried of a child of which ihe was
then pregnant. The king, hearing of this misfortune,
ordered the prince to be delivered to his mother ; but
refufed to inflid any puniihment on the earl of Mar,
which the queen inlifted upon, that nobleman having
been with the king at London, and entirely innocent
of the whole affair. Inftead of punilhing him, there¬
fore, he caufed him to be acquitted by an ad of the
public council at Stirling; invefted him with the order
of the garter ; made him a grant of feveral abbey and
other church lands; and raifed him to the poit of lord
high treafurer after the difgrace of the earl of Somer-
fet; in which employment he continued till he could
• no longer perform the duties of his office through age
and infirmity.
In the month of July this year (1603) Pr'nce
Henry was invefted with the order of the garter; after
which he was prefented to the queen in his robes, and
greatly commended by all who law him on account of
his majeftic carriage and religious behaviour at the
altar, as Well as the quicknefs of his underftanding and
ready anfwers. Being obliged to leave London
on account of the plague, he retired to Otelands, a
royal palace near Weybridge in Surrey, where a fepa-
rate houfehold was appointed for him and his filter
Elizabeth. The appointment confifted at firft of 70
fervants, of whom 22 were to be above Itairs and 48
below. In fome weeks the number was augmented to
104, of whom 51 were above Hairs and 53 below ; but
before the end of the year they were augmented to
141, of whom 56 were above ftairs and 85 below.
From Otelands he removed the fame year to Nonfiich H-nry.
in Surrey, and from thence to- Hampton Court, where v
he refided till Michaelmas 1604; after which he re¬
turned to his houfe at Otelands, his fervants having all
this time been kept on board-wages.
In the tenth year of his age, Henry began to i
fhow a wonderful defire of becoming mafter of all thofe
accomplifliments which are neceffary to conftitute a
great prince. Without defifting from his attention to
polite literature, he applied himfelf in the moft affidu-
ous manner to the knowledge of naval and military
affairs. To give him the firft rudiments of the former,
a fmall veffel was conftru&ed 28 feet long and 12 broad,
curioufly painted and carved; on bozfrd of which- he
embarked with feveral of the principal nobility, and
failed down as far as Paul’s Wharf, where, with the ufual
ceremonies, he baptized it by the name of the Difdain^
Mr Pett the builder of this {hip was recommended to
the prince by the high admiral in fuch llrong terms,
that his highnefs took him immediately into his fervice,
and continued his favour to him as long as he lived.
Prince Henry now began to {how himfelf equally a
patron of military men and of learning. His martial
difpofition induced him to take notice .of Colonel Ed-
mondes, a brave Scots officer in the Dutch fervice,
who had raifed himfelf folely by his merit. To him
he applied for a fuit of armour to be fent over from
Holland: but though the Colonel executed his com-
miffion, he reaped no benefit from his highnefs’s fa¬
vour, dying in a ffiort time after the armour was pur-
chafed, before he had any Opportunity of fending it
over. In matters of literature the prince appears to
have been a very good judge. He patronifed divines,
and appears to have been naturally of a religious turn
of mind. His attachment to the Proteftant religion ap¬
pears to have been exceffive; as it never was in the
power of the queen, who favoured the catholic party,
to make the leaft impreffiqn upon him. Her machina¬
tions for this purpofe were difeovered by the French
ambaffador; who, in a letter dated June 7th 1604,
informed his mafter of them, and that the Spaniards
were in hopes of being able by her means to alter the
religion in England, as well as to prejudice the prince
againft France, which .the queen faid {he hoped that
her fon would one day be able to conquer like another
Henry V. By another letter, of date 2 2d O&ober the
fame year, the ambaffador, after taking notice of the
queen’s immoderate ambition, adds, .that {he ufed all
her efforts to corrupt the mind of the prince, by flat¬
tering his paffions, diverting him from his ftudies, and
reprefenting to him, out of contempt to his father, that
learning was inconfiftent with the chara&er of a great
general and conqueror; propofing at the fame time a
marriage with the infanta of Spain. Notwithflanding
thefe remonftrances, however, the prince continued to
behave as ufual, and to patrontfe the learned no lefs
than before. He prefented John Johnfton, one of the
king’s profeffors at St Andrew’s, with a‘diamond, for
havfng dedicated to him an Hiftorical Defcription of
the kings of Scotland from the foundation of the mo¬
narchy to that time; after which the profeffor added
a carmen encomiajlicum, which was tranfmitted to his
highnefs in November 1605. Many other authors alfo
fought and obtained his countenance. In 1606 Mr
John Bond uftiered his edition of Horace into the
world
HEN [ 4k 3 HEN
Henry, world with a polite dedicatioti to the prince, vvi. au
—v  he highly compliments on account of the progrefs he
had made in learning. In 1609 a book was fent over
to him from France by Sir George Carew, the Bri-
tifh ambaffador there,' tending to d'ifprove the do&rine
of the Catholics concerning the church of Rome being
the tirft of the Chriitian churches. The fame year the
learned Thomas Lydyat publifhed h\% Emendatio Tern-
porum, which appeared under the patronage of the
prince ; and with this performance his highnefs was
fo well pleafed, that he took the author into his family
to read to him, and made him his chronographer and
cofmographer. Paul Buys or Bufius alfo fent him a
letter with a dedication of the fecond part of his Pan-
defts; in which he beftows upon him the highett com¬
pliments on the great expeftations which were formed
of him, and of the hopes entertained by the reformed
Chritlian churches that he would prove a powerful fup-
port to their caufe, and antagonift to the errors of
Rome. In 1611 Dr Tpoker, in his dedication of an
Anfwer to Becanus a Jefuit, who had written againft a
piece done by his majelly himfelf, ftyles his highnefs
“ the Maecenas of all the learned ” Another treatife
againft the fame Becanus was alfo printed this year,
and dedicated to the prince
Many other authors, whom our limits will not allow
us to take notice of, were fond of dedicating their per¬
formances to his highn^fs; nor was his correfpondence
lefs extenfive than his erudition. We have already ta¬
ken notice of his having written his firft public letter
to the ftates of Holland. He was congratulated by
the elector palatine, afterwards married to the princefs
Elizabeth, on the difeovery of the gunpowder-plot.
On that fame occafion alfo Lord Spencer wrote him a
letter, accompanying it with the prefent of a fword and
target ; “ inuruments (fays he) fit to be about you in
thofe treacherous timest from the which, I trull, God
will ever protett your,moft royal father, &c.” Previous
to this he had ctmrefponded in Latin with the doge of
Venice, the landgrave of Heffe, and the king of Den¬
mark; in French with the duke of Savoy, and in La¬
tin with the duke of Brunfwic and Uladillaus- king of
Poland ; befides a number of other eminent perfons too
tedious to enumerate,
The great accomplilhments of Henry foon caufed
him to be taken notice of by the moll eminent princes
in Europe. In 1606 Henry IV. of France ordered
his ambaflador to pay him fpeciaLregard on ail occa-
ficns. He defired him likevvife to falute the prince
in the name of he dauphin, afterwards Louis XIII. and
to inform him of the regard the latter had for him. A
meffage was alfo fent by the fame ambaffador to M, de St
Anthoine, appointed to be riding mailer to his highnejs.
enjoininghimtodohisduty in that office; and affiuinghim
that his majefty would be as much jikwd'ed with it as if
the fervice had been done to h'mfelF. To thefe meffages
the prince returned very, proper anfwers; and after¬
wards performed his exercife rn the riding fchool be¬
fore the ambaffador himfelf, that the latter might fend
an account thereof to his mailer. On this occafion he
mounted two horfes, an t acquitted trimfelf fo well that
the ambaffador, in a latter to M de Villeroy, 'the
French fecretary, gave him the character of “ a
prince who promifed very much, and whofe friendlhip
could not but be one day of advantage.” Having then
fet forth the propriety of cultivating a good under- Henry,
(landing with him, he tells the fecretary, that the dau- * r-—
phin might make a return for fome dogs which the
prince had fent him, by a fuit of armour well gilt
and enaimlled, together with pillols and a fwrord of the
fame kind ; alfo two horfes, one of them a barb.—•
This year alfo the prince waited on his uncle the king
of Denmark, who had come to England on a vifit to
King Jamesand this monarch was fo much pleafed
with his company, that he piefented him at parting
with his vice-admiral and belt lighting (hip, valued at
no lefs thsn 2500I. alfo with a rapier and hanger, va¬
lued at opo marks. The ftates of Holland were equally
ready to (how their attachment. On the 25th of Au-
guft this year they ftnt a letter, to the prince in French,
accompanied with the prefent of a fet of table-linen,
which they thought, as being the produce of their
own country, would be agreeable to him ; and they
requefted his love and favour towards their Hate . in
return for which they promifed to be always ready to
Ihow their regard for him, and to do him all poffible
fervice ; as the ambaffador himfelf was ordered more
particularly to declare. About this time the prince
himfelf wrote a letter to Henry IV. acknowledging
the kindnefs which his majetty had ihown him for fe-
veral years, and confirmed of late by the latter offering
him under his own royal hand his friendfhip and that
of the dauphin.
While James was this year employed in hunting,
the French ambaffador, who had been obliged to quit
London on account of the plague, took frequent op¬
portunities of waiting upon his highnefs, as did alfo-
the Spanilh ambaffador, whofe ollenfible reafon was
to inform him about fome horfes which were to be
fent him from Spain. The prince’s partiality towards
France, however, was fo evident, that the French am¬
baffador, in a letter dated 3 1 ft Odlober 1606, mentions,
that “ as far as he could difeover, his highnefs’s inclina¬
tion was entirely towards France, and that it would be
wrong to negledt a prince who promifed fuch great
things. None of his pleafures (continued he) favour
the leaft of a child. He is a particular lover of horfes
and whatever belongs to them: but is not fond of hunt¬
ing ; and when he goes to it, it is rather for the plea-
fure of galloping than that which the dogs give him. -
He plays willingly enough attennis, and another Scottifh
diverfion very like mall; but this always with per¬
fons elder than himfelf, as if he defpifed ihofe of his ■
own age. He ftudies two hours a-day, and employs
the reft of his time in tolling the pike, or leaping, or '
(hooting with the bow, or throwing the bar, or vault¬
ing, or fome other exercife of the kind, and he is ne¬
ver idle. He (hows himfelf likewife very good-natu¬
red to his dependents, fupports their intei ells againft
any perfons whatever, and pulhes whatever he under¬
takes for them or others with fuch zeal as gives fuc-
cefs to it. For, befides his exerting his whole flrength <
to compafs what he defires, he is already feared by
‘thofe who have the management of affairs, and eipe-
dally by the earl of Salilbury, who appears to be greatly
apprehtnfive of the piince’s afeendant; as the prince, ,
on the other hand, (hows little elleem for his lordfhip.”
In this letter the ambaffador further goes on to re¬
mark, that fome of the prince’s attendants had for¬
merly been made to expedl penfions from France j arui :
hsa
HEN [4
■ he was of opinion that they ought to be gratified on
' account of the intereil they had with the prince. He
adds, that the queen had lefs affedlion for Prince Henry
than for his brother the duke of York, afterwards
Charles I. ; which the prince feemed to have difcovered,
and fometimes ufed expreffions to that purpofe : that
the king alfo feemed to be jealous of his fon’s accom-
plilhments, and to be difpleafed with the quick pro-
grefs he made.
In 1607 the prince received the arms and armour
which Henry IV. fent him as a prefent; and thefe be¬
ing accompanied with a letter, the prince returned an
anfwer by a Mr Douglas, who was introduced to the
king of France, by the ambafiador Sir George Carew.
His majefty, contrary to cuftom, opened the prince’s
letter immediately ; and was fo much furprifed at the
beauty of the character, that he could not be fatisfied
that it was the prince’s hand until he compared the
fignature with the reft of the writing. In his letter
to the Britifh court on this occafion, the ambaflador
fets forth in ftrong terms the affedtion exprefled by
the French monarch for the prince ; “ accounting of
him as of his own fon, as he hoped that his good brother
of great Britain would do the like of the dauphin.”
The French ambaffadcr alfo gave a charadter of his
highnefs fimilar to that already mentioned ; remarking,
that the prince had great accomplifliments and courage;
would foon make himfelf talked of, and poffibly give
jealoufy to his father, and apprehenfions to thofe who
had the greateft afeendant at court.” With regard to
the peniions to his attendants, he was at firft of opinion
that they ought to be granted; but afterwards altered
his mind, perceiving that there was little probability
of the prince being influenced by any of his attend¬
ants, as he was much more inclined to be guided by
his own judgment than by the fuggeftions of others.
—In the month of July this year the Dutch ambafla-
dors came recommended to Prince Henry by the States,
who wrote to him that they had ordered their ambaf-
fadors to kifs his highnefs’s hands on their part, and
delired him to continue his friendlhip to their republic,
and to allow their ambaffadors a favourable audience,
and the fame credit as to themfelves.
All this attention paid him by foreign powers, all
his attention to his own improvements in learning and
the military art, and all the temptations which we
cannot but fuppofe a youth in his exalted ftation to
have been expofed to, feem never to have Ihaken the
mind of this magnanimous prince in the lead, or to
have at any time made him deviate from the ftridl line
of propriety. We have already mentioned his attach¬
ment to the Proteftant religion ; and this appears not
to have been grounded upon any prejudice or opinion
inculcated upon his infant mind by thofe who had the
care of him, but from a thorough convidtion of the truth
of the principles which heprofeffed. On thedifeovery
of the gunpowder-plot, lie was fo imprefied with grati¬
tude towards the Supreme Being, that he never after¬
wards omitted being prefent at the fermon preached'
on the occafion. In his t4th year the prince fhowed
himfelf capable of diftinguifning the merit of religious
difeourfes, and paid particular regard to fuch divines
as were moft remarkable for their learning and abili¬
ties. Among others, he honoured with his attention
the learned and eloquent Mr Jofeph Hall, then re&or
XV151. 6
16 ] HEN
of Halftead in Suffolk, afterwards dean of Worcefter,
and fucceffively bilhop of Exeter and Norwich. His
highnefs was fo much pleafed with a book of Medita¬
tions publifhed by that divine, that he preffed him to
preach before him; and having heard two of his fer-
mons, he engaged him as one of his chaplains; invi¬
ting him afterwards to ftay conftantly at his court,
while the other chaplains waited only in their turns ;
promifing, moreover, to obtain from the king fuch
preferments as ftrould fully fatisfy him. Mr Hall, how¬
ever, from a reluctance to leave his new patron Lord
Denny afterwards earl of Norwich, did not accept of
thefe honourable and advantageous propofals.
In his family the prince took the utmoft care to pre-
ferve decency and regularity. He ordered boxes to be
kept at his three houfes of St James’s, Richmond, and
Nonfuch, for the money required of thofe who were
heard to fwear; the fines levied on fuch offenders
being given to the poor. He had, indeed, a particu¬
lar averfion tolhe vice of fwearing and profanation of
the name of God. When at play, he never was heard
to do fo ; and on being afked why he did not fwear at
play as well as others ? he anfwered, that he knew no
game worthy of an oath. The fame anfwer he is faid to
have given at a hunting-match. The flag, almoft quite
fpent, crofted a road where a butcher was pafiing with
his dog. The flag was inftantly killed by the dog ;
at which the huntfmen were greatly offended, and en¬
deavoured to irritate the prince againft the butcher:
but his highnefs anfwered coolly, “ What if the
butcher’s dog killed the ftag, what could the butcher
help it? They replied, that if his father had been fo fer-
ved, he would have fworn fo that no man could,have
endured. “ Away,” cried the prince, “all the pleafure
in the world is not worth an oath.”
The regard which Prince Henry had for religion
was manifeft from his attachment to thofe who be¬
haved themfelves in a religious and virtuous manner^
Among thefe w’as Sir John Harrington, whofe father
had been knighted by queen Elizabeth, and created
by King James a baron of England in 1603 by the
title of Lord Harington of Exton in Rutland. Fie
was entrufted with the care of the Princefs Elizabeth
after her marriage with the eledtor palatine, whom he
attended to Heydelberg in 1613, and died at Worms
on the 24th of Auguft following. His fon, who in
the year 1604 had been created knight of the Bath,
was as foon as he came to the years of diferetion re-
mat kable for his piety; infomuch that he is faid to
have kept an exadt diary of his life, and to have exa¬
mined hitnfelf every week, as to the progrefs he had
made in piety and virtue, and what faults he had com¬
mitted during that time. He was affable and cour¬
teous to all, and remarkable for his humanity to thofe
in diftrefs; all which good qualities fo endeared him
to the prince, that he entered into as ftridl a friend-
(hip W’ith him as the difproportibn between their fta-
tions would allow. There are ftill feveral letters ex¬
tant which pafled between them, chiefly upon clafli-
cal fubjedls. This worthy and accomplilhed nobleman
died in February 1614.
In his friendlhip Prince Henry appears to have been
very fincere, and inviolably attached to thofe whom he
once patronifed. He had a great regard for the un¬
fortunate Lady Arabella Stewart, filler of Henry Lord
Daiuley,
HEN [ 417 ] HEN
Henry. Darnley, the king’s father ; and there is ftill extant a
—v  letter from this lady to the prince in return for fome
kindnefs he had beftowed on a kinfman of hers at her
recommendation. He exprefled much compaffion for
her misfortunes; fhe having excited the king’s jea-
loufy on account of her marriage with Mr William
Seymour, afterwards earl and marquis of Hertford,
and reftored in 1660 to the dukedom of Somerfet.
But on her attempting to efcape from the houfe in
Highgate where ihe was confined, and to go abroad
with her hufband, his highnefs exprefled fome refent-
ment againtl her; though in all probability his ap-
prehenfions, as well as thofe of the king, were ill-
founded.
As early as the year 1605, the prince, though then
only in his nth year, manifefted his gratitude and at¬
tachment to thofe who had ferved him, in the inftance
of his tutor Mr Newton already mentioned. That
gentleman had been promifed by his majefty the
deanery of Durham upon the demife of the archbifhop
of York. On this promife Mr Newton had relied for
two years ; and as foon as the prelate died, his high¬
nefs took care to put the king in mind of his promifej
in confequence of which, Mr Newton was inftalled in
his office on the 27th of September 1606.
Mr Pett, the gentleman who firft inflru&ed the
prince in naval affairs, having been involved with many
others in an inquiry concerning their condudt in their
refpeftive employments in the royal navy, the prince
fhowed a laudable defire of prote&ing their innocence.
The inquiry was fet on foot by the earl of Northamp¬
ton, lord privy feal and warden of the cinque ports,
who had received a commiffion from the king for the
purpofe. It was carried on by his agents, however,
with fuch violence and malice, as not only occafioned
great trouble and expence to the parties concerned,
but almolt ruined the navy, befrdes augmenting his
majefty’s expences much more than formerly. MrPett’s
trial began on the 28th of April 1609; at which time
the reports being very favourable to him, the king de¬
termined to examine into the date of the matter him-
felf. For this purpofe he went to Woolwich on the
8th of May, attended by the prince ; and appointed
Sir Thomas Chaloner, his highnefs’s governor, and
Mr Henry Briggs then profeffor of geometry in
Grefham college, to decide the controverfy which was
then agitated about the proportion of the (hips. The
meafurers declared in favour of Mr Pett; on which
the prince exclaimed, “ Where be now thofe perjured
fellows, that dare thus to abufe his majefty with falfe
informations? Do they not worthily deferve hanging?”
During the whole time he flood near Mr Pett to en¬
courage him ; and when the king declared himfelf fa-
tisfied of his innocence, the prince took him up from
his kneesi expreffing his own joy for the fatisfa&ion
which his father had received that day ; protefting
that he would not only countenance Mr Pett for the
future, but provide for him and his family as long as
he lived.
The courage, intrepid difpofition, and martial turn
of this prince, were manifell from his infancy. It is
related of Alexander the Great, that at a very early
period of his life he ftiowed more Ikill than all his fa¬
ther’s grooms in the breaking of his favourite horfe
Bucephalus. An anecdote fomewhat limilar is re-
Vol.VIII. Pan II.
corded of Prince Henry. He was hardly ten years Henry,
of age, when he mounted a very high-fpirited horfe, —'
in fpiteof the remonftrances of his attendants; fpurred
the animal to a full gallop ; and having thoroughly
wearied him, brought him back at a gentle pace, afk-
ing his fervants at his return, “ How long fliall I
continue in your opinion to be a child?” From the
very firft time that he embarked on board the fmall
veffel formerly mentioned, he continued to pay the
utmoft attention to naval affairs. In Auguft 1607,
he vifited the royal navy at Woolwich, where he was
received by Mr Pett, and conduded aboard the Royal
Anne, where he had 31 large pieces of ordnance ready
to be fired. This was done unexpe&edly as foon as
the prince reached the poop; at which he expreffed
great fatisfa&ion. After vifiting the dock-yard, and
furveying what was done of a ftiip then building for
himfelf, he went aihore, and having partaken of an en¬
tertainment prepared for him by Mr Pett, he was by
him conduced to the mount, where the ordnance were
again charged and ready to be placed for firing. The
prince infilled upon an immediate difcharge, but fuf-
fered himfelf to be perfuaded againft it by Mr Pctt’s
reprefentation of the danger of firing fo many ord¬
nance loaded with Aot while his highnefs flood clofe
by : on a fignal given by him, however, by holding up
his handkerchief, after he had removed to a proper di-
ftance with his barge, the ordnance were difcharged as
he had defired. In his 16th year he paid feveral vi-
fits to Woolwich, in order to fee the above mentioned
Ihip which was building for himfelf. When finilhed,
it was the largeft that had ever been feen in England:
the keel being 114 feet in length, and the crofs-beam
44 feet; carrying 64 pieces of great ordnance; the
burden about 1400 ton; and the whole curioufly
ornamented with carving and gilding. His highnefs
having recived this (hip in a prefent from his majefty,
went to fee it lanched on the 24th of September
1609. The narrownefs of the dock, however, having
prevented its being done at that time, the prince, who
(laid behind the reft of the company in order to pre¬
pare for the ceremony next morning, returned by three
o’clock through a ftorm of rain, thunder, and light¬
ning ; and Handing on the poop while the Ihip was
launched, gave it the name of the Prince Royal.
In 1611 his highnefs made a private vifit to Cha¬
tham, where he firft went on board the Prince Royal,
and afterwards from Ihip to Ihip; informing himfelf
particularly of every thing of moment relating to the
ftate of all the different (hips, and even pinnaces lying
there at that time. Next day he went by water uo
to Stroud ; where, contrary to all the remonftrances
of his attendants, he caufed the ordnance to be (hot
over his barge. From Stroud he went to Gravefend,
where the magiftrates received him with a difcharge
of all their fmall-arms and the ordnance of the block-
houfes.
About the middle of January 16x2, Prince Henry
ordered all his majefty’s maller-lhipwrights and buil¬
ders to attend him to confider of a propofition con¬
cerning the building of fhips in Ireland made by a
Mr Burrel. Some of his propofitions were, that he
fhould build any Ihip from 100 to 600 ton, with two
decks and an half, at the rate of five pounds per ton;
that he would build any Ihip from 600 to 1000 ton
3 F with
MEN [ 4
with three whole decks, at the rate of feven pounds
per ton ; that, he fhould build a (hip of 600 ton with¬
in a certain time, &c. Mr Pett was employed to fee
that this contract was fulfilled on the part of Mr Bur-
rel. Among the prince’s papers, a lift of the royal
navy was found after his death, with an account of all
the expences of fitting out, manning, &c. which mutt
now be accounted a valuable addition to the naval hi-
ftory of thofe times. His paffion for naval affairs na¬
turally led him to a defire of making geographical dif-
coveries; of which, however, only two inftances have
reached our times. One was in 1607, when he recei¬
ved from Mr Tindal his gunner, who had been em¬
ployed by the Virginia company, a draught of James’s
river in that country, with a letter dated 2 2d June the
fame year. In this letter Mr Tindal remarks, that his
fellow-adventurers had difeovered that river; and that
no Chriftian had ever been there before ; that they were
fafely arrived and fettled; that they found the coun¬
try very fruitful; and that they had taken a real and
public poffeffion in the name and to the ufe of the
king his highnefs’s father. The other iuftance was in
the year 1612, the fame in which he died, when he
employed Mr Thomas Button, an eminent mariner, to
go in queft of a north-weft paffage. Mr Button ac¬
cordingly fet fail with two (hips named the Refolution
and Difcowry; the fame defignations with thofe in
which the late Captain Cook made his laft voyage.
Both of them, were vidlualled" for 18 months; but
wintering in thefe northern regions, they did not re¬
turn till after the prince’s deceafe, fo that Captain
Button was never fent on another voyage: neverthe-
lefs, he returned fully convinced of the exiftence of fuch
a paffage ; and even told the celebrated profeffor Briggs
of Grefham college, that he had convinced the king of
his opinion.
The martial difpofition of the prince, which was
eonfpicuous on all occafions, eminently difplayed it-
felf on the occafion of his being invefted in the prin¬
cipality of Wales and duchy of Cornwall, which took
place in the year 1610. Previous to this ceremony,
he, under the name and character of Mdtacks lord of
the ifles, caufed a challenge to be given, in the roman¬
tic ftyle of thofe times, to all the knights in Great
Britain. The challenge, according to cuftom, was
accepted ; and on the appointed day, the prince, af-
ififted only by the duke of Lenox, the earls of Arun¬
del and Southampton, Lord Hay, Sir Thomas Somer-
fet, and Sir Richard Prefton who inftrudted his high-
*efs in arms, maintained the combat againft 56 earls,
barons, k nights, and efquires. Prince Henry himfelf
gave and received 32 pufhes of the pike, and about 360
ftrokes of fwords, performing his part very gracefully,
and to the admiration of all who faw him, he being
not yet 16 years of age. Pr izes were beftowed upon
the earl of Montgomery, Mr Thomas Darry, and Sir
Robert Gordon, for their behaviour at this combat.
The ceremony of inftallation was performed on the
4th of June 1610, at which time every kind of mag¬
nificence was difplayed that could be devifed. Among
ether pageants ufed on this occafion was that of Nep¬
tune riding on a dolphin and making fpeeches to the
prince ; alfo of a fea-goddefs upon a whale. After
the ceremony the prince took his place on the left
hand of his majefty ; fitting there in his royal robes,
8 ] HEN
with the crown on his head, the rod in one hand, and
in the other the patent creating him Prince of-Wales
and duke of Cornwall. A public a£t was then read,
teftifying that he had been declared prince of Great
Britain and Wales. He was afterwards ferved at table
with a magnificence not unworthy of royalty itfelf;
the whole concluding with a grand mafquerade and
tournament.
In one inftance, the extreme defire which Prince
Henry had of being inftru&ed in military affairs, car¬
ried him beyond thofe bounds which European nations
have preferibed to one another. In 1607 the prince
de Joinville, brother to the duke of Guife, came to
England, having been obliged to leave France in con-
fequence of his having made love to the countefs de
Moret the king’s miftrefs. After having been for a few
weeks magnificently entertained at court, he departed
for France in the beginning of June. The prince
took an opportunity of fending to Calais in the train
of the prince an engineer in his own fervice, who took
the opportunity of examining all the fortifications of
the town, particularly thofe of the Rix-banc. This
was difeovered by the French ambaffador, who imme¬
diately gave notice of it to court, but excufed the
prince, as fuppofing that what he "had done was more
out of curiolity than any thing elfe ; and the court
feemed to be of the fame opinion, as no notice was ever
taken of the affair, nor was the friendfhip betwixt King
Henry and the prince in the fmalleft degree interrupt¬
ed. The martial difpofition of his highnefs was great¬
ly encouraged by fome people in the military line, who
put into his hands a paper intitled “ Propofitions for
War and Peace.” Notwithttanding this title, how¬
ever, the aim of the author was evidently to promote
war rather than peace ; and for this the following ar¬
guments were ufed. 1. Neceffity ; for the preferva-
tion of our own peace, the venting of fa&ious fpirits,
and inftrufting the people in arms. 2. The benefits
to be derived from the fpoils of the enemy, an augmen¬
tation of revenue from the conquered countries, &c.
This was anfwered by Sir Robert Cotton in the fol¬
lowing manner. 1. That our wifeft princes had al¬
ways been inclined to peace. 2. That foreign expe¬
ditions were the caufes of invafions from abroad and
rebellions at home, endlefs taxations, vaffalage, and
danger to the (late from the extent of territory, &c.
It does not appear, however, that the prince was at all
. moved by thefe pacific arguments : on the contrary,
his favourite diverfions were tilting, charging on horfe-
back with piftols, &c. He delighted in converfing
with people of (kill and experience in war concerning
every part of their profeffion ; caufed new pieces of
ordnance to be made, with which he learned to (hoot
at a mark ; and was fo careful to furnifti himftlf with
a breed of good horfes, that no prince in Europe could
boaft of a fuperiority in this refptft. He was folici-
ted by Sir Edward Conway to direft his attention to
the affairs of the continent, where Sigifmund III. of
Poland threatened, in conjunftion with the king of
Denmark, to attack Guftavus Adolphus the young
king of Sweden ; but the death of the prince, which
happened this year, prevented all interference of this
kind.
To his other virtues Prince Henry added thofe of
frugality without avarice, and generofity without ex¬
travagance.
HEN [ 419 ] HEN
Henry, travagance. As early as the year 1605 began to
“’’"V ~ Ihow an attention to his intereft as duke of Cornwall,
and to take proper meafures for fecuring his revenues
there. In r 610 he fettled and appointed the officers
of his houfehold, making his choices with the greateft
prudence, and giving orders for the management and
regulation of his affairs with all the wifdom and gra¬
vity of an old counfellor. Some lands were now al¬
lotted to him for his revenues*; and in (lead of dimi-
nilhing his income during the fhort time he was in pof-
feffion of them, they were found at his death to be
fome thoufands of pounds better than when he obtain¬
ed them. At this time he (bowed much reluSance to
gratify any of his fervants except by promifes, as not
thinking himfelf yet authorifed to give any thing away:
but a (hort time before his death, he conferred penfions
on fome of them ; and there is no reafon to doubt,
that had his life been prolonged he would have reward¬
ed them all according to their merit.
Though Prince Henry never interfered much in
public bufinefs, yet in any little tranfa&ions he had of
this kind, he always difplayed great firmnefs and refo-
lution, as well as abfolute propriety of condudt. In a
letter from .Sir Alexander Seton, earl of Dunfermling,
he is commended for the firmnefs and refolution with
which he repelled the calumnies of fome who “ had
rafiily, and with the higheil intemperance of tongue,
endeavoured to wound the Scottifh nation.” By this
he alluded to fome very grofs and fcurrilous invec¬
tives thrown out againft the whole body of the Scots
by Sir Chriftopher Pigot, in a debate in the houfe of
commons on an union between the two kingdoms.
This gentleman declared his aftonilhment at the pro-
pofal of uniting a good and fertile country to one poor,
barren, and in a manner difgraced by nature; and for
affociating rich, frank, and honeft men, with fuch as
were beggars, proud, and generally traitors and rebels
to their kings ; with many other (hameful expreffions
of the fame kind. His majefty was highly offended
with the whole council; and Sir Chriitopher, after
being obliged in parliament to retraft his words, was
expelled the houfe and imprifoned ; in confequence of
which, the king was addreffed by the Hates of Scot¬
land, who thanked him for the zeal he had manifefted
for the honour of the country. In another inftance,
where the prince wilhed Mr Fullerton, a Scotfman, to
fuperfcde Sir Robert Car, one of the attendants of his
brother the duke of York, contrary to the inclination
of the king and earl of Salifbury, his highnefs carried
his point by perfuading Sir Robert of himfelf to give
up the place in queition.
Under this year, 1611, the elegant Latin hiftorian
of Great Britain from 1572 to 1628, Robert John-
iion, places a (lory, which, though unfupported by any
authority but his own, and improbable in itfelf, mult
not be omitted here. The prince, according to this
writer, requefted the king that he might be appointed
to prefide in the council. This demand was feconded
by the king’s favourite Car, Vifcount Rochefter, who
urged his majefty to lay his fun’s petition before the
council. But the earl of Salilbury, jealous of the
growing power of Rochefter, and a thorough mafter
of artifice and diffimulation, ufed all his efforts to de¬
feat whatever meafures were propofed by his rival: and
being alked foon after his opinion upon this point,
whether it was for the public intereft that the prince Henry,
(hould prefide in the council? anfwered, that he thought
it dangerous to divide the government, and to inveft
the fon with the authority of the father. Many others
of the privy council having delivered their opinions on
the fame queftion, that of the earl of Salilbury was
adopted by the majority. But his lordfhip foon took
an opportunity, in a fecret conference with the prince,
to lament his own fituation, and to perfuade his high¬
nefs that Lord Rochefter had the only influence in the
palace, and privately counterafted all his defigns. Th4
prince, on his part, refented the denial of his requeft,
and his exclufion from public bufinefs. It was not
long before Lord Rochefter difcovered the earl of Sa-
liftmry’s praflice againft him with the prince; to whom
he therefore went to clear himfelf. But his high¬
nefs turned from him with great indignation, and
would not hear his juftification. The queen likewife,
highly difpleafed with the vifcount, refufed to fee him,
and fought all means of leffening his power. This
forwardnefs imputed to the prince by the hiftorian, ia
endeavouring to intrude himfelf into the management
of public affairs, is not (as Dr Birch remarks) at all
fuitable to the chara&er of his highnefs, or to any
other accounts which we have of him ; nor ought it
to be believed upon the credit of a writer who cites
no authority for it, nor indeed for fcatce any other
affertions in his hiftory, how extraordinary foever they
appear to be, and wrho frequently ventures to enlarge
upon fubje&s which it was impoffible for him to have
known. However, it is not much to be doubted, that
the prince had no great efteem for Lord Rochefter,
whofe rife to the power of a favourite and a minifter
he fo much difliked, if we may believe a fatirical wri¬
ter of Memoirs*, that he was reported either to have * Francis
(truck his lordftiip on the back with a racket, or very
hardly forborne it. And another hiftorian, not much Memoir-sin
lefs fatirical, Arthur Wilfonf, mentions the bicker-King Jamctt
ings betwixt the prince and the vifcount; and that Sir ^61.38.
James Elphinfton obferving his highnefs one day to be
difeontented with the vifcount, offered to kill him; for ]geignof
which the prince reproved him, and faid that if there K. James [.
were caufe he would do it himfelf. But to wave fuch very
fufpicious authorities, it will be fufficient, in order to
judge of hishighnefs’s opinion of the vifcount, and his
adminiftration at the very height of it, to hear what
himfelf fays in a letter to Sir Thomas Edmondes of
the loth of September 1612 : “As matters go now
here, I will deal in no bufineffes of importance for
fome refpe&s.”
It is not to be fuppofed but that the marriage of a
prince fo accompliflred and fo much admired would en¬
gage the attention of the public. This was indeed the
cafe. The queen, who favoured the intereft of Spain,
propofed a match with the infanta, and the king of
Spain himfelf feemed to be inclined to the match. In
1611 a propofal was made for a double marriage be¬
twixt the prince of Wales and the eldeft daughter of
the houfe of Savoy, and between the prince of Savoy
and the Lady Elizabeth ; but thefe overtures were
very coolly received, being generally difagreeable to
the nation. Sir Walter Raleigh, at that time prifoner
in the Tower, wrote two excellent treatifes againft
thefe matches; in one of which he ftyles the prince
The mojl excellent and hopeful, as he does alfo in the in-
HEN L 420 1 HEN
Henry, troduftion to his Obfervations on the royal navy and
"'""V— fea-fervice. About the year 1612, his marriage be¬
came an objeft of general attention. In this affair the
king feems to have inclined to match his fon with the
princefs who promifed to bring the largeft dowry; the
nation at large to have been influenced by motives of
religion ; and the prince himfelf to have remained
entirely pafilve, and to have been willing to bellow bis
perfon with the moll perfedt indifference on whatfo-
ever princefs fhould be chofen for him. This appears
from a letter to the king dated 5th Odtober 1612, in
which he confiders the match with the fecond princefs
of France as in 3 manner concluded. Propofals had
indeed been made of fending her over to England for
her education, fhe being only nine years of age at that
time; but Villeroy the French minifler was of opi¬
nion, that this ought to be delayed for a year longer.
The reafons affigned by the prince for wifhing her
coming to England at that time were merely political:
J. Becaufe the French court, by having the princefs in
their power, might alter her mind as they pleafed ;
2. That there would thus be a greater likelihood of
converting her to the Proteflant religion; and, 3.
That his majefty’s credit would be better preferved
when both daughters (the elded being promifed to the
prince of Spain) fhould be delivered at the fame time,
though the conclufion of the one marriage might be
much later than of the other. With regard to the
exercife of her religion, the prince expreffed himfelf
rather in fevere terms, wifhing his majedy only to al¬
low her to ufe it in “ her rood private and fecret
chamber.’’ He then argues with the mod philofophic
indifference of the propriety of a match with the
French princefs rather than with one of the houfe of
Savoyi; concluding at lad in the following words;
“ If I have incurred in the fame error that I did lad
by the indifference of my opinion, I humbly crave par¬
don of your majedy, holding it fitter for your majedy
to refolve what courfe is mod convenient to be taken
by the rules of the date, than for me who am fo little
acquainted with fubje&s of that nature : and befides,
your majedy may think, that my part to play, which
is to be in love with any of them, is not yet at hand.”
On the whole, it appeared, that there never was any
real defign in the king or prince to bring this matter
to a conclufion ; and that the propofal had been made
only with a view to break off the match of the elded
daughter with the prince of Spain, which could not
now be done.
Prince Henry, notwithdanding his indifference in
matrimonial matters, applied himfelf with the utmod
affiduity to his former employments and exercifes, the
continual fatigue of which was thought to impair his
health. In the ipth year of his age his conditution
feemed to undergo a remarkable change : he began to
appear pale and thin, and to be more retired and fe-
rious than ufual. He complained now and then of a
giddinefs and heavy pain in his forehead, which ob¬
liged him to droke up his brow before he put on his
hat : he frequently bled at the nofe, which gave great
relief, though the difeharge dopped fome time before
his death. Thefe forebodings of a dangerous malady
were totally negle&ed both by himfelf and his attend¬
ants, even after he began to be feized at intervals with
fainting fits. Notwithdanding thtfe alarming fymp-
toms, he continued his ufual employments. On the Henry,
arrival of Count de Naffau in England, he waited —y-”—
upon him as though nothing had been the matter;
and when the fubjedl of the princefs Elizabeth’s mar¬
riage came to be canvaifed, he intereded himfelf deeply
in the affair, and never defided till the match with the
eledor palatine was concluded. In the beginning of
June 1612, the prince went to Richmond, where he
continued till the progrefs; and notwithdanding the
complaints above mentioned, he now took the oppor¬
tunity of the neighbourhood of the Thames to learn
to fwim. This practice in an evening, and after flip¬
per, was difeommended by feveral of his attendants;
and was fuppofed to have dopped the bleeding at the
nofe, from which he had experienced fuch falutary
effefts. He could not, however, be prevailed upon
to difeontinue the pradlice ; and took likewife great
pleafure in walking by the river-fide in moon light to
hear the found and echo of the trumpets, by which he
was undoubtedly too much expofed to the evening
dews. Through impatience to meet the king his fa¬
ther, he rode 60 miles in one day ; and having reded
himfelf during the night, he rode the next day 36
miles to Belvoir Cadle, where he met the king at the
time appointed. During the heat of the feafon alfo
he made feveral other fatiguing journeys, which mull
undoubtedly have contributed to impair his health.
At the conclufion of the progrefs, he gave a grand
entertainment to the court from Wednefday till Sun¬
day evening, when the king and queen with the prin¬
cipal nobility attended at fupper. Next day he haden-
ed to his houfe at Richmond, where he expected the
elector palatine, and began to give orders for his re¬
ception, alfo to take. meafures for rewarding his fer-
vants. To fome of thofe he gave penfions, and pro-
m;led to gratify the red as foon as poffible. From
this time, however, his health daily declined. His
countenance became more pale, and his body more
emaciated: he complained now and then of drowfinefs;
which frequently made him aik his attendants concern¬
ing the natuie and cure of an epidemic fever, probably
ot the putrid kind, which at that time prevailed in
England, and was fuppofed to have been brought
thither from Hungary. He now began frequently to
figh, as is ufual for perfons afflicted with dilorders of
that kind. The malady increafed in the beginning of
October, though he ufed his utmod endeavours to
conceal it, and occupied himfelf as ufualonly that
now, indead of rifing early in the morning as before,
he would commonly keep his bed till nine. Oh the
10th of that month he had two flight fits of an ague,
which obliged him to keep his chamber; and on the
13th his didemper feemed to he augmented by a vio¬
lent diarrhoea, which, however, gave fo much relief
next day, that he infilled upon being removed from
Richmond to St James’s, in order to receive the elec¬
tor palatine. On his arrival there, fome of his attend¬
ants began to be alarmed by the figns of ficknefs
which appeared upon him, though he himftlf made no
complaint, and even allowed his phyfician to go to his
own houfe. The eleftor arrived on the 16th, and the
prince waited upon him at Whitehall; but his difeafe
had now gained fa much ground, that his temper un¬
derwent a very conliderable alteration, and he became
peevilh and difeontented with almotl every thing-:
never-
HEN [ 421 J HEN
Henrj'. neverthelefs he ftill continued to give orders about what
related to the ceremony of his fitter's marriage; and
kept company as much as he could with the elector'
and the count de Naffau, with whofe conrerfation he
feemed to be particularly delighted. So great was his
aftivity even at this time, that he played a match at
tennis on the 2 4th of October. At this time he expo-
fed himfelf in his (liirt, feemingly without any inconve¬
nience?: but at night he complained of a greater degree
* of laflkude than ufual, and of a pain in his head. Next
day, being Sunday, he attended divine fervice, and heard
t wo fermOns; after which hedined withhismajefty,feem¬
ingly with a good appetite, but the palenefs and ghailly
appearance of his countenance was much remarked.
About three in th : afternoon he was obliged to yield to
the violence of his diftemper; being feized with a great
fjintnefs, Ihivering, andhead-ach, with other fymptoms
of a fever, which from that time never left him. Several
phyficians were called; but they differed much in their
opinions, if indeed any agreement amongll them, confi-
dering the ftate of medicine at that time, could have been
of fervice. On the firft of November he was blooded;
an operation which Dr Butler one of his phyficiansjiad
hitherto oppofed, but now Confented to in compliance
with his fellows. The impropriety of it was manifeft;
by the thin and diffolved iiate of the blood which was
taken away, and ftill more by his becoming much
worfe next day. As at that time the Peruvian bark,
the great antidote in putrid difeafes, was unknown,
and no proper methods of treatment feem to have been
employed, it is not to be wondered that he funk under
the difeaie. Among other abfurd remedies uted on
this occaiion was “ a cock cloven by the back, and
applied to the foies of his feet.” He expired on the
6th of November 1612. at the age of 18 years 8 months
and 17 days. On opening his body, the lungs were
found black, fpotted, and full of corrupted matter;
the diaphragm was alfo blackened in many places; the
blood-vtfltls in the hinder part of the head were di-
ftended with blood, and the ventricles full of water :
the liver was in fome places pale and lead-coloured ;
the gall-bladder deftitute of bile, and diftended with
wind; and the fpleen in many places unnaturalfy black.
His funeral was not folemnized till the 7th of Decem¬
ber following. Many funeral fermons were publiftied
in honour of him, and the two univerfities publiftied
colledfions of verfes on this occafion. The moft emi¬
nent poets of that age alfo exerted themfelves in ho¬
nour of the deceafed prince; particularly Donne,
Brown, Chapman, Drummond of Hawthornden, Do¬
minic Baudius of Leyden, &c.
His highnefs’s family continued together at St
James’s till the end of December 1612, when it was
diflblved ; and upon the day of their diflblution, Mr
Jofeph Kali, his chaplain, preached to them a moft pa¬
thetic farewell fermon on Revel, xxi. 3. In this he
fpeaks of his deceafed matter in the highert terms of
commendation, as the glory of the nation, ornament of
mankind, hope of poftemy, &c. ; and that he, who
was compounded of all- lovelinefs, had infufed an har¬
mony into his whole family, which was “ the moft
loving and entire fellowfhip that ever met in the court
of any prince.” The exhortation, with which the
greacher concludes, is: “ Go in peace, and live as
thofe that have loft fuch a mailer, and as thofe that Henry,
ferve a Matter whom they cannot lofe.” —
Prince Henry was of a comely ftature, about five feet
eight inches; of a ftrong, ftraight, well made body,
with fomewhat broad Ihoulders and a fmall waill; of
an amiable and m’ajeftic countenance : his hair of an
auburn colour: he was long-faced, and had abroad
forehead, a piercing eye, a moft gracious fmile, with
a terrible frown. He was courteous, loving, and af¬
fable ; naturally mode ft, and even (hame-faced ; moft
patient, which he fhowed both in life and death ; flow
to anger, fo that even when he was offended he
would govern it and reftrain himfelf to filence. He
was merciful to offenders, after a little punilhment to
make them fenfible of their faults. H;s fentiments of
piety were ftrong and habitual; and his zeal for the
interefts of religion was fuch, that he would, if he had li¬
ved, have ufed his endeavours for reconciling the divi-
fions among its profeffors. He ufually retired three
times a-day for his private devotions, and was fcarce
once a month abfent from the public prayers, where
his behaviour was highly decent and exemplary, and
his attention to the preacher the moft fixed imaginable.
He had the greateft efteem for all divines whofe cha-
ra&ers and conduft correfponded with their profeffion ;
but could not conceal his indignation againft fuch as
adled inconfiftently with it, and he above all things
abhorred flattery and vain-glory in them. Pie had a
thorough deteftation for popery, though he treated
thofe of that religion with great courtefy ; (bowing,
that his hatred was not levelled at their perfons, but
their opinions. And he was fo immoveable in his at¬
tachment to the Proteftant religion, that, not long be¬
fore his death, as Sir Charles Cornwallis f affures us, )• Difcourfe
he made a folemn proteftation that he would of tie mofl
join in marriage with one of a different faith. illujlnous
The prince was fo exadft in all the duties of?rtn“s™*
filial piety, and bore fo true a reverence and re-
fpe& for the king his father, that though fome- Cornwallis,,
times, out of his own inclination, or by the excite-Vrinted in
ment of others, he moved his majefty in fome things^.6
relating to the public, or his own particular interetts,^2Lv,
or thofe of others; yet upon the lead word or look vo!. iv!
or fign given him of his majeily’s difapprobation, he t»- 3*o*
would inftantly defift from purfuing the point, and
return either with fatisfaevtion upon rinding it difigree-
able to the king, or with fuch a refolved patience that
he neither in word or aftion gave fo much as any ap¬
pearance of being difpleafed or difeontented. He ad¬
hered ftridly to juft ice on all occafidns; and never fuf-
fered himfelf to determine raflily, or till after a due
examination of both parties. This love of juftice
(bowed itfelf very early by favouring and rewardio <•
thofe among his pages, and other young gentlemen
placed about him, who, by men of great judgment,
were thought to Be of the bed behaviour and mod me¬
rit. And when he was but a little above five years of
age, and a fon of the earl of Mar, fomewhat younger
than himfelf. falling out with one of his highnefs’s pa¬
ges, did him fome wrong, the prince reproved him for
it, faying, “ I love you, becaufe you are my lord’s
fon, and my coufin : but if you be not better condi¬
tioned, I will love fuch a one better naming the
child who had complained of him. He was of lingular
HEN f 42
Heury. intcgfity, and hated flattery and diffimulation; the lat-
—r—“ ter of which he efteemed a bafe quality, efpecially in
a prince; nor could he ever conftrain himfelf to treat
thofe kindly who did not deferve his love. A_ noble¬
man in the higheft favour with the king had written to
him, by fpecial command of his majefly, a letter,
wherein he recommended to his hlghnefs a matter of
very great confequence, to be inftantly anfwered ; and
in his fubfcription had ufed thefe words, “ Yours be¬
fore all the world.” His highnefs dire&ed Sir Charles
Cornwallis to draw up an anfwer, who, having writ¬
ten it, added fome words of favour to the nobleman to
precede the prince’s figning. His highnefs having
read and confidered the letter, allowed it entirely with¬
out alteration : But with regard to the words of fub¬
fcription, notwithftanding the great hafte which the
difpatch required, he ordered it to be new written, and
the words obje&ed to by him to be left out; alleging,
that he to whom he wrote had dealt with him untruly
and unfaithfully, and that his hand (hould never affirm
what his heart did not think. His temperance, ex¬
cept in the article of fruit, was as eminent as his ab¬
horrence of vanity and oftentation, which began to
ffiow themfelves when he was very young. When he
was taught to handle the pike, and his mailer in-
ftrufled him both by word and example to ufe a kind
of ftatelinefs in marching and holding of his hand ;
though he learned all other things, he would not con¬
form himfelf to that affefted faffiion : and if fome-
times, upon earnell intreaty, he offered to ufe it, he
would laugh at himfelf, and prefently return to his
own more modeft and decent manner. And though
he was a perfefl mailer of dancing, he never praftifed
it except when he was ilrongly preffed to it. The
fame modeily appeared in whatever he faid or did:
But it was no impediment to his generous and heroic
difpofition, which made him perform all his exercifes
beft before much company and the g?eateft perfonages.
His deaths were ufually very plain, except on oc-
cafxons of public ceremony, or upon receiving foreign
ambaffadors, when he would affume a magnificence of
drefs, and an air of majefty, which immediately af¬
ter he laid afide. Having once worn a fuit of Welih
frize for a confiderable time, and being told that it
was too mean for him, and that he ought not to keep
even a rich fuit fo long ; his anfwer was, that he was
not affiamed of his country cloth, and wiffied that it
would laft for ever.
In quicknefs of apprehenfion and memory few of the
fame age ever went beyond this prince; and fewer ftill
in a right judgment of what he was taught. When he
began to have fome knowledge of the Latin tongue,
being defired to choofe a motto out of feveral fentences
colledted by his tutor for his ufe, after reading over
many good ones, he pitched upon that of Silius Itali-
cus, Fax mentis honejhe gloria. And being afked by
the king one day, which were the beft verfes that he
had learned in the firft book of Virgil’s iEncid, he an¬
fwered thefe:
Rex trat /Eneas nobis, quo jujiior alter
Nee pietate Juit, nee hello major ami is.
Reading likewife another verfe of the fame poet,
‘j'rcs Tyriu/ve mibi nullo diferimine agetur,
lie faid he would make ufe of it with this alteration,
glnglus Seotufue mibi mi Ho dijerimine agetur.
5
! ] HEN
Befides his knowledge of the learned languages, he Hear
fpoke the Italian and French; and had made a confi-  v
derable progrefs in philofophy, hiftory, fortification,
mathematics, and cofmography ; in the two laft of
which he was inftrufted by that excellent mathemati¬
cian Mr Edward Wright. He loved and endeavour¬
ed to do fomewhat of every thing, and to be excel¬
lent in the moft excellent. He greatly delighted in all
rare inventions and 'arts, and military engines both at
land and fea ; in fnooting and levelling great pieces of
ordnance ; in the ordering and marfhaling of armies;
in building and gardening ; in mufic, fculprure, and
painting, in which laft art he brought over fevcral
works of great mafters from all countries.
He had a juft opinion of the great abilities of Sir
Walter Raleigh; and is reported to have faid, that “ no
king but his father would keep fuch a bird in a
cage.” And it is. affirmed, that his highnefs, but a
few months before his death, obtained the lands and
caftle of Sherburn in Dorfetfnire, the confifcated eftate
of Sir Walter, with an intention of returning it to
him. That eminent writer, foldier, and ftatefman,
had a reciprocal regard for the prince, to whom he
had defigned to addrefs a difeourfe “ Of the Art of
War by Sea,” which his highnefs’s death prevented the
author from finilhing. He had written likewife to the
prince another “ Difeourfe of a Maritimal Voyage, with
the paffagesand incidents therein But this has neve?
yet appeared in print. He had alfo intended, and, as
he expreffes it, hewn out a fecond and third volume of
his General Hiftory, which were to have been directed
to his highnefs: “ but it has pleafed God (fays he)
to take that glorious prince out of this world, to whom
they were dire&ed ; whofe unfpeakable and never-
enough lamented lofs hath taught me to fay with Job,
Verfa eft in luBum cithara mea, & organum meum in vo-
cem Jlentium/’
In the government of his houffiold and management
of his revenues, though he was fo very young, his ex¬
ample deferved to be imitated by all other princes.
He not only gave orders, but faw almoft every thing
done himfelf; fo that there were fcarce any of his do-
meftics whom he did not know by,name. And among
thefe there was not one even fufpetted papift ; his di¬
rections being very peremptory for fetting down the
names of all communicants, that he might know if
there were any of his family who did abfent thcmfelves
from the communion. His family was large, confift-
ing of few lefs than 500, many of them young gentle*
men born to great fortunes, in the prime of their
years, when their paflions and appetites were ftrong,
their reafon weak, and their experience little. Ifut
his judgment, the gravity of his princely afpeCl,
and his own example, were fufficient rellraints upon
them ; his very eye ferved iuftead of a command ;
and his looks alone had more effydl than the ffiarpeft
reprehenfions of other princes. If any difputes or con-
teils arofe among his fervants, he would put a Hop to
them at the beginning, by referring them to fome of
his principal officers, whom he thought moft intelli¬
gent in points of that nature, and to underfland beft
what compenfation was due to the injured, and what
reproof to the offender; fo that in fo numerous a fa¬
mily there was not fo much as a blow given, nor any
quarrel carried to the leaft height.
Though
the Reign
•/King
James,
lea. 45.
HEN [ 423 ] HEN
Though he loved plenty and magnificence in his of a particular inclination to any one of them ; nor Henry.
- houfe, he reftrained them within the rules of frugality was he at any other time witnefs of fuch words or ac-
and moderation, as we have already noticed. By this tions as could juftly be a ground of the leait fufpicion
economy he avoided the neceffity of being rigid to his of his virtue : though he obferves, that fume perfons
tenants, either by railing their farms or fines, or feek- of that time, meafuring the prince by themfelves, were
ing or taking advantage of forfeitures. Nor was he pleafed to conceive and report otherwife of him. It
tempted to make the profit which both law and right is indeed alferted, by the writer of Aulkus Coquinarhe,
afforded him, of fuch who had in the time of former believed upon good grounds to be William Saunder-
princes purchafed lands belonging to his duchy of fon, Efq; author of the “ Complete Hiftory of Mary
Cornwall, which could not by law be alienated from Queen of Scotland, and her fon and fucceffor King
it ; for he gave them, upon refuming thefe lands, a James,” that the Prince made court to the Countefs of
reafonable fatisfaftion. Neither did his economy re- Effex (afterwards divorced from the Earl, and married
ftrain him from being liberal where merit or diitrefs to the Vikount llochefter), before any other lady then
called for it; at the fame time he was never known to living. And Arthur Wilfon mentions the many amo-
give, or even promife, any thing, but upon mature de- rous glances which the prince gave her, till difeover-
liberation. Whatever abufes were reprefented to him, ing that fire was captivated with the growing fortunes
he immediately redreffed, to the entire fatisfaffion of of Lord Rochefter, and grounded more hope upon him
the perfons aggrieved. In his removal from one of his than the uncertain and hopelefs love of his highnefs,
houfes to another, and in his attendance on the king he foon flighted her. The learned and pious antiqua-
on the fame occafions, or in progreffes, he would fuffer ry, Sir Simonds D’Ewes, in a manufeript life of him-
no provifions or carriages to be taken up for hi* ufe, felf written with his own hand, and brought down to
without full contentment given to the parties. And the year 1637, is pofitive, that “ notwithftanding the
he was fo folicitous to prevent any perfon from being inellimable Prince Henry’s martial defires and initia-
prejudiced or annoyed by himfelf or any of his train, tion into the ways of godlinefs, the countefs, being
that whenever he went out to hawk before harveft was fet on by the earl of Northampton her father’s uncle,
ended, he.would take care that none fhould pafs thro’ firll caught his eye and heart, and afterwards profti-
the corn ; and, to fet them ah example, would himfelf tuted herfelf to him, who firll reaped the fruits of her
ride rather a furlong about. virginity. But thofe fparks of grace which even then
Plis fpeech was flow, and attended with fame impe- began to flrow their luftre in him, with thofe more he-
diment, rather, as it was conceived, by cuftom and a roic innate qualities derived from virtue, which gave
long imitation of feme who firll inllrudled him, than the law to his more advifed adlions, foon. railed him
by any deleft of nature, as appeared from his having out of the {lumber of that diltemper, and taught him
much correfted it by ufmg at home amongll his fer- to rejeft her following temptations with indignation
vants, firll Ihort difeourfes, and then longer, as he and fupercilioufnefs.” But thefe authorities, Dr Birch
found himlelf enabled to do it. Yet he would often obferves, ought to have little weight to the prejudice
fay of himfelf, that he had the moll unferviceable of the prince’s charafter, againil the direft te.'limony
tongue of any man living. in his favour from fo well-informed a writer as Sir
He had a certain height of mind, and knew well Charles Cornwallis,
how to keep his diffance ; which indeed he did to all, The immature death of the prince concurring with
admitting no near approach either to his power or his the public apprehenfions of the power of the papills,
fecrets. He expreffed himfelf, upon occafions offered, and the ill opinion which the nation then had of the
to love and elleem moll fuch of the nobility as were court, gave immediate rife to fufpiciona of its being
moll anciently defeended, and moll nobly and honellly hallened by poifon. And thefe fufpicions were heigh-
difpofed. He bad an entire affeftion for his brother the tened by the very little concern Ihown by fome perfons
duke of York and his filler Elizabeth ; though fome- in great Rations. “ To tell you (fays Richard earl of
times, by a kind of rough play with the former, and Dorfet in a letter to Sir Thomas Edmondes, of the
an appearance of contradifting the latter in what he 23d of November 1612) that our riling fun is fet ere
difeerned her to dtfire, he took a pleafure in giving fcatcely he had Ihone, and that with him all our glory
them, in their tender years, fome exercife of their pa- lies buried, you know and do lament as well as we, and
tience. A writer:}: of lefs authority than Sir Charles better than fome do, and more truly'; or elfe you are
Cornwallis, from the latter of wdiom we have thefe not a man, and fenfible of this kingdom’s lofs.” And
^ particulars, adds, that the prince feemed to have more it is certain, that this lofs made fo little impreflion up-
affeftion for his filler than his brother, whom he would on the king and his favourite, that the lord vifeoimt
often taunt till he made him weep, telling him, that Rochelter on the 9th of November, three days after
he Ihould be a bifhop, a gown being fittell to hide his it, wrote to Sir Thomas Edmondes to begin a nego-
legs, which were fubjeft in his childhood to be ciation for a marriage between Prince Charles and the
crooked. fecond daughter of France. But the ambaffador, who
With regard to any unlawful paffion for women, to had more fenfe of decency, thought it improper to en-
the temptations of which the prince’s youth and litua- ter upon fuch an affair fo foon after the late prince’s
tion peculiarly expofed him, his hillorian, who knew death. Mr Beaulieu, fecretary to Sir Thomas Ed-
him, and obferved him much, allures us, that having mondes, in a letter'of the 12th of November 1612, tp
been prefent at great fealls made in the prince’s houfe, Mr Trumbull, then refident at Bruffels, after llyling
to which he invited the moll beautiful ladies of the the prince “ the flower of his houfe, the glory of his
court and city, he could not difeover by his highnefs’s country, and the admiration of all Grangers, which in
behaviour, eyes, or countenance, the kail appearance all places had imprinted a great hope on the minds of
the
HEN r 424 ] HE
Henry, the well affe&ed, as it had already ftricken terror into that he had heard King Charles
 who .pei-haps (for
the hearts of his enemies,” adds,
of this lamentable accident we have yef no particular
relation) fearing the growing virtues of that young
prince, have ufed the traiterous venom of their abomi¬
nable pra&ices to cut him off in his youth. And this
I do not apprehend without caufe, confidering the fe-
veral advertifements which I faw a month ago coming
put of England, Holland, and Calais, of ftrange ru¬
mours which were in thefe parts, of fome great and
-imminent praftice in hand, for the fuccefs whereof it
was written, that in fome places our adverfaries had
made folemn prayers: and out of Calais it was efpeci-
ally advertifed, that in your parts they were in expec¬
tation of the death of fome great prince. But alas !
we did little apprehend, that fuch ominous prognofti-
cations would have lighted upon the perfon of that vi¬
gorous young prince, whofe extraordinary great parts
and virtues made many men hope and believe, that God
Had rcferved and dellined him, as a chofen inllrument, to
he the ftandard-bearer of his quarrel in thefe miferable
times, to work the reftoration of his church, and the
deftru&ion of the Romiih idolatry.”
With the above notion his royal highnefs’s mother
the queen was peculiarly impreffed, according to Dr
Welwood ; -who. in his Notes on Arthur Wilfon’s
Life of King James I- in the Complete Hiftory of
England, p.714. informs us, though without giving
any authority, that when the prince fell into his lad
illnefs, the queen fent to Sir Walter Raleigh for fome
of his cordials, which fhe herfelf had taken fome time
before in a fever with remarkable fuccefs. Raleigh
fent it, together with a letter to the queen, W'herein
he expreffed a tender concern for the prince; and,
boafling of his medicine, ftumbled unluckily upon an
expreflion to this purpofe, “ that it would certainly
cure him or any other of a fever, except in cafe of
poifon.” As the prince took this medicine, and died
notwithftanding its virtues, the queen, in the agony
of her grief, fhovved Raleigh’s letter; and laid fo much
weight on the expreffion about poifon, that as long as
ftie lived (he could never be perfuaded but that the
* Court and prince had died by that means. Sir Anthony Weldon*
C.haraBer o/fiiggefts that the prince was poifoned. The fame no-
K. James, ^;ou ;s countenanced by Wilfon in his Hiftoty f ; and
? P?6a d was a^°P,-e^ by Dr Welwood, as already mentioned :
’ 3*Who likewife, in another work, his Memoirs, after
ftyling the prince “ the darling of mankind, and a
youth of vafl hopes and wonderful virtues,” remarks,
that it was the general rumour at the time of his death,
that his highnefs was poifoned ; and that there is in
print a fernion preached at St James’s upon the diffo-
lution of his family, that boldly infinuated fome fuch
thing. By this fevmon Dr Welwood mull mean that
of Mr Hall cited above; in which, however, at leaft as
it is reprinted in the London edition of his works in
1617 in folio, there is not to be found any expref¬
fion that carries the leaft infinuation of that kind. The
writer of the memoirs adds, that Sir Francis Bacon, in
his fpeech at the trial of the earl of Somerfet, had
fome refleftions upon the intimacy of that lord with
Sir Thomas Overbury, which feemed to point that
way; there being feveral expreffions left out of the
printed copy that were in the fpeech. Bilhop Burnet
likewife tells us, that he was affured by Colonel Titus,
1
N
declare, that the Henry,
pnnee his brother was poifoned by the means of the *—v—W
Vifcount Rochefter, afterwards earl of Somerfet. But
it will be perhaps fufficient to oppofe to all fuch fvig-
geftions the unanimous opinion of phyficians who at¬
tended the prince during his ficknefs, and opened his
body after his death; from which, as Dr Welwood him-
felf obferves, there can be no inference drawn that he
was poifoned. To which may be added the authority of
Sir Charles Cornwallis who was well informed, andf Life and
above all fufpicion in this point, and who pronounces Hoatb of
the rumours fpread of his highnefs’s having been poi- He?,ry\
foned vain ; and was fully convinced that his death was^‘ *’
natural, and occafloned by a violent fever.
Henry (Philip), a pious and learned nonconformifl
minifler, was the fon of Mr John Henry, page of the
back-flairs to James duke of York, and was born at
Whitehall in 1631. He was admitted into Weftmin-
fter-fchool at about 12 years of age; became the fa¬
vourite of Dr Bulhby, and was employed by him, with
fome others, in colle&ing materials for the Greek
grammar he afterwards publiflied. From thence he
removed to Chrift-church, Oxford; where, having ob¬
tained the degree of mafter of arts, he was taken into
the family of judge Pulefton, at Emeral in Flintlhire,
as tutor to his fons, and to" preach at Worthenbury.
He foon after married the only daughter and heirefs
of Mr Daniel Matthews of Broad-oak near Whit¬
church, by whom he became poffefied of a competent
eftate. When the king and epifcopacy were reftored,
he refufed to conform, was ejedted, and retired with
his family to Broad-oak : here, and in the neighbour¬
hood, he fpent the remainder of his life, about 28
years, relieving the poor, employing the induftrious,
inltrudling the ignorant, and exercifing gvery oppor¬
tunity of doing good. Hfe moderation in his non¬
conformity was eminent and exemplary ; and upon all
occafions he bore teflimony againft uncharitable and
fchifmatical feparation. In church-government he
wilhed for archbiihop Ufher’s reduftion of epifcopacy*
He thought it lawful to join in the common prayer in
public aflemblies; which, during the time of his filence
and reftraint, he commonly attended with his family
with reverence and devotion.
Henry (Matthew), an eminent diffenting minifter
and author, was the fon of the former, and was born
in the year 1662. He continued tinder his father’s
care till he was 18 years of age ; in which time he
became well {killed in the learned languages, efpecially
in the Hebrew, which his father had rendered familiar
to him from his childhood ; and from firft to laft the
ftudy of the feriptures was his moft delightful em¬
ployment. He completed his education in an academy
kept at Ifiington by Mr Doolittle, and was afterwards
entered in Gray’s-Inn for the ftudy of the law; where
he became well acquainted with the civil and munici¬
pal law of his own country, and from his application
and great abilities it was thought he would have be¬
come very eminent in that profefiion. But at length,
refolving to devote his life to the ftudy of divinity, in
1686 he retired into the country, and was chofen pa¬
llor of a congregation at Chefter, where he lived about
25 years, greatly efteemed and beloved by his people.
He had feveral calls from London, which he conftantly
declined; but was at laft prevailed upon to accept an
unanimous
HEN L 425 1 HEN
Henry, unanimous Invitation from a congregation at Hackney.
” He wrote, 1. Expolitions of the Bible, in 5 vols folio.
2. The life of Mr Philip Henry. 5. Directions for
daily communion with God. 4. A method for prayer.
5. Four difcourfes againft vice and immorality. 6. The
communicant’s companion. 7. Family hymns. 8. A
fcriptural catechifm. And, 9. A difcourfe concerning
the nature of fchifm. He died of an apoplexy at
Nantwich, when upon a journey, in 1714; and was
interred at Trinity-church in Chefter.
Henry (Dr Robert), author of the “ Hiftory of
Great Britain, written on a new plan,” was the fon
>of James Henry farmer at Muirtown in the parilh of
St Ninian’s, North Britain, and of Jean Galloway
daughter of   Galloway of Burrowmeadow in
Sthiingfhire. He was born on the 18th of February
1718; and having early refolved to devote himfelf to
a literary profeffion, was educated firft under a Mr John
Nicolfon at the parilh-fchool of St Ninian’s, and for
fome time at the grammar-fchool of Stirling. He
completed his courfe of academical ftudy at the uni-
verfity of Edinburgh, and afterwards became mailer
of the grammar-fchool of Annan. He was licenfed
to preach on the 27th of March 1746, and was the
firft licentiate of the prelbytery of Annan after its
eredion into a feparate prelbytery. Soon after, he
received a call from a congregation of Prelbyterian
dilfenters at Carlifle, where he was ordained in Novem¬
ber 1748. In this ftation he remained 12 years, and
on the 13th of Auguft 1760 became pallor of a dif-
fenting congregation in Berwick upon Tweed. Here
he married, in 1763, Ann Balderfton daughter of
Thomas Balderfton furgeon in Berwick ; by whom he
had no children, but with whom he enjoyed to the
end of his life a large (hare of domeftic happinefs. He
was removed from Berwick to be one of the minifters
of Edinburgh in November 1768 ; was minifter of the
church of the New Grey Friars from that time till
November 1776; and then became colleague-minifter
in the old church, and remained in that ftation
till his death. The degree of DoAor in Divinity
was conferred on him by the univerfity of Edinburgh
in 1770; and in 1774 he was unanimoufty chofen
moderator of the general aflembly of the church of
Scotland, and is the only perfon on record who obtained
that dillindtion the firft time he was a member of af-
fembly.
From thefe fa&s, which contain the outlines of
Dr Henry’s life, few events can be expelled to fuit
the purpofe of the biographer. Though he mud have
been always dillinguiflied among his private friends,
till he was tranllated to Edinburgh he had few oppor¬
tunities of being known to the public. The compofi-
tion of fermons mull have occupied a chief part of his
time during his refidence at Carlifle, as his induftry in
that ftation is known to have rendered his labours in
this department eafy to him during the reft of his life.
But even there he found leifure for other ftudies ; and
the knowledge of claflical literature, in which he emi¬
nently excelled, foon enabled him to acquire an extent
of information which qualified him for fomething more
important than he had hitherto in his view.
Soon after his removal to Berwick, he publilhed a
fcheme for railing a fund for the benefit of the widows
and orphans of Proteiiant diffenting minifteis ia the
You VI11. Part II,
north of England. This idea was probably fuggefted by Henry,
the profperity of the fund which had almoit 30 years be- *' 1
fore been eftablilhed for a provifion to minifters widows,
&c. in Scotland, But the fituations of the clergy of
Scotland were very different from the circumftances of
diflenting mimllers in England. Annuities and provl-
fions were to be fecured to the families of diffenters,
without fubjedling the individuals (as in Scotland) to
a proportional annual contribution, and without fuch
means of creating a fund as could be the fubjeA of an
aft of parliament to fecure the annua! payments. The
acutenefs and aftivity of Dr Henry funnounted thefe
difficulties ; and, chiefly by his exertions, this ufeful
and benevolent inftitution commenced about the year
1762. The management was entrulled to him for fe-
veral years; and its fuccefs has exceeded the moll fan-
guine expeftations which were formed of it The
plan itfelf, now fufficitirtly known, it is unneceflary to
explain minutely. But it is mentioned here, becaufe
Dr Henry was accuflomed in the laft years of his life
to fpeak of this inftitution with peculia1-affeftion, and
to reflect on its progrefs and utility with that kind of
fatisfaftion which a good man can only receive from
“ the labour of love and of good works.”
It was probably about the year 1763 that he firft
conceived the idea of his Hiftory of Great Britain : a
work already eftablilhed in the public opinion ; and
which will certainly be regarded by pofterity, not only
as a book which has greatly enlarged the fphere of hi¬
ftory, and gratifies our curiofity on a vaiiety of fubjefta
which fall not within the limits preferibed by prece¬
ding hiftorians, but as one of the molt accurate and
authentic repofitories of hiftorical information which
this country has produced. The plan adopted by D'r
Henry, which is indifputably his own, and its pecu¬
liar advantages, are fufficiently explained in his general
preface. In every period, it arranges, under feparate
heads or chapters, the civil and military hiftory of
Great Britain ; the hiftory of religion } the hiftory of
our conftitution, government, laws, and coqrts of ju-
ftice ; the hiftory of learning, of learned men, and of
the chief feminaries of learning ; the hiftory df arts ;
the hiftory of commerce, of (hipping, of money or
Coin, and of the price of commodities ; and the hiftory
of manners, virtues, vices, cuftoms, language, drefs, diet,
and amufements. Under thefe feven heads, which ex¬
tend the province of an hiftorian greatly beyond its
ufual limits, every thing curious or interefting in the
hiltory of any country may be comprehended. But
it certainly requited more than a common lhare of li¬
terary courage to attempt on fo large a feale a fubjeft
fo intricate and extenfive as the hiftory of Britain from
the invafion of Julius Csefar. That Dr Henry neither
over-rated his powers nor his induftry, qould only
have been proved by the fuccefs and reputation of his
works.
But he foon found that his refidence at Berwick was
an infuperable obftacle in the minute refearches which
the execution of his plan required. His fituatioft
there excluded him from the means of cdnfulting the
original authorities; and though he attempted to
find accefs to' them by means of his literary friends,
and with their alfillance made fome progrefs in his
work, his information was notwithftanding fo incom¬
plete, that he found it impoflible to profecute his plan
3 G
HEN [ 426 J HEN
to his own fatisfa&ion, and was at laft compelled to
relinquifti it.
By the friendftup of Gilbert Laurie, Efq; late lord
provofl of Edinburgh, and one of his majefty’s com-
miffioners of excife in Scotland, who had married the
filter of Mrs Henry, he was removed to Edinburgh in
1768 ; and it is to this event that the public are in¬
debted for his profecution of the Hiftory of Great
Britain. His accefs to the public libraries, and the
means of fupplying the materials which thefe did not
afford him, were from that time ufed with fo much
diligence and perfeverance, that the firft volume of his
Hiitory in quarto was publilhed in 1771, the fecond
in 1774, the third in 1777, the fourth in 1781, and
the fifth (which brings down the Hiftory to the accef-
fion of Henry VII.) in 1785. The fubject of thefe
volumes comprehends the moft intricate and obfcure
periods of our hiftory ; and when we confider the
fcanty and fcattered materials which Dr Henry has
digefted, and the accurate and minute information
which he has given us under every chapter of his work,
we muft have a high opinion both of the learning and
induftry of the author, and of the vigour and activity
of his mind : efpecially when it is added, that he em¬
ployed no amanuenfis, but completed the manufcript
with his own hand ; and that, excepting the firft vo¬
lume, the whole book, fuch as it is, was printed from
the original copy. Whatever correftions were made
on it, were inferted by interlineations, or in reviling the
proof-Iheets. He found it neceffary, indeed, to con¬
fine himfelf to a firft copy, from an unfortunate tre¬
mor in his hand, which made writing extremely in¬
convenient, which obliged him to write with his paper
on a book placed on his knee inftead of a table, and
w'hich unhappily increafed to fuch a degree that in
the laft years of his life he was often unable to take
his victuals without afiiftance. An attempt which he
made after the publication of the fifth volume to em¬
ploy an amanuenfis did not fucceed. Never having
been accuftomed to diftate his compofitions, he found
it impoffxble to acquire a new habit; and though he
perfevered but a few days in the attempt, it had a fen-
fible effeft on his health, which he never afterwards
recovered.—An author has no right to claim indul¬
gence, and is ftill lefs intitlefi to credit, from the pub¬
lic for any thing which can be afcribed to negligence
in committing his manufcripts to the prefs; but con-
fidering the difficulties which Dr Henry furmounted,
and the accurate refearch and information which di-
ftinguilh his hiftory, the circumftances which have"
been mentioned are far from being uninterefting, and
muft add confiderably to the opinion formed of his
merit among men who are judges of what he has done.
He did not pt ofefs to ftudy the ornaments of language;
but his arrangement is uniformly regular and natural,
and his ftyle Ample and perfpicuous. More than this
he has not attempted, and this cannot be denied him.
He believed that the time which might be fpent in
polilhing or rounding a, fentence was more ufefully em¬
ployed in inveftigating and afcertaining a fadt : And
as a book of fails and folid information, fupported by
authentic documents^ his hiftory will ftand acomparifon
with any other hiftory of the fame period.
But Dr Henry had other difficulties to furmount
than thofe which related to the compofuion of hia
work. Not having been able to tranfadl with the
bookfellers to his fati&fa&ion, the five volumes were ^
originally ptiblifhed at the rifle of the author. When
the firft volume appeared, it was cenfured with an un¬
exampled acrimony and perfeverance. Magazines, re¬
views,' and even newfpapers, were filled with abufive
remarks and invedlives, in which both the author and
the book were treated with contempt and fcurrility.
When an author has once fubmitted his works to the
public, he has no right to complain of the jujl feverity
of criticifm. But Dr^Henry had to contend with the
inveterate fcorn of malignity. In compliance with the
ufual cuftom, he had permitted a fermon to be pub-
liftied which he had preached before the fociety in
Scotland for propagating Chriftian knowledge in 1773;
a compofition containing plain good fenfe on a com¬
mon fubjedl, from which he expedted no reputation.
This was eagerly feized on by the adverfaries of his
Hiftory, and torn to pieces with a virulence and afpe-
rity which no want of merit in the fermon could juftify
or explain. An anonymous letter had appeared in a
newfpaper to vindicate the Hiftory from fome of the
unjuft cenfures which had been publiflied, and afferting
from the real merit and accuracy of the book the au¬
thor’s title to the approbation of the public. An an-
fwer appeared in the courfe of the following week,
charging him, in terms equally confident and indecent,
with having written this letter in his own praife. The
efforts of malignity feldom fail to defeat their purpofe,
and to recoil on thofe who diredl them. Dr Henry
had many friends, and till lately had not difcovered
that he had any enemies. But the author of the ano¬
nymous vindication was unknown to him, till the
learned and refpeftable Dr Macqueen, from the indig¬
nation excited by the confident petulance of the an-
fwer, informed him that the letter had been written
by him. Thefe anecdot-es are. ftill remembered. The
abufe of the Hiftory, which began in Scotland, was
renewed in fome of the periodical publications in South
Britain ; though it is juftice to add (without meaning
to refer to the candid obfervations of Englifh critics),
that in both kingdoms the afperity originated in the
fame quarter, and that paragraphs and cruicifms writ¬
ten at Edinburgh were printed in Loudon. The fame
fpirit appeared in Stri&ures publiflied on the fecond
and third volumes; but by this time it had in a great
meafure loft the attention of the public. The male¬
volence was fufliciently underftood, and had long be¬
fore become fatal to the circulation of the periodical
•paper from, which it originally proceeded. The
book, though printed for the author, had fold beyond
his moft fanguine expe£lations; and had received both
praife and patronage from men of the firft literary
charadiers in the kingdom: and though, from the
alarm which had been raifed, the bookfellers did not
venture to purchafe the property till after the publica¬
tion of the fifth volume, the work was eftablilhed in
the opinion of the public, and at laft rewarded the au¬
thor with a high degree of celebrity, which he happily
lived to enjoy.
In an article relating to Dr Henry’s life, not to have
mentioned the oppofition which his Hiftory encounter¬
ed, would have been both affedtation and injuftice.
The fadls are fufficiently remembered, and are unfor¬
tunately too recent to be more minutely explained*
Thafc.
Henry.
HEN [ 42? ] HEN
That they contributed at firft to retard the fale of the
work is undeniable, and may be told without regret
now that its reputation is eftablifhed. The book has
raifed itfelf to eminence as a Hiftory of Great Britain
by its own merits; and the means employed to obftrud
its progrefs have only ferved to embellilh its fuccefs.
Dr Henry was no doubt encouraged from the firft
by the decided approbation of fome of his literary
friends, who were allowed to be the moil competent
judges of his fubjed ; and in particular by one of the
molt eminent hiftorians of the prefent age, whofe hi¬
ftory of the fame periods juftly poffeffes the higheft
reputation. The following character of the firft and
fecond volumes was drawn up by that gentleman, and
is well intitled to be inferted in a narrative of Dr
Henry’s life. “ Thofe who profefs a high efteem for
the firft volume of Dr Henry’s hiftory, I may venture
to fay, are almoft as numerous as thofe who have per-
ufed it, provided they be competent judges of a work
of that nature, and are acquainted with the difficulties
which attend fuch an undertaking. Many of thofe
who had been fo well pleafed with the firft were impa¬
tient to fee the fecond volume, which advances into a
field more delicate aad interefting; but the Dodor
hath ffiown the maturity of his judgment, as in all the
reft, fo particularly in giving no performance to the
public that might appear crude or hafty, or compofed
before he had fully colleded and digefted the materials.
I venture with great fincerity to recommend this vo¬
lume to the perufal of every curious reader who defires
to know the ftate of Great Britain in a period which
has hitherto been regarded as very obfcure, ill fupplied
with writers, and not poffefled of a fingle one that de-
ferves the appellation of a good one. It jis wonderful
what an inftrudive, and even entertaining, book the
Dodor has been able to compofe from fuch unpromi-
fing materials : Tantum feries junEluraque pallet. When
we fee thofe barbarous ages delineated by fo able a pen,
we admire the oddnefs and Angularity of the manners,
cuftoms, and opinions, of the times, and feem to be
introduced into a new world ; but we are ftill more
furprifed, as well as interefted, when we refled that
thofe ftrange perfonages were the anceftors of the pre¬
fent inhabitants of this ifland.—The objed of an anti¬
quary hath been commonly diftinguifhed from that of
an hiftorian ; for though the latter ffiould enter into
the province of the former, it is thought that it ffiould
only be quanto bafta, that is, fo far as is neceflary,
without comprehending all the minute difquifitions
which give fuch fupreme pleafure to the mere anti¬
quary. Our learned author hath fully reconciled thefe
two charaders. His hiftorical narrative is as full as
thofe remote times feem to demand, and at the fame
time his inquiries of the antiquarian kind omit nothing
which can be an objed of doubt or curiofity. The
one as well as the other is delivered with great perfpi-
cuity, and no lefs propriety, which are the true orna¬
ments of this kind of writing. All fuperfluous embel-
liffiments are avoided ; and the reader will hardly find
in our language any performance that unites together
fo perfedly the two great points of entertainmenc and
inftrudion.”—The gentleman who wrote this charac¬
ter died before the publication of the third volume.—
The progrefs of his work introduced Dr Heiyy to
more extenfive patronage, and in particular to the
notice and efteem of the earl of Mansfield. That ve»
nerable nobleman, who is fo well intitled to the grati¬
tude and admiration of his country, thought the merit
of Dr Henry’s hiftory fo confiderable, that, without
any felicitation, after the publication of the fourth
volume he applied perfonally to his Majefty to beftow
on the author fome mark of his royal favour. In con-
fequence of this, Dr Henry was informed by a letter
from lord Stormont, then fecretaiy of ftate, of his
Majefty’s intention to confer on him an annual penfion
for life of tool. “ confidering his diftinguiffied talents
and great literary merit, and the importance of the
very ufeful and laborious work in which he was fo fuc-
cefsfully engaged, as titles to his royal countenance
and favour.” The warrant was iffued on the 28th of
May 1781 ; and his right to the penfion commenced
from the 5th of April preceding. This penfion he en¬
joyed till his death, and always confidered it as infer¬
ring a new obligation to perfevere fteadily in the pro-
fecution of his work. From the earl of Mansfield he
received many other teftimonies of efteem both as a
man and as an author, which he was often heard to
mention with the moft affe&ionate gratitude. The
o&avo edition of his hiftory, publiffied in 1788, was
inferibed to his lordffiip. The quarto edition had been
dedicated to the king.
The property of the work had hitherto remained
with himfelf. But in April 1786, when an oftavo
edition was intended, he conveyed the property to
Meffrs Cadell and Strachan; referving to himfdf what
ftill remained unfold of the quarto edition, which did
not then exceed eighty-one complete fets. A few co¬
pies were afterwards printed of the volumes of which
the firft impreffion was exhaufted, to make up addi¬
tional fets: and before the end of 1786, he fold the
whole to Meffrs Cadell and Strachan. By the firft
tranfa&ion he was to receive 10001. and by the fe¬
cond betwixt 3001. and 4001.; about 1400I. in all.
Thefe firms may not be abfolutely exad, as they
are fet down from memory; but there cannot be a
miftake of any confequence on the one fide or the other.
—Dr Henry had kept very accurate accounts of the
fales from the time of the original publication ; and af-'
ter his laft tranfa&ion with Meffrs Cadell and Strachan,
he found that his real profits had amounted in whole
to about 3300 pounds : a ftriking proof of the intrin-
fic merit of a work which had forced its way to the
public efteem unprotected by the intereft of the book-
fellers, and in fpite of the malignant oppofition with
which the firft volumes had to ftruggle.
The profecution of his hiftory had been Dr Henry’s
favourite objeCt for almoft 30 years of his life. He had
naturally a found conftitution, and a more equal and
larger portion of animal fpirits than is commonly pof¬
fefled by literary men. But from the year 1785 his
bodily ftrength was fenfibly impaired. Notwithftanding
this, he perfifted fteadily in preparing his fixth volume,
which brings down the hiftory to the acceffion of Ed¬
ward VI. and has left it in the hands of his executors
almoft completed. Scarcely any thing remains unfi-
niffied but the two ffiort chapters on arts and manners;
and even for thefe he has left materials and authorities
fo diftin&ly colle&ed, that there can be no great diffi¬
culty in fupplying what is wanting. It is hoped that
this volume may be ready for publication fome time in
3 G 2 the
Henry.
HEP [ 428 1 HEP
Henry the winter or Spring 17925 and that It(wil! be found intit-
H *1 led to the fame favourable reception from the public which
cpar' has been, given to the former volumes. It was written
under the difadvantages of bad health and great weak-
nefs of body. The tremulous motion of his hand had
increafed fo as to render writing much more difficult to
him than it had ever been : but the vigour of his mind
and his ardour were unimpaired ; and independent of
the general, charafter of his works, the pofthumous vo¬
lume will be a lafting monument of the ftrength of his
faculties, and of the literary induftry and perfeverance
which ended only with his life.
Dr Henry’s original plan extended from the invafion
of Britain by the Romans to the prefent times. And
men of literary curiofity mult regret that he has not
lived to complete his delign ; but he has certainly finifh-
ed the molt difficult parts of his fubjedD The periods
after the acceffion of Edward VI. afford materials more
ample, better digefted, and much more within the reach
of common readers.
Till the fummer of 1790 he was able'to purfue his
Itudies, though not without fome interruptions. But
at that time he loft his health entirely ; and, with a
conftitution quite worn-out, died on the 24th of No¬
vember of that year, in the 73d year of his age.—He
was buried in the church-yard of Polmont, where it
is propofed to ere& a monument to his memory.
HENTINGS, in agriculture, a term ufed by the
farmers for a particular method of lowing before the
plough ; the corn being call in a ftraight line juft where
the plough is to come, is by this means prefently
ploughed in. By this way of fowing they think they
fave a great deal of feed and other charge, a dexterous
boy being as capable of fowing this way out of his hat
as the moft Ikilful feedfman.
Henting is alfo a term ufed by the ploughmen, and
others, to fignify the two furrows that are turned from
one another at the bottom, in the ploughing of a ridge.
The word feems to be a corruption of ending, becaufe
thofe furrows made an end of ploughing the ridges.
The tops of the ridges they call veerings.
HEPAR sulphuris, or Liver of Sulphur, a com¬
bination of alkaline fait and fulphur. See Che¬
mistry, n°io2i-—1025.
By means of the fume arifing on the decompofition
of hepar fulphuris by an acid, Mr Bergman hath found
a method of imitating the hot or fulphureous mineral
waters, to as great perfe&ion as the cold ones are now
imitated by fixed air. The procefs confifts Amply in
adding the vitriolic acid to hepar fulphuris, and im¬
pregnating water with the peculiar fpecies of air that
arifes from this mixture ; in the fame manner as when
water is impregnated with the fixed air arifing from
the mixture of that or any other acid with chalk.
This hepatic air, as the author calls it, is very readily
abforbed by water; to which it gives the fmell, tafte,
and all the other fenfible qualities of the fulphureous
waters. A Swedilh cantharus of diftilled water, con¬
taining I2t Swediffi cubic inches, will abforb about
60 cubic inches of this hepatic air; and on dropping,
into it the nitrous acid, it will appear, that a real ful¬
phur is contained, in a ftate of perfe# fblution, in this
water, to the quantity of eight grains. It does not
appear that any other acid, except what the author-
calls the dephlogifticated marine acid, will produce this Hepar
effeft.—When any particular fulphureous water is to 11 f
be imitated, we fcarce need to obferve, that the faline, HePatlc
or other contents peculiar to it, are to be added to Air' .
the artificial hepatic water. Inftead of the liver of -
fulphur, the operator may ufe a mixture of three-parts
of filings of iron and two parts of fulphur melted to¬
gether.
It may, perhaps, be thought, that water thus pre¬
pared, does not differ from that in which a portion
of the hepar fulphuris has been diffolved : but it ap¬
pears evidently to differ from it in this material cir-
cumftance 5—that in the folution of hepar fulphuris,
the fulphur is held in folution by the water, through
the means of the alkali combined with it: whereas, in
Mr Bergman’s procefs, it does not appear probable that
the hepar fulphuris rifes fubftantially in the form of
air; for, in that cafe,“its prefence in the hepatic water-
might be detedfed by means of the weakeft of the
acids (even the mephitic), which would precipitate
the fulphur from it. Nor can it be fuppofed that any
portion or conftituent part of the alkali itfelf (except
a part of its remaining fixed air) can come over. The
water, therefore, muft owe its impregnation to the
fulphur, raifed, in fome peculiar manner, into the ftate
of an elaftic vapour j permanent, when the experiment
is made in quickfilver; but condenfible in water, and
rendered foluble in that fluid through the means of
fouie Unknown principle combined with it, and which!
the author fuppofes to be the matter of heat, combined,
with it through the medium of phlogifton.
HEPATIC, in medicine and anatomy, anything
belonging to the liver.
Hepatic Air, a permanently elaftic fluid, of a very
difagreeable odour fomewhat like that of rotten eggs,
obtained in plenty from combinations of fulphur with
earths, alkalies, metals, &c. and fometimes from com¬
binations of alkalies with fubftances which do not ap¬
pear to contain any fulphur.
The nature of this fluid has been particularly ex-
amined by Mr Kjrwan, of whofe experiments we have
an account in the 76th volume of the Philofophicai
Tranfadlions, and of which the refultsareas follow.
1. By weighing it in a glafs bottle exhaufted in the
moft perfedf manner by an air-pump, its fpecific gra¬
vity is found to be to that of common air as 10,000 .
to 9038.
2. Though inflammable, it never detonates with
common air ; nor can it be fired in a narrow-mouthed,
veffel, unlefs mixed with a conliderable proportion of
this air. Mr Scheele found that it would take fire ■
when mixed with two thirds of common air ; but M.
Sennebier informs us that it cannot be fired by the
ele&ric fpark even when mixed with any quantity of
refpirable air. Mr Kirwan found one part of the he¬
patic air, and one and a half of common air, to burn blue
without flalhing or detonating 5 and that, during the
combuftion, fulphur is conftantly depofited, and a fmell
of vitriolic acid perceived. Mixed with an equal part
of nitrous air, it burns with a bluifh, green, and yellow
lambent flame : it depofits fulphur alfo; and in pro¬
portion as the latter is depofited, a candle dipped in
the air burns more weakly, and is at laft extinguilhed.
Two parts of nitrous and one of hepatic air burn par¬
tially.
I
HEP r 429 1 HEP
^Hepatic tially with a green flame ; the refniaum extinguilhing
i. Air. a can(Jle, which reddens on coming into contaft with
Y—. t^e atmofpijere> One part of common air being ad¬
mitted to equal parts of nitrous and hepatic air, ful-
phur was inllantly precipitated, and the three meafures
reduced to 2.4; which burned on the furface with a
greenilh flame, but extinguiflred the candle when funk
deeper. Four parts of hepatic, with one of common
air, burned rapidly with a blue flame ; and a mixture
of equal parts of dephlogifticated and hepatic airs which
had Hood eight days, went off with a report like a
piftol, and fo inftantaneoufly that the colour of the flame
ieould fcarcely be difcerned.
3. Hepatic air turns the tinfture of litmus red,
which Bergman fuppofes it would not do if it were
wafhed ; but Mr Kirwan found no alteration after paf-
fing two meafures through water, or even after boil¬
ing the air out of water impregnated with it. Nay, the
fame hepatic air which had once reddened litmus, con¬
tinued to do fo after being put to a frefh quantity of
the tin&ure.
4. There is a confiderable difference in the mifci-
bility of hepatic air with water according to the ma¬
terials from which the former is made. By flight agi¬
tation, water in the temperature of 66° imbibes two
thirds of its bulk of air extra&ed from alkaline or cal¬
careous hepar by means of marine acid. An equal
quantity of water diflblves three-fourths of its bulk of
hepatic air extra&ed by the fame acid from martial
hepar ; eight-tenths of that extracted by means of the
concentrated vitriolic acid, or the dilute nitrous or
foccharine acids in the temperature of 60°; feven-tenths
of that extrafted by fedative acid ; nine-tenths of that
made with the acetous acid, and of that afforded by oil of
olives; and lallly, its'own bulk of that produced from
a mixture of fugar and fulphur. In general, however,
that produced by the greateft degree of heat feemed
to be the moll eafily mifcible ; though in fome in-
ftances, particularly that of acetous hepatic air, this
does not take place.
5. The union between hepatic air and water is not
permanent. Even when the water has been boiled in
order to expel the air it naturally contains previous
to its union with the hepatic air, the fluid grows very
foon turbid, and depofits the hepatic air in the form
of fulphur, though the bottle be ever fo well corked,
or ftand inverted in water or mercury. The abforption
of the air by water, however, does not feem to occa-
fion any decompofuion in the former, as the quantity
left will be abforbed like the former by adding more
water. It cannot be expelled from water till it comes
near the boiling point.
6. No kind of hepatic air, excepting that produced
from charcoal, precipitates lime from lime-water ; and
even this does it only in a very flight degree, unlefs a
large quantity of air pafs through a fmall one of water.
7. The moft fenfible left of the pretence of hepa¬
tic air is the folution of Elver in the nitrous acid. This,
according as the nitrous acid is more or lefs faturated
with Elver, becomes black, brown,..or reddilh brown,
by the contaft with hepatic air, however mixed with
common air or any other permanently elallic fluid.
When the acid is not faturated, or is in large propor¬
tion, the brown or black precipitate, which is nothing
bjut fulphurated Elver, is rediflblved.
8. All hepatic air fuffers fome diminution by ftand- Hepatic
ing over mercujy, and blackens the furface of the me-
tal; particularly that made from charcoal. ’ /“““
9. Mixtures of hepatic air with common, de¬
phlogifticated, and phlogifticated airs, continued for a
long time either totally undiminifhed or very little fo,
as did thofe alfo with inflammable marine acid air and
fixed air; only blackening the furface of the mercury.
10. Two meafures of hepatic air being introduced to
two of vitriolic air, a whitilh yellow depofition imme¬
diately covered the top and fides of the jar, and both
airs were without any agitation reduced to little more
than one meafure. As the glafs, however, was ob-
feured by a whitifh feurf over its whole infide, it
was found neceffary to repeat the experiment. One
cubic inch of hepatic air was then added to five of
vitriolic air; and, in lefs than a minute, without
any sgitation, the fides of the glafs were covered with
a whitifh feum apparently moiit, and a diminution o£-
more than one ounce meafure took place. In four
hours after, a fecond meafure of hepatic air was intro¬
duced; which was followed by a fecond depofition of
whitifh matter and diminution of the air. Next day
three other meafures were added at the interval of four
hours between each ; when, finding ftill a farther di¬
minution, another meafure was added next day. The
whole quantity of 11 ounce meafures was thus reduced
at laft to three, which feemed to be little elfe than
phlogifticated air. The water in which the fulphur
precipitated from the hepatic air was wafhed, and ap¬
peared to contain fome vitriolic acid and fixed air.
11. A mixture of two meafures of nitrous, and as
much hepatic air, was little altered at firft even by
agitation ; but, on Handing 36 hours, both were re¬
duced by fomething more than one third of the whole.
The mercury was not blackened, but particles of yel¬
low fulphur were depofited both upon the fides of the -
glafs and the furface of the metal. The air which re¬
mained had ftill an hepatic fmell, and was fomewhat
more diminifhed by water: a candle burned naturally
in the unabforbed part. The water had all the pro¬
perties of that which had abforbed hepatic air. On
adding nine cubic inches of nitrous air to eight of he¬
patic, a yellowifh cloud inftantly appeared, a flight
white feum was depofited on the fides of the jar ; and
the whole feemed to be diminifhed about two cubic
inches, the temperature of the room being then
720. In 48 hours the whole was reduced to fix cubic
inches, and the top and fides of the jar covered with
a cake of white fulphur; the heat of the room being
conftantly between 60 and 70°. The refiduum was
examined in 24 hours after, and had a pretty flrong
fmell of alkaline air. A candle burned in it naturally;
and it did not affeft tin&ure of litmus, lime-water, or
acetous barytes It was not aftefted by any kind of
air except the dephlogifticated kind* and this produced
only a flight rednefs and diminution ; it produced alfo -
a flight white precipitate in folution of filver. Hence
it appeared that this was dephlogifticated nitrous air, or,
as our author thinks, it ought rather to be called Jesc/-
difted nitrous air.
12. Mr Kirwan fuppofing that an uncombined acid'
In the nitrous air was the caufe of precipitation, he de¬
prived fome nitrous air of this acid as perfectly as pofr
ij.bk before mixing it with hepatic air; which wa*
dose-
HEP [ 430 1 HEP
Hepatic done by admitting alkaline air to it» and then walking
out the ammoniacal compound in diftilled water. By
' T" ’ being deprived of its acid it loft about one fixth of its
bulk; and it was diminilhed by common air in the
> fame manner that nitrous air ufually is. Seven cubic
inches of hepatic air were then admitted all at once to
eight of the purified nitrous air. No cloud or other
mark of any precipitation appeared : but in, fix hours
the. whole was reduced to five cubic inches, the tem¬
perature of the room being 76°; but the diminution
went no further in 18 hours after. A much whiter
fulphur was depofited than in the former experiment;
and both in this and the former, that part which was
intercepted by the rifing of the mercury betwixt the
metal and the fide of the jar was of a yellow and red {In¬
ning colour, andjnot black, as that depofited in mercury
ufually is. The refiduum flafhed with fuch violence as to
extinguilh a candle dipped into it, the flame being ex¬
ceedingly white and vivid ; though it did not detonate
in the leaft, but rather appeared like dephlogifticated
air. The jar out of which it had been transferred had
a ftrong alkaline fmell. It was not in the leaft dimi¬
nilhed by nitrous air, even when heated to tyo degrees.
Water poured into the jar in which the fulphur was
depofited produced a bluilh white cloud in folution of
filver, though infipid to the tafte ; whence it appears,
that whatever this air may be, it had been deacidified
. by hepatic air ftill more perfcftly than that in which
a candle burns naturally, but was by no means dephlo¬
gifticated.
13. Perfe&ly pure alkaline and hepatic airs mixed
together would probably deftroy each other ; bill Mr
Kirwan never had it in his power to do this entirely.
Six meafures of hepatic air from liver of fulphur, and
fix of alkaline air, immediately throw up a white cloud,
leaving a whitilh feum on the fide of the jar, and are
reduced to about one ounce meafure. On adding
water this is reduced to about one half; and a candle
burns naturally in it. This refiduum, however, was after¬
wards found to be only the common air of the veflels.
14. One meafure of oil of vitriol, of the fpecific
gravity of 1.863, ahforbed two meafures of hepatic air
all to one-tenth ; the acid being whitened by a copious
depofition of fulphur.
15. A meafure of red nitrous acid, of the fpecific
gravity of 1.430, was introduced to an equal meafure
of hepatic air : red vapours inftantly arofe ; and only
one-tenth or one-twelfth of a meafure remained in an
aerial form ; but as the acid a&ed on the mercury, it
was neceflary to ufe water, by which the whole was
abforbed. No fulphur was precipitated on this occa-
fion. The experiment was repeated in another man¬
ner, but with little fuccefs ; fo that Mr Kirwan, find¬
ing it fo difficult to ufe the concentrated nitrous acid,
determined to try its effedts upon hepatic air by dilu¬
ting the acid to fuch a degree that it could not aft up¬
on mercury without the affiftance of heat. In this
cafe the acid was whitened, eight-tenths of the air ab¬
forbed, and the refiduum detonated. A ftill greater
quantity was abforbed when the experiment was made
with hepatic air made from liver of fulphur ; but the
refiduum, inftead of detonating, burned with a blue
and greenilh flame, depofiting fulphur upon the fides
of the jar. This dilute acid abforbed about three
3
times its bulk of hepatic air; but on expelling the Hepatic
fame from it again by heat, the fixth part only was Al^*
obtained, and in this a candle burned naturally. '*
16. Two meafures of alkaline hepatic air were ab¬
forbed by one of ftrong marine acid to one-fifth of a
meafure, after a flight agitation. On adding a third
meafure of hepatic air, the whole was abforbed to half
a meafure. The fulphur precipitated in this experi¬
ment was attrafted by the mercury, and blackened it;
which did not happen in the former cafes, by reafon
of the ftronger attraftion of the acid for the fulphur.
The refiduum burned as pure hepatic air.
17. Diftilled vinegar abforbs nearly its own bulk of,
hepatic air, and becomes flightly whitened; but by
agitation it may be made to take up about twice its
bulk, and then becomes very turbid.
18. One meafure of cauftic vegetable alkali, the
fpecific gravity of which was 1.043, abforbed neady
four meafures of alkaline hepatic air, which rendered
it brown at firft, but after fome time it grew clear and
depofited fulphur, blackening the furface of the mer¬
cury.
19. One meafure of cauftic volatile alkali, of the
fpecific gravity of 0.9387, abforbed 18 of hepatic air.
A greater quantity of alkali would abforb more hepa¬
tic air, fix meafures of the alkaline air uniting to feven
of the hepatic ; and thus the ftrength of alkaline li¬
quors, and their real contents, may, according to our
author, be determined better than by any other me¬
thod. The fmoking liquor of Boyle (a ftrong vola¬
tile tinfture of fulphur) may be eafily prepared by
putting volatile alkali in the middle vefiel of Dr Nooth’s
apparatus, and decompofing liver of fulphur, or artifi¬
cial pyrites in the lowermoft one by means of marine
acid.
20. Olive oil abforbs nearly its own bulk of hepatic
air, and gets a greenilh tinge from it.
21. Oil of turpentine abforbs more than its own
bulk of this air, but then becomes turbid. A white
cloud appears when water is put to the mixture.
22. Spirit of wine, of the fpecific gravity of 0.835,
abforbed nearly three times its bulk of hepatic air, and
became brown. Thus fulphur may be combined with
fpirit of wine more tfafily than by the method ufed by
Count Louragais, the only one hitherto known. Wa¬
ter partly precipitates the fulphur.
23. New milk fcarcely abforbs one-tenth of its bulk
of this air, and is not in the leaft coagulated.
24. With an equal bulk of vitriolic ether the bulk
of the air is at firft increafed ; but afterwards one-half
is abforbed, and a flight precipitation appears. The
fmell is compounded of that of ether and hepatic air ;
but on adding water it becomes very offenfive, refem-
bling that of putrefying animal fubftances.
25. On adding a meafure and an half of nitrous fo¬
lution of filver to one of hepatic air, the latter was ab¬
forbed immediately, and without any agitation, the fo¬
lution at the fame time becoming black. The re¬
maining air admitted a candle to burn naturally in it.
Hepatic air was likewife abforbed, but with more dif¬
ficulty, and in fmaller quantity, by the vitriols of iron
and filver; the latter was blackened; the former be¬
came white at firft, but darker by agitation ; the refi¬
duum burned blue, as hepatic air ufually does.
2$,
HEP [ 43i ] 'HEP
hepatic 26. Sulphurated fpirit of wine precipitates lime-
Air- water, which highly rectified fpirit of wine will alfo
“■ ly do by itfelf. It alfo precipitates and gives a brown
colour to acetous baro-felenite, which is likewife done
by fpirit of wine : the folution of filver is turned black
or brown by it. Sulphur is precipitated from it by
concentrated vitriolic acid, which cannot be done either
by the nitrous or muriatic acids.
27. Water faturated with hepatic air turns the tinc¬
ture of litmus red ; does not affeft lime-water ; forms a
cloud in the folution of acetous baro-felenite, though
not in that of the marine : it does not alter the folutions
of other earths. It produces a white precipitate in the
folution of vitriol of iron, or folution of that metal in fpi¬
rit of fait: in nitrous folution of copper it throws down a
brown precipitate, and the colour of the liquid is chan¬
ged from blue to green; the precipitate being rediffolved
by agitation. In folution of vitriol of copper it forms
a black precipitate. It throws down a yellowifh white
precipitate in folution of tin in aqua-regia ; a black one
from folution of gold ; a red and yellow one from that
of antimony; and one of red mixed with white from fo-
liuion of platina. Black precipitates are formed with
nitrous folutions of lead and filver ; but if thefe are not
perfeftly faturated with metal, the folutions will be
brown, or reddifii brown, and may be rediffolved by a-
gitation. Nitrous folution of mercury is precipitated
of a yellowifh brown ; corrofive fublimate of a yellow
mixed with black, but which becomes white by agita¬
tion. Nitrous folution of bifmuth becomes reddifh
brown, and even affumes a metallic appearance. Solu¬
tion of cobalt becomes dark ; that of arfenic in nitrous
acid becomes yellow, mixed with red and white; form¬
ing realgar and orpiment. On dropping into hepatic
water oil of vitriol of the fpecific gravity of 1.863,
mixture becomes (lightly turbid ; but on dropping into
it the volatile vitriolic acid, a bluifh white and much
v denfer cloud is formed. A copious white precipitation
is occafioned by the ftrong nitrous acid, whether phlo-
gifticated or not; but dilute nitrous acid produces no
change. Green nitrous acid, the fpecific gravity 1328,
inftantly produces fulphur. A flight cloud is produced
by ftrong marine acid; but neither diftilled vinegar nor
acid of fugar has any fuch effeft. According to Mr
Bergman, hepatifed water, in a well clofed veffel, will
diffolve iron in a few days; but the experiment did not
fucceed with Mr Kirwan, neither could he diffolve any
other metal in this water, though the fulphur united
with many of them into an infoluble mafs; whence our
author concludes, that metallic fubftances cannot be
found in hepatifed waters.
28. Colourlefs alkaline liquors acquire a brownifh
tinge from hepatic air ; the refiduum they leave being
of the fame nature with what they abforb. A cauftic
fixed alkaline liquor, faturated with this air, precipi¬
tates barytes from the acetous acid of a yellowifh white
colour ; decompofing likewife other earthy folutions,
and the precipitate varying according to their purity ;
a teft which our author fuppofes may be improved to
fuch a degree as to fupply the place of the Prutfian al¬
kali. It precipitates alfo folution of vitriol of iron as
well as marine fait of iron, of a black colour; but the
latter generally whitens by agitation. Solutions of fil¬
ver and lead are alfo precipitated black with fome mix*
ture of white : that of gold is alfo blackened ; and folu- Hepatfe
tion of platina becomes brown. Solutions of copper Air-
let fall a reddifh black or brown precipitate. Sublimate ‘'"—Y"—*
yields a precipitate partly white and black, and partly
orange and greenifh. A nitrous folution of arfenic ’
forms a yellow and orange precipitate; and that of re¬
gains of antimony in aqua regia, an orange precipitate
mixed with black. Nitrous foiution of zinc yields a
dirty white precipitate ; that of bifmuth a brown mixed
with white ; and that of cobalt a brown and black pre¬
cipitate. Pruffian alkali yields a purple precipitate,-
which is eafily rediffolved. Tin&ure of radifhes, our
author’s teft for alkalies, was turned green.
29. On adding a few grains of iron, copper, lead, tin,
zinc, bifmuth, regulus of antimony, and arfenic, to a
folution of liver of fulphur, all the metals were found to
attract fulphur from the fixed alkali, excepting zinc and
tin. Iron, arfenic, regulus of antimony', and lead, were
mod altered; copper next, and bifmuth the leaft. No
part of the metals appeared to be diffolved.
50. Water faturated with the condenfed refiduum of
alkaline and hepatic air, i. e. with the pureft volatile
liver of fulphur, does not precipitate marine felenite,
though it forms a flight brown and white cloud in that
of marine baro-felenite. It throws down a black pre¬
cipitate in folution of vitriol of iron, and a black and
white one in that of marine fait of iron ; but by agita¬
tion this became entirely white. Vitriol of copper, and
nitrous fait of the fame metal, are both precipitated of
a brown and red colour. Tin diffolvedin aqua-regia • idds
a yellowifh precipitate ; gold, a dilute yellow and reddifhi
brown ; platina, a flefh-coloured precipitate ; and ,cgu- *
lus of antimony, a yellowifh red. Silver is precipitated
black, as well as lead, from the nitrous and acetous
acids. Corrofive fublimate became red for a moment;
but in a little time its precipitate appeared partly black
and partly white. A fimilar precipitate is afforded alfo
by the nitrous folution of bifmuth ; but partly mixed
with a reddifh-brown colour, and has fomething like¬
wife of a metallic appearance %r the precipitate of cobalt
is black, or deep brown. Solutions of arfenic yield pre¬
cipitates of a yellow colour, and moreor lefs red ; thofc
of zinc of a dirty white.—All thefe colours, however,
vary, as the liquors are more or lefs faturated previous
to and after their mixture, and the time they have flood
together.
From thefe experiments Mr Kirwan concludes, that
hepatic air confifts merely of fulphur rarefied by ele¬
mentary fire, or the matter of heat. Some have fup-
pofed that it confifts of liver of fulphur itfelf volatilifed
but this our author denies, for the following reafons: i.It
is evidently, tho’ weakly, acid; reddening litimus, and
precipitating acetous baro-felenite, though none of the
other folutions of earths. 2. It may be extra&ed from
materials which either contain no alkali at all, or next
to none ; as iron, fugar, oil, charcoal, &c. 3. It is not
decompofed by marine or fixed air; by which neverthe-
lefs liver of fulphur may be decompofed.
Our author informs us, that he was formerly of opi-
nion that fulphur was held in folution in hepatic air*,
either by means of vitriolic or marine air : but neither
of thefe is effential to the conftitution of hepatic air
as fuch, fince it is producible from materials that con¬
tain. neither of thefe acids; and from whatever fubftance*
it-
HEP t 432 ] HEP
'.Hepatic 'it is obtained, it always affords the fame charafter, viz.
, Air- that of the vitriolic acid exceedingly weakened, fuch
vr ggjjj as we may fuppofe fulphur itfelf to be. This
fubflance indeed, even in its concrete ftate, manifefts
the properties of an acid, by uniting with alkalies, cal¬
careous and ponderous earths, as well as with moft
metals, which a very weak acid might be fuppofed
to ,d°*
As phofphorus bears a confiderable refemblance in
its conftitution to fulphur, Mr Kirwan determined to
make fome experiments upon it in fimilar circumftances.
He therefore gently heated 10 or 12 grains of phof¬
phorus mixed with about half an ounce of cauftic fixed
olkaline folution in a very fmall vial furnifhed with a
bent tube, and received the air over mercury. Two
fmall explofions took place on the fir ft application of
heat, attended with a yellow flame and. white fmoke,
which penetrated through the mercury into the recei¬
ver. This was followed by an equable production of
air ; but at laft the phofphorus began to fwell and froth
up, burft with a loud explofion, and a violent flame im¬
mediately iffued from it. Only about eight cubic in¬
ches of air were obtained. Thefe were but very (light¬
ly diminifhed by agitation in water; after which a clou-
dinefs took place, but the air foon recovered its tranf-
parency. Water impregnated with it (lightly reddened
tinCfure of litmus, but did not affeCt Pruflian alkali. It
had no effeCt upon the nitrous folutions of copper, lead,
zinc, or cobalt; nor on thofe of iron or tin in marine
acid and aqua-regia ; nor on the vitriolic folutions of
iron, capper, tin, lead, zinc, regulus of antimony, ar-
* fenic, or manganefe ; nor on it he marine folutions of
iron, copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, arfenic, or manganefe.
'The nitrous folution of filver was precipitated of a black
colour, and the vitriolic of a brown: nitrous folution
of mercury, made without heat, precipitated a brown
or black powder ; but vitriol of mercury fird became
reddiflr, and afterwards white: corrofive fublimate a
yellow mixed with red and white. Gold diffolved in
aqua-regia is precipitated of a purpliih Hack, and in
the vitriolic acid of a brownifh red and black; but re¬
gulus of antimony diffolved in aqua-regia is precipitated
of a white colour. Nitrous folution of bifmuth let fall
a fediment at fird white, and afterwards brown ; vitriol
of bifmuth and marine fait of bifmuth were alfo preci¬
pitated brown, the latter being rediffolved by agitation.
Nitrous folution of arfenic alfo became brown, but the
precipitate was rediffolved by agitation. On impreg¬
nating water with this air, without allowing the air to
burn over it, the liquid fcarcely made any alteration in
ti&ure of litmus, nor did it precipitate lime-water ; but
caufed a black precipitate in folution of filver ; a white
one in folution of regulus of antimony in aqua-regia,
and a whitifh yellow one in that of corrofive fublimate.
On letting up a meafure of water to this air, and
through that fome bubbles of common air, every
bubble flamed, and produced a white fraoke until a-
bout half the quantity of common air was introduced
that had been ufed of phofphoric ; but without any
apparent increafe of the original bulk, The flame
produced a fmali commotion each time, arid fmoke de-
fcended after the inflammation into the water; the
fmoke dill continuing to be produced on the introduc¬
tion of common air, after the flame had ceafed. Bub-
blefc of phofphoric air, efcaping through mercury in-
to the atmofphere, flame, crackle, and fmell, exaftly Hepatfc
like the electric fpark. This property of phofphoric Air-
hepatic air was known to M. Gingembrc in the year v—*
1783.
On letting up half a meafure of nitrous to one of
hofphoric air, a white fmoke appeared, with a very
ight diminution ; the tranfparency being foon reito-
fed, and a flight fcum depofited on the fides of the jar.
No fmoke or diminution was produced by adding ano¬
ther half meafure of nitrous air; but on adding wa¬
ter, and agitating the air in it, much more was ab-
forbed. On turning up the jar, the nitrous air firft
efcaped in form of a red vapour, and this was followed
by a whitilh fmoke. The water had a phofphoric
fmell, and precipitated the folution of filver brown.
An equal meafure of alkaline air fcarce diminiflied
phofphoric air; and on adding water, little more feem-
ed to be taken up than the alkaline air, though a
fmoke appeared on turning up the jar, but without
any flame. Water thus impregnated fmelled exadly
like onions, and turned the tinfture of radifhes green.
Solution of filver was precipitated of a black colour;
that of copper in the nitrous acid, of a brown ; the
precipitate being rediffolved by agitation, and the li¬
quor then affuming a green colour. Corrofive fub¬
limate let fall a yellow precipitate mixed with black.
Iron was precipitated white both frorfr the vitriolic
and marine acids ; but a pale yello.v folution of it in
the nitrous acid was not affected, and a red folution
in the fame acid was only clotted. Regulus of anti¬
mony was precipitated of a white colour from aqua-
regia, cobalt of a (light reddifli from the nitrous acid,
and bifmuth of a brown colour from the fame. Neither
the nitrous folutions of lead or zinc were affected; nor
thofe of tin in the marine acid or in aqua-regia. Fixed
air, mixed with an equal proportion of phofphoric air,
produced a white fmoke, fome diminution, and a yel¬
low precipitate. On agitating the mixture in water
the fixed air was taken up all to one-tenth ; the refi-
duum fmoked, but did not take fire.
Some precipitate per fe being introduced to a fmall
portion of phofphoric air, the former foon grew black,
and a white fmoke appeared. In two days the precipitate
became folid, acquiring a pale white colour, ihining
like (leel. The air loft its inflammability ; though Mr
Kirwan fuppofes that this might be owing to fome
other caufe : for two days after this air was made, a
yellow fcum was obferved on the fides of the jar in
which a quantity of it had refted all night over water ;
and the fpontaneous inflammability was loft next morn¬
ing. The temperature of the air was then 530; and
when it inflamed before 68°.
From thefe experiments our author concludes, that
phofphoric air is nothing elfe but phofphorus itfelf in
an aerial ftate ; differing from fulphureous or hepatic
air in this, that it requires much lefs latent heat to
throw it into an aerial ftate, and therefore may be dif-
engaged from fixed alkalies without any acid.
Hepatic air may be obtained in a great number of
different ways, and from a variety of fubftances. The
moft common method in which it has been procured,
is by decompofing the hepar fulphuris or combination
of fulphur anc fixed alkaline fait by means of an acid.
Mr Kirwan has examined the circumftances attending
the formation of liver of fulphur; making his firft ex-
2 periment
HEP t 433 J HEP
Hepatic penment by melting together equal parts of the mi-
neral alkali and flowers of fulphur in a covered cru-
cible. On (lightly heating the mixture, it emitted a
bluifh fmoke, which gradually became whiter as the
heat was augmented; and at laft, when the bottom of
the crucible became (lightly red, the fmoke was per-
fe&ly white and inflammable. To inveftigate the na¬
ture of this fmoke, a pure fixed alkali was made by
deflagrating equal parts of cream of tartar and nitre
in a red-hot crucible in the ufual way. This alkali,
in a very dry date, was mixed with a fmall quantity of
flowers ef fulphur, and the mixture diddled in a fmall
coated retort; the air being received over quickfilver.
On the fird appplication of heat, one cubic inch and
an half of (lightly phlogidicated air was obtained, but
without any fixed air. This was the common air con¬
tained in the veflels, but altered by being in contact
with the alkali and fulphur. On augmenting the heat,
about 18 inches of air were obtained, of a reddifh co¬
lour, feemingly a mixture of nitrous and common air ;
ailing (lightly on mercury. After this, 20 cubic
inches of the fame kind mixed with fome fixed air
were obtained. Thefe were fucceeded by 64 inches
of fixed air almod perfeiily pure. The bottom of the
retort was now red-hot ; fome fulphur was fublimed
in the neck; and when all was cold, an hepar fulphu-
ris was found in the bulb.
From this experiment Mr Kirwan concludes, that
the blue finoke above mentioned confids chiefly of fixed
air and the white of fulphur ; but that neither hepa¬
tic nor vitriolic air are formed unlefs the retort be large
enough to admit as much air as is neceflary for burn¬
ing part of the fulphur. He concludes alfo, that hepar
fulphuris will yield no hepatic air unlefs with the help
of an acid ; “ and I believe this (fays he) to be true,
when the experiment is made in the dry way, and
nearly fo in the moifl way : for having added 200
grains of fulphur to a concentrated folution of drong
caudic vegetable alkali by a drong and long-continued
heat, T obtained only one cubic inch of hepatic air;
yet it is well known, that a drong folution of liver of
fulphur cohdantly emits an hepatic fmell, even in the
temperature of the atmofphere; and the fubdance fo
emitted contains as much hepatic air as difcolours
filver and lead, and even their folutions; which (hows
that an incomparably fmall quantity of this air is fuf-
ficient to produce the effetft. To difcover whether this
extrication of hepatic air might be caufed by the depo-
fition of fixed air from the atmofphere, I threw fome
pulverifed calcareous hepar into aerated water, and
by the application of heat endeavoured to obtain he¬
patic air, but in vain: and indeed the very circumdance
that the hepatic fmed and its effefts are always drong-
ed the fird indant that a bottle of the hepatic folu¬
tion is opened, feems to indicate that fixed air is no
way concerned in its produftion. The bed liver of
Sulphur is made of equal parts of fait of tartar and ful¬
phur ; but as about one-fifth of the fait of tartar con-
fids of air which efcapes during the operation, it feems
that the proportion of fulphur predominates in the re-
fulting compound; yet, as fome of the fulphur alfo
fublimes and burns, it is not eafy to fix the exaft pro¬
portion. One hundred grains of the bed, that is to
fay the redded liver of fulphur, afford with dilute ma¬
rine acid about 40 inches of hepatic air in the tem-
Vol.VIII. Part II.
perature of 6o°"; a quantity equivalent to about 13
grains of fulphur, as will be feen in the fequel.”
Hepatic air is bed produced by marine acid: the
concentrated nitrous acid produces nitrous air; but if
diluted with 20 times its bulk of water, it produces
the hepatic kind by the affidance of heat. Concen¬
trated vitriolic acid poured upon liver of fulphur af¬
fords but little hepatic air without the afiiitance of
heat ; though it condantly decompofes the hepar:
“ and (adds our author) it is partly for this reafon
that the proportion of air is fo (mall; for it is during
the gradual decompofition of fulphureous compounds
that hepatic air is produced.” Hepatic air, but not
in a pure date, is extricated by diddled vinegar; its
fmell being mixed with that of the vegetable acid.
Some quantity of this air is produced by the faccha-
rine acid in the temperature of 590, and by fedative
fait in that of boiling water or nearly fo ; but neither
the arfenical nor aerial acids produce any.
Having prepared fome hepar fulphuris with an over
proportion of fulphur, an hepatic air was procured by
means of concentrated vitriolic acid; but fo loaded
with fulphur, that it depofited fome in the tube through
which it was tranfmitted, and on the upper part of
the glafs receiver. On transferring it to another re¬
ceiver, though then perfe&ly clear and tranfparent,
in quantity about fix cubic inches, yet next morning
it was reduced to one inch, the infide of the glafs be¬
ing covered with a thick coat of fulphur ; the fmall
quantity of eladic fluid which remained being changed
from hepatic to vitriolic air. “ Hence (fays Mr Kir¬
wan) it appears, fird, that a fpecies of eladic fluid
may exid in a date intermediate between the aerial
and vaporous, which is not permanently eladic like
air, nor immediately condenfed by cold like vapour; but
which, by the gradual lofs of its fpecific heat, may be
reduced to a concrete form. 2. That fo large a quan¬
tity of'fulphur may be combined with vitriolic air, as
to enable it to exhibit the properties of hepatic air for
fome time at lead. A mixture of three parts of pul¬
verifed quicklime and one of fulphur, heated to white-
nefs in a covered crucible for one hour, became of a
flony hardnefs ; and, being treated with marine acid,
afforded hepatic air. On heating a piece of this done
in pure water, it becomes bluifli; and hence the origin
of blue marks generally found near hot fulphurated
waters. A calcareous hepar may alfo be formed in the
moid way.”
Magnefia deprived of its fixed air, and heated in the
fame manner with fulphur, afforded no hepatic air. It
was procured, however, from a mixture of three parts
of iron-filings and one of fulphur melted together, and
treated with marine acid. This fulphurated iron dif-
folved in marine acid affords almod entirely hepatic
air, and very little of the inflammable kind. Equal
parts of iron-filings and fulphur mixed together, and
made into a pafle with water, after heating and be¬
coming black, afforded hepatic air when an acid was
poured on it; but this was mixed with inflammable air,
probablyproceeding from uncombined iron. After a few
days this mixture lod its power of producing hepatic air.
Mr Bergman has alfo remarked, that combinations of
fulphur with fome other metals yield hepatic air-
Hepatic air was obtained by pouring fome olive-oil
upon a few grains of fulphur, and heating the mixture
3 H in
K E P [ 434
in a vial with a bent tube. It was likewife obtained
in great plenty from equal parts of fulphur and pow¬
dered charcoal, out of which the air had previoufly
been expelled as much as poffible: “ yet (fays our
author) it is hardly poffible to free charcoal wholly
from foreign air, for it foon reattrafts it when expofed
to the atmofphere.”
Six grains of pyrophorus mixed with alum and fu-
gar effervefced with marine acid, and afforded two cu¬
bic inches and an half of hepatic air. This pyropho¬
rus had been made fix years before, and was kept in a
tube hermetically fealed, and for feveral fummers ex¬
pofed to the light of the fun. It was fo combuftible,
that fome grains of it took fire while it was introduced
into the vial out of which the hepatic air had been ex¬
pelled.
A mixture of two parts of white fugar (previoufly
melted in order to free it of water) with one part of
fulphur, when heated to about 600 or 700 degrees,
gave out hepatic air very rapidly. This air had a
fmell very much refembling that of onions, but con¬
tained neither fixed air nor any other acid. Sugar and
fulphur melted together gave out no hepatic air when
treated with acids. Water, fpirit of wine, and marine
acid, decompofe this mixture, diffolving the fugar, and
leaving the fulphur.
Twelve grains of fulphur heated in a retort, filled
with metallic inflammable air, afforded no hepatic air;
though the r etort fmelled of it when cold, and for fome
time after.
Eighteen grains of liver of fulphur expofed for four
days to fix cubic inches of fixed air, the thermometer
at 70°, was fomewhat whitened on the furface; the
air not having an hepatic fmell, but rather that of
brea^. It feemed to have taken up fome fulphur, which
was feparated by lime-water. It was not in the leaft
diminiffied ; and therefore feems to have received an
addition of hepatic air, or rather of fulphur.
On expofing a quantity of fulphureo-martial pafte
to fixed air for five days, the latter was not at all di-
minifhed, but received a flight addition of inflammable
air. The pafte itfelf, taken out of this air and expofed
to the atmofphere, heated very ftrongly.
Three grains of fulphur expofed to twelve inches of
marine air was not diminiftied in four days. On adding
a cubic inch of water to this air, it was all abforbed to
one inch, which had an hepatic fmell, as had alfo the
water, the latter evidently containing fulphur.
Hepatic air is found naturally in coal-pits, and has
been difcovered by Mr Bergman to be the principle
on which the fulphureous properties of many mineral
waters depend. There is alfo great reafon to think
that it is the peculiar produ&ion of the putrefaction
of many, if not all, animal fubftances. Rotten eggs
and corrupted water are known to emit this fpecies of
air, and alfo to difcolour metallic fubftances, in the
fame manner. M. Viellard has lately difcovered feve¬
ral other indications of this air in putrefied blood. In
the 80th volume of Philofophical TranfaCtions, p. 391.
Dr Crawford gives an account of fome experiments,
from which it appears, that a kind of hepatic air is
contained in the virus of cancers. Having obtained a
portion of this ichor from a cancerous breaft, he di¬
vided it into,three parts, which were put into feparate
vials after being properly diluted with water. To oue
] HEP
of thefe he added fome vegetable fixed alkali, to ano¬
ther a little concentrated vitriolic acid, and to the
third fome fyrup of violets. No change was produced
by the vegetable alkali ; but on the addition of the
acid, a deep brown colour was produced, and a brifk
effervefcence took place, at the fame time that the pe¬
culiar odour of the cancerous matter was greatly aug¬
mented, and diffufed itfelf to a confiderable diftance.
A faint green colour was communicated to the third
portion which had the fyrup of violets.
As the cancerous matter on which thefe experiments
were made had been previoufly kept fome days, Dr
Crawford fufpefted that it might thus have acquired
its alkaline property ; as Mr Geber has ftiown, that
animal fubftances, when newly putrefied, do not con¬
tain any alkali. He repeated the experiment, there¬
fore, on fome matter recently procured from a cance¬
rous penis. A manifeft effervefcence, though lefs
than the foregoing, alfo took place in this cafe ; the
liquor acquired a brown colour, and the fetor increafed.
A portion of the fame matter, diffufed through didd¬
led water, communicated a green colour as before;
but in fome cafes the change was fcarcely perceptible,
though in all the experiments which were made the
exiftence of an alkali one way or other was manifefted.
The air extricated from the cancerous matter feemed
by its fmell to refemble rotten eggs more than any
other fpecies; but to inveftigate the matter fully, fome
portion of the virus was diffufed through diftilled wa¬
ter, the liquor filtered, and a fmall quantity of nitrous
folution of filver dropped into it. An aflt-coloured
precipitate foon appeared diffufed like a cloud through
the liquid, and at the end-of two hours the colour of
the mixture was changed to a deep brown. The fetid
fmell was now rendered much fainter^ and was entirely
deftroyed by an addition of concentrated nitrous acid,
or by dephlogifticated fpirit of fait; either of which
fubftances would alfo have deftroyed the fmell of he¬
patic air.
On adding the vitriolic acid to common pus, no ef-
fervefcence was produced, nor was the colour of the
liquor changed, neither did any fenfible precipitation
take place for feveral hours. On repeating the expe¬
riment, however, with matter obtained from a vene¬
real bubo, the liquid became flightly turbid on the ad¬
dition of nitrated filver, and at the end of two hours
it had acquired a brownifh call. The fame effects
took place with the matter which iffued from a carious
bone ; but in both cafes the precipitation was much
lefs than with the cancerous matter.
To procure fome quantity of the air in its feparate
ftate, a quantity of reddiffi cancerous matter was mix¬
ed with about thrice its weight of diftilled water. On
adding a little vitriolic acid to this mixture, an effer¬
vefcence enfued, and the air was received in a vial over
mercury. When one-half of the mercury was expelled
from the vial, the latter was inverted over diftilled
water; and the portion of mercury that remained in
it being fuffered to defcend, and the water to rife into
its place, the vial was clofely corked. The air and
water were then brilkly agitated together ; and the
vial being a fecond time inverted over diftilled water,
the cork was removed. It now appeared, by the
height to which the water rofe, that part of the air
had been abforbed ; and on dropping in a little nitra-
Hepatic
HEP L 435 J HEP
Hepatic ted filver into it, a purpliflt cloud, inclining to red,
Air. Was produced. In this experiment, the change of co-
lour was at firtl fcarcely perceptible, but became very
diftinft in a few minutes. The quantity of aerial
fluid, however, which can thus be extricated by the
addition of acid without heat is not very confider-
able : if heat be applied, a larger quantity of elallic
fluid will be produced, having the fmell of cancerous
matter; but in that cafe it will be mixed with vitriolic
acid air.
To obtain this air in as pure a ftate as poflible, a
portion of the cancerous virus, properly diluted with
diflilled water, was introduced into a fmall vial, a little
vitriolic acid added, the veflel filled with diftilled
water, and a crooked tube alfo filled with water fitted
to its neck. The extremity of the tube being then
introduced into the neck of a bottle inverted in water,
and the flame of a candle applied to the bottom of
the vial, air began to rife in white bubbles, having a
very fetid fmell fimilar to that of cancerous matter;
and the water impregnated with it occafioned a dark
brown precipitate in a folution of nitrated filver. On
feparating the crooked tube from the vial, a very of-
fenfive white vapour, refembling in fmell the air pro¬
duced in the foregoing experiment, ardfe from the
mixture, and continued to afcend for near half an
hour. A portion of the liquor filtered, and mixed
with a little concentrated nitrous acid, had its fmell
entirely deftroyed ; a flight effervefcence being produ¬
ced, and a flaky fubftance feparated from the liquor
and floating through it.
On examining the alkaline matter which had been
feparated from the cancerous virus, it was found, as
had indeed been concluded a priori, to be the volatile
alkali. It feemed probable that this alkali was united
to the fixed air with which the cancerous matter was
impregnated, becaufe the peculiar fmell of the matter
was greatly augmented by the addition of the vitriolic
acid ; and this was confirmed by the following expe¬
riments.
1. A portion of cancerous matter was diffufed
through dittilled water, and diftilled in a fmall retort
with a graduated heat until the bottom of the veflel
became red hot. The common air, which firft came
over, was greatly impregnated with the finell of the
cancerous matter: however, its qualities were not
greatly impaired by the left of nitrous air ; two mea-
fures of it, with one of nitrous air, occupying the fpace
of little lefs than two meafures. When the water be¬
gan to boil, a large quantity of aqueous vapour arofe;
which, as foon as it came into contact with the air,
produced a white fmoke. The fmell was now percei¬
ved to be fimilar to that of boiled animal fubftances ;
but no permanently elaftic fluid was mixed with the
aqueous vapour. When the greater part of the water
was evaporated, the jar containing the firft portion of
air was removed, and the neck of the retort introdu¬
ced beneath an inverted velftl filled with mercury. A
confiderable quantity of air fmelling like burnt bones
was now extricated, which was mixed with a yellow
empyreumatic oil. On agitating fome of it with wa¬
ter, part of the air was imbibed. Nitrated filver,
dropped into the water thus impregnated, produced a
reddifh precipitate.
2. One meafure of the air obtained in the foregoing
experiment was mixed with an equal quantity of alka- Hepatic
line air. In three hours the whole occupied only the Air-
bulk of one meafure and two-tenths, and an oily icum “v——
was now left upon the inner furface of the tube ; and
in eight days the interior furface of the tube was cover¬
ed with flender films of a yellowilh colour fpread irre¬
gularly upon it. The upper furface of the mercury
within the tube was corroded ; in fome places having
a reddifli burnilhed appearance, in others it was chan¬
ged into an afh-coloured powder interfperfefl with
brown fpots. On removing the tube from the mer¬
cury, the air that remained in it had- a ftrong fetid
fmell, refembling that of burned bones.
3. To difeover whether other animal fubftances
yield an aerial fluid fimilar to that produced from the
cancerous virus, a portion of the flelh of the neck of
a chicken was diftilled in a fmall coated glafs-retort
till it became red hot. A thin phlegm of a yellowifh
colour firft came over: this was fucceeded by a yellow
empyreumatic oil; and at the fame time a permanently
elaftic fluid, fmelling like burned feathers, began to
be difengaged. A flip of paper tinged with litmus,
and reddened by acetous acid, being held over this
fluid, prefently became blue. The remainder of the
air was very fetid, and highly inflammable. By agi¬
tation in water one-half of it was abforbed ; the re¬
mainder was inflammable, and burned firft with a flight
explofion, and afterwards with a blue lambent flame.
On dropping a nitrous folution of filver into the water
impregnated with this air, the mixture depofited a
brown precipitate.
4. On treating putrid veal by diftillation with a
graduated heat, the products were found to be nearly
fimilar to thofc already mentioned. The air ob¬
tained was highly inflammable, about one-half of it
was abforbed by water; and the liquid thus impreg¬
nated let fall a brown precipitate on the addition of
nitrous folution of filver. On adding fome dephlogi-
fticated marine acid to another portion of this liquor, ,
a brilk effervefcence took place, and a whitifh gelati¬
nous matter was feparated: and this fubftance being
evaporated to drynefs, became black on the addition
of the concentrated vitriolic acid. On agitation with
water, part of the air was abforbed as in the former
experiment, and the remainder burned with a lambent
flame. This air, however, extricated from putrid
veal, had lefs of an empyreumatic fmell than that which
was difengaged from frefh animal fubftances, being ra¬
ther like that of putrefying animal matters.
From thefe experiments our author concludes, that
the air extradited from animal fubftances confifts of two
diftindft fluids, the one foluble and the other infoluble
in water. The infoluble part burns with a lambent
flame, and has all the chara&ers of heavy inflammable
air: but the foluble part refembles that which is pro¬
duced from cancerous matter by the vitriolic acid ;
having a fetid odour, decompofing nitrated filver, com¬
bining with cauftic volatile alkali, and poffefiing many
of the properties of common hepatic air. In many
particulars, however, the animal hepatic air differs from
the common. The fmell is confiderably different, and
in the decompofition of animal hepatic air no fulphur
is feparated, but a kind of flaky matter which is evi¬
dently an animal fubftance, as turning black by the
vitriolic acid. The following expeiment is a decifive
3 H 2 proof
HEP [ 436 1 HEP
Hfpaiic proof that no fulphur is contained in animal hepatic
Ai2 air. “ Equal parts of pure air, and of air extricated
beef by diftillation, were fired by the elec¬
tric fiiock in a ftrong glafs tube over mercury. A
little diftilled water was then introduced through the
mercury into the tube, and was agitated with the air
which it contained. A portion of this water being
filtered, and a fmall quantity of muriated barytes be¬
ing dropped into it, the mixture remained perfe&ly
tranfpaYent. Hence it appears, that the air extrica¬
ted by diftillation from frelh beef does not contain
fulphur, as that fubftance would have been changed
by burning into the vitriolic acid, and the muriated
barytes would have been decompofed. The fame ex¬
periment was frequently repeated with air extricated
by dill illation from the putrid as well as from the frelh
tnufcular fibres of animals; but in no inftance could
the leaft veflige of vitriolic acid be difeovered.
5. To analyfe in a more perfeft manner thefe kinds
of animal airs, and to determine their produfts when
combined with pure air, about an ounce of the lean of
frelh mutton was expofed to a red heat in a fmall
coated glafs retort. Very near one half of the air pro¬
duced toward^ the end was abforbed by water, and
two-thirds of that which came over about the middle.
A feparate portion of the air, difengaged towards the
end of the diftillation, being allowed to remain over
iriercury for- feven hours, it was found gradually to
diminilh in bulk ; and a fluid, having the colour and
fmell of a thin empyreumatic oil, was collefted at the
bottom of the jar. This appearance, however, is not
cpnftant: the air, when placed over mercury, fome-
times diminilhes, and at other times retains its original
bulk. Only one-eighth part of this air was abforbed
by water. “ Hence (fays the Do&or) it appears,
that a portion of the air extricated from animal fub-
ftances by heat, refembles a fpecies of hepatic air
which was firft difeovered by Mr Kirwan, and which
exifts in an intermediate ftate between the aerial and
the vapofous; this fluid not being permanently elaftic
like air, nor immediately condenfed by cold like va¬
pour, but gradually affuming the nonelaftic form, in
confequence probably of the tendency of its feveral
parts to unite with one another.”
6. To determine the proportion of fixed air con¬
tained in that produced from the lean of animal fub-
ftances, a quantity of air extra&ed from mutton was
received over mercury ,in a large vial with a narrow
neck. When the vial was little more than half filled,
the remaining portion of the mercury was difplaced by
introducing water that had been previoufly boiled.
The vial being then clofely corked, the air and wa¬
ter were bri fitly agitated together; and the liquor, thus
impregnated with the foluble part of the animal air,
was put into a vial to the bottom of which heat was
applied. Thus a part of the air was again difengaged,
and received in a tube inverted over mercury; and the
procefs continued till the liquor no longer rendered
lime-water turbid. On agitating the air a fecond time
with water, and comparing the bulk after^agitation with
that before it, it appeared that the quantity abforbed
was about one-fourth part. From this experiment al-
fo it appeared, that animal hepatic air, when once ab¬
forbed by water, is not capable of being again difen¬
gaged by a boiling heat; for after the fixed fiir
had all been expelled, the liquor was made to boil Heprtie*
nearly for half an hour, but no permanently elaftic Aif;
fluid could be difengaged : that portion of the liquor
which remained had a faint yellow colour, and fmelled
ftrongly of animal hepatic air, depofiting alfo a brown
precipitate upon the addition of nitrated filver. “ It
appears therefore (fays the Doctor), that the foluble
part of the air difengaged from animal fubftances by
heat, cenfifts of three diftinft fluids ; of alkaline air,
fixed, and animal hepatic air. It feemed extremely
probable, that thefe three aerial fluids, flowly com¬
bining together, formed the oily empyreumatic fub¬
ftance which was colle&ed at the bottom of the jar,
while the air was undergoing the diminution deferibed
above. In this conclufion I was confirmed by trials
that were made with the empyreumatic oil that came
over in the latter part of the diftillation : for when it
was examined by chemical lefts foon after it was ob¬
tained, it was found to contain fixed air, volatile alkali,
and animal hepatic air.”
7. To determine the produfts refulting from the
combuftion of pure air with the animal hepatic air,
one portion of the air extra&ed from the lean of mut¬
ton was agitated with water, the other was not. One
meafure of the former was introduced over mercury
into a ftrong glafs tube, and then mixed with one mea¬
fure and an half of pure air. A fmall ftiock being
made to pafs through it, a violent explofion took place ;
and the fpace occupied by the air in the tube was re¬
duced from an inch and two-tenths to nine-tenths of
an inch. On agitating the refiduum with water, fix-
tenths were abforbed; and the portion abforbed ap¬
peared to be fixed air by its precipitating lime-water.
Five parts of nitrous air being mixed with an equal
quantity of the infoluble refiduum, a diminution of
three parts took place ; whence it appears that one-
fifth of the infoluble refiduum was pure air. Hence
it appears that fixed air was produced by the inflam¬
mation of dephlogifticated and animal hepatic air.
8. One meafure of that portion of animal air which
had not been agitated with water was mixed with a
meafure and an half of pure air, and fired by the elec¬
tric fhock. Previous to the deflagration, the two airs
occupied the fpace of 1.15 inches, but afterwards it
was reduced to 1.1. On agitation with water, about
one-third was abforbed ; a portion of the infoluble re¬
fiduum burned with a faint blue flame.
9. As it appeared from thefe experiments, that a
meafure and an half of dephlogifticated air was not
fufficient to faturate one of the animal air that had not
been agitated with water, the experiment was repeated
in the following manner. Two parts of pure air, with
one of the animal kind, occupied the fpace of eight-
tenths of an inch; but when fired by the ele&ric fhock,
the refiduum flood at a little lefs than half an inch ;
and this refiduum was almoft wholly abforbed on agi¬
tation with lime-water. By a fubfequent trial it was
found, that nearly one-half of the animal air ufed in
this experiment was foluble in water. When equal
parts of pure and animal air were burned together, a
confiderable increafe of bulk almoft invariably took
place ; and when the animal was to the pure air as zi
to 15, the bulk of the mixture was increafed one half.
The refiduum of the air was inflammable.
10. To inveftigate the caufe of this augmentation
of
HEP ! 437 ] HEP
Hepatic of bulk, three meafures of animal were mixed with
Air* two of pure air; and feveral ftrong eleftric fhocks
"J' v were made to pafs through the mixture, but without
being able to fet it on fire. On adding half a mea-
fure more of pure air, it took fire 5 and the bulk was
augmented from <9 to 1.3 inches. Three meafures of
the refiduum were then mixed with three of pure air,
and the mixture fired by the ele&rfc (hock ; the bulk
of the mixture being reduced from one inch to .56.
On agitation with lime-water, two-thirds were ab-
forbed, and the remainder confided almod entirely of
pure air.
II. Having accidentally taken two or three fmall
fhocks through fome alkaline air, and not obferving
any fenfible increafe of bulk, the Doftor mixed it with
an equal quantity of pure air, not apprehending that
any decompofition had taken place. Contrary to ex-
pe&ation, however, the two fluids entered rapidly in¬
to combination with each other the moment that the
eledtric (hock was made to pafs through them. The
jar, which he held loofely in his hand, as it was invert¬
ed over the jar, was carried obliquely upward with
great violence ; the fland of the prime condu&or was
broken, and the cylinder (hivered into a thoufand
pieces. The experiment, however, was afterwards
fafdy repeated with a very drong apparatus ; the jar
being preffed down with a plate of iron for the pur-
pofe of retaining it in its place.
“ It appeared (fays the Doff or), that when the al¬
kaline and pure air were immediately mixed together,
and a fmall (hock was made to pafs through them,
they would not take fire; but when three or four
(hocks were previoufly taken through the alkaline air,
and the latter was afterwards mixed with an equal
quantity of pure air, they exploded with great vio¬
lence. One-fixth of the refiduum was alkaline, the
remainder phlogiflicated air.”
Several other experiments are related by the Doflor
in this paper, which tend to (how that animal hepatic
air is extricated in large quantity by the procefs of
putrefaffion. By diddling a green cabbage leaf, he
alfo obtained an aerial fluid, in mod of its properties
refembling animal hepatic air. The fetid fmell of this
gas is dedroyed by fuffering it to remain in contaft
wdth pure air for feveral weeks; and fo effeftually by
the vapour of dephlogidicated marine acid, that he
was induced to try the efficacy of this fluid as an ap¬
plication to cancers. In fome cafes it appeared to be
of fervice, though fome ulcerated cancers were found
fo irritable, that they could bear no application what¬
ever. The liquid itfelf appears to be unfafe when
taken inwardly. Dr Crawford having taken 20 drops
of it largely diluted with water, found himfelf affefted
with an obtufe pain and fenfe of conduction dn his
domach and bowels, which refided the ufe of emetics
and laxatives, but yielded to fulphureous water. He
found afterwards, that the manganefe which had been
ufed in the didillation of the acid, contained a fmall
quantity of lead. He relates alfo, on the authority of
Dr Ingenhoufz, that a Dutchman of his acquaintance
fome time ago drank a confiderable quantity of the
dephlogidicated marine acid; the effedls it produced
were fo violent, that he narrowly efcaped with his life.
Thefe deleterious qualities our author aferibes to lead;
though it can by no means be proved that manganefe
is more innocent : and it is alfo exceedingly probable Hepatka
that fome of this femimetal rifes in the preparation of 11
what is called the dephlogifticated or oxygenated marine Hertaga-
acid. nal.
Hepatic Hloest the infpiflated juice of a fpecies of v '
Aloe.
Hepatic Stone. See Liter Stone.
Hepatic Water. See Hepar Sulphuris.
HEPA1ICA, in botany, a fpecies of Anemone.
HEPATITIS, in medicine, an inflammation of the
liver. See Mtoicike-Index.
HEPATOSCOPIA (formed of m*? liver, and
cxoYty J confider), in antiquity, a fpecies of divination^
wherein predidions were made by infpe&ing the livers
of animals.
. ^EP>ATOSCOpiA is alfo ufed as a general name for
divination by intrails.
HEPHiESTIA, in Grecian antiquity, an Athe¬
nian feflival in honour of Vulcan, the chief ceremony
of which was a race with torches. It was performed
in this manner: The antagenids were three young men,
one of whom, by lot, took a lighted torch in his hand,
and began his courfe; if the torch was extinguidied
before he finifhed the race, he delivered it to the fe.
cond and he in like manner to the third: the vidory
was his who fird carried the torch lighted to the end
of the race; and to this fucceffive delivering of the
torch we find many allufions in ancient writers.
HEPHTHEMIMERIS (compofed of ^feven,.
v«rt/f half, p-if®-part), in the Greek and Latin
poetry, a fort of verfe confiding of three feet and a
fyliable } that is, of feven half feet.
Such are mod of the verfes in Anacreon :
©tx« I Eiyuv I Arpti I Juc .
I J£ Kccf j vex | &c.
And that of Aridophanes, in his Plutus:
Erfo-St finrpt yofpci.
They are alfo called trimetri cataledici.
Hephthemimeris, or Hephthemimeret, is alfo a cas-
fura after the third foot ; that is, on the feventh half¬
foot. It is a rule, that this fyllable, though it be
(hort in itfelf, mud be made long on account of the
casfura, or to make it an heptbemimeris. As in that verfe
of Virgil.
Et furils agitatui amor, et conrcia virtu;.
It may be added, that the casfura is not to be on the
fifth foot, as it is in the verfe which Dr Harris gives
us for an example:
JIU latus ni veum molli fultus. Hyacintho.
This is not a hepththemimeris caefura, but a hennea-
mimeris, i. e. of nine half feet.
HEPTACHORD, in the ancient poetry, fignified
verfes that were fung or played on feven chords, that
is, on feven different notes. In this fenfe it was ap¬
plied to the lyre when it had but feven firings. One
of the intervals is alfo called an heptachord, as con¬
taining the fame number of degrees between the ex¬
tremes.
HEPTAGON, in geometry, a figure confiding op
feven fides, and as. many angks. In fortification, a.
place is termed an heptagon, that has feven badions.
for its defence.
HEPTAGONAL numbers, in arithmetic, a fort
of polygonal numbers, wherein the difference of the:
terms of the correfponding arithmetical progreffion is..
5-
HEP [ 438 1
Heptandria One of the properties of thefe numbers is, that if the dei
II they be multiplied by 40, and 9 be added to the pro-
Heracleo- t^e fum wjh be a fquare number.
. K1 C3' . HEPTANDRIA, in botany (from t’rra feptem, and
a man)\ the feventh clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual me¬
thod, confiding of plants with hermaphrodite flowers,
which have feven (lamina or male-organs. The orders
are four, derived from the number of ftyles or female-
organs.
HEPTANGULAR, in geometry, an appellation
given to figures which have feven angles.
HEPTARCHY (compounded of the Greek
“feven,” and imperium, “government”), a govern¬
ment compofed of feven perfons, or a country govern¬
ed by feven perfons, or divided into feven kingdoms.
The Saxon heptarchy included all England, which
was cantoned out into feven petty independent king¬
doms, peopled and governed by different clans and co¬
lonies; ®ia. thofe of Kent, the South Saxons, Weft
Saxons, Eaft Saxons, Northumberland, the Eaft Angles,
and Mercia. The heptarchy was formed by degrees
from the year 459, when firft the kingdom of Kent
was eredted, and Hengift affumed the title of king of
Kent immediately after the battle of Eglesford ; and
it terminated in 827 or 828, when king Egbert reu¬
nited them into one, made the heptarchy into a mo¬
narchy, and affumed the title of king of England. It
HEP
urgus. The Heracleonites denied the autho- Heracleum,'
rity of the prophecies of the Old Teftament, main- Heraclid*.
taining that they were mere random founds in the air ;
and that St John the Baptift was the only true voice
that direfted to the Mefliah.
HERACLEUM, Madness : A genus of the di-
gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants}
and in-the natural method ranking under the 45th or¬
der, Umbellata. The fruit is elliptical, emarginated,
compreffed, and ftriated, with a thin border. The co¬
rolla is difform, indexed, and emarginated; the involu-
crum dropping off. There are five fpecies, of which the
moft remarkable is the fpondylium, or cow-parfnip.
This is common in many parts of Britain, and other
northern parts of Europe and Afia.— Gmelin, in his
Flora Silerica, p. 2 (4. tells us, that the inhabitants of
Kamfchatka, about the beginning of July, colledt the
foot-(talks of the radical leaves of this plant, and, after
peeliag off the rhind, dry them feparately in the fun,
and then, tying them in bundles, dry them carefully in
the (hade : in a (liort time afterwards, thefe dried (talks
are covered over with a yellow faccharine efflorefcence,
tailing like liquorice : and in this (late they are eaten
as a great delicacy.—The Ruffians not only eat the
(talks thus prepared, but procure from them a very in¬
toxicating fpirit. They firft ferment them in water
with the greater bilberries (vaccinium uliginofum), and
muft be obferved, however, that though Egbert became then diftil the liquor to what degree of (Length they
monarch of England, he was not perfectly abfolute. pleafe; which Gmelin fays is more agreeable to the
The kingdom which he actually poffeffed confided of tafte than fpirits made from corn. This may therefore
the ancient kingdoms of Weffex, Suffex, Kent, and
Effex, that had been peopled by Saxons and Jutes.
prove a good fuccedaneum for whilky, and prevent the
confumption of much barley, which ought to be applied
As for the other three kingdoms, whofe inhabitants to better purpofes—-Swine and rabbits are very fond of
Ayere Angles, he contented himfelf with preferving the
fovereignty over them, permitting them to be govern¬
ed by kings who were his vaffals and tributaries.
The government of the heptarchy, reckoning from
the founding of the kingdom of Mercia, the laft of the
feven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, lafted 243 years; but
if the time fpent by the Saxohs in their conquefts from
the -arrival of Hengift in 449 be added, the heptarchy
will be found to have lafted 378 years from its com¬
mencement to its diffolution. The cailfes of the dif-
folution of the heptarchy were the great inequality
among the feven kingdoms, three of which greatly
furpaffed the others in extent and power ; the default
of male heirs in the royal families of all the kingdoms,
that of Weffex excepted ; and the concurrence of 1
this plant. In the county of Norfolk it is called h
weed.
HERACLIDiE, the defcendants of Hercules,
greatly celebrated in ancient hiftory. Hercules at hi*
death left to his fon Hyllus all the rights and demands
which he had upon the Peloponnefus, and permitted
him to marry lole as foon as he came of age. The po¬
ller it y of Hercules were not more kindly treated by
Euriftheus than their father had been, and they were
obliged to retire for proteftion to the court of Ceyx,
king of Trachinia. Euriftheus purfued them thither;
and Ceyx, aftaid of his refentment, begged the Hera-
clidae to depart from his dominions. From Trachinia
they came to Athens, where Thefeus the king of the
country, who had accompanied their father in fome of
rious circumftances which combined in the time of his expeditions, received them with great humanity, and
Egbert.
HERACLEA, an ancient city ofTurkyin Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with the fee of an archbiftiop
of the Grecian church, and a fea-port. It was a very
famous place in former times, and there are (till fome
remains of its ancient fplendor. Theodore Lafcaris
took it from David Comnenus, emperor of Trebifond
affifted them againft their common enemy Euriftheus.
Euriftheus was killed by the hand of Hyllus himfelf,
and his children perifhed with him, and all the cities of
the Peloponnefus became the undifputed property of
the Heraclidae. Their triumph, however, was ftiort;
their numbers were leffcned by a pettilence; and the
oracle informed them, that they had taken poffeffion of
when it fell into the hands of the Genoefe, but Ma- the Peloponnefus before the gods permitted their re-
homet II. took it from them ; fince which time it has
been in the poffeflion of the, Turks. It is near the
fea. E. Long. 27.48. N. Lat. 40. 27.
HERACLEONITES, a feft of Chriftians, the
followers of Heracleon, who refined upon the Gnoftic
divinity, and maintained that the world was not the
immediate production of the fon of God, but that he
turn. Upon this they abandoned Peloponnefus, and
came to fettle in the territories of the Athenians, where
Hyllus, obedient to his father’s commands, married lole
the daughter of Eurytus. Soon after he confulted the.
oracle, anxious to recover the Peloponnefus; and the
ambiguity of the anfwer determined him to make a fe-
cond attempt. He challenged to Angle combat A-
Was only the occafiional caufe of its being created by treus, the fucceffor of Euriftheus on the throne of My-
HER [ 439 1 HER
HeracTidfSjcenae ; and it was mutually agreed that the undifturbed
Heraclitus. p0ffeffi0n 0f the Peloponnefus Ihould be ceded to who-
1j ' ’ foever defeated his adverfary. Echemus accepted the
challenge for Atreus, and Hyllus was killed, and the
Heraclidife a fecond time departed from Peloponnefus.
Cleodteus the fon of Hyllus made a third attempt, and
was equally unfuccefsful; and his fon Ariftomachus fome
time after met with the fame unfavourable reception,
and perifhed in the field of battle. Ariftodemus, Te-
menus, and Ghrefphontes, the three fons of Ariftoma¬
chus, encouraged by the more expreffive word of an
oracle, and defirous to revenge the death of their pro¬
genitors, affembled a numerous force, and with a fleet in¬
vaded all Peloponnefus. Their expedition was attended
with much fuccefs ; and after fome decifive battles, they
became mailers of all the peninfula. The recovery of
the Peloponnefus by the defeendants of Hercules forms
an interefting epoch in ancient biftory, which is univer-
fally believed to have happened 80 years after the Tro¬
jan war, or 1190 years before the Chriftian era. This
conqueft was totally atchieved about 120 years after
the firft attempt of Hyllus, who was killed about 20
years before the Trojan war. As it occafioned a world
of changes and revolutions in the affairs of Greece,
infomuch that fcarce a ftate or people but were
turned upfide down thereby, the return of the He-
raclida: is the epocha of the beginning of profane
hiftory : all the time that preceded it is reputed fa¬
bulous. Accordingly, Ephorus, Cumanus, Calift-
henes, and Theopompus, only begin their hiftories
from hence.
HERACLIDES o/'Pontus, a Greek philofopher,
the difciple of Speufippus, and afterwards of Ariftotle,
flouriftied about 336 B. C. His vanity prompted him
to defire one of his friends to put a ferpent into his
bed juft as he was dead, in order to raife a belief
that he was afeended to the heavens among the gods ;
but the cheat was difeovered. All his works are loft.
HERACLITUS, a famous Ephefian philofopher,
who flouriftied about the 69th Olympiad, in the time
of Darius Hyftafpes. He is faid to have continually
bewailed the wicked lives of men, and, as often as he
came among them, to have fallen a-weeping; contrary
to Democritus, who made the follies of mankind a
fubjeft of laughter. He retired to the temple of
Diana, and played at dice with the boys there; faying
to the Ephefians who gathered round him, “ Worft
of men, what do ye wonder at ? Is it not better to do
thus than to govern you ?” Darius wrote to this philofo¬
pher to come and live with him ; but he refufed the of¬
fer : at laft, out of hatred to mankind, he retired to the
mountains, where he contra&ed a dropfy by living on
herbs, which deftroyed him at 60 years of age. His
writings gained him fo great reputation, that his fol¬
lowers were called Heraditians. Laertius fpeaks of a
treatife upon nature, divided into three books, one cotv
H E R A
A Science which teaches how to blazon, or explain
in proper terms, all that belongs to coats-of-
arms ; and how to marlhal, or difpofe regularly, divers
arms on a field. It alfo teaches whatever relates to the
cerning the univerfe, the fecond political, the third Heracliut,
theological. This book he depofited in the temple of Heraltl-
Diana ; and it is faid, that he affe&ed to write obfeure-
ly, left it Ihould be read by the vulgar, and become con¬
temptible. The fundamental dodrine of his philofo-
phy was, that fire is the principle of all things ; and
the ancient philofophers have colle&ed and preferved
admirable apophthegms of this philofopher.
HERACLIUS, emperor of the eaft, a renowned
warrior, died A. D. 641. He carried on long and
bloody wars with the Saracens, by whom he was al-
moft always defeated. See Arabia, n° 67—93.
HERALD, fays Verftegan, is derived from the
Saxon word Herehault, and by abbreviation Her alt t
which in that language fignifies the champion of
an army ; and, growing to be a name of office, it
was given to him who, in the army, had the fpecial
charge to denounce war, to challenge to battle and
combat, to proclaim peace, and to execute martial mef-
fages. But the bufinefs of heralds with us is as follows,
viz. To marftial, order, and conduft all royal caval¬
cades, ceremonies at coronations, royal marriages, in-
ftallations, creations of dukes, marquifes, earls, vifeounts,
barons, baronets, and dubbing of knights; embaffies,
funeral proceffions, declarations of war, proclamations
of peace, &c.: To record and blazon the arms of the
nobility and gentry ; and to regulate any abufes there¬
in through the Englifti dominions, under the authority
of the Earl Marlhal, to whom they are fubfervient.
The office of Windfor, Chefter, Richmond, Somerfet,
York, and Lancafter heralds, is to be affiftants to the-
kings at arms, in the different branches of their office;
and they are fuperior to each other, according to crea¬
tion, in the above order.
Heralds were formerly held in much greater efteem -
than they are at prefent ; and were created and chri-
ftened by the king, who, pouring a gold-cup of wine
on their head, gave them the herald-name : but this
is now done by the earl marfhal. They could not ar¬
rive at the dignity of herald without having been fe-
ven years purfuivant; nor could they quit the office of
herald, but to be made king at arms.
Richard III. was the firft who formed them, in
this kingdom, into a college ; and afterwards great pri¬
vileges were granted them by Edward VI. and Philip
and Mary.
The origin of heralds is very ancient. Stentor is
reprefented by Homer as herald of the Greeks, who
had a voice louder than 50 men together. The Greeks
called them Kluxer, and ; and the Romans,
feciales. The Romans had a college of heralds, appoint¬
ed to decide whether a war were juft or unjuft ; and to
prevent its coming to open hoftilities, till all meana
had been attempted for deciding the difference in a pa«
cific way.
L D R Y,
marfhalling of folemn cavalcades, proceffions, and other’
public ceremonies at coronations, inftallations, crea¬
tions of peers, nuptials, chriftening of princes, fune¬
rals, &c..
Armsj
44o HERA
Definition, Arms, or coats-of-arms, are hereditary marks of
origin, &c. }u>nour) made up of fixed and determined colours and
0f dly31* figures, granted by fovereign princes, as a reward for
■ „ - J' military valour, a fliining virtue, or a fignal public
fervice ; and which ferve to denote the defcent and al¬
liance of the bearer, or to diftinguifh Hates, cities, focie-
ties, &c. civil, ecclefiaftical, and military.
Thus heraldry is the fcience, of which arms are the
proper objedl; but yet they differ much both in their
origin and antiquity. Heraldry, according to Sir
George Mackenzie, “ as digefted into an art, and
fubje&ed to rules, muft be aferibed to Charlemaign
and Frederick Barbaroffa, for it did begin and grow
with the feudal law.” Sir John Feme is of opinion,
that we did borrow arms from the Egyptians ; mean¬
ing, from their hieroglyphicks. Sir William Dug-
dale mentions, that arms, as marks of honour, were firft
ufed by great commanders in war, neceffity requiring
that their perfons ihould be notified to their friends
and followers. The learned Alexander Nilbet, in his
excellent fyftem of heraldry, fays, that arms owe their
rife and beginning to the light of nature, and that
figns and marks of honour were made ufe of in the firft
ages of the world, and by all nations, however fun pie
and illiterate, to diftinguifh the noble from the ignoble^
We find in Homer, Virgil, and Ovid, that their
heroes had divers figures on their fhields, whereby
their perfons were diftinftly known. Alexander the
Great, defirous to honour thofe of his captains and
foldiers who had done any glorious aftion, and alfo
to excite an emulation among the reft, did grant them
certain badges to be borne on their armour, pennons,
and banners; ordering, at the fame time, that no per-
fon or potentate, through his empire, fhould attempt
or prefume to give or tolerate the bearing of thofe
iigns upon the armour of any man, but it fhould be a
power referved to himfelf; which prerogative has been
claimed ever fince by all other kings and fovereign
princes within their dominions.
After thefe and many other different opinions, all
that can be faid with any certainty is, that, in all ages,
men have made ufe of figures of living creatures, or
fymbolical figns, to denote the bravery and courage
either of their chief or nation, to render themfelves
the more terrible to their enemies, and even to diftin¬
guifh themfelves or families, as names do individuals.
The famous C. Agrippa, in his treatife of the vanity
of fciences, cap. 81. has colle&ed many inftances of
thefe marks of diftindion, anciently borne by king¬
doms and ftates that were any way civilized, viz.
The Egyptians
The Athenians j
The Goths
The Romans f Jo 'j an Eagle,
The Franks ! I a Lion,
The Saxons J t-a Horfe.
f an Ox,
| an Owl,
^ a Bear,
The laft is dill borne in the arms of his prefent Bri¬
tannic Majefty. As to hereditary arms of families,
William Cambden, Sir Henry Spelman, and other
judicious heralds, agree, that they began no fooner
than towards the latter end of the i ith century. Ac¬
cording to Father Meneftrier's opinion, a French wri¬
ter whofe authority is of great weight in this mat¬
ter, Henry 1’Oifeleur (the Falconer J who was raifed
N° 151.
L D R Y.
to the imperial throne of the Weft in 920, by regula- Hared if ary
ting tournaments in Germany gave occafion to the arm9»
eftablifhment of family-arms, or hereditary marks of
honour, which undeniably are more ancient and bet¬
ter obferved among the Germans than in any other
nation. Mareover, this laft author afferts, that with
tournaments firft came up coats-of-arms; which were
a fort of livery, made up of feveral lifts, fillets, or
narrow pieces of fluff of divers colours, from whence
came the fefs, the bend, the pale, &c. which were
the original charges of family-arms; for they who
never had been at tournaments, had not fuch marks of
diftin&ion. They who inlifted themfelves in the Croi-
fades, took up alfo feveral new figures hitherto un¬
known in armorial enfigns; fuch as alerions, bezants,
efcalop-fhells, martlets, &c. but more particularly crof-
fes, of different colours for diftin&ion’s fake. From
this it may be concluded, that heraldry, like moft hu¬
man inventions, was infenfibly introduced and efta-
blifhed ; and that, after having been rude and un-
fettled for many ages, it was at laft methodifed, per¬
fected, and fixed, by the Croifades and tournaments.
Thefe marks of honour are called arms, from their
being principally and firft worn by military men at war
and tournaments, who had them engraved, emboffed,
or depiAed on fhields, targets, banners, or other mar¬
tial inftruments. They are alfo called coats-of arms,
from the cuftom of the ancients embroidering them
on the coats they wore over their arms, as heralds do
to this day.
Arms are diftinguifhed by different names, to de¬
note the caufes of their bearing 5 fuch as,
ARMS
Of Dominion, I j Of Patronage,
Of Pretenfion, I Of Family,
Of Conceflion, | j Of Alliance,
Of Community, | ) Of Succefiion.
Arms of dominion or fovereignty are thofe which
emperors, kings, and fovereign ftates, do conftantly
bear; being, as it were, annexed to the territories,
kingdoms, and provinces, they poffefs. Thus the three
lions are the arms of England, the fleurs-de-lis thofe
of France, &c.
Arms of pretenfion are thofe of fuch kingdoms,
provinces, or territories, to which a prince or lord has
fome claim, and which he adds to his own, although
the faid kingdoms or territories be pofleffed by a fo¬
reign prince or other lord. Thus the kings of Eng¬
land have quartered the arms of France with their own,
-ever fince Edward HI. laid claim to the kingdom of
France, which happened in the year 1330, on account
of his being fon to Ifabella, filler to Charles the Hand-
fome, who died without iffue.
Arms of concejjion or augmentation of honour,. are
either entire arms, or elfe one or more figures, given
by princes as a reward for fome extraordinary fervice.
We read in hiftory, that Robert Bruce, king of Scot¬
land, allowed the earl of Wintoun’s anceftor to bear,
in hit coat-armour, a crown fupported by a fword, to
(how that he, and the clan Seaton, of which he was
the head, fupported his tottering crown. The late
Queen Anne granted to Sir Cloudefly Shovel, rear-
admiral of Great Britain, a cheveron between two
fleurs-de-lis in chief, and a crefcent in bafe, to denote
6 three
HERALDBT.
. /.. (A).
(A).
X,nsrES r> IFFEKETsr C E .
^y./. (B)
Plate CCXKYII.
J6^
11 yJ'Zsi(sirn/tzJZfsu^ a-t^rtu/e.
12. <Qn/*z/t&<£
13. ^37A^<£2><w&tasZs.
J. . '^/w ,yrLt^ente^~
/VXAAAAAAAAA i4.
8 . 'yA&j2)a4iceJte/. v /S. /X /
hrnmmmm, V W
9-
c
Chap. I. HERA
Of the three great vi&ories he had gamed; two over the French,
Shield, See. an(j onc over Turks.
Arms of community, are thofe of biftioprics, cities,
ttniverfities, academies, focieties, companies, and other
bodies corporate.
Arms of patronage, are fuch as governors of pro¬
vinces, lords of manors, patrons of benefices, &c. add
to their family-arms, as a token of their fuperiority,
rights, and jurifdi&ion. Thefe arms have introduced
into heraldry, cattles, gates, wheels, ploughs, rakes,
harrows, &c.
Arms of family, or paternal arms, are thofe that be¬
long to one particular family, that diftinguilh it from
others, and which no perfon is fuffered to affume with¬
out committing a crime, which fovereigns have a right
to reftrain and punitti.
Arms of alliance, are thofe which families, or private
perfons, take up and join to their own, to denote the
alliances they have contra&ed by marriage. This fort
of arms is either impaled, or borne in an efcutcheon of
pretence, by thofe who have married heireffes.
Arms offucceffion, are fuch as are taken up by them
who inherit certain eftates, manors, &c. either by will,
entail, or donation, and which they either impale or
quarter with their own arms ; which multiplies the
titles of fome families out of neceflity, and not through
•dentation, as many imagine.
Thefe are the eight clalfes under which the divers
forts of arms are generally ranged ; but there is a fort
which blazoners call ajfumptive arms, being fuch as are
taken up by the caprice or fancy of upftarts, though
of ever fo mean extradtion, who, being advanced to a
degree of fortune, affume them without a legal title.
This, indeed, is a great abufe of heraldry; and common
only in Britain, for on the continent no fuch practice
takes place.
We now proceed to confider the effential and inte¬
gral parts of arms, which are thefe :
The Escutcheon, The Charges,
The Tinctures, The Ornaments.
CHAP. I.
Of the Shield or Escutcheon.
The Shield or Efcutcheon is the field or ground
whereon are reprefented the figures that make up a
coat of arms: for thefe marks of diftinftion were put
on bucklers or (hields before they were placed on ban¬
ners, ftandards, flags, and coat-armour; and wherever
they may be fixed, they are ftill on a plane or fuperficies
whofe form refembles a Ihield.
Shields, in heraldry called efcutcheons or fcutcheons,
from the Latin word feutum, have been, and ftill are,
of different forms, according^ to different times and
nations. Amongft ancient fields, fome were almoft
like ahorfe-fhoe, fuch as is reprefented by n° r. in the
Plate figure of Efcutcheons; others triangular, fomewhat
CCXXVII. rounded at the bottom, as n® 2. The people who in¬
habited Mefopotamia, now called Diarbeck, made ufe
of this fort of ftiield, which it is thought they had of
the Trajans. Sometimes the fliield was heptagonal,
that is, had feven fides, as n° 3. The firft of this
fliape is faid to have been ufed by the famous triumvir
M. Antony. That of knights-banneret was fquare, like
a banner, as n° 4. As ,to modern efcutcheons, thofe of
Von. VIII. Part II.
L D R Y.
the Italians, particularly of ecclefiafties, are generally
oval, as n° 5. The Englilh, French, Germans, and
other nations, have their efcutcheons formed different
ways, according to the carver’s or painter’s fancy : fee
the various examples contained from n° 6—16 of the
figure. But the efcutcheon of maids, widows, and of
fuch as are born ladies, and are married to private
gentlemen, is of the form in a lozenge: See n° 17—20.
Sir George Mackenzie mentions one Muriel, countef*
of Strathern, who carried her arms in a lozenge, anno
1284, which fhows how long we have been verfant in
heraldry.
Armorifts diftinguilh feveral parts or points in efcut¬
cheons, in order to determine exactly the pofition of
the bearings they are charged with; they are here de¬
noted by the firft nine letters of the alphabet, ranged
in the following manner:
A the dexter chief.
B the precife middle chief.
C theJinijler chief.
D the honour point.
E the fef point.
F the nombril point.
G the dexter bafe.
H the precife middle bafe.
I the fnijler bafe.
The knowledge of thefe points is of great importance,
and ought to be well obferved, for they are frequently
occupied with feveral things of different kinds. It is
neceffary to obferve, that the dexter fideof the efcutcheon
is oppofite to the left hand, and the finifter fide to the
right hand of the perfon that looks on it.
CHAP. II.
^Tinctures, Furs, Lines, andVlrt-
FERENCES.
Sect. I. Of TinElures.
By tin Bures is meant, that variable hue of arms
which is common both to ftiields and their bearings.
According to the French heralds, there are but feven
tin&ures in armory; of which two are metals, the other
five are colours.
The Metals are,
The Colours are
Blue, f yizure.
Eed, / \ Gules.
Green, > termed -J Vert.
Purple, 1 I Purpure.
Black, J (_ Sable.
When natural bodies, fuch as animals, plants, cele-
ftial bodies, &c. are introduced into coats of arms
they frequently retain their natural colours, which is
expreffed in this fcience by the word proper.
■Befides the five colours above mentioned, the Eng-
lifli writers on heraldry admit two others, viz.
bSX^, } — I V:;l,
But thefe two are rarely to be found in Britifli
bearings.
Thefe tin&ures are reprefented in engravings and
3 I drawing*
442 HERA
The drawings (the Invention of the ingenious Silvefter Petra
Tmdures. gaD(^aj an Italian author of the laft century) by dots
* and lines, as in fig. ii. n° I—9.
Or is expreffed by dots.
.Argent needs no mark, and is therefore plain.
Azure, by horizontal lines.
Gules, by perpendicular lines.
•Vert, by diagonal lines from the dexter chief to the
finifter bafe points.
Purpure, by diagonal lines from the finiiler chief to
the dexter bafe points.
Sable, by perpendicular and horizontal lines croffing
each other.
‘Penny, by diagonal lines from the finifter chief to
the dexter bafe points, traverfed by horizontal
lines.
Sanguine, by lines crofting each other diagonally
from dexter to finifter, and from finifter to dexter.
Sir George M'Kenzie obferves, that “ fome fan-
taftic heralds have blazoned not only by the ordinary
colours and metals, but by flowers, days of the week,
parts of a man’s body, &c. and have been condemned
for it by the heralds of all nations. Yet the Engliih
have fo far owned this fancy,” (the- moft judicious of
them, as Mr Cartwright and others, reprobate it as
abfurd), “ that they give it for a rule, that the coats
of fovereigns Ihould be blazoned by the planets, thofe
of noblemen by precious ftones; and have fuited them
in the manner here fet down :
Or Topaz
Argent Pearl
Sol.
Luna.
Saturir,
Mars.
Jupiter.
Venus.
Mercury.
Dragon’s-head.
Dragon’s-tail.
Sable Diamond
Gules Ruby
Azure Sapphire
Vert Emerald
Purpufe Amethyft
Tenny Jacinth
Sanguine Sardonix
“ But I crave leave to fay, that thefe are but mere
fancies; and are likewife unfit for the art, for thefe
reafons: ift, The French (from whom the Englilh.
derive their Heraldry, not only in principles, but in
words of the French language) do not only not ufe
thefe different ways of blazoning, but treat them en
ridicule, zdly, The Italian, Spanifh, and Latin he¬
ralds ufe no fuch different forms, but blazon by the
ordinary metals and colours. 3dly, Art Ihould imitate
nature ; and as it would be an unnatural thing in com¬
mon difeourfe not to call red red becaufe a prince
wears it, fo it is unnatural to ufe thefe terms in he¬
raldry. And it may fall out to be very ridiculous in
fome arms: for inftance, if a prince had for his arms
an ,afs couchant under his burden gules, how ridiculous
would it be to fay he had an afs couchant Mars?—A
hundred other examples might be given ; but it is
enough to fay, that this is to confound colours with
charges, and the things that are borne with colours.
4thly, It makes the art unpleafant, and deters gentle¬
men from ftudying it, and ftrangers from underftand-
ing what our heraldry is ; nor could the arms qf our
princes and nobility be tranflated in this difguife into
Latin or any other language. But that which con¬
vinces moft that this is an errot is, becaufe it makes
that great rule unneceffary, whereby colour cannot be
L D R Y. Chap. II*
put upon colour, nor metal upon metal; but this can- The Furs,
not hold but where metals and colours are expreffed.” w*1 "*■'
The Englifli heralds give different names to the
roundlet (n° xo), accoriffng to its colour. Thus, if
it is
Or,
Argent,
Azure,
Gules,
Vert,
Purpure,
Sable,
Tenny,
Sanguine,
it is. called a
Bezant.
Plate.
Hurt.
Torteau.
Pomey.
Golpe.
Pellet.
Orange.
Guze.
The French, and all other nations, do not admit
fuch'a multiplicity of names to this figure; but call
them Bezants, after an ancient coin ftruck at Conftan-
tinople, once Byzantium, if they are Or and Torteauxf
if of any other tindlure, exprefling the fame.
Sect. II. Of Furs.
Furs reprefent the hairy flein of certain beafts, pre¬
pared for the doublings or linings of robes and gar¬
ments of ftate : and as ihields were anciently covered,
with furred Heins, they are therefore ufed. in heraldry
not only for the linings of the mantles, and other or¬
naments of the (hields,, but alfo in the coats of arms
the mfelves..
There are three different kinds in general ufe, viz.
1. Erminei which is a field argent, powdered with
black fpots, their tails terminating in three hairs. (Fig.
ii. n° 11.)
2. Counter-ermine, where the field is fable, and thd
powdering white. (n° 12.)
3. Pair (n° 15.), which is expreffed by blue and;
white fleins, cut into the forms of little bells, ranged in
rows oppofite to each other, the bafe of the white
ones being always next to that of the blue ones.
Vair is ufually of fix rows ; if there be more or fewer,
the number ought to be expreffed ; and if the colours
are different from thofe above mentioned, they mult
likewife be expreffed.
The Englilh multiply the furs, as well as the names
of the tinftures, though no other nation has adapted
fuch varieties. Thus they give us,
1. White, which is the natural colour of the ermine p
but it is ufed ou no other occafion but in the deferip-
tions of mantles.
2. Ermines, which is the fame with contra-ermine.
3. Erminois; the field is Or, the powdering Sable;
(n° 13.) For the ufe of this fur Guillim cites Bara,
p. 14. but no fuch fur is to be found in Bara.
4. Pean; the field is Sable, the powdei ing Or,
(n° 14.) The French ufe no fuch term: but they call-
all furs or doublings des pannes, or pennes ; which term,
has poffibly given rife to this miftake, and many
others, in thofe who do not undeiftand the French,
language.
5. Erminites; the fame as Ermine, with the addi¬
tion. of a red hair on each fide of the black. Sir Geo.
M'Kenzie calls thefe diftin&ions “ but fancies, for cr-
minites fignifies properly little ermines.”
6. Counter-vair; when the bells of the fame tin&urc.
are
Chap.
>11. HERA
Of Lines, are placed bafe agalnft bafe, and point againft point,
^ ' (n° 16.)
7. Potent-counter-potent, anciently called Vairy-cuppy,
as when the field is filled with crutches or potents
counter-placed, (n° 17.)
It may not be improper to obferve, that the ufe of
the tinftures took its rife from the feveral colours
ufed by warriors whilft. they were in the army, which
S. de Petra San&a proves by many citations. And
becaufe it was the cuftom to embroider gold and filver
on filk, or filk on cloth of gold and filver, the heralds
did therefore appoint, that in imitation of the clothes
fo embroidered, colour (hould never be ufed upon co¬
lour, nor metal upon metal.
Sect. III. Of the Lines ufed in the parting of Fields.
Escutcheons are either of one tinfture, or more
than one. Thofe that are of one only, that is, when
fome metal, colour, or fur, is fpread all over the fur-
face or field, fuch a tin&ure is faid to be predominant:
but in fuch as have on them more than one, as moft
have, the field is divided by lines; which, according to
their divers forms, receive various names.
Lines may be either ftraight or crooked. Straight
lines are carried evenly through the efcutcheon : and
are of four different kinds; vi%. a perpendicular, line | ;
a horizontal, —; a diagonal dexter, \ 5 a diagonal fi-
nifter, /.
Crooked lines are thofe which are carried unevenly
through the efcutcheon with rifingand falling. Erench
armorifts reckon 11 different forts of them ; Guillim
admits of feven only ; but there are. 14 diftinft kinds,
the figures and names of which are as in fig. i. (a),
n" 1—14. ui*.
1. The engrailed. 2. The invefted. 3. The wavy.
4. The embattled, or crenelle. 5. The nebule. 6. The
raguly. 7. The indented. 8. The dancette. 9. The
'dove-tail. io. The grafted. 11. The embattled a-
ronde. 12. The battled embattled. 13. The patee
or dove-tail. 14. Champaine.
The principal reafon why lines are thus ufed in he¬
raldry, is to difference bearings which would be other-
wife the fame ; for an efcutcheon charged with a chief
engrailed, differs from one charged with a chief
wavy, as much as if the one bore a crofs and the other
a faltier.
As the forementioned lines ferve to divide the field,
it mull be obferved, that if the divifion cotTfifts of two
equal parts made by the perpendicular line, it is called
parted per pah ; by the horizontal line, parted per fefs ;
by the diagonal dexter, parted per bend; by the diago¬
nal finifter, parted per lendfinijler; examples of which
will be given in the fequel of this treatife.
If a field is divided into four equal parts by any of
thefe lines, it is faid to be quartered; which may be
done two ways, w*.
Quartered or parted per crofs ; which is made by a
perpendicular and horizontal line, which, crofling each
other at the centre of the field, divide it into four equal
L D R Y. 443
parts called quarters. See Plate CCXXVII. under Of
fig. i. (a). Differences.
Quartered or parted per faltier ; which is made by v~ lJ
two diagonal lines, dexter and finifler, that crofs one
another in the centre of the field, and likewife divide it
into four equal parts. Ibid.
The efcutcheon is fornetimes divided into a greater
number of parts, in order to place in it the arms of the
feveral families to which one is allied; and in this cafe
it is called a genealogical atchievement. Thefe divifions-
may confift of 6, 8,12, and 16, quarters £as under fig. i.
(a)], and even fometimes of 20, 32, 64, and upwards;
there being examples of fuch divifiorts frequently exhi¬
bited at pompous funerals. An extraordinary inftance
of this kind was lately exhibited at the pompous funeral
of the late worthy vifcountefs Townfhend, whofe corpfe
was brought from Dublin caftle in Ireland to Rainham-
hall in Norfolk, one of the principal tenants on horfe-
back carrying before the hearfe a genealogical banner*
containing the quarterings of his lordfhip’s and her
ladylhip’s family, to the amount of upwards of 160
coats. Sir George Booth, reftor of the valuable
living of Afhton under Line, bears fix diftinft coats
of arms in his (hield; viz. thofe for Booth, Bar¬
ton, Venables, Mountfort, Afliton, Egerton; and has
befides a right to 37 other coats: but Sir William
Dugdale very juftly objefts to fo many arms being
cluftered together in one {hield or banner, on account
of the difficulty of difcerning and knowing afunder one
coat of arms from another.
Sect. IV. Of the Differences of Coats of Arms.
Armorists have invented divers differences o’rcha-
ra&eriftical marks, whereby bearers of the fame coat
of arms are diftinguiffied each from others, and their
nearnefs to the principal bearer demonftrated. Ac¬
cording to J. Guillim, thefe differences are to be confi-
dered either as ancient or modern.
Art. 1. Of Ancient Differences.
Those he calls ancient differences confift in bordures(A.)-,
which is a bearing that goes all round, and parallel to
the boundary of the efcutcheon, in form of a hem,
and always contains a fifth part of the field in breadth.
Bordures were ufed in ancient times for the diftinguiffi-
ing not only of one nation or tribe from another, but
alfo to note a diverfity between particular perfons de-
fcended of one family and from the fame parents.
This diftinftion, however, was not exprefsly fignified
by invariable marks ; nor were bordures always ap¬
propriated to denote the different degrees of confan-
guinity: for, as Sir Henry Spelman obferves in his
Afpilogia, p. 140, ancient heralds, being fond ofper-
fpicuous differences, often inverted the paternal tinfture,
or fometimes inferted another charge in the efcutcheon,
fuch as bends, croflets, cantons, or the like ; which
irregularity has, I fuppofe, induced modern armorifts
to invent and make ufe of others.”
There are bordures of different forms and tindlureS,
as in the examples, fig. iii.
3I2 N°i.
(a) Bordures are ftill introduced into Engliffi coats of arms, but for particular reafons, which heralds can
beft explain. They are by the French frequently taken for a principal figure, and numbered among the reft
of the ordinaries.
444 HERA
Ancient N® i. is “ Sable, a Bordure Argent;” borne by the
Differences, r;ght hon. Saekville Tufton, earl of Thanet.—When a
""" bordure is plain, you are not to mention it, as it is al-
CCXXVIII wa7s underftood fo in heraldry, though it be not ex-
prefftd ; but if it has any other form, you are to fig-
nify it.
2. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Argent;” borne
by the right h'on. Charles Gray, lord Gray.—This is
called engrailed, from the French word engrele, which
fignifies a thing the hail has fallen upon and broken
off the edges, leaving it with little femicircles ftruck
out of it.
3. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Or;” borne by the
right hon. George Talbot, earl of Shrewlbury. You
muft obferve, that, in a bordure or ordinary formed
of thefe lines, the points are reprefented on all fides to¬
wards the field, and the femicircles turned towards the
bordure or ordinary.
4. “ Argent, a Bordure inve&ed Azure.”—This
is quite contrary to the laft; for as the other turns its
points from the bordure into the field, fo contrarywife
this does, by the inverfion of the points from the field
into the bordure. Such a charge or any other formed
of thefe lines is feldom to be met with in Engliih
coats of arms.
5. “ Gules, a Bordure indented Argents”—The
word indented requires very little explanation, the fig-
nification being obvious to all perfons, from its figure,
which is compofed of tracks refembb'ng teeth, called in
Latin dentes.
6. “ Azure, a Bordure Ermine.”
7. “Vert, a Bordure Vair.”
8. “ Ermine, a Bordure compony, or gobony, Or
and Sable.”—This is fo termed from its being com¬
pofed of fmall and equal pieces. J. Guillim calls this
bordure gobonated, which implies the fame meaning ;
but the word being obfolete, is not ufed by modern:
heralds.
9. “ Quarterly, Azure and Gules, a Bordure com¬
pony Argent and Azure;” borne by his grace Henry
Somerfet, duke of Beaufort, &c.
10. “Azure, a Bordure counter-compony Argent
and Gules.”—Obferve, that the counter-compony does
always confift of two tracks and no more.
u. “ Or, a Bordure cheeky Argent and Sable.”—
This has a great refemblance with the laft; bordure,
having only one track more ; therefore you muft take
care, before you blazon, to number them, or elfe you
may eafily err in taking the one for the other.
12. “ Gules, a Bordure Argent charged with eight
Trefoils flipped proper, that is, Vert.”—All nations
ufe few terms in blazoning bordures ; but Englilh ar-
morifts, in order poffibly to raife the dignity of this
fcience, have perplexed it, and rendered it unintelligible
to all foreigners, by introducing into it feveral myftical
names, among which may be reckoned the following
ones, D/*. They call a bordure, if charged with eight
plants, fruits, flowers, or leaves, verdoy of fuch vege¬
tables ; or enaluron of fuch birds ; enurny of beafts; per-
fa'll! of furs ; and entoyre of inanimate things of what
kind foever.
13. “ Gules on a Bordure Azure, eight Stars Or.”
14. “ Argent, a bordure compony of the laft and
Gules, the firft charged with Rofes of the fecond,
L D R Y. Chap. If.
barbed and feeded proper.”—This bordure is borne by Anciont
his grace Charles Lenox, duke of Richmond, &c. Differences,
15. “ Ermine, within a Bordure engrailed Gules;” '—•'Y——■*
the coat of arms of the right hon. Henry-BenediA
Barnewall, vifeount Kingfland, &c. of Ireland This
ancient and noble family is of French extraAion, and
allied to the dukes of Little-Bretagne, where the name
continues ftill in great repute.
16. “ Argent, a Bordure Sable charged with eight
Befants;” borne by the right hon. Cole,.
lord Ranelagh, of Ireland.
17. “ Party per pale Argent and Gules, a Bordure.
charged with eight Efcalops counterchanged ;” the
coat of arms of the right hon. William Maule, earl of
Panmure, &c. of Ireland. This very ancient family
is originally French, and derives its furname from the
town and lOrdlhip of Maule in Normandy, where the
fame arms are ftill to be fecn in the parifh-church.
18. “ Azure, a Bordure quarterly, the firft and
fourth Ermine, the fecond and third counter-compony
Argent and Azure.”
19. “ Purpure, a Bordure compony Or and Gules,
each of the laft charged with a Befant.” ,,
20. “ Quarterly Or and Gules, within a Bordure
Vert, charged with eight Efcalops Or.”
We fhall conclude this head with obferving, that a
bordure is never of metal upon metal, and feldom of
colour upon colour, but rather of the tinAure which.
the principal bearing or charge is of. Thus Sir 
Dalziel of Glenae, whofe predeceflbr was a younger
brother of the noble family of Carnwath, has, within
a Bordure Argent, the paternal coat of the ancient
name of Dalziel, w*. “ Sable, a hanged man with hia
arms extended, Argent;” formerly they carried him
hanging on a gallows. This bearing, though fo very
Angular for a coat of arms, was given as a reward to,
one of. the anceftors of the late Robert Dalziel, earl of
Carnwath, to perpetuate the memory of a brave and,
hazardous exploit performed in taking down from a
gallows the body of a favourite and near relation of
king Kenneth II. hung up by the PiAs ; which ftory
is thus related by Alexander Nilbet: “ The king being
exceedingly grieved that the body of his minion and
kinfman fhould be fo difgracefully treated, he proffered
a great reward to any of his fubjeAs who would ad¬
venture to refeue his corpfe from the difgrace his cruel
enemies had unjuftly put upon it: but when none
would undertake this hazardous enterprife, at laft a
valorous gentleman came and faid to the king, Dalziel,.
which fignifies, “ I dare;” and he did aAually per¬
form that noble exploit to the king’s fatisfaAion and
his own immortal honour, and in memory of it got
the aforefaid remarkable bearing ; and afterwards hia-
pofterity took the word Dalziel for their furname, and
the interpretation of it, / dare, continues even to this
day to be the motto of that noble family.” We can.
have no better proof of the truth of this tradition than
this, that the heads of this ancient family have for-
many ages carefully retained this bearing without any.
alteration or addition.
Art. 2. Of Modern Differences.
The modern differences which the Englifh have
adopted not only for the diftinguilhing of fons iffued;
out.
0*
IlEHALDIVY.
Plate rCYXVIll.
CHLEF^ ¥rc.
r^IiES WC.
Chap. II. HERA
Modem out of one family, but alfo to denote the difference and
Difference?. fub0rdinate degrees in each houfe from the original
anceftors, are nine, vi%
Pla'e For the heir or firft fon, the Label. 2d fon, the
CCXXVII. Crefcent. 3d fon, the Mullet. 4th fon, the Martlet,
under fig 1 j-oni t^e Annulet. 6th fon, the Flower-de-luce.
^ 7th fon, the Rofe- 8th fon, the Crofs moline. 9th
fon, the Double Quater-foil.
By thefe differences, the fix fons of Thomas Beau¬
champ, the 15th earl of Warwick, who died in the
34th year of king Edward III. are diftinguifhed in an
old window of the church of St Mrry at Warwick ;
fo that although they are called modern differences^ their
ufage with the Englifh is ancient.
It muff be obferved, that, of all the forementioned
marks of diftin&ion, none but the label is affixed on
the coats of arms belonging to any of the royal family}
which the introducers of this peculiarity have, however,
thought proper to difference by additional pendants
and diitindf charges on them.
As to the diftinftion to be made in the arms of the
offspring belonging to each of the above mentioned
brothers, it is expreffed by figures on the top and
Plate margin of the table contained in fig-iv. For inftance,
eCXXVIII The heir or firll fon of the fecond houfe, beareth a
crefcent charged with a label during his father’s life
only. The fecond fon of the fecond houfe, a crefcent
charged with another crefcent. The third fon of the
fecond houfe, a crefcent charged with a mullet. The
fourth fon of the fecond houfe, a crefcent charged
with a martlet. The fifth fon of the fecond houfe, a
crefcent charged with an annulet. The fixth fon of
the fecond houfe, a crefcent charged with a flower-de-
luce ; and fo on of the other fons, taking care to have
them of a different tinfture.
In what part of the efcutcheon thefe differences
fhould be borne is not certain ; for Guillim, Morgan,
and others, give us many different examples of their
pofition. The honour-point would be the properelt
place, if the arms would admit of it; but that is not
always the cafe, as that part may be charged with
fome figure in the paternal coat, which cannot with
propriety receive the difference. There are inftances
where thefe are borne as perfeft coats of arms, as the
examples fubjoined to the Table of Houfes fufficiently
fhow; which are to be blazoned thus :
The firft is Azure, a Label Argent.”—When
fuch a label is borne as a difference, the pendants, ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, fignify that he is but the third
perfon; the dexter pendant referring to his father,
the finifter to his mother, and the middle one to
himftlf.
The fecond is “ Argent, a Label of five points
Azure borne by the name of Hentington. If a
label has more or lefs than three pendants or points,
they are to be expreffed as in the foregoing example.
The third is “ Azure, a Crefcent Argent,” borne
by the name of Lucy.^—The reafon G. Leigh afligns
for the fecond fon’s having a crefcent for a difference
is to fhow that he fhould incxeafe the family by adding
to it riches and reputation.
The fourth is “ Argent, a Mullet Sable, on a
Chief Azure, a Fleur-de-lis Or borne by the name
of Rogers, in Gloucefterfhire.—A mullet or fpur was
appointed for the third fon’s difference, as the laii-
L D R Y. 445
mentioned author fays, to fhow that he fhould follow Modem
chivalry. Differences.
The fifth is “ Azure, a Fleur-delis Argent ^W-
borne by the right hon. Henry Digby, baron Digby
of Geafhil, in King’s-county, Ireland.
Thefe few examples, among many more that might
be given, demonilrate the impropriety of adopting
thefe modern differences, as they are called, for marks
of cadency to diftinguilh the different branches of a
family : for it is impofiible to diftinguifh the uncle or
grand-uncle from the nephew or grand-nephew, if
each of them are fecond, third, or fourth fons; and
in the courfe of fucceffion thefe differences would mul¬
tiply to fuch a number, that it would be impofiible to
delineate them diftindlly in moft cafes. But as they
are given by moft of the Englifh writers on heraldry,
though no foreign nation ufes them, it was thought
proper to infert them here.
Sifters, except of the blood-royal, have no other
mark of difference in their coats of arms, but the form
of the efcutcheon (as obferved before); therefore they
are permitted to bear the arms of their father, even as
the eldeft fon does after his father’s degeafe. The reafon
of which is by Guillim faid to be, that when they are
married, they lofe their furname, and receive that of
their hufbands.
Next to thefe diminutions, G. Leigh, J. Guillim,
and after them Dr Harris in his Lexicon Technicum,
fet forth at large divers figures, which they pretend
were formerly added to the coats of fuch as were to
be punilhed and branded for cowardice, fornication,
flander, adultery, treafon, or murder, for which they
give them the name of abatements of honour; but as
they produce but one inftance of fuch whimfical bear¬
ings, we have not inferred them here. Befides, arms
being marks of honour, they cannot admit of any note
of infamy; nor would any body now-a-days bear them
if they were fo branded. It is true, a man may be
degraded for divers crimes, particularly high treafon f
but in fuch cafes the efcuteheon is reverfed, trod upon,
and torn in pieces, to denote a total extinction ancj
fuppreflion of the honour and dignity of the perfon to
whom it belonged.
CHAP. III.
Of the Charges.
Armorists call a charge whatfoever is contained
in the field, whether it occupy the whole or only af
part thereof. All charges are diftinguiihed by the
names of honourable ordinaries, fub-ordinaries, and common
charges.
Honourable ordinaries, the principal charges in he¬
raldry, are made of lines only, which, according to their,
difpolition and form, receive different names.
Sub-ordinaries are ancient heraldric figures, frequent¬
ly ufed in coats of arms, and which are diftinguiihed
by terms appropriated to each of them.
Common charges are compofed of natural, artificial,
and even chimerical things; fuch as planets, creatures,.
vegetables, inftruments, &c.
Sect. I. Of Honourable Ordinaries.
The moft judicious armorifts admit only of nine ho¬
nourable ordinaries, viz.
The
The Chief
The Pale
The Bend
The Bend finifter
The Fefs
HERA
The Bar
The Cheveron
The Crofs
and
The Saltier.
Of thefe, but fix have diminutives, which are called
as follows : That of the chief is aJlllet; the pale has a
pallet and endorfe ; the bend, a bendlet, cojl, and ribband;
the bend finifter has the fcarp and baton} the bar, the
clofet and larulet; the cheveron, a chewonel and couple-
clofe. All which will be treated of in order.
Art. I. Of the Chief.
The chief is an ordinary determined by an hori¬
zontal line, which, if it is of any other form but
ilraight, muft be exprefled. It is placed in the upper
part of the efcutcheon, and containeth in depth the
third part of the field. Its diminutive is a fillet, the
content of which is not to exceed one fourth of the
chief,* and ftandeth in the lowed part thereof. This
ordinary is fubjeft to be charged with variety of fi¬
gures ; and may be indented, wavy, nebule, &c. as in
the examples, fig. v.
N° i. is “ Or, a Chief indented Azure;” borne
CCXXVlIlky the right hon. Edmund Butler, vifcount Mount-
garret, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This great
and illullrious family of the Butlers, fo renowned for
the many valiant and loyal perfons it has produced,
is defcended from the ancient counts of Brion in Nor¬
mandy ; but fince king Henry II. conferred the of¬
fice of chief butler of Ireland upon one of the family,
he and his fucceffors have aflumed the name of Butler.
2. “ Azure a Chief engrailed Or.”
3. “ Argent, a Chief invefled Vert.”
4. “ Vert, a Chief undy Or.”
5. “ Azure, a Chief nebule Argent.”
6. “ Or, a Chief cheeky Azure and Argent.”
7. “ Ermine, a Chief quarterly Or and Gules;”
borne by the name of Peckham.
8. “ Argent, a Chief Sable, in the lower part thereof
a Fillet of the Field.”
9. “ Azure, fretty Argent, a Chief Or ;” borne
by the right hon. Hayes St Leger, vifcount Do-
neraile, &c. of the county of Cork in Ireland. This
ancient and noble family is of French extraftion ; and
is defcended from Sir Robert Sent Legere, knight,
who, in 1066, accompanied William duke of Nor¬
mandy in his expedition into England ; and the fa¬
mily have a tradition, that he, with his own hand,
fupported the faid duke when he quitted the Ihip to
land in Suffex.
10. “ Argent, on a Chief engrailed Azure, a
Tortoife palfant Or borne by the name of Bid-
good.
11. “ Argent, on a Chief Gules, two Spur revels
Or;” borne by the right hon. John St John, lord
St John of Bletlhoe, &c. Of this ancient family,
which derive their furname from a place called St John
in Normandy, was John de St John, Efq; who ha¬
ving a principal employment in the army of the Nor¬
man duke, attended him in his expedition into Eng¬
land.
12. “ Argent, on a Chief Vert, two Spears Heads
erett of the Field, the points imbrued Gules;” borne
L D R Y. Chap. III.
by the right hon. George Brodrick, Vifcount Middle- Honour-
ton, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This family is *hle 9*^*
lineally defcended from George de Brodrick, who came Baf >e8‘ f
into England in the reign of William II.
13. “ Or, on a Chief Sable, three Efcalops of the
field,” for the name of Graham ; and borne quartered
in the arms of his Grace William Graham, duke, mar¬
quis, and earl of Montrofe, &c. with Argent three
Rofes Gules. According to the Scots writers, this great
and noble family is defcended from the renowned Greme
or Grame, who, in the year 404, was general of king
Fergus II.’s, army, and, in 420, forced his way through
the wall built by the Romans between the rivers
Forth and Clyde to keep out the Scots from moleil-
ing them in their pofleffions, and the faid breach has
ever fince been called Grume’s dike.
14. “ Argent, on a Chief indented Gules, three
Croffes pattee of the Field ;” borne by the right hon.
John Perceval, earl of Egmont, &c. This very ancient
and noble family is fuppofed, from circumftances little
fhort of pofitive proof, to have fprung from a younger
branch of the fovereign dukes of Bretagne in France,
of the fame name. They were tranfplanted into Nor¬
mandy before the conqueft, pofieffed of great eltates
and power, and inverted with the office of chief butler.
Upon the Norman invafion, two of this family came
over into England with the Conqueror, from one of
which the defeent of the prefent earl of Egmont is de¬
duced by the cleareft and moft indifputable proofs of
hiftorians and records.
15. ” Azure, on a Chief indented Or, three Spur-
revels Gules;” borne by the right hon. Charles Moore,
earl of Drogheda, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland.
This noble family, which is of French extradion, came
into England foon after the conqueft, and made their
firft refidence in the manor of Moore-court, in the coun¬
ty of Kent.
16. “ Ermine, on a Chief indented Azure, three
ducal coronets Or ;” borne by the name of Lytton.
17. “ Azure, on a Chief Or, three Martlets Gules,”
for the name of Wray ; and borne by Sir Cecil Wray,
Bart, of Lincolnffiire.
18. “ Ermine, on a Chief Gules; five Lozenges of
the firft;” borne by the name of Dixin.
19. “ Argent, fretty Gules, on a Chief of the fe-
cond, three Leopard’s Faces Orborne by the right
hon. Henry Liddel, lord Ravenfworth. This noble
lord is defcended from the ancient lords of Liddle-
caftle, in the county of Durham, where they have been
proprietors of great coal-mines time out of mind.
20. “ Ermine, a Chief party per pale Azure and
Or; on the dexter the Sun in its fplendor, on the
finifter a Crofs pattee Gules.” The arms of the bi-
ffiopr ic of Raphoe, in the kingdom of Ireland.
Art. II. Of the Pale.
The Pale is an ordinary, confifting of two perpen¬
dicular lines drawn from the top to the bafe of the E-
fcutcheon, and contains the third middle part of the
field. Its diminutives are, the pallet, which is the half
of the pale; and the endorfe, which is the fourth part
of a pale. This ordinary and the pallet may receive
any charge, but the endorfe fhould not be charged.
The endorfe, befides, is never ufed, according to J.
Leigh,
Chap. III. HERA
Of the Leigh, but to accompany the pale in pairs, as cotices
. t>alc' do the bend; but Sir John Feme is of a different opi-
' nion.
Plate Ex. i. “ Gules, a Pale Or;” by the name of Crand-
CCXXVIII main.
2 <« party per Pale Argent and Gules, a Pale
counterchanged.
3. “ Argent, a Pale between two Endorfes Gules.”
4. “ Party per Pale, iff, Paly of fix Argent and
Sable, 2d, Azure;” borne by the name of
5. Paly of fix Or and Azure.”
6. “ Argent, three Pallets undy Sable 5” by the
name of Downes*
7. “ Party per Pale, Argent and Gulea;” borne by
the right hon. John Waldegrave, earl Waldegrave, &c.
This noble earl is defcended from John dc Walde¬
grave, who was fheriff of London in the year 1205, in
the feventh year of king John.
8. “ Party per Pale indented, Or and Gules ;”
borne by the right hon. Thomas Bermingham, baron
of Athenry, in the kingdom of Ireland. Of this an¬
cient and noble family, which are of Englifh extrac¬
tion, and took their name from the town of Berming¬
ham in the county of Warwick, was William de Ber-
tningham, who was poffeffed of the town of that name
in the reign of Henry II. which continued in that fa¬
mily till the reign of Henry VIII.
9. “ Quarterly per Pale dove-tail. Gules and Or ;”
borne by the right hop. Thomas Cromley, lord Mont-
fort, &c. This noble lord is maternally defcended
from Sir Walter Bromleghe of Bromleghe, in the
county of Stafford, who ftourifhed in the reign of king
John. Sir Thomas Bromley, another of his lordlhip’s
anceftors, was conftituted lord high chancellor of
England, 21 Elizabeth; in which poll he died, 29 E-
lizabeth.
10. “ Argent, a Pale flory counterflory Sable.”
n. “ Argent, a Pale lozengy Sable;” borne by
the name of Savage.
12. “ Argent, a Pale indented Vert;” borne by
the name of Dixon.
13. “ Argent, on a Pale engrailed Sable, three
Crefcents Or;” borne by the name of yijhly.
14. “ Ermine, on a Pale engrailed azure, three
Lion’s Heads couped Or;” borne by the name of A-
very.
15. “ Vert, on a Pale radiant Or, a Lion ram¬
pant Sable;” borne by the right hon. James O’Hara,
lord Tyrawley, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This
noble lord is defcended from Milefius king of Spain,
by his eldeft fon Hiberius, who, with his brother He-
remon, eftablifhed a colony in Ireland. Sir Charles
O’Hara, father to the prefent lord, was created baron
of Tyrawley by queen Anne, Jan. 10. 1706, being at
that time a lieutenant-general, and colonel of the
royal regiment of fufileers: and the next year was
made general in Spain, where this fon, lord James, was
wounded at the battle of Almanza.
16. “ Azure, a Pallet Argent.”
17. “ Vert, an Endorfe Or.”
18. “ Argent, on two Pallets Sable, fix Crofs-
crofiets fitchy Or;” borne by the name of Betimes, of
the county of Salop.
19. “ Argent, two Endorfes Gules, in Chief three
Mullets Sable;” borne by the name of Vautort.
L D R Y. 44-
20. “ Azure, on a Pale walled with three pieces on Of the
each fide Or, an Endorfe Sable borne by the name Bend,
of Sublet de Noyers, a family of diftindion in France.
Art. HI. Of the Bend and Bend-sinister.
The Bend is an ordinary formed by two diagonal
lines, drawn from the dexter-chief to the finifter-bafe ;
and contains the fifth part of the field in breadth, if un¬
charged ; but if charged, then the third. Its diminu¬
tives are, the bendlet, which is the half of a bend; the
colt or cotice, when two of them accompany a bend,
which is the fourth part of a bend; and the ribband, the
moiety of a colt, or the eighth part of the field.
There is alfo the bend-finilter, which is of the fame
breadth as the bend, but drawn the contrary way; this
is fubdivided into a fcrape, which is the half of the
bend, and into a baton, which is the fourth part of
the bend, but does not extend itfelf to the extremities
of the field, there being part of it feen at both ends.
See the examples, fig. vii.
Ex. 1. “ Argent, a Bend wavy Sable;” borne by Plate
the right hon. John Wallop, earl of Portfmouth, &c. CGXX1X,
This noble earl is defcended from the Wallops of Hamp-
Ihire, a Saxon family, who were poffeffed of lands
to a confiderable value in the county at the time of the
conqueft.
2. “ Cheeky Or, and Azure, a Bend Ermine;”
borne by the right hon. John Ward, vifeount Dudley
and Ward, &c. The ancellors of this noble lord were
anciently of the county of Norfolk, of which was Si¬
mon Ward, who had large poffeffions in the reign of
Edward I. and was in France and Scotland in the
reigns of king Edward II. and III.
3. “ Azure, a Bend engrailed Argent, between-
two Cotices Or ;” borne by the right hon. Matthew
Fortefcue, lord Fortefcue, as alfo by the right hon.
Hugh Fortefcue-Aland, baron Fortefcue, in the king¬
dom of Ireland, this lail nobleman bearing a crefcent
in his arms for difference. The family of Fortefcue is,
defcended from Sir Richard le Forte, a perfon of ex¬
traordinary ftrength and courage, who accompanied
William duke of Normandy in his invafion of Eng¬
land; and bearing a flrong fhield before the duke, at
the battle of Haftings, had three horfes killed under
him, and from that fignal event the name and motto
of the family were affumed ; for the Latin word fcu~
turn, or the old French word efeue “ a fliield” being ad¬
ded to forte “ ftrong,” compote their name ; and the
motto is, Forte fcutum falus ducum.
4. “ Sable, a Bend Argent between two Cotices
indented Or;” borne by the name of French.
3. “ Paly of fix Or and Sable, a Bend counter-
changed;” borne by the right hon. Frederick Calvert,
baron Baltimore. The original of this family is from
an ancient and noble houfe of that furname in the earl¬
dom of Flanders, whereof Sir George Calvert, knight*
among other honourable employments, was fecretary
of ftate to king James I. by whom he was created &
baron, Feb. 20. i 624, and from whom he had a grant
to him, and his heirs, of the province of Maryland and:
Avalon in America.
6. “ Party per Bend crenelle Argent and Gules;”’
borne by the right hon. Edmund Boyle, earl of Cork
and Orrery, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This,
noble lord is faid to be defcended from Sir Philip.
5 Boyle*
448 HERA
Of the Boyle, a knight of Arragon, who, in the reign of
Bend, &c. k;ng Henry VI. tilted at a tournament with Sir Jo-
feph Aftley, knight of the Garter.
7. “ Argent, three Bendlets enhanfed Gules
as the Englilh exprefs it, but the phrafe enhanfed
is ufed by no other nation. The proper blazon of
this arms is, Parted per bend, ill bendy of fix gules,
and argent; 2d of the laft. Borne by the right hon.
William Byron, lord Byron. From Doomfday book
it appears, that this family was pofleffed of numerous
manors and lands in the reign of the Conqueror ; and
that Sir John Byron, one of his lordfhip’s anceftors,
attended king Edward III. in his wars in France.
8. “ Ermine, a Bend voided Gules;” borne by the
name of Ireton.
9. “ Argent three Bendlets wavy Azure;” borne
by the name of Wilbraham.
1 o. “ Bendy of fix pieces Argent and Azure.” Ob-
ferve, that when the fhield is filled with an equal aum-
ber of bendlets of metal and colour, it is called bendy ,*
but if the number of them is unequal, they are to be
blazoned by the name bendlets, and their number fpe-
.cified.
xr. “ Party per Bend Azure and Argent, two
Bendlets engrailed counterchanged ;” borne by the
name of Frenes.
12. “Quarterly, Or and Gules, a Bend over-all
Vair;” borne by his grace Lionel Cranfield Sackville,
duke of Dorfet and earl of Middlefex, &c. The an¬
ceftors of this family were lords of the town and feig-
niory of Sackville in Normandy, and came over with
the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066.
13. “ Gules on a Bend Argent, three Trefoils
flipped proper;” borne by the right hon. George Wil¬
liam Hervey, earl of Briftol, &c. This noble lord
derives his pedigree from Robert Fitz-Hervey, a
younger fon of Hervey duke of Orleans, who came
over from France with William the Conqueror.
14. “ Argent, on a bend Gules cotiled Sable,
three pairs of Wings conjoined of the firft;” borne
by the right hon. Richard Wingfield, vifcount Powers-
court, in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble lord
is denominated from the manor of Wingfield in Suf¬
folk, where they had a feat before the Norman con-
queft, called Wingfield-cajile.
15. “ Gules, on a Bend contre Ermine cotifed Or,
three Boars Heads couped Argent;” borne by the
right hon. George Edgcumbe, lord Edgcumbe, &c.
The anceftors of this noble lord received their name
from the manor of Edgcumbe in Devonfhire. One
of this lord’s aaceftors was Sir Richard Edgcumbe,
who came over to England with the earl of Rich¬
mond, having a great {hare in the vi&ory he obtained
over king Richard III. at Bofworth, by which the earl
made his way to the throne of England.
16. “ Argent, a Bend-finifter Gules.”
17. “ Or, a Bendlet Gules.”
18. “ Argent, a Ribband Gules.”—The name of
this bearing correfponds well with its form, being
both long and narrow, which is the fliape of a rib¬
band.
19. “ Azure, a Scrape Or.”—This bearing, as
Guillim obferves, is that kind of ornament called
now-a-days a Scarf, which is ufed by officers on
duty, and ufually worn after the fame manner.
N152. 1
L D R Y. Chap. HI.
20. This contains three Batons. The firft is com- The Fefi
pony ermine and azure ; fet over the royal arms, for and Bar*
his grace William Fitzroy duke of Cleveland. The fe- 'r~~‘
cond is compony argent and azure ; fet over the royal
arms, for his grace Auguftus Henry Fitzroy, duke of
Grafton. The third is gules, charged with three
rofes argent, feeded and barbed proper; fet over the
royal arms, for his grace George Beauclerk, duke of
St Albans. The grandfathers of thefe noble dukes
being natural fons of king Charles II. is what intitles
them to the royal arms.
Art. IV. Of the Fess and Bar.
The Fefs is an ordinary which is produced by two
parallel lines drawn horizontally acrofs the centre of
the field, and contains in breadth the third part there¬
of. Some Englifh writers fay it has no ,diminutive,
for the bar is a diftindt ordinary of itfelf.
The Bar, according to their definition, is formed of
two lines, and contains but the fifth part of the field :
which is not the only thing wherein it differs from
the fefs; for there may be more than one in an efcut-
cheon, placed in different parts thereof, whereas the
fefs is limited to the centre-point; but in this the
French differ from them. The bar has two diminutives;
the barulet, which contains the half of the bar; and
the clofet, which is the half of the barulet. When
the fhield contains a number of bars of metal and co¬
lour alternate, of even number, that is called larry of
fo many pieces, expreffing their number. See the
examples, Plate CCXXIX. fig.viii.
N° 1. is “ Argent, a Fefs indented Sable ;” borne
by the right hon. John Weft, earl Delawarr, &c. This
noble family is defcended from the Wefts, a great
family in the weft of England; but in the reign of
Edward II. they appear to have been feized of ma¬
nors and lands in the county of Warwick. Sir Tho¬
mas de Weft, knight, one of his lordfhip’s anceftors,
being at the battle of Creffy, and there taking John
the French king prifoner, had granted him, for that
remarkable adion, an augmentation to his atchieve-
ment, viz. a crampette or, diftinguifhed by the chape
of a fword in the middle; the chapq being given him
by the faid king, as an acknowledgment of his be¬
coming his prifoner: his cognizance was a rofe parted
per pale, argent, and gules ; which two badges are
ftill borne in the atchievement of the prefent lord De-
lawar.
2. “ Argent, a Fefs wreathed Azure and Gules;”
borne by the right hon. John Carmichael, earl of
Hyndford. Of this ancient family, which is faid to
affume their furname from the lands of Carmichael,
in the county of Lanark, in Scotland, where they
ftill have their chief feat, was Sir John Carmichael,
who accompanied Archibald, earl of Douglas, to the
affiftance of Charles VI. of France, againlt the Eng¬
lifh; and fignalizing his valour at the battle of Baug-
hey in April 1421, and breaking his fpear when the
French and Scots got the vi&ory, had thereupon ad¬
ded to his paternal coat, a dexter arm holding a
broken fpear, which is now the creft of the family.
3. “ Party per Fefs Or and Argent, a Fefs nebule
Gules ;” borne by the name of Antejhed.
4. “ Party per Fefs indented Or and Azure ;”
borne by the name of Saunders.
5. “ Cheeky
:ciiap.lll. HERA
The Fefs “ Cheeky Or and Azure on a Fefs Gules, a
, t and Bar- Crefcent argent for difference borne by the right
V ^y—- Hugh Clifford, lord Clifford, of Chudley. This
noble lord is defeended from Walter de Clifford, of
Clifford caflle, in the county of Hereford, who came
over into England with the Conqueror ; of which fa¬
mily was fair liofamond, miftrefs to king Henry II.
6. “ Argent, on a Fefs Azure, three Lozenges
Orborne by the right hon. Bafil Fielding, earl
of Denbigh and Defmond, &c. This noble earl is
defeended from the earls of Hapflrurg, in Germany.
Geoffrey earl of Hapfburg, being oppreffed by Ro-
dolph emperor of Germany, came over into England,
and one of his fons ferved king Henry III. in his
w ars, whofe anceftors laying claim to the territories of
Lauffenburg and Rhin-Filding, in Germany, he took
the name of Fielding.
7. “ Or, on a Fefs Gules, three Fleur-de-lis of the
firfl;” born by the name of Lennard. This is in the
firft and fourth quarters of the right hon. Thomas
Barret Leonard lord Dacre’s arms.
8. “ Ermine, on a Fefs Gules, a Lion paffent Or;
borne by the right hon. John Proby, baron Carys-
fort, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland.
9. “ Sable, a Fefs Ermine, between three Cref-
cents Or borne by the right hon. George-William
Coventry, earl of Coventry, &c. This noble earl is
defeended from John Coventry, a native of the city of
Coventry, and afterwards mercer and lord mayor of
London, in the reign of Henry V. ; from whom
defeended Thomas Coventry, one of the juftices of
the court of common-pleas, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth ; whofe fon Thomas was recorder of Lon¬
don, and afterwards lord keeper of the great feal in the
reign of king Charles I.
10 “ Sable, a Fefs cheeky, Or and Azure, be¬
tween three Befants borne by the right hon. Ridge¬
way Pitt, earl and baron of Londonderry, &c. Of
this noble family, wEich were anciently of Bandfort,
in the county of Dorfet, was Thomas Pitt, Efq; who,
in the reign of queen Anne, was made governor of fort
St George in the Eaft Indies', where he refided many
years, and purchafed a diamond, which he fold to the
king of France for 125,000!. Sterling, weighing 136
carats, and commonly known at this day by the name
of Pitt's diamond.
J1. “ Or, on a Fefs Sable, between three Mufco.
vy Ducks proper, a Rofe of the Field borne by the
right hon. John Bateman, vifeount Bateman, &c. Of
this noble family, which was anciently feated at Halef-
brook, near St Omers in Flanders, was Giles Bate¬
man, Efq ; whofe fon w’as a merchant of London, and
was father to Sir James Bateman, knight, who, in
1712, was chofen member of parliament for Ilchefter
in the county of Somerfet, and re-chofen in 17x3.
12. “ Sable, on a Fefs Argent, between three
Leopards paffant guardant Or, three Efcalops Gules;”
borne by the right hon. Wills Hill, earl of Hilllbo-
rough, &c. Of this family, which, in the reign of
queen Elizabeth, were of note in the county of Downe,
was Sir Mofes Hill, who, during O’Neile’s rebellion,
was one of thofe gentlemen who affociated under the
carl of Effex to fupprefs it; and afterwards ferved un¬
der Arthur lord Chichefter, lord deputy, and by
king James I. was appointed provoft-marlhal of the
.-whole, province of Ulfter in Ireland.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
L D R Y. 449
13. “ Gules, two Bars Or;” borne by the right The Fefs
hon. Simon Harcourt, earl of Harcourt, &c. This ai‘d tiar-<
noble earl is defeended from the Harcourts of Norman- ' *
dy, who took their name from a place called Harcourt,
in that province, where the family ufually relided.
Gervaife, count de Harcourt, with his two fons Jef¬
frey and Arnold, came over with the conqueror, when
he invaded England in to66.
14. “ Ermine, two Bars Gules;” borne by the
right hon. Thomas Nugent, earl of Weftmeath,. and
baron Delvin.
15. “ Argent, two Bars indented Sable;” borne
by the right, hon. Godai t Ginkle, earl of Athlone.
Godart, who was the firfl; earl, was defeended of a
very ancient family in the united provinces of Holland,
where he was baron de Reede and Ginkle, &c. In
1691, he was a lieutenant-general of king William’s
forces in Ireland; where, in June the fame year, he, took
Ballymore for the Engliih; and, in July following, the
Irifh town of Athlone, which lafl. exploit is one of the
greateft recorded in hiilory.
16. “ Argent, three Bars gemels Gules;” borne
by the right hon. Richard Barry, earl of Barrymore,
&c. This noble family, who have been renowned for
their loyalty and valour, are faid to derive their fur-
name from the ifland of Barry, in the county of Gla¬
morgan, in Wales; and from their riches and.eftates
have been called by the people Barrymore, or the
Great Barry.
1 7. “ Or, a Fefs-couped Gules, between two Lions
paffant Sable ;” borne by the right hon. Samuel Ma-
fham, lord Mafham, &c. This noble lord is defeend¬
ed from Sir John Maflram, who fiourilhed in the reign
of king Henry VI. and was buried at Thorneham,
in the county of Suffolk, in *455.
18. “ Argent, a Lion rampant guardant Gules,
debruifed by a Fefs Azure, between three Etoiles if-
fuing out of as many Crefcents of the fecond borne
by the right hon. Robert Dillon, earl of Rofcom-
mon, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble
family is. derived from Logan, furnamed Dilune or
Delion, which fignifies brave and valiant, to whom the
duke of Aquitaine gave his daughter in marriage, in
whofe right, after her father’s death, he became prince
and fovereign of Aquitaine, which continued in his
pofterity till Henry II. married Alionora, daughter
and heir to William V. duke of Aquitaine, and about
1172 obtained that principality by fuperior force;
and, to prevent any difturbance, brought Sir Henry
Delion or Dillon, and his brother Thomas, then in¬
fants, to England, their father being (lain.
19. “ Or, two Bars Azure, a Chief quarterly of
the fecond and Gules, the 1 ft and 4th charged each
with two Fleur-de-lis of France ; the 2d and.3d with
a Lion of England borne by his grace John Man¬
ners, duke of Rutland, marquis of Granby, &c..
This chief was anciently Gules; and the charge there¬
on is an honorary augmentation, fliowing his grace’s
defeent from the blood-royal of king Edward IV.
20. “ Barry of ten pieces Argent and Azure, over
all fix Efcutcheons; 3, 2, 1, Sable, each charged
with a Lion rampant of the firft, armed, and lan-
gued Gules, a Crefcent for difference ;” borne by the
right hon. James Cecil, earl of Salilbury, &c. This
noble earl is defeended from the famous William Cecil
lord Burleigh, ftatefman in the reigns of Edward VI.
3 K and
HERA
and Elizabeth. This great man left two fbns, Thomas
and Robert, who were both, made earls in one day,
May 4. 1603. Robert, the younger fon, anceftor
of the prefcnt- noble lord, was created earl of Saliftury
in the morning ; and Thomas, the eldeft, earl of Exe*
ter in the afternoon.
Art. V. Of the Cheveron.
The Cheveron, which reprefents two rafters of a
houfe well jointed together, or a pair of compaffes
half open, takes up the fifth part of the field with the
Engliih, but the French give it the third. Its dimi¬
nutives are. The cheveronel, which contains the half of
a cheveron t and the couple-clofe, which is the half
of a cheveronel, that is, its breadth is but the fourth
part of a cheveron. Leigh obferves,' that this laft
diminutive is never borne but in pairs, or with a che¬
veron between two of them. The French have but
one diminution of this ordinary called Etaye, contain¬
ing the third part of its breadth.
-piate Examples of cheverons are given in fig ix. viz.
PCXXIX. t* “ Argent, a Cheveron Gules between three
Torteaux borne by the right hon. Bennet Sher-
rard, earl of Harborough, &c. This noble earl is
lineally defcended from Scherard, who was poffelTed
of manors and lands to a great value in the counties
of Chelhire and Lancafhire in the reign of William
the Conqueror. Geoffrey, another of this earl’s an-
ceftors, was three times fheriff of Rutlandlhire, in the
reigns of king Edward IV. and king Richard III.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Etailes Ar-*
gent borne by the right hon. Marmaduke Lang-
dale, lord Langdale. This noble lord is defcended
from the Langdales of Yorkfhire, who refided at the
town of Langdale, from *■ hence they took their name,
in the reign of king John ; but his anceftor, who
makes the greateft figure in hiftory, is Sir Marma¬
duke Langdale, who raifed forces in the north of Eng¬
land in defence of king Charles I. was vi&orious in
numberlefs battles and fieges 5 and when his majefty,
by the united forces of England and Scotland, was at
length overpowered, he attended king Charles II. in
bis exile, and returned to England with his majefty
at the reftpration.
3. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Leopards
Heads Or;” borne by the right hon. William Went¬
worth, earl, of Strafford, &c. All genealogifts agree,
that the name of Wentworth is of Saxon original, and
taken from the manor of Wentworth in Yorkfhire,
where, in the reign of William the Conqueror, lived
Reginald de Wenteworde, as it is fpelt in doomfday-
hook.
4. “ Argent, a Cheveron between three Grif¬
fons paffant Sable, a Crefcent for difference borne
by the right hon. Heneage Finch, earl of Ailesford,
&c. This family is defcended from Herbert Fitz-
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, and chamberlain to king
Henry I. They took the name of Finch in the reign
of king Edward I. One of the anceftors of the pre¬
fcnt earl was the right hon. Heneage Finch, earl of
Nottingham, who was conftituted lord high-chancel-
lor of England in 1675 ? an<^ lord high-fteward on the
trials of Philip earl of Pembroke, and William vifeount
'Stafford, in r68o.
** Azure, a Cheveron Ermine, between three
st
L D R Y. Chap. III.
Efcalops Argent;” borne by the right hon. George Of the
Townfhend, vifeount Townfhend, &c. This family Cflev"°"^
is of Norman txtraftion, and came into England about , 1
the time of: the conqueft. Charles, lord vifeount
Townfhend, grandfather of the prefent vifeount, was
appointed principal fecretary of Hate in the reign of
king George I. in 172c, and continued fo to the end
of his majefty’s reign ; when, upon refigning the feals,
they were returned to him again by bis late majefty
king George II. who continued him in that honour¬
able office to the year 1730.
6. “ Azure, a Cheveron between three Mullet*.
Or ;” borne by the right hon. John Chetwind vif¬
eount Chetwind, See. of the kingdom of Ireland. Of
this family, which hath been of great antiquity in the
county of Salop, taking their furname from Chetwynd
in that county, was Adam de Chetwynd, who married
Agnes daughter of John lord Lovel, baron of Dock-
inges, and lord of Minfter Lovel in Oxfordfhire; and
by her had iffue Sir John de Chetwynd, who, in the
37th of Henry III. had a charter of free-warren, thro’
all his demefne in the counties of Salop, Stafford, and:
Warwick.
. 7. “Argent, a Cheveron Gules, between three fquare
Buckles Sable;” borne by the right hon. Matthew
Ducie-Morton, lord Ducie, &c. This noble lord is
defcended from the Ducies in Normandy. After they
came into England, king Edward I. conferred oii
them the lordfhip of Morton in Staffordfhire, and fe-
veral other lordfhips and manors, which the family en¬
joyed for many years. Sir Robert Ducie, one of his
iordfhip’s anceftors, was lord-mayor of London in the
reign of king Charles I. and though he lent his ma¬
jefty L. 80,000, which was loft by the king’s being
driven out of London, he died, however, worth
L. 400,000.
8. “ Argent, a Cheveron Cheeky Gules, and of
the Field, between three Bugle-horns ftrung Sable,
garniffied of the fecond ;” borne by the right hon.
lord Hugh Semple, lord Semple. The principal fa¬
mily of this name was Semple of Elliotfton in Ren¬
frew, where they had large poffeffions and offices, as,
ftewards and bailiffs under the family of Stewart, pro¬
prietors of that county before they came to the crown.
The firft lord Semple was Sir Robert, who, being much
in favour with king James IV. was by him created
lord Semple in 1489.
9. “ Argent, a Cheveron engrailed between three
Lions paffant Sable ;” borne by the right hon. and the
reverend Philip Smithe, vifeount Strangford. One of
this lord’s anceftors was John Saiithe, Efq; who ac¬
quired a confiderable eftate whilft he was farmer of the
cuftoms in the reign of Henry VIII. He left two
fons, John and Sir Thomas; which laft was fent am-
baffador by king James I. to the emprefs of Ruffia.
10. “ Quarterly Argent and Azure, a Cheveron
engrailed counter-changed;” borne by the name of
Chamber.
11. “ Party per Cheveron engrailed Gules and Ar¬
gent, three Talbots Heads erafed counter-changed ;”
borne by the right hon. Anthony Buncombe, lord
Feveriham, &c. His- lordfhip is defcended from the
Buncombes of Barley-end in Buckinghamfhire. Sir
Charles Buncombe, uncle to the prefent lord, was
lord-mayor of London in 1709; and thia nobleman was
’created
Chap. III. HERA
Of the created lord Feverfhsm and baron of Dowton in Wilt-
ye*eron; (hire, June 23. 1744.
' 'r~ i2. “ Paly of fix, Argent and Gules, on a Che-
veron Azure, three Crofs-croflets Orborne by the
name of Carpenter, baron Carpenter, of Killaghy in Ire¬
land. This ancient and noble family are of great anti¬
quity in the county of Hereford, and have been lords
of the manor of the Home in the parifh of Delwyn,
near VVeobly, for above 300 years. George, the firft lord
Carpenter, was fo created May 4. 1719.
13. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Befants, a Bay Leaf Proper;” borne by the right
hon. James Hope, earl of Hopeton, &c. This noble
family is defeended from Henry Hope, a native of
Holland, who, about two centuries ago, came over
and fettled in Scotland. Charles Hope, Efq ; grand¬
father of the prefent earl, was created an earl by queen
Anne, April 15. 1703.
14. “ Vert, on a Cheveron between three Unicorns
Heads erafed Argent, horned and maned Or, three
Mullets Sable borne by the name of Ker, being the
1 ft and 4th quarters in the arms of his grace John Ker,
duke of Roxburgh, See. This ancient family is faid
to come from Normandy. John Ker, marquis of Beau¬
mont and Cesford, the firft duke of Roxburgh, was fo
created April 27. 1707.
15. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Bears Heads couped Argent, muzzled Gules, a Roe¬
buck's Head erafed, between two Hands holding
Daggers all properborne by the right hon. Do¬
nald Mackay, lord Reay. This family is faid to de¬
rive their defeent from Alexander, a younger fon of
Ochonacker, who, about the end of the twelfth cen¬
tury, came from Ireland ; and the fourth in defeent
from him was Donald of Strathnavern, whofe fon was
named T More: and from him began the furname
of Mac T, Mackie, or Mackay. Donald, the firft
lord of this family, was created baronet in 1625, and
on June 20. 1628, was created baron Reay of the coun¬
ty of Caithnefs, by Charles I.
16. “ Ermine, on a Cheveron Azure, three Foxes
Heads erafed Or, and in a Canton of the fecond a
Fleur de-lis of the third borne by the right hon.
Stephen Fox, earl of Ilchefter, &c. Of the family
of Fox there have been many perfons of note living in
the counties of Dorfet, Somerfet, Wilts, and Hants,
particularly Richard Fox, bilhop of Winchefter. His
lordfhip was created lord Ilchefter and baron Strange-
ways, May it. 1741, 14 Geo. II. and earl of Ilche¬
fter in June 1756.
17. “ Or, two Cheveronels Gules;” borne by the
right hon. John Monfon, lord Monfon. This noble
lord is defeended from John Monfon, who flouriftied in
the reign of king Edward III from whom defeended
another John, who attended king Henry V. in his
wars in Fsance. Sir John Monfon, bart. father of
the prefent lord, was created lord Monfon, May 28.
1728.
18. “ Or, on a Fefs, between two Cheveronels
Sable, three Crofs-croflets of the firft borne by the
right hon. George Walpole, earl of Orford, See. This
family took their name from Walpole in Norfolk,
■where they refided before the conqueft. Sir Robert
Walpole was, in king George II.'a reign, elefted
L D R Y. 45i
knight of the garter in 1726, and created earl of Or- Of
ford, February 9. 1741-2. the Crofs.
19. “ Azure, three Cheveronels interlaced Or, '“"Y-""1*.
and a Chief of the laft ;” borne by the name of Fi/z-
Hugh.
20. “ Argent, three Cheveronels Gules, in Chief a
Label Azure ;” borne by the right hon. William
Wildman Barrington, vifeount Barrington, &c. 'Phis
family is of Norman extraction ; in which duchy, whilft
it continued annexed to the Englifh Crown, there were
to be feen the remains of a callle bearing the name of
Chute or Shttte, and formerly in the family, with o-
ther monuments in feveral towns of that duchy. John
Shute, the late vifeount Barrington, was in 1708 made
a commiffioner of the cuftoms, and fucceeded to the
eftates of Francis Barrington, Efq; and of John Wild¬
man of the county of Berks, who made him their heir;
and, in purfuance of the will of the former, he took
the name and arms of Barrington. On June 11. 1720,
he was created vifeount Barrington,
Art. VI. Of the Cp.oss.
The Crofs is an ordinary formed by the meeting of
two perpendicular with two horizontal lines in thfc
fefs-point, where they make four right-angles ; the
lines are not drawn throughout, but difeontinued the
breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the fifth
part of the field when not charged ; but if charged,
then the third. It is borne as well engrailed, in¬
dented, &c. as plain.
There is fo great a variety of croffes ufed in he¬
raldry, that it would be a very difficult talk to treat
of them all. Guillim has mentioned 39 different forts ;
De la Columbiere, 72; Leiyh, 4.6 ; and Upton declares
he dares not afeertain all the various crofles borne in
arms, for that they are almoft innumerable : there¬
fore; as all their forms cannot be expe&ed here, we
will only take notice of fuch as are moll commonly
feen at prefent in coats-of-arms. See Fig. x.
The firft is “ Quarterly, Ermine and Azure, a ppY^nr
Crofs Or;” borne by his grace Thomas Ofborne duke''
of Leeds, &c. This noble duke is defeended from
the honourable family of the Ofbornes of Alhford, in
the county of Kent; Sir Thomas Ofborne, the grand¬
father to the prefent duke, was advanced to the peer¬
age by king Charles II.
2. “ Gules, a Crofs .engrailed Argent, a Lozenge
in the dexter-chief of the fecond ;” borne by the right
hon. Edward Leigh, lord Leigh. This family took
their furname from the town of High-Leigh in Che-
fhire, where they refided before the Norman conqueft.
Sir Thomas Leigh, the firft lord of this family, was
created baron Leigh of Stonely, by king Charles I. on
July 1. 1643.
3. “ Gules, a Crofs Argent fretty Azure ;” borne
by the right hon. Nicholas Taaffe, vifeount Taaffe, of
Corran, &c. in Ireland. Of this noble and ancient
family was Richard Taaffe, who lived in 1282 ; as in
1306 did John Taaffe, who was archbiftiop of Ar¬
magh ; and, in 1479, the order of the Garter being
eftablifhed in Ireland, Sir Nicholas Taaffe was one of
the firft members; and John, his fon and heir, was
created a baron and vifeount by Charles I. Auguft 1.
1628.
3 K 2 4. “ Sable*
*52 HERA
Of a. « Sable, a Croia raguiy Orborne by the name
.the Cro^ of Stoivay.
v “ Argent, on a Crofs Sable, a Leopard’s face
Orborne by his grace Henry Brydges duke of
Chandos, &c. The anceftors of this noble family took
their name from the city of Bruges in Flanders ; and
one of them came over with William the Conqueror,
and had a confiderable fliare in the vi&ory obtained
near Haftings in Suflex, 1066. James, the father of
the prefent duke, was created vifcount Wilton and earl
of Caernarvon, Oftober 19. 1714; and marquis of
Caernarvon and duke of Chandos,  30. 1719.
6. “ Or, on a Crofs Sable, a patriarchal Crofs of
the Field borne by the right hon. Thomas Vefey,
baron of Knapton in the kingdom of Ireland. The
truly noble family of Vefcey or Vefey, derives its ori¬
gin from Charles the Great, king of France, and em¬
peror of the weft, who died at Aix-la-Chapelle in
Germany, Jan. 28. 814. His lordlhip’s father was
created a peer April 10. 1750.
7. “ Argent, on a Crofs Gules, five Efcalops O^;”
borne by the right hon. William Villiers earl of jer-
fey, &c. This noble earl is defcended from the fa¬
mily of Villiers in Normandy, fome of whom came over
to England with the Conqueror; feveral manors and
lands in England being foon after granted to Pagan
de Villiers, one of this earl’s anceftors. The firft peer
of this family was created a baron and vifcount, March
20. 1690.
8. “ Sable, on a Crofs within a Bordure engrailed
Gr, five Pelletsborne by the right hon. Francis
Greville, earl of Brooke and Warwick, &c. The am-
ceftors of this noble family are of Norman extradtion,
and came over with William the Conqueror, who con¬
ferred manors and lands on them in England, of a con¬
fiderable value ; and at length they obtained the go¬
vernment of the caftle of Warwick, the prefent feat of
the family. Sir Fulke, the firft peer of this family,
was created baron Brooke by king James I. Jan. 9.
1-620.
9. “ Argent, a Crofs botonny Sable borne by the
name of Winwood.
10. “ Or, a Crofs crofiet Gulesborne by the name
of Tacldington.
n. “ Azure, a Crofs potent fitchy Or.” This en-
fign is faid to have been borne by Ethelred king of
the Weft Saxons; and croffes of this fort are frequently
met with in coats-of-arms.
12. “ Party per pale, Gules and Argent; a Crofs
potent quadrate in the centre, between four Croffes pat-
tee counter-changed;” the arms of the epifcopal fee
of Litchfield and Coventry. This fee was originally
fixed at Litchfield ; from thence removed to Chefter,
and from both to Coventry. It contains the whole
county of Stafford, except two pari/hes; all Derby-
fhire ; the better part of Warwickfhire, and near half
Shropfhire; divided into the four archdeaconries of
Coventry, Stafford, Derby, and Salop. The pariihes
are 557 in number; but, including chapels, they a-
mou it to 643.
13. “ Azure, a Crofs moiine Argent;” borne by
his grace Cavendifh Bentinck, duke of Portland, &c.
This noble duke is defcended from a very ancient
and diftinguifhed family in the United Provinces of
Holland; of which was.William Bentinck, Efq; who,
3
L D R Y. Chap, IIJ,
in his youth was page of honour to William prince of Of
Orange, afterwards William III. king of Great Bri- the Crofs.
tain, and, on the acceffion of William and his con-
fort, Was made groom of the ftole, privy-purfe to
his majefty, lieutenant-general of his majefty’s ar¬
my, &c. and alfo created baron of Cirencefter, vif¬
count Woodftock, and earl of Portland, April 19.
1689.
14. “ Argent, a Crofs patonce Sable ;” borne by
the name of Rice.
15. “ Sable, a Crofs patee Argent;” borne by the
name of Maplejden.
16. “ Azure, a Crofs flowery Or;” borne by the
name of Cheney.—This is faid to have alfo been the
arms of Edwin, the firft Chriftian king of Northum¬
berland.
17. “ Argent, fix Crofs croflets fitchy 3, 2, 1,
Sable, on a Chief Azure, two Mullets pierced Or;”
born^, by his grace Henry Clinton, duke of New-
caftle, &c. This noble family is defcended from Jef¬
frey de Clinton, lord chamberlain and treafurer to
king Henry I. grandfon to William de Tankerville,
chamberlain of Normandy; from whom defcended
William de Clinton, chief juftice of Chefter, governor
of Dover caftle, lord Warden of the king’s forefts
fouth of Trent. Edward lord Clinton, another of
this noble earl’s anceftors, was conftituted lord high-
admiral of England for life, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth, who created him earl of Lincoln, May 4.
1572.
18. “ Gules, a Cheveron between ten Croffes pa¬
tee, fix above and four below, Argent;” borne by the
right hon. Frederick-Auguftus Berkeley, earl of Ber¬
keley, &c. This noble family is defcended from Ro.
bert Fitz-Harding, who obtained a grant of Berke-
ley-caftle in Glouceftetlhire, which the family ftill in¬
herits, and from whence they obtained the furname of
Berkeley, from Henry duke of Normandy, afterwards
king of England; the faid Robert Fitz-Harding
was defcended from the royal line of the kings of
Denmark...
19. “ Azure, three Mullets Or, accompanied with
feven Crofs-croflets fitchy Argent, three in Chief, one
in Fefs, two in Flanks, and the laft in Bafe ;” borne
by the right hon. James Somerville, lord Somerville.
The firft of this name on record is Sir Walter de
Somerville, lord of Wichnore, in the county of Staf¬
ford, who came to England with William the Con¬
queror.
20. “ Gules, three Croffes recercelee, voided Or,
a Chief vairy ermine and contre ermine ;” borne by
the right hon. John Peyto Verney, baron Willough¬
by de Broke. This noble lord is defcended from
William de Vernal, who flourifhed in the reign of
king Henry I. 1419.
Art. VII. Of the Saltier.'’
The Saltier, which is formed by the bend and bend-
finifler croffing each other in right angles, as the in¬
terfering of the pale and fefs forms the crofs, con¬
tains the fifth part of the field; but if charged, then
the third. In Scotland, this ordinary is frequently
called a St Andrew's trofs. It may, like the others,
be borne engrailed, wavy, &c. as alfo between charges
or charged with any thing. See examples, fig. xi.
N°_f.
Chap. m. HERA
Of the N° I. is u Argent, a Saltier Gules;” borne by
Saltier. },[s grace James Fitz-Gerald, duke of Leinfter, &c.
*" v   This noble lord is defcended from Otho, orOther, a rich
OCXXIX anc* Powerfu^ in t^ie t‘me Alfred, de¬
fcended from the dukes of Tufcany ; who palling from
Florence into Normandy, and thence into England,
there the family flourilhed, until Richard Strongbow,
earl of Pembroke, their kinfman, engaged them to
partake in his expedition to Ireland, in which Mau¬
rice Fit/.-Gerald embarked^ and was one of the prin¬
cipal conquerors of that kingdom, for which he was
rewarded with a great eftate in lands in the province of
Leinfter, and particularly the barony of Offaley,, and
the caftle of Wicklow ; and died, covered with ho¬
nours, in the year 1x77, 24 Henry II.
2. “ Gules, a Saltier Argent, between twelve Crofs
croflets Orborne by the right hon. Other-Lewis
Windfor Hickman, earl of Plymouth, &c. This noble
earl is defcended from Robert Fitz-Hickman, lord of
the manor of Bloxham, Oxfordlhire, in the 56 Hen. III.
1272 ; and he is maternally defcended from the noble
family of the Windfors, who were barons of the realm
at the time of the conqueft. <
3. “ Vert, a Saltier wavy Ermine borne by the
name of Waleman of Beckford, in Gloucefterlhire.
4. “ Ermine, a Saltier counter-compony Or and
Gules borne by the name of Ulmjlon.
5. “ Argent, a Saltier Azure with a Bezant in
the centreborne by the right hon. Philip Yorke,
earl of Hardwicke, &c. He was in O&ober 1733
conftituted lord chief-juftice of the king’s bench, and
November 23. in the fame year, created baron Hard¬
wicke of Hardwicke.
6. “ Argent on a 'Saltier Gules an Efcalop Or
the arms of the bilhoprick of Rochefter—This dio-
cefe, the lead in England, comprehends only a fmall
part of Kent, in which there are 150 churches and
chapels; and the two parifnes in Ifelham in Cam-
bridgeihire, and Frekenham in Suffolk. It has only
one archdeacon, that of Rochefter. For many years
it was in the immediate patronage of the archbiftiop
of Canterbury.
7. “ Party per Saltier, Azure and Argent, on a
Saltier Gules, a Crefcent of the fecond for difference
quartered by the right hon. William Hall Gage, vif-
count Gage, of Caftle-Iflaad in Ireland. This noble
family is of Norman extraftion, and derives defcent from
de Gaga or Gage, who attended William I. in his ex¬
pedition to England ; and, after the conqueft thereof,
was rewarded with large grants of lands in the foreft
of Dean, and county of Gloucefter, near which fbreft
he fixed his refidence, by building a feat at Clerenwell,
in the fame place where the houfe of Gage now ftands :
he alfo built a great houfe in the town of Cirenceller,
at which place he died, and was buried in the abbey
there. ^Sir Thomas Gage, the eighth baronet, was
created baron of Caftle-Bac, and vifcount Gage, 1721.
8. “ Gules, on a Saltier Argent, a Rofe of the firft
barbed and feeded properborne by the right hon.
George Neville, lord Abergavenny, premier baron of
England.
9. “ Or, on a Saltier Azure, nine Lozenges of
the firftthe paternal arms of the right hon. John
Dalrymple, earl of Stair, &c. Of this family, which
took, their furname from the barony of Dalrymple, ly-
L D R Y. 45
Ing on the river Dun in Ayrfhire, Scotland, was Adam Of the
de Dalrymple, who lived in the reign of Alexander III. Saltieiv
to. “ Argent, on a Saltier engrailed Sable, nine
Annulets Orborne by the name of Leak.
11. “ Gules, a Saltier between four Crefcents Or
borne as the fecond and third quarters in the coat of-
arms of the right honourable Charles Kinnaird, lord
Kinnaird. George Kinnaird, Efq; one of the pre¬
fect lord’s anceftors, being of great fervice to king
Charles II. during the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell,
he was by that prince, at his reftoration, made one of
the privy council; and December 28. 1682, created a
baron.
12. “ Argent, a Saltier engrailed between four Ro¬
fe s Gules,” for Lennox ; and borne as firft and fourth
quarters in the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Franc’s
Napier, lord Napier. This family is faid to be de¬
fcended from the ancient thanes or ftewards of Len¬
nox in Scotland, but took their furname of Napier
from the following event. King David II. in his wars
with the Englilh, about the year 1344, convocating
his fubjeds to battle, the earl of Lennox fent his fe¬
cond fon Donald, with fuch forces as his duty obliged
him; and, coming to an engagement, where the Scots
gave ground, this Donald, taking his father’s llandard
from the bearer, and valiantly charging the enemy with
the Lennox men, the fortune of the battle changed,
and they obtained the vi&ory; whereupon every one
advancing, and reporting their ads, as the cuftom was,
the king declared they had all behaved valiantly, but
that therq was one among them who had na pier, that
is, no equal; upon which the faid Donald took the
name of Napier, and had, in reward for his good fer-
vices, the lands of Gosfield, and other eftates in the
county of Fife.
13. “ Gules, a Saltier Or, furmounted of another
Vert,” for the name of Andrews; and borne by Sir
William Andrews, bart. of Denton in Northampton-
fhire, who is defcended from Sir Robert Andrews of
Normandy, knight, who came into England with Wil¬
liam the Conqueror. Sir William Andrews, the firlt
baronet of this family, was created December it,
1641.
14. “ Azure, a Saltier quarterly quartered Or and
Argent.” The arms of the epifcopal fee of Bath and
Wells.—The diocefe of Bath and Wells contains all
Somerfedhire, except a few churches in Briftol. And
in it there are three archdeaconries, viz. thofe of Wells,
Bath, and Taunton. The number of the parifhes ia
388, though, according to fome, the total number of
the churches and chapels amounts to 503.
15. “Party per Saltier Argent and Gules, a Saltier
counter-changed.”
16. “ Party per Pale indented Argent and Sable,
a Saltier counter-changed borne by the name of
Scote..
17. “ Argent, three Saltiers couped and engrailed
Sable ;” borne by the name of Benton.
18. “ Argent, a Saltier Gules, and a Chief Er¬
mine;” borne by the right hon. Francis Thomas
Fitz-Maurice, earl of Kerry, &c. This very ancient
and noble family is a branch of the family of Kildare,
who are originally defcended from the great duke of
Tufcany, and of which was Otho, a noble baron of Italy,,
whofe fon Walter, attending the Norman conqueror
into
454
Sub-
Ordmari
H E H A
into‘England, was made conflable of the caftle of
'• Windfor. Raymond, one of the prefent earl’s ancef-
' tors, had a principal hand in the redu&ion of Ireland
to the fubje&ion of Henry IT. and Dermoid Mac-
Cartv, king of Cork, fought his aid againit his fon
Cormac O’Lehanagh, which he undertook, and deli-
-vered the king from his rebellious fon; for which that
prince rewarded him with a large trad: of land in the
• county of Kerry, where he fettled his fon Maurice, who
gave his name to the county, which he called Clan
Maurice, and is enjoyed by the prefent earl of Kerry,
who is vifcount Clan Maurice. Thomas the firft earl,
and father of the laft, was the 21 ft lord Kerry, who was
• created earl January 17. 1722.
19. “ Sable, a Saltier Argent, on a Chief Azure,
ihree Fleurs-de-lis Or;” borne by the right hon. John
Fitz-Patrick, earl of Upper Offory, and baron of
Gowran in Ireland. This moft ancient and princely
family is defcended from Heremon, the firft monarch
of the Milefian race in Ireland; and after they had
aflumed the furname of Fitz Patrick, they were for
many ages kings of Offory, in the province of Linfter.
John, the firft earl of this family, Succeeded his father
Richard as Lord Gowran, June 9. 1727, was created
earl Q&ober 5. 1751, and died 1758.
20. “ Party per Pale Argent and Gules, three Sal-
-tiers counter^changed;” borne by the name of Lane.
Thefe arms are alfo borne, without the leaft alteration,
by the name Kingfman ; for which fimilitude we can
no otherwife account, than by fuppofing there has
beenLome miftake made through many tranfcriptions.
Sect. II. Of Sub-Ordinaries.
Besides the honourable ordinaries and the diminu-
rfcions already mentioned, there are other heraldic fi¬
gures, called fib-ordinaries, or ordinaries only, which,
by reafon of their ancient ufe in arms, are of worthy
bearing, viz. The Gyron, Franc-quarter, Canton,
Pairle, Fret, Pile, Orle, Inefcutcheon, Treffure, An¬
nulet, Flanches, Flafques, Voiders, Billet, Lozenge,
-Gutts, Fuiil, Ruftre, Mafcle, Papillone, and Diaper.
See Plate CCXXV1I. fig. i. (a.)
The Gyron is a triangular figure formed by two
lines, one drawn diagonally from one of the four an¬
gles to the centre of the ftiield, and the other is drawn ei¬
ther hchizontal or perpendicular, from one of the fidesof
the ihield, meeting the other line at the centre of the field.
Gyronny is faid, when the field is covered with fix,
-eight, ten, or twelve gyrons in a coat-of arms; but a
French author would have the true gyrony to confift
cf eight pieces only, as in the fig. which reprefents the
coat-of-arms of Flora Campbell countefs of Loudon,
&c. whofe anceftor- was created baron of Loudon in
J604 by James VI. and earlof the fame place, May 12.
1633, the 9th of Charles I.
The Franc-quarter is a fquare figure, which occu¬
pies the upper dexter quarter of the fhield. It is but
rarely ca-rried as a charge. Silveftra Petra San&a has
given us a few inftances of its ufe.
The Canton is a fquare part of the efcutcheon,
fomewhat lefs than the quarter, but without any fixed
proportion. It reprefents the banner that was given
■to ancient knights-bannerets, and, generally fpeaking,
yofleffes the dexter-chief-point of the fhield, as in the
L D It Y. Chap. in.
fig. ; but fhould it poffefs the finifter corner, which is sph-
but feldom, it muft be blazoned a canton-finifter. Ordinaries.
James Coats reckons it as one of the nine honour- ’
able ordinaries, contrary to moft heralds opinion. It
is added to coats-of-arms of military men as an aug¬
mentation of honour ; thus John Churchill, baron
of Eymouth in Scotland, and one of the anceftors of
the prefent duke of Marlborough, being lieutenant ge¬
neral to king James II. received from him a canton
argent, charged with the red crofs of England, added
to his paternal coat, “ which is Sable, a lion rampant
Argent.'”
The parile is a figure formed by the conjunftion of
the upper half of the faltier with the under half of the
pale.
The Fret is a figure reprefenting two little flicks in
faltier, with a mafcle in the centre interlaced. J. Gib¬
bon terms it the heralds true-lovers knot', but many dif-
fent from his opinion.
Fretty is faid when the field or bearings are covered
with a fret of fix, eight, or more pieces, as in the fig.
The word fretty may be ufed without addition, when
it is of eight pieces; but if there be lefs than that
number, they muft be fpecified.
The pile, which confifts of two lines, terminating
in a point, is formed like a wedge, and is borne en¬
grailed, wavy, See. as in the fig. It iffues in general
from the chief, and extends towards the bafe; yet there
are fome piles borne in bend, and iiTuing from other
parts of the field, as may be feen in Plate CCXXX.
fig. xii. n° 12, &c.
The Orle is an ordinary compofed of two lines go¬
ing round the Ihield, the fame as the bordure, but its
breadth is but one half of the latter, and at fome di-
ftance from the brim of the ftiield, as in the fig.
The Inefcutcheon is a little efcutcheon borne with¬
in the fliield ; which, according to Guillim’s opinion,
is only to be fo called when it is borne fingle in the
fefs-point or centre ; fee the rig. on Plate CCXXVII.
but modern heralds, with more propriety, give the
name of inefcutcheon to fuch as are contained in Plate
CCXXX. fig. xii n° 2. and call that which is fixed
on the fefs-point efcutchcon of pretence, which is to con
tain the arms of a wife that is an heirefs, as mention¬
ed above.
The Treffirc is an ordinary commonly fuppofed to
be the half of the breadth of an orle, and is generally
borne flowery and counter-flowery, as it is alfo very
often double, and fometimes treble. See the fig.
(Plate CCXXVIL). This double treflure makes part
of the arms of Scotland, as marftialled in the royal at-
■chievement, Plate CCXXXII. fig. xxi. n° 7. and was
granted to the Scots kings by Charlemagne, being
then emperor and king of France, when he entered
into a league with Achaius king of Scotland, to ftiow
that the French lilies ftiould defend and guard the
Scottifh lion.
The Annulet, or ring, is a well-known figure, and is Plated
frequently to be found in arms through every kingdom ccxxvil.
in Europe.
The Flanches are formed by two curved lines, or fe-
micircles, being always borne double. See the figure.
G. Leigh' obferves, that on two fuch Flauches two
fundry coats may be borne.
The
Chap. III.
HERA
Cd’ Or
d'Eau
de. Sang
de Larmes
de Vert
.de Ppipc
Sub- The Flafques refemble the flanches, except that the
Ordinaries. c;rcular lines do not go fo near the centre of the field;
v—-y—— ^ee tj.ie figUre 'j. J. Gibbon would have thefe two or¬
dinaries to be both one, and wrote Jlard ; alleging,
that the two other names are but a corruption of this
laft : but as G. Leigh and J. Guillini make them two
diftinfl and fubordinate ordinaries, we have inferted
them here as fuch.
The Voiders are by Guillim confidered as a fubordi¬
nate ordinary, and are not unlike the fiafques (fee
the figure), but they occupy lefs of the field.
The Billet is an oblong fquare figure, twice as long
as broad. Some heralds imagine, that they reprefent
bricks for building; others more properly confider them
as reprefenting folded paper or letters.
The Lozenge is an ordinary of four equal and pa¬
rallel fides, but not re&angular; two of its oppofite
angles being acute, and the other two obtufe. Its
fhape is the fame with thofe of our window-glaffes,
before the fquare came fo much in faihion. See the
figure.
Gutts, or drops, are round at bottom, waved on the
fides, and terminate at the top in points. Heralds have
given them different names according to their different
tin&ures: thus, if they are
Yellow 1
White
Eke j'they arC CaUed
Green
Black j
The Fufil is longer than the lozenge, hawng its up¬
per and lower part more acute and fharp than the
other two collateral middle parts, which acutenefs is
occafioned by the fhort diftance of the fpace between
the two collateral angles ; which fpace, if the fufil is
rightly made,, is always ftiorter than any of the four
equal geometrical lines whereof it is compofed. See
the fig. did.
The Ruftre is a lozenge pierced round in the middle
(fee the figure). They are called by the Germans n//-
ten. Meneftrier gives an example of them in the arms
of Lebaret in France, argent three ruttres azure.
The Mafcle is pretty much like a lozenge, but voided
or perforated through its whole extent, fhowing a nar¬
row border, as in the figure. Authors are divided
about its refemblance ; fome taking it for the mafh of
a net, and others for the fpots of certain flints found
about Rohan and as no writer has given a clearer
account in fupport of this laft opinion than Colombiere,
author of La Science Heraldique, we /hall tranfcribe it
for the fatisfa&ion of the curious.
“ Rohan (fays he) bears Gules, nine Mafcles Of,
3, 3, 3. Opinions have varied very much about the
original of the mafcles or mafttes, as being fomewhat
like the mafties of nets: but for my. own part, havipg
often obferved that thofe things which are remarkable
and Angular in fome countries, have fome times occa¬
fioned the lords thereof to reprefent them in their c-
fcutcheons, and to take them for their arms, I am
of opinion, that the lords of Rohan, who, I believe,
are the firft that bore thefe figures in their arms, tho’
defcended from the ancient kings and princes of Bre¬
tagne, took them, becaufe in the moft ancient vifcounty
of Rohan, afterwards erected into a duchy, there are
L D R Y. *5*
abundance of fmall flints, which being cut in two, Sub-
this figure appears on the infide of them ; as alfo the Ordinaries,
carps, which are in the fifti-ponds of that duchy, have
the fame mark upon their fcales; which, being very
extraordinary and peculiar to that country, the an¬
cient lords of the fame had good reafon, upon obfer-
ving that wonder, to take thofe figures for their arms,
and to tranfmit them to their poilerify, giving them
the name of macks, from the Latin word macula, fig-
nifying afpot; whence fome of that houfe have taken
for their motto, Sine macula macla, that is, A mafcle
without a fpot.”
P apt Hone is an exprefiion ufed for a field or charge
that is covered with figures like the feales of a fiftu
Monf. Baron gives as an example of it the arms of
Monti Gueules Papelone d’Argent. The proper term
for it in Englilh would be fcallop ’work.
Diapering, is faid of a field or charge fliadowed with
flourifhings or foliage with a colour a little darker than
that on which it is wrought. The Germans frequently
ufe it; but it does not enter into the blazoning.or
defcription of an arms, it only ferves to embellilh the
coat.
If the fore-mentioned ordinaries have any attri¬
butes, that is, if they are engrailed, indented, wavy, '
&c. they mutt be diitinftly fpecified, after the fame
manner as the honourable ordinaries.
See examples of fubordinaries, &c. fig. xii.
1. “ Gules, an Orle Ermine borne by the name plare
of Humframville. CCXXXS,
z. “ Argent, three Inefcutcheons Gules-," borne
by the name of Hay, and the 2d and 3d quarters in
the coat-of arms of the right hon. Thomas Flay, earl
of Kinnoul, &c.—The firft of the name of Hay that
bore thefe arms, got them, as Mr Nifbet obferves,
becaufe he and his two fons, after having defeated a
party of the Danes at the battle of Loncarty, anno
942, were brought to the king with their Ihields all
Itained with blood.
3. “Argent, a Fret Sable born by the right
hon. Lionel Talmifh, earl of Dyfart, &c. This fa¬
mily was advanced to the peerage by King Charles I.
in 1646.
4. “ Or, fretty of Gules, a Canton Ermineborne
by the right hon. Henry Noel, earl of Gainfborough,
fkc. This nobleman is defcended from   Nod,
who came into England with William the Conqueror,
and, in confideration of his fervices, obtained a grant
of feveral manors and lands of very great value. Sir
Edward, who was knighted by King James on his ac-
celfion to the throne, and created a baronet June 29.
1611, was the firft advanced to the honour of baroa
Noel, March 23.- 1616.
5. “ Girony of eight Pieces Or and Sable the
1 ft and 4th quarters of the coat-of-arms of the right
hon. John Campbell, earl of Breadalbane, &c. This
ancient and noble family is defcended, in a regular
fuccefiion, from Duncan the firft Lord Campbell, an-
ceftor of the family of Argyll. John, the firit earl, in
confideration of his perfonal merit, was, from a bato-
net, created lord Campbell, vifcount Glenorchie, and.'
earl of Breadalbane, Jan. 28. 1677, by Charles II.
6. “ Lozengy Argent and Gules j” borne by the
right hon. George Fitz-William, earl Fitz-William,
&c. This noble earl is defcended from Sir William
FiUfaWillianv
Figures.
HERALDRY. Chap.IlL
Pitz William, marfhal of the army of William the Hence it is, that the fun, moon, flars, comets, me- Natural
f- Conqueror at the battle of Haftings in Suflex, by teors, See. have been introduced to denote glory, gran- (
' which victory that prince made his way to the deur, power, &c. Lions, leopards, tygers, ferpents,
throne. &c* have been employed to fignify courage,
7. “ Sable, a Mafck within a Treffure flowery Ar- ftrength, prudence, fwiftnefs, See.
gent*” borne by the name of Hoblethorne. The application to certain exercifes, fuch as war,
8. ’« Gules, three Mullets Or, within a Bordure of hunting, mufic, &c. has furniflied lances,-fwords, pikes,
the latter, charged with a double Treflure flowery and arms, fiddles, Sec. Architecture, columns, cheverons,
counter flowery with Fleurs-de-lis of the firtl;” borne Scc.j, and the other arts feveral things that relate to
by the noble family of Sutherland, &c. This family, them.
in the peerage, is among the oldefl. in Britain, if not in Human bodies, or diftind parts of them, alfo clothes,
all Europe; the title of earl being conferred on one and ornaments, have, for fome particular intention,
©f their anceftors in 1067. found place in armory; trees, plants, fruits, and
9. “ Azure, a Pile Efmine,” for the name of flowers, have likewife been admitted to denote the ra-
Wyche; and is quartered as fiift and fourth in the coat- rities, advantages, and Angularities, of different coun-
of-arms of Sir Cyril Wyche, bart. tries.
10. “ Or, on a Pile engrailed Azure, three Crofs- . The relation of fome creatures, figures, &c. to par-
croflets' fitchy of the firftborne by the name of ticular names, has been likewife a very fruitful fource
Rigdon. variety in arms. Thus the family of Coningfby
I j. tt Gr, on a Pile Gules three Lions of England bears three coneys; of Arundel, fix fwallows ; of Ur-
between fix Tleurs-de-lis Azure;” the firft and fourth fon, a bear ; of Lucie, three pikes, in Latin tres lucios
quarters of his grace Edward Seymour, duke of So- ptfees; of Starkey, a ftork; of Caftleman, a caftle
merfet, &c. granted him by King Henry VIII. on his triple-towered; of Shuttleworth, three weaver’s fhut-
marriage with the lady Jane Seymour. ties, &c.
12. “Ermine, two Piles iffuing from the dexter Befides thefe natural and artificial figures, there are
and finifter fides, and meeting in bafe Sable;” for the chimeiicaLor imaginary ones ufed in heraldry, the re¬
name of Zfo//«. fult of fancy and caprice; fuch as centaurs, hydras,
13. “ Argent, three piles, one iffuing from the phenixes, griffons, dragons, &c. Which great variety
Chief between the others reverfed, Sable ;” for the of figures fliovvs the impoflibility of comprehending all
name oSHulfe, and borne by Sir Edward Hulfe, bart. common charges in a work of this nature ; therefore
14. “ Azure, a Pile wavy bendways Or;” borne fuch only fliall be treated of as are moft frequently
by the name of slldham.—There is no mention made borne ifticCiats-d'fiarins.
of its iffuing out of the dexter-corner of the efeut- r nrxT -r
r fprm Aar. I. Of Naturai, Figures borne in coats-
of-arms.
Among the multitude of natural things which are
with a Fleur-de-lis Sable;” borne by the name of ufed in coats-of arms, thofe moft ufually borne are, for
Nort0n. the fake of brevity as well as perfpicuity, diftributed
16. “ Argent, three Piles meeting near the point of into the following claffes, viz.
•the Bafe Azure;” borne by the name of Bryan. Celejlial figures; as, the fun, moon, ftars, &c. and
17. “ Party per Pale and per Bend Or and Azure their parts,
counterchanged ;” borne by the name of Johnfon.— Effigies of men, women, &c. and their parts.
—  1 ■ - ---  r-“ - Beafisi as, lions, ftags, foxes, boars, &c. and their
parts.
Birds i as, eagles, fwans, ftorks, pelicans, &c. and
their parts.
Fijhes; as dolphins, whales, fturgeons, trouts, fltc.
cheon, for this is fufficiently determined by the term
d/endways. .
15. “ Or, three Piles in Bend, each point enfigned
This bearing is equal to two gyrons; fee p. 454.
cdl.t.
18. “ Party per Pale and per Cheveron Argent and
Gules counterchanged.”
19. “ Party per Pale chappe Or and Vert coun¬
terchanged.” This is a bearing feldom to be met and their parts.
w;ttu Reptiles and infers; as, tortoifes, ferpents, grafs-
20. “ Party per Fefs Gules and Argent, a Pale hoppers, &c. and their parts.
- " ’ * ’ c T — :J— Vegetables; as, trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and
their parts.
Stones ; as, diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, &c.
counterchanged;”- borne by the name of Lavider.
Sect. III. Of Common Charges lorn in Coats-of-arms.
It has been already obferved, that in all ages
have made ufe of the reprefentation of living creatures,
Thefe charges have, as well as ordinaries, divers at¬
tributes or epithets, which exprefs their qualities, pofi-
and other fymbolical figns, to diftinguiftTthemfelves tions, and di’fpofitions. Thus the fun is faid to be in
in war; and that thefe marks, which were promifeu- his glory, eclipfed, &c. The moon, in her complement^
oufly ufed for hieroglyphics, emblems, and perfonal de- increfcent, &c. Animals are faid to be rampant,paffanty
vices, gave the firft notion of heraldry. But nothing &c. Birds have alfo their denominations, fuch as
ftiows the extent of human wit more, than the great clofe, difplayed, &c. Fifties
variety of thefe marks of diftin&ion, fince they
compofed of all forts of figures, fome natural, others
artificial, and many chimerical; in allufion, it is to
be fuppofed, to the ftate, quality, or inclination of the
bearer.
N° 15*-
deferibed to be hau-
riant, naiant, &c.
I. Examples of Celefiial Figure
.^ure, a Sun in his Glory:” L , t
e of St Clsrc; and is found in the firft and fourth £
quarters
HTVttxVLDKY.
' fuje. //.
Sal Turns.
. Tlate ccm:.
^./2.
ORDWATVYS VC.
Chap. III. HERA
Celeftial quarters of the coat-of-arms of the moft noble William-
. FlSu,e,~ John Ker, marquis of Lothian, &c. It is needlefs
11 - f — eXprefs the colour of the fun, nothing being capable
to denote it but gold.
а. “ Azure, one Ray of the Sun, bendways Gules,
between fix Beams of that Luminary Argentborne
by the name of Aldam. There is no mention made
of their iffuing out of the dexter-corner of the efcut-
cheon; for this is implied in the term bendways, for the
reafon mentioned before.
3. “ Argent, five Rays of the Sun ifiuing out of the
finifter-corner Gules;” borne by the name of Mndt-
fhideler, a family of diftindlion in Franconia.
4. “ Or, a Sun eclipfed.” This bearing is feldom
to be met with, except in emblematic or hieroglyphic
figures; and might be exprefled Sable, becaufe that hue
is accidental and not natural.
5. “ Gules, the Moon in her complement Or, illu-
llrated with all her light proper.” This is fufficient
f without naming the colour, which is Argent.
б. “ Azure, a Moon decrefcent proper;” borne by
the name of Delaluna.
7. “ Gules, a Moon increfcent Or;” borne by the
name of Defcus.
8. “ Argent, a Moon in her detriment, Sable.”
This word is ufed in heraldry to denote her being
eclipfed.
9. “ Azure, a Crefcent Argent;” borne by the
name of Lucy. This bearing is alfo ufed as a diffe¬
rence, it being afiigned to the fecond fon, as before-
mentioned.
10. “ Gules, three Crefcents Argent;” borne by
Oliphant, lord Oliphant (at prefent dormant). A-
mongft the anceftors of this noble family was David
de Oliphant, one of thofe barons who, in 1142, ac¬
companied King David I. into England with an army,
to affift his niece Matilda againft King Stephen ; but
after raifing the fiege of Winchefter, the faid King
David was fo clofely purfued, that, had it not been
for the Angular conduft of this brave pcrfon, the king
would have been taken prifoner.
11. “ Azure, a Crefcent between three Mullets
Argent;” borne by Arbuthnot, vifcount and baron
Arbuthnot. In the year 1105, the firfl of this family
marrying a daughter of the family of Oliphard, fheriff
of the county of Kincardin, with her he had the lands
of Arbuthnot in that county, from whence he took his
furname. Robert Arbuthnot was the firft of this family
who, for his loyalty to King Charles I. was, Nov. 16.
1641, dignified with the title of baron and vifcount Ar¬
buthnot.
12. “ Gules, a Star iffuing from between the Horns
of a Crefcent Argent.”
13. “ Azure, a Star of 16 points Argent;” borne
by the name of Huitfon.
14. “Argent, three Mullets pierced Sable;” borne
by the name of Wollaflon.
15. “ Azure, fix Mullets 3, 2, 1, Or;” borne by
the name of Weljh.
16. “ Ermine, a Mullet of fix points Gules, pier¬
ced ;” borne by the name of Heffenhul.—When a mul¬
let has more than five points, their number muft, in
blazoning, be always named.
17. “Argent, a Rainbow with a Cloud at each
end proper.” This is part of the creft to the earl of
Vol.VIII. Part II.
L D R Y. 457
Hopeton’s coat-of-arms, which is inferted in fig. ix. Effigies of
n° I3* .T.lie whol.e of is a gl°be fplit on the top, and Men.
above it is the rain-bow. See. v v
18. “Party per P'efs crenelle Gules and Azure,
three Suns proper;” borne by the name of Pierfon.
19. “ Gules, a Mullet between three Crefcents Ar¬
gent;” borne by the name of Oliver.
20. “ Gules, a Chief Argent, on the lower part
thereof a Cloud, the Sun’s refplendent rays iffuing
throughout proper;” borne by the name of Lee/bn.
IL Examples of Effigies of Men, &c. and their parts.
1. “Azure, the Virgin Mary crowned, with her pig 14
Babe in her right arm and a feeptre in her left, all
Or ;” the coat of arms of the bifhopric of Salilbury.
2. “Azure, a Prefby ter fitting on a Tomb-ftone,
with a Crown on his head and Glory Or, his right
hand extended, and holding in his left ap open Book
Argent, with a Sword crofs his mouth Gules;” the
coat of arms of the bilhopric of Chicheller.
3. “ Azure, a Bilhop habited in his pontificals, fitting
on a chair of ftate, and leaning on the finifter fide
thereof, holding in his left hand a Crofier, his right
being extended towards the dexter chief of the efeut-
cheon, all Or, and retting his feet on a cufhion, Gules,
taffeled of the fecond ;” the coat of arms of the bi-.
Ihopric of Clogher in Ireland.
4. “ Azure, a Bilhop habited in his pontificals,
holding before him, in a Pale, a Crucifix proper
the coat of arms of the bilhopric of Waterford in
Ireland.
5. “ Or, a Man’s Leg couped at the midft of the
thigh Azure ;” borne by the name of Haddon.
6. “ Azure, three finifter Hands couped at the
vvrift, and ere&ed Argent;” borne by the ancient fa¬
mily of Malmains.
7. “ Argent, three fmiftcr Hands couped at the
wrift, and ere&ed Gules;” borne by the name of May¬
nard.—By thefe two laft examples it appears, that dif¬
ferent coats of arms may be eafily made from the fame
figure or figures, by varying the colours only, without
the addition of any other charge, counter-changings,
partings, &c.
8. “ Argent, a Man’s Leg erafed at the midft of
the thigh Sable ;” borne by the name of Prime.
9. “ Gules, three Legs armed proper, conjoined in
the Fefs-point at the upper part of the thighs, flexed
in triangle, garniflied and fpurred, Or.” This is the
coat of arms of the Ille of Man ; and is quartered by
the moft noble John Murray, duke of Athol, titular
lord or king of that ifle.
10. “ Gules, three dexter Arms vambraced fefsways
in Pale proper;” borne by the name o{ Armflrong.
This coat is very well adapted to the bearer’s name, and
ferves to denote a man of excellent condua and valour.
11. “ Or, three Legs couped above the knee Sable;”
borne by the name of Hofy.
12. “Vert, three dexter Arms conjoined at the
fhoulders in the Fefs-point, and flexed in triangle Or,
with fifts clenched Argentborne by the name of
7remain*
13. “Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, within tw®
equilateral triangles interlaced Sable;” borne by the
name of Villages, a family of diftin&ion in Provence.
I4* “ Azure, a finifter Arm, ifluing out of the
J L dexter-
458 HERA
Pofitions of dexter-chief, and extended towards the finifler-bafe
l^ons. Argent,»
- ’ ' 1 “ Argent, a dexter Hand couped at the wrift
and erefted, within a bordure engrailed Sable;” borne
by the name of Manley.
16. “ Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, enfigned
with a Crown Or, and on a Cliief Azure, three Mul¬
lets of the firll.” The paternal coat of the name of
Douglas, and quartered in the arms of the dukes of
Hamilton and Queentberry; 3s alfo in thofe of the
earls of Morton and March, and the lord Mordington.
17. “ Gules, a Saracen’s Head affrontce Crafed at
the neck Argent, environed about the temples with a
wreath of the fecond and Sable;” borne by the name
of Mergitb.
18. “ Argent, three Blackamoors Heads couped
proper, banded about the head Argent and Gules ;”
borne by the name of Tanner.
19. “ Gules, three Befants, each charged with a
man’s face affrontee proper ;” borne by the name of
Gamin.
20. “ Or, a Blackamoor’s Head couped proper,
banded about the head Argent;” borne by the name
«f U/loc.
Obferve, that when half of the face, or little more,
of human figures, is feen in a field, it is then faid to be
in profile; and when the head of a man, woman, or
other animal, is reprefented with a full face, then it is
termed ajfrontee.
III. Examples of the different Pofiticns of Liens, &C. in
Coats-of-sir ms.
Plate 1. « Or, a Lion rampant Gules ;” quartered by
CCXXXl, p£ICy> duke 0f Northumberland, &c.
s‘li' 2. “ Azure, a Lion rampant-guardant Or;” borne
by the name of Fitm-Hammond.
3. “ Gules, a Lion rampant-reguardant Or;” quar¬
tered by Cadogan, lord Cadogan, tUc.
4. “ Ermine, a Lion faliant Gules;” borne by the
name of Worley.
5. “ Azure, a Lion ftatant-guardant Or;” borne by
the name of Bromfeld.
C. “ Or, a Lion paffant Gules;” borne by the name
of Games.
7. “ Argent, a Lion paflant-guardant Gules,
crowned Orquartered by the right hon. James Ogil-
vy, earl of Findlater, Sic.
8. “ Gules, a Lion fejant Argent.”
9. “ Or, a Lion rampant double-headed Azure ;”
borne by the name of Mafon.
10. “Sable, two Lions rampant-combatant Or, armed
and langutd Gules ;” borne by the name of Carter.
ti. “ Azure, two Lions rampant-adoflee Or.”
This coat of arms is faid to have been borne by A-
chilles at the fiege of Troy.
1 “ Sable, two Lioncels counter-paffant Argent,
the uppermotl towards the finifter fide of the efcut-
cheon, both collared Gules;” borne by the name of
Glegg.—It is the natural difpofition of the Lion not to
bear a rival in the field: therefore two lions cannot be
borne in one coat of arms, but muft be fuppofed to be
lion’s whelps, called lioncels; except when they are
parted by an ordinary, as in fig. viii. n° 17. or fo dif-
pofed as that they feem to be diftindtly feparated from
each other, as in fig. xv. n° zo. In the two foregoing
L D R Y. Chap. III.
examples they are called lions, becaufe in the 10th they Pofnions of
feem to be ftriving for the fovereignty of the field, which I'ions'
they would not do unlefs they were of full growth:
and in the 11th they are fuppofed to reprefent two
valiant men, whofe difpute being accommodated by the
prince, are leaving the field, their pride not fuffering
them to go both one way.
13. “ Argent, a Demi-lion rampant Sable ;” borne
by the name of Mervin.
14. “ Gules, a Lion couchant between fix Crofs-
croflets, three in Chief, and as many in Bafe, Argent
for the name of Tynte; and is the firft and fourth quar¬
ter of the arms of Sir Charles-Kemys Tynte, bart.
15. “ Azure, a Lion dormant Or.”
16. “ Or, out of the midft of a Fefs Sable, a Lion
rampant-naiflant Gules;” borne by the name of Emme.
This form of blazon is peculiar to all living things
that fhall be found iffuing out of the midft of fome or¬
dinary or other charge.
17. “ Azure, three Lioncels rampant Or;” borne
by Fienes, vifcount and baron Saye and Sele.
18. “ Gules, a tricorporated Lion iffuing from three
parts of the Efcutcheon, all meeting under one Head
in the Fefs-point Or, langued and armed Azure;”
borne by the name of Crouchback. This coat apper¬
tained to Edmund Crouchback earl of Lancafter, in
the reign of his brother king Edward I.
19. “ Gules, a befant between three Demi-lions ram¬
pant Argent;” borne by Bennet, earl of Tankerville,
&c. This noble earl is defcended from the family of
the Bennets in Berkfhire, who flouriihed in the reign
of king Edward III. Charles, lord Oflulfton, grand¬
father of the prefent earl, was created earl of Tanker¬
ville on OAober 19. 1714, by George I.
20. “ Party per Pale Azure and Gules, three Lions
rampant Argent;” borne by Herbert earl of Pembroke,
&c. This noble family is defcended from Henry Fitz¬
Roy, natural fon to Henry I. Sir William Herbert,
one of the anceftors of the prefent earl, was mafter of the /
horfe to king Henry VIII. lord prefident of the marches
of Wales, and knight of the garter* He was alfo, by
that king, advanced to the dignity of baron Herbert of
Caerdiff, Oft. 10. 1551, and the very next day created
earl of Pembroke.—Obferve, that if a lion, or any other
beaft, is reprefented with its limbs and body feparated,
fo that they remain upon the field at a fmall diftance
from their natural places, it is then termed Dehache or
couped in all its parts ; of which very remarkable bear¬
ing there is an inftance in armory, which is, “ Or, a
Lion rampant Gules, dehache, or couped in all its
parts, within a double Trefiure flowery and counter-
flowery of the fecond ;” borne by the name of Mait¬
land.
IV. Examples of other Quadrupeds, and their Parts,
borne in Coats-of-Arms.
1. “ Sable, a Camel ftatant Argent;” borne by the Fig. Ifc
name of Camel.
2. “ Gules, an Elephant ftatant Argent, tuiked
On”
3. “Argent, a Boar ftatant Gules, armed Or;”
borne by the name of Trenvarthen.
4. “ Sable, a Bull paffantOr;” borne by the name
of Fitz-Geffrey.
5. “ Sable, three Nags Heads erafed Argent
borne
Chap. III. HERA
Different borne by Blayney, baron Blayney of Monaghan, in Ire-
t An.mals. jan(j# rfhiS noble family is defcended in a direft line
from Cadwallader, a younger fon of the prince of
Wales ; and the firft peer was Sir Edward Blayney,
knight, who was created a baron by king James I.
July 29. 1621.
6. “ Argent, three Boars Heads erafed and ereft
Sable, langued Gules,” for the name of Booth.
7. “ Azure, three Boars Heads erafed Or;” quar¬
tered by his grace Alexander Gordon duke of Gordon,
&c. Of this great and noble family, which took their
furname from the barony of Gordon in the county of
Berwick, there have been, befides thofe in North Britain,
feveral of great diftindtion in Mufcovy; and in the time
of king Malcolm IV. 1160, this family was very nu¬
merous, and flourilhed in the county aforefaid.
S. “ Argent, three Bulls Heads erafed, Sable, armed
Or:” borne by Skeffington, earl of Mafl'areene, &c. of
Ireland. This ancient and noble family derives its name
from the village of SkefHngton, in the county of Lei-
cefter, of which place Simon ^keffington was lord in
the reign of Edward I. and from him defcended Sir
William Skeffington, knt. made fo by king Henry VII.
9. “ Argent, two Foxes counter-faliant, the dex¬
ter furmounted of the finiller Gules;” for the name of
Kadrod-Hard., an ancient Britifh family, from which
is defcended Sir Wynne, bart. who
bears this quartered, fecond and third, in his coat of
arms.
10. “ Argent, three Bulls paflant Sable, armed and
unguled Or ;” for Alhley, and quartered by the right
hon. Anthony-Afhley Cooper, earl of Shaftefbury, &c.
This noble earl is defcended from Richard Cooper,
who flouriffied in the reign of king Henry VIII. and
purchafed the manor of Paulet in the county of Somer-
fet, of which the family are ftill proprietors. But his
anceftor who makes the greateft figure in hillory is Sir
Anthony-Afhley Cooper, who was created baron Alhley
of Winbourn April 20. 1661, and afterwards earl of
Shaftefbury April 23. 1672.
11. “ Ermine, three Cats paffant in Pale Argent;”
for the name of Adams.
12. “ Gules, two Grehounds rampant Or, refpefting
each other ;” borne by the name of Dogget.
13. “ Or, an Afs’s Head erafed Sable ;” borne by
the name of Hackiuell.
14. “ Gules, three Lions gambs erafed Argent;”
for the name of Newdigate.
15. “ Argent, three Lions Tails ere&ed and erafed
Gules j” borne by the name of Cork.
16. “Azure, a Buck’s Head caboffed A rgent;”
borne by Legge, earl of Dartmouth, &c. This noble
family is defcended from Signior de Lega, an Italian
nobleman, who flourifhed in Italy in the year 1297.
What time the family came into England is uncertain;
but it appears they were fettled at Legge-place, near
Tunbridge in Kent, for many generations; andThomas,
oije of their anceltors, was twice lord-mayor of Lon¬
don, viz. in 1346 and *353-
17. “ Argent, two Squirrels fejant adoflee Gules,”
for the name of Sam well.
iS. “ Gules, a Goat pafiant Argent;” borne by
the name of Baker.
19. “ Sable, a Stag Handing at gaze Argent;”
borne by the name of Jones, of Monmouthfhire. ^
L D R Y.
20. “ Azure, three Holy Lambs Orborne
the name of Row.
V. Examples of Birds, Fifhes, Reptiles, See.
J. “ Ermine, an Eagle difplayed Sable;” borne
the name of Bcddingfield.
2. “Gules, a Swan clofe proper;” borne by the
name of Leigham.
3. “ Argent, a Stork Sable, membered Gules;”
borne by the name of Starkey.
4. “ Gules, a Pelican in her nefl: with wings ele¬
vated, feeding her young ones Or; vulned proper;”
borne by the name of Came.
5. “ Argent, three Peacocks in their pride proper;”
borne by the name of Pawne.
6. “ Sable, a Goffiawk Argent, perching upon a
flock in the Bafe-point of the Efcutcheon of the fe¬
cond, armed, jefled, and belled Or;” borne by the
name of Weele.
7. “ Or, a Raven proper;” borne by the name of
Corbet.
8. “ Argent, three Cocks Gules, crefted and jow-
lopped Sable, a Crefcent furmounted of a Crefcent for
difference ;” borne by Cockayne, vifeount Cullen, of
Donegal in Ireland. Of this ancient family was Andreas
Cockayne of Afhburne in the county of Derby, who
lived in the 28th year of Edward I. Charles, fon to Sir
William Cockayne lord-mayor of London, 1619, was
the firft who was advanced to the peerage, by Charles I.
Auguft 1 r, 1642.
9. “ Sable, a Dolphin naiant embowed Or;” borne
by the name of Symonds. This animal is borne by the
eldeft fon of the French king, and next heir to the
crown, no other fubjedt in that kingdom being per¬
mitted to bear it. In England, where that rule can¬
not take place, there are feveral families that have
dolphins in their coats-of-arms.
10. “ Argent, three Whales Heads eredl and erafed
Sable ;” borne by the name of Whalley.
11. “ Gules, three Efcallops Argent;” borne by
Keppel, earl of Albemarle, &c. This family is defeend-
ed from Arnold Jooft van Keppel, a nobleman of the
province of Gelderland in Holland, who came over into
England with the prince of Orange in 1688, to whom
he was then a page of honour, and afterwards mafter of
the robes, and was by him created a peer of England,
by the title of earl of Albemarle, in the duchy of Nor¬
mandy in France, February 10. 1696.
12. “ Azure, three Trouts fretted in Triangle Ar¬
gent ;” borne by the name of Troutbeck.
13. “Vert, a Grafshopper paflant Or.”
14. “ Azure, three Bees two and one volant in pale
Argent;” borne by the name of Bye.
15. “Vert, a Tortoife paflant Argent;” borne by
the name of Gawdy.
16. “ Gules, an Adder nowed Or;” borne by the
name of Nathiley. Adders, fnakes, and ferpents are
faid to reprefent many things, which being according
to the fancy of the ancients, and a few modern authors
who have adopted their opinions, it is needlefs to en¬
large upon. It is certain they often occur in armory;
but the nobleft is that of the duchy of Milan, viz.
“ Argent, a Serpent gliding in Pale Azure, crowned
Or, vorant an Infant ifluing Gules.” The occafion
of this bearing was this: Otho, firft vifeount of Milan,
3 L 2 going
by 1
460 HERA
Reptiles, going to the Holy Land with Godfrey of Bouillon,
Plants, &c. defeated and flew in Angle combat the great giant
11 ' Volux, a man of an extraordinary ftature and ftrength,
who had challenged the braveft of the Chriftian army.
The vifcount having killed him, took his armour, and
among it his helmet, the creft whereof was a ferpent
fwallowing an infant, worn by him to ftrike terror into
thofe who fliould be fo bold as to engage him.
17. “ Ermine, a Rofe Gules barbed and feeded
proper;” borne by Bofcawen vilcount Falmouth, &c.
This noble lord is defcended from Richard Bofcawen,
of the town of Bofcawen, in the county of Cornwall,
who flourifhed in the reign of king Edward VI. Hugh,
the firfl. peer of this ancient family, was created baron
©f Bofcawen-Rofe, and vifcount Falmouth, on the
13th of June 1720, 6th of George I.
18. “ Azure, three Laurel-leaves-flipped Or;” borne
by the name of Levefon, and quartered by the right hon.
Granville-Levefon Gower, earl of Gower, &c.
ig. “Azure, three Garbs Or;” borne by the name
of Cuming. Thefe are (heaves of wheat; but though
they were barley, rye, or ^ny other corn whatfoever,
it is fufficient, in blazoning, to call them Garbs, telling
the tindture they are of.
20. “Gules, three Cinquefoils Argent;” borne by
Lambart, baron of Cavan, &c. in Ireland. Of this an¬
cient family, which is of French extradtion, was Sir
Oliver, who, in the reign of queen Elizabeth,.attending
the earl of Eflex to Spain,, was there knighted by him,
and afterwards returning with that earl into Ireland,
was, for his Angular fervice in the north againft 0‘Neal
earl of Tyrone, made camp-mafter general, and prefident
of Connaught; and February 17. 1617, was created
lord Lambart and baron of Cavan by king James I.
It mull be obferved, that trees and plants are fome-
times faid to be trunked, eradicated, fru&uated, or
raguled, according as they are reprefcnted in arms.
Art. 2. Of Artifjcial Figures borne in Coats of
Arms.
After the various productions of nature, artiAcial
figures, the objedls of arts and mechanics, claim the
next rank. They may be diilributed into the following
daffes, I'i-z..
Warlike. inJlrumenU; as fwords, arrows, battenng-
rams, gauntlets, helmets, fpears, pole-axes, &c. _
Ornaments ufed in royal and religious ceremonies; as
crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crofiers, &c.
Architecture; as towers, caftles, arches, columns,
plummets, battlements, churches, portcullilfes, &c.
Navigation; as (hips, anchors, rudders, pendants,
fails, oars, malts, flags, galleys, lighters, &c.
All thefe bearings have different epithets, ferving
either to exprefs their pofition, difpofition, or make :
viz. fwords are faid to be eredt, pommeled, hiked, &c.;
arrows, armed, feathered, &c.; towers, covered,, em¬
battled, &c.;. and fo on of all others, as will appear
by the following examples.
Tig lS- 1. “ Sable, three Swords, their points meeting in
the Bafe Argent, pommeled and hiked Or, a Crefcent
in chief of the fecond for difference;” borne by Powlet,
duke of Bolton, &c. This noble duke is defcended from
Hercules, lord of Tournon in Picardy, who came over
to England with Jeffrey Plantagenet earl of Anjou, third
ton ofking Henry II. and among.other lands had the
L D It Y. Chap. HI.
lordfliip of Paulet in Somerfetfhire conferred on him. Artificial
William Powlet, the Aril peer of this illuftrious and Figures-
loyal family, was treafurer of the houfehold to king
Henry VIII. and by him created baron St John of Ba¬
ling, in the county of Southampton, March 9. 1538.
2. “ Argent, three Battering-rams barways in Pale,
headed Azure and hooped Or, an Annulet for differ¬
ence ;” borne by Bertie, earl of Abington, &c. The
firfl: of the family of Bertie that bore the title of earl of
Abington was James Bertie lord Norris of Rycote,
being created earl, November 30. 1682, by Charles II.
3. “ Azure, three left-hand Gauntlets with their
backs forward Or;” borne by Fane, earl of Weftmore-
land, &c. This noble earl is defcended from the Fanes,
an ancient family which refided at Badfal in Kent, from
which defcended Francis Fane, fon and heir of Sir Tho¬
mas Fane, knight, by Mary his wife, foie daughter and
heirefis to Henry Nevil lord Abergavenny, afterwards
created baronefs Defpenfer. The faid Francis was a
knight of the bath ; and in the reign of king James I.
was created baron Burgherlh and earl of Weitmoreland
December 29. 1624.
4. “ Azure, three Arrows their points in bafe Or;”
borne by Archer, lord Archer, &c. This noble lord is
defcended from John de Archer, who came over from
Normandy with William the Conqueror; and this fa¬
mily is one of the mod ancient in Warwickfhire, being
fettled at Umberflade in that county ever fince the reign
of Henry II. His lordfliip is the firft peer; and was
created lord Archer and baron of Umberflade by king
George II. July 14. 1747.
5. “ Gules, two Helmets in chief proper, garnifhed
Or, in a Bafe of a Garb of the third;” borne by Chol-
mondeley, earl of Cholmondeley, &c. This noble earl
is defcended from the ancient family of Egerton in
Chelhire, which flourifhed in the time of the conquert,
from whom alfo the duke of Bridgewater is defcended.
The firft Englifh peer of this branch was Hugh vifcount
Cholmondeley of Kells, in Ireland, who, joining with
thofe who oppofed the arbitrary meafures of king
James II. was on the acceflion of king William and queen
Mary created lord Cholmondeley of Nampt-wich, in
the county of Chefter.
6. “ Argent, a Ship with its Sails furled up Sable ;”
quartered by Hamilton, earl of Abercorn, &c. The
defcent of this noble family is from that of the duke of
Hamilton : for James, the fourth lord Hamilton and
fecond earl of Arran, marrying lady Margaret Douglas
daughter of James the third earl of Morton, by her had
fonr fons, James, John, Claud, and David; whereof
Claud was progenitor of the lord w'e are now fpeaking
of; and in confideration of his merit and loyalty to Mary
queen of Scots, James VI. created him lord Paifley in
1591, as alfo earl of Abercorn, baron of Hamilton, &c.
July 10. 1606..
7. “ Or, an Anchor in pale Gules;” quartered by
the moft noble George Johnfton, marquis of Annan-
dale, &c. The Johnftons are an ancient and warlike
family, and derive their furname from the barony of
Johnfton in Annandale.
8. “ Sable, three Spears heads erett Argent, imbrued
Gules, on a chief Or, as many Pole-axes Azure;” borne
by King, lord King, &c. Peter King, Efq; the firft
lord of this ancient tamily, was chofen recorder of the
city of. London, July 27. 1708, and on the 12th of
September.
-y-w./o.
AvAui.a vc.
Hate CCXXXI
ilONS
limns vc.
ARTTFreiAT, TrCORBS •
I
Chap. III. HERA
I Artificial September following bad the honour of knighthood
. Figures. conferre(l on him. He Was conftituted lord-chief-juttice
* 1'' of the common-pleas in the firft year of king George I.
1714; on the 5th of April following was fworn of
his majefty’s moil hon. privy council; and on May 19.
1723, was created a peer of this kingdom by the
title of lord King, baron of Ockham.
9. “ Gules, three Clarions Or;” quartered by Car¬
teret, earl of Granville, &c. This ancient and worthy
family derives its pedigree from Offerey de Carteret,
who attended William the Conqueror in his defcent
upon England, and contributed to the vidlory he ob¬
tained over king Harold, at Haftings in Suffex, 1066,
he had manors and lands in England conferred on him
by that prince, as a reward for his eminent fervices.
George the firft earl was, in confideration of his own
merit and the fervices of his anceftors, created a peer of
Great Britain, Oftober 19. 1681.
10. “ Argent, a Maunch Sable;” borne by Haftings,
earl of Huntingdon, &c. The prefent noble earl is de-
fcended from Hugh de Haftings, a younger fon of the
ancient and noble family of the Haftings, earl of Pem¬
broke, of which family was William de Haftings, fteward
of the houfehold to king Henry I.—William, the firft
lord Haftings, was created a baron on July 6. 1461, by
king Edward IV.
1 r. “ Azure, a circular Wreath Argent and Sable,
with four Hawk’s Bells joined thereto in quadrature
Or ;” borne by Jocelyn, vifcount Jocelyn, &c. This
noble family is of great antiquity; for, after the Romans
had been mafters of Britain 500 years, wearied with the
wars, they took their final farewel of it, and carried away
with them a great many of their brave old Britifh fol-
diers, who had ferved them in their wars both at home
and abroad, to whom they gave Amorica in France,
for their former fervices, which country was from them
afterwards called Little Britain. It is fuppofed that
there were fome of this family amongft them; and that
they gave the name of Jocelyn to a town in this coun¬
try, which ftill preferves that name : and it is thought
probable that they returned with William the Con¬
queror ; for we find, in 1066, mention made of Sir
Gilbert Jocelyn. This prefent nobleman, the firft
lord of the family, was created baron Newport, of
Newport in Ireland, on November 29. 1743, and vif¬
count in November 1751.
12. “ Gules, three Towers Argent 5” quartered by
Fowler, vifcount Afhbrook, &c. William Fowler, Efq;
was advanced to the peerage by king George II. and
created baron of Caftle-Durrow, in the county of KiF
kenny, Odlober 27. 1733 ; and his fon was created vif¬
count Afhbrook, of Afhbrook in Ireland, on Sept. 30.
1751, now extindl.
13. “ Gules, two Keys in Saltier Argent, in Chief
a Royal Crown proper;” the arms of the archbifhopric
of York.
14. “ Gules, two Swords in Saltier Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Or;” the arms of the bifhopric of
London.
I5V “ Sable, a Key in Bend, furmounted by a
Crofier in Bend fmifter, both Or;” the arms of the
bifhopric of St Afaph.
16. “ Gules, two Keys adoflee in Bend, the up-
p.ermoft Argent, the other Or, a Sword interpofed
L D R Y. 461
between them in Bend-fimfter of the fecond, pomme- Chimerical
led and hiked of the third ;” the arms of the bifhopric t?1£ure3, .
of Winchefter. ~v
17. “ Gules, three Mitres with their pendants Or;”
the arms of the bifhopric of Chefter.
18. “ Sable, three Ducal Coronets paleways Or;”
the arms of the bifhopric of Briftol.
19. “ Gules, a Sword ere£t in pale Argent, pommel¬
ed and hiked Or, furmounted by two Keys in Saltier
of the laft;” the arms of the bifhopric of Exeter.
20. “ Gules, three Ducal Coronets, Or;” the arms
of the bifhopric of Ely.
Art. III. Of Chimerical Figures.
The laft and the oddeft kind of bearings in coats
of arms, is comprehended under the name of chimerical
figures; that is to fay, fuch as have no real exiftence,
but are mere fabulous and fantaftical inventions. Thefe
charges, griffons, martlets, and unicorns excepted, are
fo uncommon in Britifh coats, that in order to make
up the fame number of examples hitherto contained in
each collettion, feveral foreign bearings are introduced
here; which, however, as they are conform to the laws
of heraldry, will alfo contribute both to entertain and
inftrudt the reader. Thofe moft in ufe are the follow¬
ing, viz.
Angels, Cherubims, Tritons, Centaurs, Martlets,
Griffons, Unicorns, Dragons, Mermaids, Satyrs, Wi-
verns, Harpies, Cockatrices, Phenixes.
Thefe, like the foregoing charges, are fubjeft to
various pofitions and difpofitions, which, from the
principles already laid down, will be plainly under-
flood. See the examples, fig. xix.
N° 1. is “ Gules, an Angel ftanding,affrontee, with
his hands conjoined and elevated upon his break, ha¬
bited in a long Robe clofe girt Argent, his Wings dif-
played Or;” borne by the name of Brangor de Cere-
v'fia, a foreign prelate, who aflifted at the council of ,
Conftance, 1412. This example is quoted by Guillim,
Sedl. III. Chap. i.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Cherubim
Or;” borne by the name of Chaloner, of Yorkfhire
and Chefhire.
3. “ Azure, a Fefs indented between three Che¬
rubim Argent.” Thefe arms were granted to John
Ayde, Efq; of Doddington in Kent, by Sir William
Segar, garter.
4. “ Gules, a Cherub ^ving three pair of Wings,
-the uppermoft and lowermoft counter-croffed Saltier-
ways,, and the middlemoft difplayed Argentborne
by the name of. Buocafoco, a foreign prelate. This
example is copied from Meneftrier’s Methode du Blafion,
p, 120, N° viii.
5. “ Azure, a Griffon fegreant Or, armed and
langued Gules, between three Crefcents Argent;”
quartered by Biigh, lord Clifton, 8cc. The anceftor of
this noble family, who lived in London, going over to
Ireland in the time of Oliver Cromwell, as an agent to.
the adventurers there, acquired a good eftate, and laid
the foundation for the grandeur of this family.
6. “ Gules, three Martlets Or;” borne by the name
of MacgilL Guillim obferves, that this bird, which.
is reprefented without feet, is given for a difference to ■
younger brothers, to put them in mind, that, in. order-.
462 HERA
Chimerical to raife themfelves, they are to truft to their wings of
, ^ 1^^re?' virtue and merit, and not to their legs, having but little
land to fet their feet on.
7. “ Azure, three Mullets Argent within a double
Treffure counter-flowery Or, in the centre a Martlet of
the laftj” borne by Murray, lord Elibank. Sir Gideon
Murray, knighted by king James VI. by whom he was
made treafurer-depute, was third fon of Sir Andrew
Murray of Blackbarony. His fon Patrick, In refpeA
of his loyalty to Charles I. was on May 16. 1628 made
a baronet, and in 1643 created lord Elibank.
8. “ Sable, a Cockatrice difplayed Argent, crefted,
membreed, and jowllopped Gules.”
9. “ Argent, a Mermaid Gules, crined Or, holding
in her right hand a Comb, and in her left a Mirror,
both proper borne by the name of Ellis.
10. “ Argent, a Wivern, his Wings elevated, and
his Tail nowed below him Gules j” borne by the name
of Drahes.
11. “ Or, a Dragon paflant Vert.”
12. “ Gules, a Centaur or Sagittary in full fpeed
reguardant proper.” This was the coat of arms of
Stephen furnamed of Blois, fon to Adela daughter of
William the Conqueror, and of Stephen earl of Biois j
and on this defcent grounding his pretenfion to the
crown of England, he was proclaimed king in 1135,
and reigned to the 25th of O&ober 1154.
13. “ Argent, an Unicorn fejant Sable, unguled
and horned Or;” borne by the name of Hurling.
14. “ Argent, a Dragon’s Head erafed Vert, hold¬
ing in his Mouth a finifter Hand couped at the Wrift
Gules;” borne by the name of Williams.
15. “ Gules, three Unicorns Heads couped Or;”
borne by the name of Paris.
16. “ Argent, a Wivern volant Bendways Sable;”
borne by the name of Raynon.
17. “ Azure, a Lion fejant guardant winged Or,
his Head encircled with a Glory, holding in his fore¬
paws an open Book, wherein is written, Pax tibi,
Marce, EvangelUla rr.eus; over the dexter fide of the
Book a Sword ereft, all proper.” Thefe are the arms
of the republic of Venice.
18. ” Azure, a Bull faliant and winged Or;” borne
by the name of Cadenet, a family of diitinftion of Pro¬
vence.
19. “ Argent, a Wivern with a human Face af-
frontee hooded, and winged Vert;” borne by the
name of Buferaghi, an ancient and noble family of
Luques..
20. “ Azure, a Harpy difplayed, armed, crined,
and crowned Or.” Thefe are the arms of the city of
Noremberg in Germany.
To the forementioned figures may be added the
montegre, an imaginary creature, fuppofed to have
the body of a tyger with a fatyr’s head and horns; al-
fo thofe which have a real exiftence, but are faid to be
endowed with extravagant and imaginary qualities, viz.
{he falamander, beaver, cameleon, &c.
CHAP. IV.
Of /^External Ornaments o/’Escut-
CHEONS.
The ornaments that accompany or furround efcut-
cheons were introduced to denote the birth, dignity,
L DRY. Chap. III.
or office, of the perfons to whom the coat-of-arms ap- Crowns,
pertaineth ; which is praftifed both among the laiiy v—-y—^
and clergy. Thofe moft in ufe are of ten forts, viz.
Crowns, Coronets, Mitres, Helmets, Mantlings, Cha¬
peaux, Wreaths, Crefts, Scrolls, Supporters.
Sect. I. Of Cronuns.
The firft crowns were only diadems, bands, or fil¬
lets; afterwards they were compofcd of branches of di¬
vers trees, and then flowers were added to them.
Among the Greeks, the crowns given to thofe who
carried the prize at the Ifthmian games, were of pine;
at the Olympick, of laurel; and at the Nemean, of
fmallage.
The Romans had various crowns to reward martial
exploits and extraordinary fervices done to the repub¬
lic ; fsr which fee the detached article Crown in this
Didionary, and Plate CL.
Examples of feme of thefe crowns are frequently
met with in modern atchievements, viz. 1. The mural
crown in that of lord Montfort, which was conferred on
Sir John Bromley, one of his lordlhip’s anceftors, as an
augmentation to his arms, for his great courage at the
battle of Le Croby. Part of the creft of lord Archer
is alfo a mural crown. And there are no lefs than
ten Englilh baronets, whofe arms are ornamented with
the fame crown. 2. The naval or roftral crown is
ftill ufed with coats-of-arms, as may be feen in thofe
of Sir William Burnaby, bart. now admiral of the red
fquadron, and of John Clerke, Efq; as part of their
crefts. 3. Of the cajlrenfe or vallary crown, we have
inftances in the coat-of-arms of Sir Reginald Graham,
and of Ifaac Akerman, Efq. 4. The creft of Grice
Blackney, Efq; is encompaffed with a civic crown.
5. The radiated crown, according to J. Yorke, was
placed over the arms of the kings of England, till the
time of Edward III. It is ftill ufed as a creft on
the arms of fome private families; thofe, for example,
borne by the name of Whitfield, are ornamented with
it. The celeftial crown is formed like the radiated,
with the addition of a ftar on each ray ; and is only
ufed upon tomb-ftones, monuments, and the like 
Others of the ancient crowns are ftill borne, as crefts,
by feveral families.
But modern crowns are only ufed as an ornament,
which emperors, kings, and independent princes fet
on their heads, in great folemnities, both to denote
their fovereign authority, and to render themfelves
more awful to their fubjects. Thefe are the moft in ufe
in heraldry, and are as follows :
The imperial crown (n°i.), is made of a circle ofplate
gold, adorned with precious ftones and pearls, height- CCXXXIF.
ened with fleurs-de-lis, bordered and feeded with pearls, fig. so.
railed in the form of a cap voided at the top, like a
crefcent. From the middle of this cap rifes an arched
fillet enriched with pearls, and furmounted of a mound,
whereon is a crofs of pearls.
The crown of the kings of Great Britain (2.) is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, enriched with
pearls and precious ftones, and heightened up with
four crofles pattee and four large fleurs-de-lis alter¬
nately ; from thefe rife four arched diadems adorned
with pearls, which clofe under a mound, furmounted
of a crofs like thofe at bottom. Mr Sandford, in
his Genealogical Hiftory, p. 381. remarks, that Ed¬
ward
Chap. IV. HERA
Crowns ward IV. is the firft king of England that in his
U'-y—' ■ feal, or on his coin, is crowned with an arched dia-
oem.
The crown of the kings in France (3.) is a circle
enamelled, adorned with precious ftones, and height¬
ened up with eight arched diadems, rifing from as
many fleurs-de-lis, that conjoin at the top under a
double fleur-de-lis, all of gold.
The crowns of Spain, Portugal, and Poland, are
all three of the fame form, and are, amongft others,
thus deferibed by colonel Parfons, in his Genealogical
Tables of Europe, viz. A ducal coronet, heightened
up with eight arched diadems that fupport a mound,
enfigned with a plain crofs. Thofe of Denmark and
Sweden are both of the fame form; and confilt of eight
arched diadems, rifing from a marquis’s coronet, which
conjoin at the top under a mound enfigned with a crofs-
bottony.
The crowns of moft other kings are circles of gold,
adorned with precious ftones, and heightened up with
large trefoils, and clofed by four, fix, or eight diadems,
fupporting a mound, fuimounted of a crofs.
The Great Turk (4) bears over his arms a tur-
band, enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two
coronets, the firft of which is made of pyramidical
points heightened up with large pearls, and the upper-
moft is furmounted with crefcents.
The Pope, or biihop of Rome, appropriates to him-
felf a Tiara (n°5.), or long cap of golden cloth, from
which hang two pendants embroidered and fringed at
the ends,_/iWe of crofles of gold. This cap is inclofed
by three marquis’s coronets; and has on its top a
mound of gold, whereon is a crofs of the fame, which
crofs is fometimes reprefented by engravers and pain¬
ters pometted, recroffed, flowery, or plain.—It is
a difficult matter to afeertain the time when thefe
haughty prelates affumed the three forementioned co¬
ronets. A patched up fucceffion of the holy pontiffs,
engraved and publilhed a few years ago by order of
ClementXHI. the late Pope, for the edification of
his good fubjefts in Great Britain and Ireland, repre-
fents Marcellus, who was chofen bifhop of Rome anno
31 o, and all his fucceffors, adorned with fuch a cap :
but it appears, from very good authority, that Boni¬
face VIII. who was elefted into the fee of Rome anno
1295. firft compaffed his cap with a coronet; Bene¬
dict XII. in 1335, added a fecond to it; and John
XXIII. in 1411, a third; with a view to indicate by
them, that the Pope is the fovereign prieft, the fupreme
judge, and the foie legiflator amongft Chriftians.
Sect. II. Of Coronets.
The Coronet of the prince of Wales, or eldeft fon
of the king of Great Britain (n° 7.), was anciently a
circle of gold fet round with four croffes-pattee, and as
many fleurs-de-lis alternately ; but fince the reftora-
tion, it has been clofed with one arch only, adorned
with pearls, and furmounted of a mound and crofs,
and bordered with ermine like the king’s.
Befides the aforefaid coronet, his royal highnefs the
prince of "Wales has another diftinguiffiing mark of
honour, peculiar to himfclf, called by the vulgar the
prince's arms, viz. A plume of three oftrich-feathers,
with an ancient coronet of a prince of Wales. Under
it, in a fcroll, is this motto, Ich Dien, which in the
L D R Y.
German or old Saxon language fignifies “ I ferve ;” Ct
(fee n°6). This device was at firft taken by Edward
prince of Wales, commonly called the Had prince,
after the famous battle of Creffe, in 1346, where ha¬
ving with his own hand killed John king of Bohemia,
he took from his head fuch a plume, and put it on his
own.
The coronet of all the immediate fons and bro¬
thers of the kings of Great Britain, is a circle of gold,
bordered with ermine, heightened up with four fleurs-
de-lis, and as many croffes-pattee alternate, (feen°8).
—The particular and diftinguilhing form of fuch co¬
ronets as are appropriated to princes of the blood-
royal, is deferibed and fettled in a grant of Charles II.
the 13th of his reign.
The coronet of the princeffes of Great Britain is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, and heightened
up with croffes-pattee, fleurs-de-lis, and ftrawberry
leaves alternate (n° 9.); whereas a prince’s coronet has-
only fleurs-de-lis and croffes.
A duke’s coronet is a circle of gold bordered with
ermine, enriched with precious ftones and pearls, and
fet round with eight large ftrawberry or parfley leaves;
(n° i°).
A marquis’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered
with ermine, fet round with four ftrawberty leaves,
and as many pearls on pyramidical points of equal
height, alternate; (n°ii).
An earl’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with
ermine, heightened up with eight pyramidical points
or rays, on the tops of which are as many large pearls,
and are placed alternately with as many ftrawberry-
leaves, but the pearls much higher than the leaves ;
(n° 12).
A vifeount’s coronet differs from the preceding one»
as being only a circle of gold bordered with ermine,
with large pearls fet clofe together on the rim, with¬
out any limited number, which is his prerogative above
the baron, who is limited ; (fee n° 13).
A baron’s coronet, (n° 14), which was granted
by king Charles II. is formed with fix pearls fet at
equal diftance on a gold circle, bordered with ermine,
four of which only are feen on engravings, paintings,
&c. to ffiow he is inferior to the vifeount.
The eldeft fons of peers, above the degree of a
baron, bear their father’s arms and fupporters with a.
label, and ufe the coronet appertaining to their father’s
fecond title ; and all the younger fons bear their arms
with proper differences, but ufe no coronets.
As the crown of the king of Great Britain is not
quite like that of other potentates, fo do moft of the
coronets of foreign noblemen differ a little from thofe
of the Britiffi nobility : as for example, the coronet of
a French earl is a circle of gold with 18 peails fet on
the brim ©f it; a French vifeount’s coronet is a
circle of gold only enamelled, charged with four large
pearls; and a French baron’s coronet is a circle of
gold enamelled and bound about with a double brace¬
let of pearls: and thefe coronets are only ufed on
French noblemens coats-of-arms, and not worn on
their heads, as the Britilh noblemen and their ladies
do at the king’s coronation.
'Sect. III. Qf Mitres.-
The archbilhops and biffiops of England and Ire¬
land
464 HERA
Helmets, land place a mitre over their coats-of-arms. It is a
v  round cap pointed arid cleft at the top, from which
hang two pendants fringed at both ends; with this
difference, that the bifhop’s mitre is only furrounded
with a fillet of gold, fet with precious Hones, (fee
fig. 23. n°6). whereas the archbifhop’s iffues out of a
ducal coronet, fee fig. 20. n° 15).
This ornament, with other mafquerade garments,
is {till worn by all the archbilhops and bifhops of the
church of Rome, whenever they officiate with folem-
nky ; but it is never ufed in England, otherwife than
on coats-of-arms, as before mentioned.
Sect. IV. Of Helmets.
The Helmet was formerly worn as a defenfive wea¬
pon, to cover the bearer’s head; and is now placed
over a coat-of-arms as its chief ornament, and the
true mark of gentility. There are feveral forts, di-
llinguiffied, ift, by the matter they are made of;
zdly, by their form ; and, jdly, by their pofition.
iff, As to the matter they are, or rather were,
made of : The helmets of fovereigns were of burnilhed
gold damalked ; thofe of princes and lords, of filver
figured with gold ; thofe of knights, of fteel adorned
with filver; and thofe of private gentlemen, of poliffied
fteel.
zdly, As to their form : Thofe of the king and the
royal family, and noblemen of Great Britain, are open-
faced and grated, and the number of bars ferves to
diffinguiffi the bearers quality; that is, the helmet ap¬
propriated to the dukes and marquifes is different
from the king’s, by having a bar exaftly in the middle,
and two on each fide, making but five bars in all, (fee
fig. 21. n° 1). . whereas the king’s helmet has fix bars,
viz. three on each fide, (ibid. n° 7.) The other
grated helmet with four bars is common to all degrees
of peerage under a marquis. The open-faced helmet
without bars denotes baronets and knights. The clofe
helmet is for all efquires and gentlemen.
jdly, Their pofition is alfo looked upon as a mark
of‘dirtindtion. The grated helmet in front belongs
to fovereign princes. The grated helmet in profile
is common to all degrees of peerage. The helmet
Handing direft without bars, and the beaver a little
open, denotes baronets and knights. Laftly, the fide-
flanding helmet, with the beaver clofe, is the way of
wearing it amongft efquires and gentlemen. See
n° 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7, inferted in fig. 21. Ornaments.
Sect. V. Of Mantling*.
Mantlings are pieces of cloth jagged or cut into
flowers and leaves, which now-a-days ferve as an orna¬
ment for efcutcheoris. They were the ancient cover¬
ings of helmets, to preferve them, or the bearer, from
the injuries of the weather, as alfo to prevent the ill
-confequences of their too much dazzling the eye in
- aftion. But Guillim very judicioufly obferves, that
their ffiape muff have undergone a great altera¬
tion fince they have been out of ufe, and therefore
might more properly be termed fourifbings than mant¬
lings. See the examples annexed to the helmets re-
prefented in fig. 21.
The French heralds affure us, that thefe mantlings
were originally no other than ffiort coverings which
commanders wore over their helmets, and that, going
N°x52.
L D R Y. Chap. IV.
into battles with them, they often, on their coming Chapeaux,
away, brought them back in a ragged manner, oc- Wreaths>
cafioned by the many cuts they had received on their ^ f
heads: and therefore the more hacked they were, the
more honourable they were accounted ; as our colours
in time of war are the more efteemed for having been
flrot through in many places.
Sometimes Ikins of beafts, as lions, bears, See. were
thus borne, to make the bearer look more terrible ;
and that gave occafion to the doubling of mantlings
with furs.
Sect. VI. Of Chapeaux.
A Chapeau is an ancient hat, or rather cap, of dig¬
nity worn by dukes, generally fcarlet-coloured velvet on
the outfide, lined and turned up with fur ; of late
frequently to be met with above an helmet, inftead of
a wreath, under gentlemens and noblemens crefts.
Heretofore they were feldom to be found, as of right
appertaining to private families; but by the grants of
Robert Cooke, Clarencieux, and other fucceeding
heralds, thefe, together with ducal coronets, are now
frequently to be met with in families, who yet claim
not above the degree of gentlemen. See the repre-
fentation of the chapeau, n^. fig. 2 1.
Sect. VII. Of Wreaths.
The Wreath is a kind of roll made of twro fleains
of filk of different colours twifted together, which an¬
cient knights wore as a head-drefs when equipped
for tournaments. The colours of the filk are always
taken from the principal metal and colour contained
in the coat-of-arms of the bearer. They are Hill ac¬
counted as one of the leffer onraments of efcutcheons,
and are placed between the helmet and the creft; (fee
fig. 21. n°6). In the time of Henry I. and long af¬
ter, no man, who was under the degree of a knight,
had his creft fet on a wreath ; but this, like other pre¬
rogatives, has been unfringed fo far, that every body
now-a- days wears a wreath.
Sect. VIII. Of Crejs.
The Creft is the higheft part of the ornaments of
a coat-of-arms. It is called crejl, from the Latin word
cri/la, which fignifies comb or tuft, fuch as many
birds have upon their heads, as the peacock, phea-
fant, &c. in allufion to the place on which it is fixed.
Crefts were formerly great marks of honour, be-
caufe they were only worn by heroes of great valour*
or by fuch as were advanced to fome fuperior military
command, in order that they might be the better di-
ftinguiffied in an engagement, and thereby rally their
men if difperfed ; but they are at prefent confidered
as a mere ornament. The creft is frequently a part
either of the fupporters, or of the charge borne in the
efcutcheon. Thus the creft of the royal atchievement
of Great Britain is a “ Lion guardant crown’d,” as
may be feen in fig. 21. n° 7. The creft of France is
a double Fleur-de-luce.” Out of the many crefts
borrowed from fupporters, are the following, viz.
The duke of Montagu’s, “ A Griffon’s head coup’d
Or, back’d and wing’d Sable the marquis of Rock-
'ingham’s, “ A Griffon’s head argent, gorg’d with
a ducal coronetthe earl of Weftmoreland’s ; “ A
Bull’s head Argent, py’d Sable, armed Or ; and lord
a Archer’*
Heualdet.
Chap.
IV. HERA
Of the Archer’s, which is, “ Out of a muial crown Or, a
•Scroll, &c. Wyvern»s head Argent.” There are feveral inftances of
v " crefts that are relative to alliances, employments, or
names; and which on that account have been changed.
Sect. IX. Of the Scroll.
The Scroll is the ornament placed above the creft,
containing a motto, or Ihort fentence, alludjng thereto,
* or to the bearings ; or to the bearer’s napie, as in the
two following inftances. The motto ftjf the noble
earl of Cholmondeley is, Cajfts tutiffima virtue; i. e.
“ Virtue is the fafeft helmet on account of the hel¬
met'in the coat of arms. The motto of the right
hon. lord Fcrtefcue is, Forte fcutum falus ducum ; i. e.
“ A ftrong ftiield is the fafety of the commanders
alluding to the name of that ancient family. Some¬
times it has reference to neither, but expreffes fome-
thing divine or heroic ; as that of the earl of Scarbo¬
rough, which is, Murus areus confcientia fana; i. e.
<e A good confcience is awall of brafs.” Others aresenig-
matical; as that of the royal atchievement, which is
Dieu et mon droit, i. e. “God and my right;” in¬
troduced by Edward III. in 1340, when he affumed
the arms and title of king of France, and began to
profecute his claim, which Occafioned long and bloody
wars, fatal, by turns, to both kingdoms : or that of
the prince of Wales, which is Ich Dien, “I ferve,”
the origin of which has been already mentioned.
Mottos, though hereditary in the families that firft
took them up, have been changed on fome particular
occafions, and others appropriated in their Head, in¬
ftances of which are fometimes met with in the hiftory
of families.
Sect. X. Of Supporters.
Supporters are figures Handing on the fcroll, and
placed at the fide of the efcutcheon ; they are fo called,
becaufe they feem to fupport or hold up the fhield.
The rife of fupporters is, by F. Meneftrier, traced up
to ancient tournaments, wherein the knights caufed
their fhields to be carried by fervants or pages under
the difguife of lions, bears, griffons, blackamoors, &c.
who alfo held and guarded the efcutcheons, which the
knights were obliged to expofe to public view for
fome time before the lifts were opened. Sir George
Mackenzie, who diffents from this opinion, fays, ui
his Treatife on the fcience of heraldry, chap. xxxi. p. 93.
“ That the firft origin and ufe of them was from the
cuftom which ever was, and is,’ of leading fuch as are
invefted with any great honour to the prince who
confers it: thus, when any man is created a duke,
nnrquis, or knight of the garter, or any other order,
he is fupported by, and led to the prince betwixt, two
of the quality, and fo receives from him the fymbols
of that honour; and in remembrance of that folemnity,
his arms are thereafter fupported by any two crea¬
tures he choofes.” Supporters have formerly been
taken from fuch animals or birds as are borne in the
fhields, and fometimes they have been chofen as bear¬
ing fome allufion to the names of thofe whofe arms
they are made to fupport. The fupporters of the
arms of Great Britain, fince king James the firft’s
acceffion to the throne, are a Lion rampant guardant
crowned Or, m the dexterftde, and an Unicorn Argent,
crowned, armed, vnguled, maned and gorged with an an-
Vol.VJII. Part II,
L D R Y. 465
tique Crown, to which a chain is affixed, all Or, on the Of
finifter ; as it appears by fig. xxi. n° 7. Supporters.
This laft figure reprefents the coat-of-arms of the ^
king of Great Britain, or the royal atchievement, as
it has been marfhalled fince the acceffion of king
George I. in 1714, and is blazoned as follows, viz.
ARMS. Quarterly, in the firft grand quarter Gules,
three Lions rampant guardant in pale Or, the imperial
enfigns of England ; impaled with Or, a Lion rampant,
within a double treffure flowery and counter-flowery Gules,
the royal arms of Scotland. The fecond is A%ure, three
Fleurs de-Us Or, the arms of France. The third is A-
zure, a Harp Or, fringed Argent, the enfign of Ireland.
The fourth grand quarter is Gules, two Liens pajfant
guardant in pale Or, for Brunfwick ; impaled with Or
femee of Hearts proper, a Lion rampant Azure, for Lu-
nenburgh ; with grafted in bafe Gules, a Hoife current
Argent, for ancient Saxony; and in a fhield furtout
Gules, the Crown of Charlemagne Or, as arch-treafurer
of the empire ; the whole within a Garter, infcribed
with this motto, Honi soit qui mal y pense, as fo-
vereign of that noble order, given by the founder king
Edward III.
CREST. On a Helmet full-faced, grated and fur-
mounted of a Crown, a Lion guardant crowned Or ; the
mantlings of the lafi, and lining Ermine,
SUPPORTERS. On the Dexter fide a Lion ram¬
pant guarded Or, crowned as the Crefi. On the Sinifier-
fide an Unicorn Argent, crowned, armed, maned, and un-
guled Or, gorged with an antique Crown ; a Chain affixed
thereto, refieSting over the back, and pqffing over the hind
legs of the lafi, both funding on a Scroll infcribed with this
motto, Dieu et mom droit,/r-o/w which iffue the two
Royal Badges of his Majefiy's chief Dominions, viz, on
the Dexter -fide a Rofe party per Pale Argent and Gules,
fialked and leaved proper for England ; and on the Sini-
filer -fide a Thiflle proper, for Scotland ; being fo adorn¬
ed by king James I. upon his fucceeding to the Crown
of England. As king of Scotland, he bore two uni¬
corns, as above, for his fupporters; but upon the
union of that kingdom with England, 1603, he intro¬
duced one of the above fupporters on the finifter-fide
of the royal atchievement, and which continues to
this day.
It is to be obferved, that bearing coats-of-arms
fupported, is, according to the heraldrical rules of
England, the prerogative, ift, Of thofe called nobiles
majores, viz. dukes marquifes, earls, vifcounts, and
barons; 2d, Of all knights of the garter, though they
Ihould be under the degree of barons ; 3d, Of knights
of the Bath, who both receive on their creation a grant
of fupporters. And, laftly, of fuch knights as the
king choofes to beftow this honour upon ; as in the in-
ftance of Sir Andrew Fountain, who was knighted by
Philip earl of Pembroke, when lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, Fountain being then his fecretarv ; and on his
return to England, king William granted him fup¬
porters to his arms, viz. two Griffons Gules and Or.
In Scotland, all the chiefs of clans or names have
the privilege of claiming fuppoiters ; alfo the baro¬
nets. But by a& of parliament, 10th September
1672, none are allowed to ufe either arms or fupport¬
ers, under a penalty and confifcation of all moveables
whereon arms are put, without the lord Lyon’s au¬
thority.
3 M
• CHAP.
466 HERA
Rules of CHAP. V.
Heraldry.
*—v  Of the Rules or Laws of Heraldry.
The feveral efcutcheons, tinftures, charges, and
ornaments of coats-of-arms, and their various proper¬
ties, being now explained ; it may not be improper to
fubjoin fuch rules for blazoning the fame, as the an¬
cient ufage and laws of heraldry have eftablifhed a-
mongft us.
I. The frJl znA. mold general rule is, to exprefs
one’s felf in proper terms, fo as not to omit any thing
that ought to be fpecified, and at the fame time to be
clear and concife without tautology ; as in Ex. xiv.
p. 446. and alfo in Ex. ix. p. 453. wherein thefe
expreffions, of the Field, or of the Firft, prevent the re¬
petition of the forementioned tinfture.
II. One muft begin with the tin&ure of the field,
and then proceed to the principal charges which pof-
fefs the mold honourable place in the ihield, fuch as
Fefs, Cheveron, &c. always naming that charge firft
which lies next and immediately upon the field ; as in
Ex. xv. p. 451.
III. After naming the tinfture of the field, the
honourable ordinaries, or other principal figures, you
rautd fpecify their attributes, and afterwards their metal
or colour, as in Ex. xvi. p. 458.
IV. When an honourable ordinary, or fome one
figure, is placed upon another, whether it be a Fefs,
Cheveron, Crofs, &c. it is always to be named after
the ordinary or figure over which it is placed, with
one of thefe expreffions,yantoKf, or over all, as in Ex¬
ample xx. p. 449.
V. In the blazoning of fuch ordinaries as are plain,
the bare mention of them is fufficient; but if an ordi¬
nary ffiould be made of any of the crooked lines men¬
tioned above, its form mull be fpecified ; that is,
whether it be Engrailed, Wavy, &c. as in Ex. i. ii.
iii. &c. p. 446.
VI. When a principal figure pofieffes the centre of
the field, its pofition is not to be expreffed : or (which
amounts to the fame thing) when a bearing is named,
without fpecifying the point where it is placed, then
it is underftood to pofiefs the middle of the fhield ; as
in Ex. xv. p. 459.
VII. The number of the points of mullets or ftars
muft. be fpecified when more than five ; and alfo if a
mullet or any other charge be pierced, it muft be men¬
tioned as fuch, to diftinguilh it from what is plain ; as
in Ex. xiii. and xiv. p.457.
Vill. When a ray of the fun, or other fingle figure,
is borne in any other part of the efcutcheon than the
centre, the point it ifiues from muft be named; as in
Ex. iii. p. 457. col. 1. ,
IX. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits,
birds, &c. is no otherwife to be expreffed in blazon¬
ing but by the word proper, as in Exam. ii. vii.
p. 459.: but if difcoloured, that is, if they differ from
their natural colour, it muft be particularized; as in
Ex. i. ii. &c. p. 458.
X. When three figures are in a field, and their po¬
fition is not mentioned in the blazoning, they are al¬
ways underftood to be placed two above, and one be¬
low ; as fig. xxii. n° 3.
XI. When there are many figures of the fame fpe-
sies borne in a coat-of-arms, their number muft be
L D R Y. Chap. V.
obferved as they ftand, and diftinclly expreffed ; as in Marthal-
Ex. i. p. 460. hng.
But for the better underftanding of this laft rule, we ' v J
have inferted examples of the different difpofitions of
figures, wherein they are properly reprefented ; viz.
Two may be ranged in Pale, in Fefs, &c. See
fig. xxii. n° 1 and 2.
Three, may be 2 and x, as alfo in bend, &c. See
n° 3 and 4.
Four, are placed 2 and 2, or cantoned, as in
n° 5:
Five, 1, 3, 1, in Crofs ; or 2, r, 2, in Saltier. Sec
n° 6 and 7.
Six, 3, 2, 1, in Pile ; or 2, 2, 2, Paleways. See
n° 8 and 9.
Eight, in Orle, or on a Bordure. See n° 10.
Nine, 3, 3, 3, Barways ; or 3, 3, 2, 1, in Pile.
See n° 1 1 and x2.
Ten, 4, 3, 2, 1, in Pile; or elfe 4, 2, 4, Barways.
See n° 13 and 14.
Twelve, are placed 4, 4, 4, Barways. See n° 15.
There are other pofitions called irregular; as for
example, when three figures which are naturally placed
2 and 1, are difpofed 1 and 2, &c. It muft alfo be
obferved, that when the field is ftrewed with the fame
figures, this is expreffed by the word femee : but, ac¬
cording to a French armorift’s opinion, if the figures
ftrewed on the field are whole ones, it muft be denoted
by the words fans nombre ; whereas, if part of them is
cut off at the extremities of the efcutcheon, the word
femee or femi is then to be ufed.
CHAP. VI.
O/*Marshalling Coats-of-arms.
By marfhalling coats-of-arms, is to be underftood
the art of difpofing divers of them in one efcutcheoa*
and of diftributing their contingent ornaments in proper
places.
Various caufes may occafion arms to be thus con¬
joined, which J. Guillim comprifes under two heads,
viz. manifefi and obfcure.
What this learned and judicious herald means by
manifefi caufes in the marfhalling of coats-of-arms, are
fuch as betoken marriages, or a fovereign’s gift, grant¬
ed either through the fpecial favour of the prince, or
for fome eminent fervices. Concerning marriages it is
to be obferved.
I. When the coats-of-arms of a married couple,
defcended of diftindf families, are to be put together
in one efcutchecn, the field of their refpefltive arms is
conjoined Paleways, and blazoned parted per Pale, Ba¬
ron and Femme, two coats ; firfi, fife. In which cafe the
baron’s arms are always to be placed on the dexter-fide, Plate
and the femme’s arms on the finifter-fide, as in nr-> x CCXXXJH
and 2, fig. xxiii. Of arms marfhalled, which are,
1. The coat-of-arms of the rev. Edward Barnard,
D. D. chaplain in ordinary to his majefty, provoft of
Eton-college, canon of Windfor, &c. impaled with that
of S. Hagatt, his late fpoufe.
2. The coat-of-arms of the rev. Thomas Dampier,
D. D. chaplain in ordinary to his majefty, prebendary
of Durham, ^anon of Windfor, See. impaled with that
of F. Walker, his fpoufe.
If a widower marry again, his late and prefent
wife’s
Chap. VI. HERA
Marfhal- wife’s arms are, according to G. Leigh, “ to be both
t placed on the finifter-fide, in the efcutcheon with his
r * own, and parted per Pale. The firft wife’s coat fhall
ftand on the Chief, and the fecond on the Bafe ; or
he may fet them both in Pale with his own, the firft
wife’s coat next to himfelf, and his fecond outermoft.
If he (hould marry a third wife, then the two firft
matches (hall ftand on the Chief, and the third fhall
have the whole Bafe. And if he take a fourth wife,
Ihe muft participate one-half of the Bafe with the
third wife, and fo will they feem to be fo many coats
quartered.” But it muft be obferved, that thefe
forms of impaling are meant of hereditary coats,
whereby the huiband ftands in expe&ation of having
the hereditary poffeffions of his wife united to his
patrimony.
II. In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal
Coat of the baron, the proper differences by which
they were borne by the fathers of fuch women muft
be inferted.
III. If a coat-of-arms that has a Bordure be im¬
paled with another, as by marriage, then the Bordure
muft be wholly omitted in the fide of the arms next
the centre.
IV. The perfon that marries an heirefs, inftead of
impaling his arms with thofe of his wife, is to bear
them in an efeutcheon placed in the centre of his
fhield, after the fame manner as the baronet’s badge
Fig.xxiii. is marlhalled in n° 3. and which, on account of its
Ihowing forth his pretenfion to her eftate, is called an
efcutcheon of pretence, and is blazoned furtout, i. e.
over-all, as in the efcutcheon borne in the fourth quar¬
ter of the royal atchievement. But the children are
to bear the hereditary coat-of-arms of their father
and mother quarterly, which denotes a fixed inheritance,
and fo tranfmit them to pofterity. The firft and fourth
quarters generally contain the father’s arms, and the
fecond and third the mother’s ; except the heirs fhould
derive not only their eftate, but alfo their title and dig¬
nity, from their mother.
V. If a maiden or dowager lady of quality marry a
commoner, or a nobleman inferior to her rank, their
coats-of-arms may be fet afide of one another in two
feparate efcutcheons, upon one mantle or drapery,
and the lady’s arms ornamented according to her title;
fee n°4 and 5, which reprefent the coats-of-arms of Gen.
C. Montagu, and lady Elizabeth Villiers vifcountefs
Grandifon.
VI. Archbiftiops and bifhops impale their arms
differently from the fore-mentioned coats, in giving
the place of honour, that is, the dexter-fide, to the
arms of their dignity, as it is expreffed in n° 6,
which reprefents the coat-of arms of Dr Phillip Yonge,
lord bilhop of Norwich. It may be obferved of the
above prelates, that they thus bear their arms parted
per Pale, to denote their being joined to their cathedral
church in a fort of fpiritual marriage.
With refpecft to fuch armorial enfigns as the fove-
reign thinks fit to augment a coat-of arms with, they
may be marfhalled various ways, as may be feen by
the arms of his grace the duke of Rutland, inferted in
fig. viii. n° 19. and the example contained in fig. xii.
n° 11.
To thofe augmentations may be added, ift. The
baronet’s mark of diftin&ion, or the arms of the pro-
L D R Y. 467
vince of Ulfter in Ireland, granted and made heredi- Marlhal.
tary in the male line by king James I. who ere&ed .
this dignity on the zad of May 1611, in the 9th ’
year of his feign, in order to propagate a plantation
in the fore-mentioned province. This mark is Ur¬
gent, a Jinl/ler Hand couped at the Wrifl, and ereSed
Gules; which may be borne either in a canton, or in
an efcutcheon, as will belt fuit the figures of the arms.
See fig. xxiii. no 3. which reprefents the coat-of-arms
of Sir William Lorrayne, of Kirk-harle, Northumber¬
land, and are thus blazoned : Quarterly, Sable and
Argent, a plain Crofs counter-quartered of the Field.
The Creft,—A Laurel-tree couped, two branches fprout-
ing out proper, and fixed to the lower part thereof with
a Belt Gules, edged and buckled Or. This, according to
tradition in the family, was granted for fome worthy
adtion in the field.
zdly, The ancient and refpe&able badge of the
moft noble order of the Garter, inftituted by king
Edward III. 1349, in the 27th year of his reign; and
which, ever fince its inftitution, has been looked upon
as a great honour beftowed on the nobleft perfons of
this nation and other countries. This honourable
augmentation is made to furround, as with a garter,
the arms of fuch knights, and is infcribed with this
motto, Honi fok qui mal y penfe: See n° 7. which
reprefents the coat-of-arms of his grace the duke of
Montagu, earl of Cardigan, baron Brudenel of Stan-
ton-Wivil, conftable and lieutenant of Windfor-caftle,
knight of the moft noble order of the Garter,
and baronet, prefident of St Luke’s Hofpital, and
F. R. S.
This nobleman, whofe arms were Argent, a Cheve-
ron Gules between three Morions proper, has, fince the
deceafe of John duke of Montagu, taken the name and
arms of Montagu, on account of his being married to
lady Mary Montagu, youngeft daughter and one of the
co-heireffes of his grace.
So far the caufes for marlhalling divers arms in one
fhield, &c. are manifejl. As to fuch as are-called 06-
fcure, that is, when coatSrof-arms are marfhalled in
fuch a manner, that no probable reafon can be given
why they are fo conjoined, they muft be left to heralds
to explain, as being the propereft perfons to unfold
thefe and other m^fteries of this fcience.
CHAP. VII.
(^Funeral Escutcheons,
After having treated of the effential parts of the
coats of-arms, of the various charges and ornaments
ufually borne therewith, of their attributes and difpo-
fitions, and of the rules for blazoning and marfhalling
them, we fhall next defcribe the feveral funeral efcut¬
cheons, ufually called hatchments; whereby may be
known, after any perfon’s deceafe, what rank either he
or fhe held when Kving; and if it be a gentleman’s
hatchment, whether he was a bachelor, married man,
or widower, with the like diftin&ions for gentle¬
women.
The hatchment, N° 1. reprefents fuch as are af- Flats
fixed to the fronts of houfes, when any of the no- CCXXXHI
bility and gentry dies; the aims therein being thofe X*1V*
of a private gentleman and his wife parted per pale;
the dexter-fide, which is Gules, three Bars Or, for
3 M 2 the
HERA
Efcut- the hufband ; having the ground without the efcut-
hecns. black, denotes the man to he dead; and the
—v ground on the finider-fide being white, fignifies that
the wife is living, which is alfo demonftrated by the
fmall hatchment, n° -2. which is here depicted with¬
out mantling, helmet, and crtft, for perfpicuity’s fake
only.
When a married gentlewoman dies firft, the hatch¬
ment is diftinguifhed by a contrary colour from the
former; that is, the arms on the finifter fide have the
ground without the efcutcheon black ; whereas thofe
on the dexter fide, for herfurviving hulband, are upon
a white ground : the hatchment of a gentlewoman is,
moreover, differenced by a cherub over the arms in-
fiead of a creil. See n° 3.
When a bachelor dies, his arms may be depidled
fingle or quartered, with a creft over them, but never
impaled as the two firll are, and all the ground with¬
out the efcutcheon is alfo black. See n° 4.
When a maid dies, her arms, which are placed in a
lozenge, may be fingle or quartered, as thofe of a
bachelor; but, inftead of a creft, have a cherub over
them, and all the ground without the efcutcheon is alfo
black. See n°5.
When a widower dies, his arms are reprefented im¬
paled with thofe of his deceafed wife, having a helmet,
mantling, and creft over them, and all the ground with¬
out the efcutcheon black. See n° 6.
When a widow dies, her arms are alfo reprefented
impaled with thofe of her deceafed hufband, but in-
clofed in a lozenge, and, inftead of a creft, a cherub is
placed over them ; all the ground without the efcut¬
cheon is alfo black. See n° 7.
If a widower or bachelor fhould happen to be the
laft of his family, the hatchment is deputed as in n° 6.
and that of a maid or widow, whofe family is extinft
by her death, is depifted as in n0 7. with this diffe¬
rence only, that a death-head is generally annexed to
each hatchment, to denote, that death has conquered
all.
By the forementioned rules, which are fometimes
negle&ed through the ignorance of illiterate people,
may be known, upon the fight of any hatchment, what
branch of the family is dead ; and by the helmet or
coronet, what title and degree the deceafed perfon
was of.
L D R Y. Chap. VII.
The fame rules are obferved with refpeci: to the ef- Of Efcuts-
cutcheons placed on the hearfe and horfes ufed in pom- cheori»-
pous funerals, except that they are not furmounted with -
any creft, as in the foregoing examples of hatchments,
but are always plain. It is neceffary, however, to enfign
thofe of peers with coronets, and that of a maiden lady
with a knot of ribbands.
In Scotland, a funeral efcutcheon not only (hows forth
the arms and condition of the defundt, but is alfo a
proof of the gentility of his defcent; and fuels perfons
for whom this fpec-es of efcutcheon can be made out.
are legally intitled to the chara&er of gentleman of
blood, which is the higheft fpecies of gentility. The
Englilh hatchment above deferibed exhibits no more
than a right to a coat-of-arms which may be acquired
by purchafe, and is only the firft ftep towards efta*
bliflaing gentility in a family.
The funeral efcutcheon, as exhibited in Scotland,
France, and Germany, is in form of a lozenge, above
fix feet fquare, of black cloth ; in the centre of which
is painted, in proper colours, the complete atchieve-
ment of the defundt, with all its exterior ornaments
and additional marks or badges of honour; and round
the fides are placed the iixteen arms of the families
from which he derives his defcent, as far back as the
grandfather’s grandfather, as the proofs of his genti¬
lity : they exhibit the armorial bearings of his father
and mother, his two grandmothers, his four great¬
grandmothers, and his eight great-grandmothers mo¬
thers; if all thefe families have acquired a legal right
to bear arms, then the gentility of the perfon whofe
proof it is muft be accounted complete, but not other-
wife. On the four corners are placed mort-heads,
and the initials of his name and titles or defignation ;
and the black interftices are femee or powdered with
tears, as in the figure, n° 8. which is the efcutcheon
of the right hon. James 5th earl of Balcarras, chief of
the ancient furname of Lindefay.
On the morning of the interment, one of thefe is.
placed on the front of the houfe where the deceafed
lies ; and another on the church in which he is to be
buried, which after the burial is fixed above the grave.
The pall, too, is generally adorned with thefe proofs,
of gentility, and the horfes of the hearfe with the de-
fun&’s arms..
HER
HERALDUS (Defiderius), in French Herault, a
counfellor of the parliament of Paris, has given good
proofs of uncommon learning by very different works.
His Advcrfaria appeared in 1599 ; which little book,
if the Scaligerana may be credited, he repented the
having publifiied. His notes on Tertullian’s Apology,
on Minutius Foelix, and on Arnobius, have been e-
fteemed. He alfo wrote notes on Martial’s Epigrams.
He difguifed himfelf under the name of David Leidh-
rejjerus, to write a political differtation on the inde¬
pen lence of kings, fome time after the death of Hen¬
ry IV. He had a controverfy with Salmafius, Dejure
Attico ac Romano; but did not live to finiftv what he
had written on that fubjed. What he had done,
HER
however, was printed in 1650. He died in June 1649* Heraldus.
Guy Patin fays, that “ he was looked upon as a very  
learned man, both in the civil law and in polite litera¬
ture, and wrote with great fa'cility on any fubject he
pitched on.” Daille, fpeaking of fuch Proteftant
writers as condemned the executing of Charles I. king
of England, quotes the Pacifique Royalen deuil, by He¬
rault. This author, fon to our Deiiderius Heraldus,
was a minifter in Normandy, when he was called to the
fervice of the Walloon-church of London under Cha. I.
and he was fo zealous a royalift, that he was forced to
fly to France, to efcape the fury of the commonwealths
men. He returned to England after the Reiloration.
and refumed his ancient employment in the Walloon-
5 church.
KART, of l|
•RAt'ORTHlI
af XiUHEy j
Lord
ipRUM-MORD
HER [ 469 T HER
Herb cliurcli at London : fome time after which he obtain-
!) ed a canonry in the cathedral of Canterbury, and en-
Herbert. joyed it till his death.
" v ~ HERB, in botany; a name by which Linnaeus de¬
nominates that portion of every vegetable which arifes
from the root, and is terminated by the fruftification.
It comprehends, 1. The trunk, llalk, or ftem. 2.
The leaves. 3. Thofe minute external parts called by
the fame author the fulcra or fupports of plants.
4. The buds, or, as he alfo terms them, the winter-
quarters of the future vegetable.
Herb-Chrlflopher. See Actvea.
HERB-Rolert, (a fpecies of Geranium); a plant in
great reputation with fome farmers on account of its
prevailing virtues againft Haling of blood and the
bloody-flux in cattle, in which cafes it is faid to be
the bell among a great variety of means commonly
ufed on thefe occafions.
HERBACEOUS plants, are thofe which have
fucculent Hems or {talks that lie down to the ground
every year. Of herbaceous plants, thofe are annual
which perifh ftem and root and all every year ; bien¬
nial,,which fubfift by the roots two years; perennial
which are perpetuated by their roots for a feries of
years, a new ftem being produced every fpring.
HERBAGE, in law, iignifies the pafture provided
by nature for the food of cattle; alfo the liberty to feed
cattle in the foreft, or in another perfon’s ground.
HERBAL, fignifies a book tuat treats of the claf-
fes, genera, fpecies, and virtues of plants.
Herbal is fometimes alfo ufed for-what is more
ufually called hortusJiccus. See Hortus.
HERBELOT (Bartholomew d’), a French writer,
eminent for his oriental learning, was bom at Paris in
1625. He travelled feveral times into Italy, where
he obtained the efteem of fome of the moft learned
men of the age. Ferdinand II. grand duke of Tuf-
cany, gave him many marks of his favour : a library
being expofed to fale at Florence, the duke defired
him to examine the manufcripts in the oriental lan¬
guages, to feleft the be ft of them, and to mark the
price; which being done, that generous prince pur-
chafed them, and made him a prefent of them. M.
Colbert being at length informed of Herbelot’s merit,
recalled him to Paris, and obtained a penfion for him
of i50olivres: he afterwards became fecretary and in¬
terpreter of the oriental languages, and royal profef-
for of the Syriac tongue. He died at Paris in 1695.
His principal work is intitled Bibliotheque Orientate,
which he firft wrote in Arabic, and afterwards tranf-
lated into French. It is greatly efteemed. M. Her¬
belot’s modefty was equal to his erudition ; and his
uncommon abilities were accompanied with the utmoft
probity, piety, and charity, which he praftifed thro’
the whole courfe of his life.
HERBERT (Mary), countefs of Pembroke, was
After of the famous Sir Philip Sidney, and wife of Hen¬
ry earl of Pembroke. She was not only a lover of the
mufes, but a great encourager of polite literature; a
character not very common among ladies. Her bro¬
ther dedicated his incomparable romance Arcadia to
her, from which circumftance it hath been called The
Countefs of Pembroke’s Arcadia. She tranflated a dra¬
matic piece from the French, intitled Antonius, a tra¬
gedy ; though it is faid ftie was affifted by her lord’s
chaplain, Dr Babington, afterwards bifhop of Exeter.
She alfo turned the pfalms of David into Englifh metre;
but it is doubtful whether thefe works were ever print¬
ed. She died in 1621 ; and' an exalted charafter of
her is to be found in Francis Olborne’s memoirs of
king James I.
Herbert (Edward), lord Herbert of Cherbury in
Shropfhire, an eminent Englifti writer, was„born in
1581, and educated at Oxford; after wdrich he tra¬
velled, and at his return was made knight of the Bath.
James I. fent him ambaflador to Louis XIII. in behalf
of the Proteftants who were befieged in feveral cities
of France ; and continued in this ftation till he was re¬
called, on account of a difpute between him and the
conltable. de Luines. In 1625 he was advanced to
the dignity of a baron in the kingdom of Ireland, by
the title of lord Herbert of-Caftle Ifland; and in 1631
to that of lord Herbert of Cherbury in Shroplhire.
After the breaking out of the civil wars, he adhered
to the parliament; and in 1644 obtained a penfion, on
account of his having been plundered by the king’s
forces. He wrote A Hiftory of the Life and Reign
of Henry VIII. which was greatly admired; a treatife
De veritate} and feveral other works. He died at
London in 1648.
“ Lord Herbert (fays Mr Granger) ftands in the
firft rank of the public minifters, hiftorians, and philo-
fophers of his age. It is hard to fay whether his per-
fon, his underftanding, or his courage, was the moll
extraordinary ; as the fair, the learned, and the brave,
held him in equal admiration. But the fame man was
wife and capricious ; redrefied wrongs, and quarrelled
for punftilios; hated bigotry in religion, and was him-
felf a bigot to philofophy. He expofed himfelf t&
fuch dangers as other men of courage would have care¬
fully declined: and called in queftion the fundamen¬
tals of a religion which none had the hardinefs to dif¬
pute befides himfelf.”
Herbert (George), an Englifti poet and divine,
was brother to the preceding. He was born in 1593,.
and educated at Cambridge. In 1619 he was chofen
public orator of that univerfity, and afterwards ob¬
tained a finecure from the king. In 1626 he was col¬
lated to the prebend of Layton Ecclefia, inthediocefe
of Lincoln ; and in 1630 was indudfed into the rec¬
tory of Bamerton, near Sarum. The great lord Ba¬
con had fuch an opinion of his judgment, that he would
not fuffer his works to be printed before they had
paffed his examination. He wrote a volume of de¬
vout poems, called The Temple, and another, intitled
The Priejl of the Temple. This pious divine died about
the year 1635.
Herbert (William), earl of Pembroke, was born
at Wilton in Wiltlhire, 1580; and admitted of New-
college in Oxford in 1592, where he continued about
two years. In 1601, he fucceeded to his father’s ho¬
nours and eftate; was made K. G. in 1604; and go¬
vernor of Portfmouth fix years after. In 1626, he
was eledled chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford;
and about the fame time made lord fteward of the
king’s houfhold. He died fuddenly at his houfe called
Baynard’s cajlle, in London, April 10. 1630; accord¬
ing to the calculation of his nativity, fays Wood, made
feveral years before by Mr Thomas Allen of Glouccfter-
hall. Clarendon relates concerning this calculation^
that
HER [ 470 ] HER
Herbert that fome confiderable'perfons conne<5ied with lord creafed by fiery ftreams vomited fince that catallrophe; Hercuk-
!l Pembroke being met at Maidenhead, one of them at and now forms a mafs 24 feet deep of dark grey neum.
•Hercula- fUpper drank. a health to the lord fteward: upon which ftone, which is eafily broken to pieces. By its non- “-"v——J
1 another faid, that he believed his lordfhip was at that adhefion to foreign bodies, marbles and bronzes are
time very merry ; for he had now outlived the day, preferved in it as in a cafe made to fit them, and exadt
which it had been prognofticated upon his nativity he moulds of the faces and limbs of ftatues are frequently
would not outlive; but he had outlived it now, for found in this fubftance. The precife fituation of this
that was his birth-day, which had completed his age fubterraneous city was not known till the year 1713,
to 50 years. The next morning, however, they re- when it was accidentally difeovered by fome labourers,
ceived the news of his death. Whether the noble hi- who, in digging a well, ftruck upon a ftatue on the
Horian really believed this and other accounts relating benches of the theatre. Many others were afterwards
to aftrology, apparitions, providential interpofitions, dug out and fent to France by the prince of Elbceuf.
&c. which he has inferted in his hiftory, we do not But little progrefs was made in the excavations till
prefume to fay : he delivers them, however, as if he Charles infant of Spain afeended the Neapolitan throne;
•did not actually dilbelieve them. Lord Pembroke by whofe unwearied efforts and liberality a very con-
was not only a great favourer of learned and ingenious fiderable part of Herculaneum has been explored, and
men, but was himfelf learned, and endued with a con- fuch treafures of antiquity drawn out as form the molt
fiderable fhare of poetic genius. All that are extant curious mufeum in the world. It being too arduous
of his productions in this way were publifhed with this a talk to attempt removing the covering, the king
title: “ Poems written by William Earl of Pembroke, contented himfelf with cutting galleries to the princi-
.&c. many of which are anfwered by way of repartee pal buildings, and caufing the extent of one or two of
by Sir Benjamin Rudyard, with other Poems written them to be cleared. Of thefe the theatre is the moft
by them occafionally and apart, 1660, 8vo. confiderable. On a balluftrade which divided the or-
Herbert (Sir Thomas), an eminent gentleman of cheftra from the ftage was found a row of ftatues; and,
the Pembroke family, was born at York, where his on each fide of the pulpitum, the equeftrian figure of
4 father was an alderman. William earl of Pembroke a perfon of the Nonia family. They are now placed
fent him to travel at his expence in 1626, and he fpent under porticos of the palace ; and from the great ra-
four years in vifitingAfia and Africa: his expectations rity of equeftrian ftatues in marble would be very va-
of preferment ending with the death of the earl, he luable objeCts, were .their workmanlhip even lefs ex-
went abroad again, and travelled over feveral parts of cellent than it is: one of them in particular is a very
Europe. In 1634, he publilhed, in folio, A Relation fine piece of fculpture. Since the king of Spain left
of fome Years Travel into Africa and the Great Afia, Naples, the digging has been continued, but with lefs .
efpecially the Territories of the Perfian Monarchy, and fpirit and expenditure : indeed the colledion of curio-
fome parts of the Oriental Indies and Ifles adjacent, fities brought out of Herculaneum and Pompeii is al-
On the breaking out of the civil war, he adhered to ready fo confiderable, that a relaxation of zeal and
the parliament; and , at Oldenby, on the removal of aClivity becomes excufable. They are now arranged
the king’s fervants, by defire of the commiffioners in a wing of the palace; and confift not only of ftatues,
from the parliament, he and James Harrington were bulls, altars, inferiptions, and other ornamental ap-
retained as grooms of his bed-chamber, and attended pendages of opulence and luxury; but alfo comprehend
him even to the block. At the reftoration he was ere- an entire aflbrtment of the domeftic, mufical, and chi-
ated a baronet by Charles II. for his faithful fervices rurgical inftruments ufed by the ancients ; tripods of
to his father during his two laft years. In 1678 he elegant form and exquifite execution, lamps in endlefs
wrote Threnodia Carolina, containing an account of variety, vafes and bafons of noble dimenfions, chande-
the two laft years of the life of Charles I. and he af- liers of the moft beautiful ftrapes, pateras and other
filled Sir William Dugdale in compiling the third vo- appurtenances of facrifice, looking-glaffes of polilh-
lume of his Monajlicon Anglicamm. He died at York ed metal, coloured glafs fo hard, clear, and well
in 1682, leaving feveral MSS to the public library at ftained, as to appear emeralds, fapphires, and other
Oxford, and others to that of the cathedral at York. precious Hones ; a kitchen completely fitted up with
HERBIVOROUS animals, thofe which feed on- copper-pans lined with filver, kettles, cifterns for heat-
ly on vegetables. ing water, and every utenfil neceffary for culinary
HERCULANEUM is the name of an ancient city purpofes ; fpecimens of various forts of combuftibles,
of Campania in Italy, which was deftroyed by an retaining their form though burnt to a cinder; corn,
eruption of Vefuvius in the firft year of the emperor bread, filh, oil, wine, and flour: a lady’s toilet, fully
Titus, or the 79th of the Chriftian era, and lately furnilhed with combs, thimbles, rings, paint, ear-
rendered famous on account of the curious monuments rings, &c. Among the ftatues, which are numerous,
of antiquity difeovered in its ruins ; an account of conoiffeurs allow the greateft lhare of merit to a Mer-
which has been publifhed by order of the king of cury and a lleeping faun : the bulls fill feveral rooms ;
Naples, in a work of fix volumes folio.—The epocha but very few of the originals whom they were meant
of the foundation of Herculaneum is unknown. Dio- to imitate are known. The floors are paved with an-
nyfius Halicarnaflenfis conje&ures that it may be re- cient Mofaic, Few rare medals have been found in
ferred to 60 years before the war of Troy, or about thefe ruins; the moft curious is a gold medallion of
1342 years before Chrift ; and therefore that it lulled Augullus ftruck in Sicily in the 15th year of his reign,
about 1400 years. The frefco paintings, which, for the fake of pieferva-
The thicknefs of the heap of lava and afties by tion, have been torn off the walls and framed and
which the city was overwhelmed, has been much in- glazed, are to be feen in another part of the palace.
1 “ The
HER r 471 1 H -E R
Hercula- “ The elegance of the attitudes, and the infinite va-
neimv r(ety 0f the fubje£ts (Mr Swinburne obferves), ftamp
Hercules. them as performances worthy of the attention of artifts
'r and antiquarians ; but no pi&ures yet found are ma-
fterly enough to prove that the Greeks carried the art
of painting to as great a height of perfedion as they
did that of flatuary. Yet can we fuppofe thofe au¬
thors incapable of appreciating the merits of an Apelles
or a Zeuxis, who with fo much critical difeernment
have pointed out the beauties of the works of a Phidias
or a Praxiteles, beauties that we have ftill an oppor¬
tunity of contemplating ? would they have beftowed
equal praifes upon both kinds of performances if either
of them had been much inferior to the other ? I think
it is not probable; and we muft prefume, that the ca¬
pital produ&ions of the ancient painters, being of
more perifhable materials than bulls and ftatues, have
been deilroyed in the fatal difafters that have fo often
afflided both Greece and Italy. Plerculaneum and
Pompeii were but towns of the fecond order, and not
likely to polfefs the maflerpieces of the great artills,
which were ufually deftined to adorn the more celebra¬
ted temples, or the palaces of kings and emperors.”
A more valuable acquifition than bronzes and pidures
was thought to be made, when.a large parcel of manu-
feripts was found among the ruins. Hopes were en¬
tertained that many works of the dailies, which time
has deprived us of, were now going to be reitored to
light, and that a new mine, of fcience was on the point
of being opened. But the difficulty of unrolling the
burnt parchment, of palling the fragments on a flat
furface, and of decyphering the obfeure letters, have
proved fuch obllacles, that very little progrefs has been
made in the work. A priefl invented the method of
proceeding ; but it would require the joint labours of
many learned men to carry on fo nice and tedious an
operation with any fuccefs. The plan is dropped;
and the manuferipts now lie in dully heaps, as ufelefs
to the learned world as they had been for the preceding
feventeen centuries.
HERCULES, in fabulous hillory, a moll renown¬
ed Grecian hero, who after death was ranked among
the gods, and received divine honours. According to
the ancients, there were many perfons of the fame
name. Diodorus mentions three, Cicero fix, and fomq
authors extend the number to no lefs than forty-three.
Gf all thefe, one generally called the Theban Herculest
is the moll celebrated ; and to him, as may ealily be
imagined, the adtions of the others have been attribu¬
ted. He is reported to have been the fon of Jupiter
by Alcmena {wife jto Amphitryon king of Argos),
whom Jupiter enjoyed' in the lhape of her hulband
while he was abfent; and in order to add the greater
ftrength to the child, made that amorous night as long
as three. Amphitryon having foon after accidentally
killed his uncle and father-in-law Eleclryon, was obli¬
ged to fly to Thebes, where Hercules was born. The
jealoufy of Juno, on account of her hulband’s amour
with Alcmena, prompted her to dellroy the infant. For
this purpofe Ihe fent two ferpents to kill him in the
cradle, but young Hercules llrangled them both. He
was early inllrudled in the liberal arts, and Callor the
fen of Tyndarus taught him how to fight, Eurytus how
to (hoot with a bow and arrows, Autolicus to drive a
chariot, Linus to play on the lyre, and Eumolpus to
fing. He, like the r«ft of his illullrious contemporaries, Hercules.
foon after became the pupil of the centaur Chiron, and  'v—^
under him he perfe&ed and rendered himfelf the moftva-
liaht and accompliflred of the age. In the 18th year of
his age he refolvedto delivertheneighbourhoodof mount
Cithasron from a huge lion which preyed on the flocks of
Amphitryon his fuppofed father, and which laid waftethe
adjacent country. He went to the court ofThefpius
king of Thefpis, who (hared in the general calamity ;
and he received here a tender treatment, and was en¬
tertained during 50 days. The 50 daughters of the
king became mothers by Hercules during his flay at
Thefpis, and fome fay that it was effedled in one
night. After he had deftroyed the lion of mount Ci-
thteron, he delivered his country from the annual tri¬
bute of 100 oxen which it paid to Erginus. Such
public fervices became univerfally known ; and Creon,
who then fat on the throne of Thebes, rewarded the
patriotic deeds of Hercules by giving him his daughter
in marriage, and entrulling him with the government
of his kingdom.
Euryftheus, thefonof Amphitryon, having fucceeded
his father, foon became jealous of Hercules; and fear¬
ing left he might by him be deprived of his crown,
left no means untiied to get rid of him. Of this Her¬
cules was not infcnfible, becaufe he was perpetually en¬
gaging him on fome defperate expedition ; and there¬
fore went to confult the oracle. But being anfwered
that it was the pleafure of the gods that he ffiould
ferve Euriftheus 12 years, he fell into a deep melan-
-choly, which at lart ended in a furious madnefs; du¬
ring which, among other defpevate adfions, he put
away his wife Megara, and murdered all the children
he had by her. As an expiation of this crime, the
king impofed upon him twelve labours furpaffing the-
power of all other mortals to accomplifh, which never-
thelefs our hero performed with great eafe. The fa¬
vours of the gods had indeed completely armed him
when he undertook his labours. He had received a-
coat of armour and helmet from Minerva, a fword from
Mercury, a horfe from Neptune, a (hield from Jupiter,-
a bow and arrows from Apollo, and from Vulcan a
golden cuirafs and brazen bulkin, with a celebrated'
club of brafs according to the opinion of fome writers.
The firft labour impofed upon him was the killing
of a lion in Nemea, a wood of Achaia; whofe hide was
proof againft any weapon, fo that he was forced to
feize him by the throat and ftrangle him. He carried'
the dead beaft on his (houlders to Mycenae, and ever
after clothed himfelf with the (kin. L iryftheus was
fo aftoniflied at the fight of the beaft, and at the cou¬
rage of Hercules, that he ordered him never to enter
the gates of the city when he returned from his expe¬
ditions, but to wait for his orders without the walls.
He even made himfelf a brazen veffel into which he-
retired whenever Hercules returned.—The fecond la¬
bour was to deftroy the Lernsean hydra, which had
feveu heads according to Apollodorus, 50 according
to Simonides, and 100 according to Diodorus. This-
celebrated monfter he firft attacked with his arrows;
but foon after he came to a clofe engagement, and by
means of hisffieavy club he deftroyed the heads of his-
enemy. This, however, was productive of no advan-
tage ; for as foon as one head was beaten to pieces by
the club, immediately two fprang up ; and the labour
off
HER [ 472 ] El E R
Hercules, of Hercules would have remained mmnidied, had not
he commanded his friend lolas to burn with a hot iron
the root of the head which he had cruflied to pieces.
This fucceeded; and Hercules became victorious, open¬
ed the belly of the monlter, and dipped his arrows in
the gall to render the wounds which he gave fatal and
incurable.—He was ordered in his third labour to
bring alive and unhurt into the prefence of Euryftheus
a flag, famous for its incredible fwiftnefs, its golden
horns, and brazen feet. This celebrated animal fre¬
quented the neighbourhood of GEnoe ; and Hercules
•was employed for a whole year in continually purfuing
it : at lalt he caught it in a trap, or when tired, or,
according to others, by flightly wounding it and leffen-
ing its fwiftnefs.—The fourth labour was to bring
alive to Euryftheus a wild boar which ravaged the
neighbourhood of Erymanthus. In this expedition he
deftroyed the centaurs, and caught the boar by clofely
purfuing him through the deep fnow. Euryftheus was
fo frightened at the fight of the boar, that, according
to Diodorus, he hid himfelf in his brazen veflel for
fome days.—In his fifth labour Hercules was ordered
to clean the ftables of Augeas, where 3000 oxen had
been confined for many years.—For his fixth labour he
was ordered to kill the carnivorous birds which rava¬
ged the country near the lake Stymphalis in Arcadia.
—In his feventh labour he brought alive into Pelopon-
nefus a prodigious wild bull which laid wafte the ifland
of Crete.— In his eighth labour he wTas employed in
obtaining the mares of Diomedes, which fed upon hu¬
man flefh. He killed Diomedes, and gave him to be
eat by his mares, which he brought to Euryftheus.
They were fent to mount Olympus by the king of
Mycense, where they were devoured by the wild beafts;
or, according to others, they were confecrated to Ju¬
piter, and their breed ftill exifted in the age of Alex¬
ander the Great.—For his ninth labour, he was com¬
manded to obtain the girdle of the queen of the Ama¬
zons — In his tenth labour he killed the monller Ge-
ryon king of Gades, and brought to Argos his nume¬
rous flocks which fed upon human flefh. This was in
Iberia or Spain 5 in the furtheft parts of which he
ere&ed his two pillars, as the utmoft limits of the then
known world. Thefe ten labours he atchieved, as the
fable fays, in about eight years. In this laft expedi¬
tion he is likewife affirmed to have killed Antaeus, a
famous giant of a monftrous fize, who, when weary with
wreftling or labour, was immediately refrefhed by
touching the earth. Hercules overcame him in wreft¬
ling, and flew, him ; and after him the tyrant Bufiris,
in his way through Egypt. This bloody man ufed to
facrifice all his guefts and ftrangers upon his altars; and
defigning to have done the fame by Hercules, was
flain by him, together with all his attendants.—His
eleventh labour was the carrying away the Hefperian
golden apples kept by a dragon: (See Hesperides).
—The twelfth and laft, and moft dangerous of his la¬
bours, was to bring upon earth the three-headed dog
Cerberus. Defcending into hell by a cave on mount
Taenarus, he was permitted by Pluto to carry away
his friends Thefeus and Pirithous, who were con¬
demned to punifhment in hell, and Cerberus alfo was
granted to his prayers, provided he made ufe of no
arms but only force to drag him away. Hercules, as
N° IJ2.
fome report, carried him back to hell after he had Hercules,
brought him before Euryftheus. -—y—^
Many other exploits are faid to have been performed
by Hercules; in particular, he accompanied the Ar¬
gonauts to Colchis before he delivered himfelf up to
the king of Mycenae. He affifted the gods in their
wars againft the giants, and it was through him alone
that Jupiter obtained a viftory. He conquered Lao-
medon, and pillaged Troy. When lole, the daughter
of Eurytus king of CEchalia, of whom he was deeply
enamoured, was refufed to his entreaties, he became
the prey of a fecond fit of infanity, and he murdered
Iphitus, the only one of the fons of Eurytus who fa¬
voured his addreffes to lole. He was fome time after
purified of the murder, and his infanity ceafed ; but
the gods perfecuted him, and he was vifited by a dif-
order which, obliged him to apply to the oracle of
Delphi for relief. The coldnefs with which the Pythia
received him irritated him, and he refolved to plunder
Apollo’s temple and carry away the facred tripod.
Apollo opp^fed him, and a fevere conflidt was begun,
which nothing but the interference of Jupiter with his
thunderbolts could have prevented. He wms upon
this told by the oracle that he muft be fold as a flave,
and remain three years in the moft abjefit fervitude to
recover from his diforder. He complied; and Mer¬
cury, by order of Jupiter, condudted him to Omphale,
queen of Lydia, to whom he was fold as a flave. Here
he cleared all the country from robbers; and Omphale,
who was aftoniihed at the greatnefs of his exploits,
married him. Hercules had Agelaus and Lamon by
Omphale, from whom Croefus king of Lydia was de-
fcended. He became alfo enamoured of one of Om-
phale’s female fervants, by whom he had Alceus. Af¬
ter he had completed the years of his flavery, he re¬
turned to Peloponnefus, where he re-eftabliflred on the
throne of Sparta Tyndarus, who had been expelled by
Hippocoon. He became one of Dejanira’s fuitors,
and married her after he had overcome all his rivals.
He was obliged to leave Calydon his father-in-law’s
kingdom, becaufe he had inadvertently killed a mao
with a blow of his fift ; and it was on account of this
expulfion that he was not prefent at the hunting of
the Calydonian boar. From Calydon he retired to
the court of Ceyx king of Trachinia. The king re¬
ceived him and his wife with great marks of friendffiip,
and purified him of the murder which he had commit¬
ted at Calydon. Hercules was ftill mindful that he
had once been refufed the hand of lole; he therefore
made war againft her father Eurytus, and killed him
with three of his fons. lole fell into the hands of her
father’s murderer, and found that Ihe was loved by
Hercules as much as before. She accompanied him
on mount CEta, where he was going to raife an altar
and offer a folemn facrifice to Jupiter. As he had
not then the ffiirt and tunic in which he arrayed him¬
felf to offer a facrifice, he fent Lichas to Trachin to
his wife Dejanira, in order to provide himfelf a proper
drefs. Dejanira had fome time before been attempted
by the Centaur Neffus, as he was ferrying her over the
river Euenus ; and Hercules beholding it from the
ffibre, had given him a mortal wound with an arrow.
The monfter finding himfelf dying, advifed her to mix
fome oil with the blood which flowed from his wound,
and
I
HER t 473 ] HER
Hercules, and to anoint her hufband’s Ihirt with it, pretending
lu—"v”—5* that it would infallibly fecure him from loving any other
woman ; and ftie, too well apprifed of his inconltancy,
had a&ually prepared the. poifoned ointment accord¬
ingly.—Lychas coming to her for the garments, un¬
fortunately acquainted her with his having brought
away lole; upon which Ihe, in a fit of jealoufy, anoint¬
ed his Ihirt with the fatal mixture. This had no fooner
touched his body, than he felt the poifon diffufe itfelf
through all his veins; the violent pain of which caufed
him to diihand his army, and to return to Trachin.
His torment ftill increafing, he fent to confult the
oracle for a cure; and was anfwered, that he ihould
caufe himfelf to be conveyed to mount CEta, and there
rear up a great pile of wood, and leave the reft to Ju¬
piter. By the time he had obeyed the oracle, his pains
being become intolerable, he dreffed himfeif in his
martial habit, flung himfelf upon the pile, and defiftd
the byftanders to fet fire to it. Others fay that he
left the charge of it to his fon Philo&etes; who having
performed his father’s command, had his bow and ar¬
rows given him as a reward for his obedience. At
the fame time Jupiter, to be as good as his word, fent
a flafli of lightning, which confumed both the pile and
the hero; infomuch that lolaus, coming to take up
his bones, found nothing but afhes : from which they
concluded, that he was paffed from earth to heaven,
and joined to the gods. His friends fhowed their
gratitude to his memory by raifing an altar where the
burning pile had flood. Mencetius the fon of Aftor
offered him a facrifice of a bull, a wild boar, and a
goat, and enjoined the people of Opus yearly to ob-
ferve the fame religious ceremonfes. His worlhip foon
became as univerfal as his fame; and Juno, who had
once perfecuted him with fuchfury, forgot her refent-
ment, and gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage.
Hercules has received many firnames and epithets, either
from the place where his worftiip was eftablilhed, or
from the labours which he atchieved. His temples were
numerous and magnificent, and his divinity revered.
No dogs or flies ever entered his temple at Rome ;
and that of Gades, according to Strabo, was always
forbidden to women and pigs. The Phoenicians of¬
fered quails on his altars ; and as it was fuppofed that
he prefided over dreams, the fick and infirm were fent
to fleep in his temples, that they might receive in their
dreams the agreeable prefages of their approaching re¬
covery. The white poplar was particularly dedicated
to hisfervice.
It is obferved, that there are none even of the twelve
great gods of antiquity that have fo many ancient mo¬
numents relating to them as Hercules. The famous
ftatue of Hercules, in the Farnefe palace at Rome, is
well known to the connoiffeurs: this reprefents him
refting after the laft of his twelve labours above recited,
leaning on his club, and holding the apples of the
Hcfperides in bis hand. In this ftatue, as in all the
other figures of him, he is formed, by the breadth of
his {boulders, the fpacioufnefs of his cheft, the large-
nefs of his fize, and the firmnefs of his mufcles, to
cxprefs ftrength and a capacity of enduring great fa¬
tigue, which conftituted the chief idea of virtue among
the ancient heathens. His other attributes are his
lion’s {kin, his club, and his bow.—Hercules is re-
prefented by the ancients as an exemplar of virtue;
Vol.VIII. Part II.
however, the Hercules Max, or drunken Hercules, is Hercyni*
no uncommon figure ; and his amours are deferibed ft
both by the poets and artifts. Thus, the Cupids are Heledital7«
made to take away his club, and he is exhibited in the
pofture of bending under a little boy; by which aftions
we perceive, that he who conquered all difficulties was
a flave to love. His children are as numerous as the
labours and difficulties which he underwent; and indeed
they became fo powerful foon after his death, that
they alone had the courage to invade all Peloponnefus.
See Hf-RACLimE.
The apotheofis of Hercules, or the eftablifliment of
his altars in the principal cities of Greece, is fixed by
Trafybulus 29 years before the taking of Troy.
Plercules has been particularly honoured by the
Greeks under the name of Mufagetes, “the condu&or of
the Mufes;” and a£ Rome under that of Hercules Mu-
farum. He is reprefented on medals with a lyre in
his hand; and the reverfe is marked with the figure of
the nine Mufes, with their proper fymbols.
Hercules, in aftronemy, one of the conftellations
of the northern hemifphere.—The ftars in the conftel-
lation Hercules in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 29 ; in
Tycho’s, 28; in the Britannic catalogue, 113.
Hercules’s Pillars, in antiquity, a name given to
two lofty mountains, fituated one on the moft fouthern
extremity of Spain, and the other on ,the oppofite
part of Africa. They were called by the ancients
Hbyla and Calpe. They are reckoned the boundaries
of the labours of Hercules ; and according to ancient
tradition, they were joined together till they were fe¬
vered by the arm of the hero, and a communication
opened between the Mediterranean and Atlantic feas.
HERCYNIA silva (anc. geog.), the largeft of
forefts. Its breadth was a journey of nine days to the
beft traveller. Taking its rife at the limits of the
Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, it run along the Da¬
nube to the borders of the Daci and Anartes, a length
of 60 days journey, according to Ccefar, who appears
to have been well acquainted with its true breadth,
feeing it occupied all Lower Germany. It may there¬
fore be confidered as covering the whole of Germany;
and moft of the other forefts may be confidered as parts
of it, though diftinguiftied by particular names: confe-
quently the Hartz, in the duchy of Brunfwic, which
gave name to the whole, may be confidered as one of its
parts. The name Hartz denotes “ refinous,” or “ pine-
trees.” By the Greeks it is called Orcynius, as a name
common to all the forefts in Germany ; in the fame
manner as Hercynius was the name given by the Ro¬
mans ; and both from the German Hartz.
HERD, among hunters, an affemblage of black
or fallow beafts in contradiftin&ion to foek. See
Flock—In the hunting language there are various
terms ufed for companies of the divers kinds of game.
We fay a herd of harts or bucks, a bevy of roes, a rout
of wolves, a richefs of martens, &c.
HEREDITAMENTS, whatever moveable things
a perfon may have to himfelf. and his heirs by'way of
inheritance; and which, if not otherwife bequeathed,
defeend to him who is next heir, and not to the exe¬
cutor as chattels do.
HEREDITARY, an appellation given to whate-.
ver belongs to a family by right of fucceffion from heir
to heir.
3 N He*.
HER r 474 1 HER
Hereditary. Hereditary is alfo figuratively applied to good or
» ill qualities fuppofed to be tranfmitted from father to
fon : thus we fay virtue and piety are hereditary qua¬
lities in fuch a family ; and that in Italy the hatred
of families is hereditary. And indeed the gout,
king’s evil, madnefs, &c. may really be hereditary dif-
eafes.
Hereditary Right, in the Britifh conftitution. The
grand fundamental maxim upon which the jus corona,
or right of fucceffion to the throne of Britain depends,
Sir William Blackftone takes to be this: That the
crown is, by common law and conftitutional cuftom, he¬
reditary ; and this in a manner peculiar to itfelf: but
that the right of inheritance may from time to time
be changed or limited by aft of parliament; under which
limitations the crown ftill continues hereditary.
i. The crown is in general hereditary, or defcend-
ibleto the next heir, on the death or demife of the lalt
proprietor. All regal governments mufl be either he¬
reditary or eleftive: and as there is no inftance where¬
in the crown of England has ever been afferted to be
eleftive, except by the regicides at the infamous and
unparalleled trial of king Charles I. it muft of confe-
quence be hereditary. Yet in thus afferting an he¬
reditary right, a jure divino title to the throne is by no
means intended. Such a title may be allowed to have
fubfifted under the theocratic eftablifhments of the chil¬
dren of Ifrael in Paleftine : but it never yet fubfifted
in any other country ; fave only fo far as kingdoms,
like other human fabrics, are fubjeft to the general
and ordinary difpenfations of Providence. Nor indeed
have a. jure divino and an hereditary right any neceffary
conneftion with each other; as fome have very weakly
imagined. The titles of David and Jehu were equally
jure divino as thofe of either Solomon or Ahab ; and
yet David flew the fons of his predeceflbr, and Jehu his
predeceflbr himfelf. And when our kings have the
fame warrant as they had, whether it be to fit upon
the throne of their fathers, or to deftroy the houfe of
the preceding fovereign, they will then, and not before,
poffefs the crown of England by a right like theirs,
immediately derived from heaven. The hereditary
right, which the laws of England acknowledge, owes
its origin to the founders of our conftitution, and to
them only. It has no relation to, nor depends upon,
the civil laws of the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans,
or any other nation upon earth; the municipal laws
of one fociety having no conneftion with, or influence
upon, the fundamental polity of another. The found¬
ers of our Englilh monarchy might perhaps, if they
had thought proper, have made it an eleftive mo¬
narchy ; but they rather chofe, and upon good rea-
fon, to eftablifh originally a fucceflion by inheritance.
This has been acquiefced in by general confent, and
ripened by degtees into common law : the very fame
title that every private man has to his own eftate.
Lands are not naturally defcendible, any more than
thrones : but the law has thought proper, for the be¬
nefit and peace of the public, to eftabliih hereditary
fucceffion in the one as well as the other.
It muft be owned, an eleftive monarchy feems to be
the moft obvious, and beft fuited of any to the rational
principles of government, and the freedom of human
nature : and accordingly we find from hiftory, that, in
the infancy and firft rudiments of almoft every flats,
the leader, chief magiftrate, or prince, hath ufually Hereditary^
been eleftive. And, if the individuals who compofe —y—-
that ftate could always continue true to firft principles,
uninfluenced by paffion or prejudice, unaflailed by cor¬
ruption, and unawed by violence, eleftive fucceffion
were as much to be defired in a kingdom as in other
inferior communities. The beft, the wifeft, and the.
braveft man, would then be fure of receiving thatcrowa
which his endowments have merited ; and the fenfe of
an unbiaffed majority would be dutifully acquiefced in,
by the few who were of different opinions. But hiftory.
and obfervation will inform us,, that eleftions of every,
kind (in the prefent ftate of human nature) are too fre¬
quently brought about by influence, partiality, and ar¬
tifice : and, even where the cafe is otherwife, thef&:
praftices will be often fufpefted, and as conftantlyv
charged upon the fuccefsful, by a fpleneticdifappointed.
minority. This is an evil to which, all fodeties ara
liable ; as well thofe of a private and domeftic kind, a»
the great community of the public, which regulates and
includes the reft. But in the former there is this ad¬
vantage, That fuch fufpicions, if falfe, proceed no farv
ther than jealoufies and murmurs, which time will ef-,'
feftually fupprefs ; and, if true, the injuftice may b&
remedied by legal means, by an appeal to thofe tribu-r
nals to which every member of fociety has (by beco-(
ming fuch) virtually engaged to fubmit. Whereas, ia
the great and independent fociety, which every natioa ,
compofes, there is no fuperior to refort to but the law.
of nature ; no method to redrefs the infringements of
that law, but the aftual exertion of private force. As;
therefore between two nations, complaining of mutual
injuries, the quarrel can only be decided by the law of
arms; fo in one and the fame nation, when the funda¬
mental principles of their common union are fuppofed
to be invaded, and more efpecially when the appoint-,
ment of their chief magiftrate is alleged to be unduly
made, the only tribunal to which the complainants can
appeal is that of the God of battles, the only procef»
by which the appeal can be carried on is that of a ci-,
vil and inteftine war. An hereditary fucceffion to the
crown is therefore now eftablifhed, in this and moft o-,
ther countries, in order to prevent that periodical bloods
fhed and mifery, which the hiftory of ancient imperial
Rome, and the more modern experience of Poland and
Germany, may fliow us are the confequences of eleftiva
kingdoms.
2. But, fecondly. as to the particular mode of in-v
heritance, It in general corrfifponds with the feodal
path of defeents, chalked out by the common law in
the fucceffion to landed eftates ; yet with one or two
material exceptions. Like them, the crown will der
feend lineally to the iffue of the reigning monarch 5
as it did from king John to Richard II. through a re?
gular pedigree of fix lineal generations : As in them
the preference of males to females, and the right of
primogeniture among the males, are ftriftly adhered
to. Thus Edward V. fucceeded to the crown, in prer
ference to Richard his younger brother,, and Elizabeth
his elder After. Like them, on failure of the mal?
line, it defeends to .the iffue female ; according to the
ancient Britifli cuftom remarked by Tacitus, So/ent far
minarum duElu bellare, et jexum in imperiis non difeernere.
Thus Maryl. fucceeded to Edward VI.; and the lineoF
Margaret queen of Scots^the daughter of Henry V11,
a fuc-
HER l 475 1 HER
hereditary, fucceeclecl, on failure of the line of Henry VIII. his
w—. fon< But among the females, the crown defcends by
right of primogeniture to the eldeft daughter only and
herifiue; and not, as in common inheritances, to all
the daughters at once ; the evident necefiky of a foie
fucceffion to the throne having occaiioned the royal
law of defcents to depart from the common law in this
refpeft: and therefore queen Mary, on the death of
•her brother, fucceeded to the crown alone, and not
in partnerfhip with her fifter Elizabeth. Again, the
doctrine of reprefentation prevails in. the defcent of
the crown, as it does in other inheritances; whereby
the lineal defcendants of any perfon deceafed Hand in
the fame place as their anceftor, if living, would have
-done. Thus Richard II. fucceeded his grandfather
■Edward III. in right of his father the black prince ;
-to the exclufion of all his uncles, his grandfather’s
.younger children. Eaftly, on failure of lineal defcen¬
dants, the crown goes to the next collateral relations
-of the late king } provided they are lineally defcended
from the blood-royal, that is, from that royal flock
which originally acquired the crown. Thus Henry I.
fucceeded to William II. John to Richard I. and
■James 1. to Elizabeth; being all derived from the Con¬
queror, who was then the only regal flock. But herein
-there is no obje&ion (as in the cafe of common de¬
fcents) to the fucceflion of a brother, an uncle, or o-
-ther collateral relation, of the half-blood ; that is,
where the relationfhip proceeds not from the fame
couple of anceflors (which conflitutes a kinfman of
the whole blood), but from a Angle anceftor only; as
when two perfons are derived from the fame father,
and not from the fame mother, or vice verfa' provided
only, that the one anceftor, from whom both are de¬
fcended, be that from whofe veins the blood royal is
communicated to each. Thus Mary I. inherited to
Edward VI. and Elizabeth inherited to Mary; all born
of the fame father, king Henry VIII. but all by dif¬
ferent mothers. See the articles Consanguinity,
Descent, and Succession.
3. The dodlrine of hereditary right does by no
means imply an indefeafible right to the throne. No
man will affert this, who has coniidered our laws, con-
ftitution, and hiftory, without prejudice, and with any
degree of attention. It is unqueftionably in the breaft
of the fupreme legiflative authority of this kingdom,
the king and both houfes of parliament, to defeat this
hereditary right; and, by particular entails, limita¬
tions, and provifions, to exclude the immediate heir,
and veil the inheritance in any one elfe. This is flridlly
confonant to our laws and conftitution ; as may be ga¬
thered from the expreffion fo frequently ufed in our
ftatute-book, of “ the king’s majefty, his heirs, and
fucceflbrs.” In which we may obferve, that as the
word heirs neceffarily implies an inheritance or here¬
ditary right generally fublifting in the royal perfon ;
fo the word fuccejfors, diftinftly taken, muft imply that
this inheritance may fometimes be broken through;
or, that there may be a fuccefibr, without being the
heir of the king. And this is fo extremely reafon-
able, that without fuch a power, lodged fomewhere,
our polity would be very defective. For, let us barely
fuppofe fo melancholy a cafe, as that the heir-apparent
ftiould be a lunatic, an idiot, or other wife incapable of
reigning; how uiiferable. would the-condition of the
nation be, if he were alfo incapable of being fet afide! Hereditary
—It is therefore neceflary that this power Ihould be „ ^
lodged fomewhere; and yet the inheritance and regal Her_rd‘.
dignity would be very precarious indeed, if this power ’
were exprefsly and avowedly lodged in the hands of
the fubjeft only, to be exerted whenever prejudice,
caprice, or difcontent, fhould happen to take the lead.
Confequently it can nowhere be fo properly lodged
as in the two houfes of parliament, by and with the
confent of the reigning king; who, it is not to be
fuppofed, will agree to any thing improperly prejudi¬
cial to the rights of his own defcendants. And there¬
fore in the king, lords, and commons, in parliament
affembled, our laws have exprefsly lodged it.
4. But, fourthly, However the crown may be li¬
mited or transferred, it ftill retains its defcendible qua¬
lity, and becomes hereditary in the wearer of it. And
hence in our law the king is faid never to die in his
political capacity; though, in common with other
men, he is fubjeft to mortality in his natural: becaufe
immediately upoil the natural death of Henry, Wil¬
liam, or Edward, the king furvives in his fucceffor.
For the right of the crown vefts, eo injlanti, upon his
heir; either the hares mtus, if the courfe of defcent
remains unimpeached, or the haresfalius, if the in¬
heritance be under any particular fettlement. So that
there can be no interregnum; but, as Sir Matthew
Hale obferves, the right of fovereignty is fully invefted
in the fucceffor by the very defcent of the crown. And
therefore, however acquired, it becomes in him abfo-
lutely hereditary, unlefs by the rules of the limitation
it is otherwife ordered and determined : In the fame
manner as landed eftates, to continue our former com-
parifon, are by the law hereditary, or defcendible to
the heirs of the owner; but ftill there exifts a power,
by which the property of thofe lands may be tranf-
ferred to another perfon. If this transfer be made
fimply and abfolutely, the lands will be hereditary in
the new owner, and defcend to his heir at law : but if
the transfer be clogged with any limitations, condi¬
tions, or entails, the lands muft defceftd in that chan¬
nel, fo limited and prefcribed, and no other. See
Succession.
HEREDITAS jacens, in Scots law. An eftate
is faid to be in hereditate jacente, after the proprietor’s
death till the heir’s entry.
HEREFORD, which in Saxon flgnifies the ford
of the army, the capital of Herefordfliire in England,
fituated in W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 52. 6. It is
fuppofed to have rifen out of the ruins of Kenchefter,
in its neighbourhood, which Cambden believes to have
been the Ariconium of Antoninus. It is very plea-
fantly fituated among meadows and corn-fields, and is
almoft encompafled with rivers. It feems to have
owed its rife, or at leaft its increafe, to the building
and dedicating a church there to Ethelbert king of
the Eaft-Angles, who was murdered in the neigh¬
bourhood, and afterwards taken into the catalogue of
martyrs ; foon after it became a biftiop’s fee, and in
confequence of that a confiderable place. In 1055 it
was lacked, the cathedral deftroyed, and its bifliop
Leofgar carried away captive by Gryffin prince of
South-Wales, and Algar, an Engliihman, who had
rebelled againft Edward the Confefibr. Harold forti¬
fied it with a broad and high rampart; and it appears
3 N 2 by
HER [ 47« ] HER
Hereford, fey £)oomfday-book, that there were no more than
Hereford- ^oo men within and without the wall. A very large
. fiuie‘ and ftrong caftle was built by the Normans along the
Wye, and the city walled round. The prefent ftately
cathedral was founded in the reign of Henry I. by
feifhop Reinehn, but enlarged and beautified by his
fucceifors. It fuffered much in the barons wars; and
was often taken and retaken in the war between king
Charles I. and the parliament. This city is pretty
large, and had once fix churches; but two were de-
ftroyed in the civil wars. It is not very populous nor
well built, many of the houfes being old. Its manu-
fadtures are gloves and other leathern goods; and its
corporation confifts of a mayor, fix aldermen, a high-
fteward, deputy-fteward, and town-clerk, who have a
fword-bearer, and four ferjeants at mace. Each of
the companies enjoys diftindl laws and privileges by
their charter, and each has its hall. The cathedral,
which was built in 1050, and deftroyed by the Welfli
in ro6o, but rebuilt in the reign of the Conqueror, or,
as fome fay, in that of Henry I. is a beautiful and
magnificent ftrufture, but being greatly decayed, part
of it was dellroyed by the faU of the tower in Sep¬
tember 1786, and the fpire on another tower was ta¬
ken down to be rebuilt at the fame time. Here is an
hofpital well endowed for 16poor people ; and two cha-
rity-fchools, one for 60 boys, the other for 40 girls.
The chapter-houfe, which was once a very elegant
building, built about the year 1079, is now in ruins.
Here were formerly two or three priories. Almoft
the only drink here is cyder, which is both cheap and
good, the very hedges in the country being planted
with apple-trees. The city gave long the title of earl to
the noble family of the Bohuns ; then of duke to
Henry of Lancafter, afterwards Henry IV. king of
England ; after him, of earl to Stafford earl of Buck¬
ingham ; then of vi/count to D’Evereux earl of Effex,
which a collateral branch of this family ftill enjoys,
and is thereby the premier vifcount of England.
Herefordshire, a county of England, nearly of
a circular form, bounded on the eatt by Worcefter
and Gloucefter, on the fouth by Monmouthfhire, on the
weft by Radnorihire and Brecknockftiire, and on the
north by Shropftiire. Its length frpm north to fouth
is 46 miles, its breadth from eaft to weft 40, and its
circumference 220. It contains 8 market towns, 87
vicarages, 176 parilhes, and 391 villages, 15,000
houfes, and 97,600 inhabitants. It is divided into 11
hundreds, and fends eight members to parliament, name¬
ly, two knights for the fhire, and two for each of the
following towns, Hereford, Lempfter or Leominfter,
and Weobly.
The air of this county is allowed to be as pleafant,
fweet, and wholefome, as that of any other in Eng¬
land, there being nothing either in the foil or fituation
to render it otherwife. The foil throughout is excel¬
lent, and inferior to none, either for grain, fruit, or
pafture, fupplying the inhabitants plenitfully with all
the neceffaries of life : but that by which it is diftin-
guifhed from moft others, is its fruit, efpecially apples,
©f which it produces fuch quantities, that the cyder
made of them is not only fufiicicnt for their own con-
fumption, though it is their ordinary drink, but alfo
v, a great meafure for that of London and other parts.
That in -particular which is. made from the apple called
red/lreal, is much admired, and has a body almoft Herenhau.
equal to that of white-wine. The county is well fup- {ea
plied with wood and water ; for, befides leffer ftreams, Herefr.,
there are the rivers Frame, Loden, Lug, Wye, Wadel, ■ ^ ■
Arrow, Dare, and Monovv; the laft of which is large, ^
and all of them are well ftored with fifh, particularly
the Wye, which breeds falmon. It lies in the diocefe
of Hereford, and Oxford circuit.
HERENHAUSEN, a palace of Germany near
Hanover, belonging to the king of Great Britain.
Here are lodgings for all the court; and a garden of
vaft extent, in which are fine waterworks, a labyrinth,
and many other curiofities worthy the obfervation of
a traveller.
HERENTHALS, a town of Brabant in the Au-
ftrian Netherlands, in the quarter of Antwerp ; feated
on the river Nethe, in E. Long. 4. 51. N. Lat. 51.9.
HERESY, in law, an offence againft Chriftianity,
confifting in a denial of fome of its effential do&rines,
publicly and obftinately avowed; being defined, “fen-
tentia rerum divlnarum humano fenfu excogitata, palam
do3a et pertinaciter defenfa.” And here it muft be BhuiJ).
acknowledged that particular modes of belief or un- Comment.
belief, not tending to overturn Chriftianity itfelf, or to
fap the foundations of morality, are by no means the
objedt of coercion by the civil magiftrate. What doc¬
trines (hall therefore be adjudged herefy, was left by
our old conftitution to the determination of the eccle-
fiaftical judge; who had herein a moft arbitrary lati¬
tude allowed him. For the general definition of an
heretic given by Lyndewode, extends to the fmalleft
deviations from the doftrines of the holy church : “ ha-
reticus ejl qui dubltat de Jide catholica, et qui negligit
fervarc ea, qua Romana ecclejia Jlatuit, feu fervare de-
creverat.” Or, as the ftatute 2 Hen. IV. c. 15. ex-
preffes it in Engliih, “ teachers of erroneous opinions,
contrary to the faith and bleffed determinations of the
holy church.” Very contrary this to the ufage of the
firft general councils, which defined all heretical doc¬
trines with the utmoft precifion and exa&nefs. And
what ought to have alleviated the punilhment, the un¬
certainty of the crime, feems to have enhanced it in
thofe days of blind zeal and pious cruelty. It is true,
that the fan&imonious hypocrify of the canonifts went
at firft no farther than enjoining penance, excommu¬
nication, and ecclefiaftical deprivation, for herefy ; tho’
afterwards they proceeded boldly to imprifonment by
the ordinary, and confifcation of goods in pios ufus.
But in the mean time they had prevailed upon the
weaknefs of bigotted princes to make the civil power
fubfervient to their purpofes, by making herefy not
only a temporal, but even a capital, offence : the Ro-
mifh ecclefiaftics determining, without appeal, what¬
ever they pleafed to be herefy, and fhifting off to the
fecular arm the odium and drudgery of executions ;
with which they themfelves were too tender and deli¬
cate to intermeddle. Nay, they pretended to intercede
and pray, on behalf of the convifted heretic, ut citra
mortis pcriculum fententia circa eum modereturwell
knowing that at the fame time they were delivering the
unhappy vi&im to certain death. Hence the capital
punilhments infli&ed on the ancient Donatifts and Ma-
nichseans by the emperors Theodofius and Jiiftinian :
hence alfo the conftitution of the emperor Frederic
mentioned by Lyndewode, adjudging all perfons with-
«nt-
HER [ 477 1 HER
t Herefy. out diftinftlon to be burnt with fire who were convic- ftatute 31 Hen. VIIL c. 14. the bloody law of the Herefy.
ted of herefy by the ecclefiaftical judge. The fame fix articles was made, which eilablifiied the fix inofl: ——
emperor, in another conftitution, ordained, that if any contefted points of popery, tranfubftantiation, commu-
temporal lord, when admonilhed by the church, fhould nion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monaftic
negleft to clear his territories of heretics within a year, vows, the facrifice of the mafs, and auricular confef-
it ftiould be lawful for good catholics to feife and oc- fion ; which points were ** determined and refolved by
cupy the lands, and utterly to exterminate the hereti- the moft godly ftudy, pain, and travail of his majefty:
cal pofleflbrs. And upon this foundation was built for which his moft humble and obedient fubjedls, the
that arbitrary power, fo long claimed and fo fatally ex- lords fpiritual and temporal and the commons^ in par-
erted by the Pope, of difpofing even of the kingdoms liament afftmbled, did not only render and give unto
of refradtory princes to more dutiful fons of the church, his highnefs their moft high and hearty thanks but
The immediate event of this conftitution was fome- did alio enadl and declare all oppugners of the firft to
thing fingular, and may ferve to illuftrate at once the be heretics, and to be burnt with fire ; and of the five
gratitude of the holy fee, and the juft puniihment of laft to be felons, and to fuffer death. The fame ftatute
the royal bigot; for, upon the authority of this very eftabliihed a new and mixed jurifdiftion of clergy and
conftitution, the pope afterwards expelled this very em- laity for the trial and convi&ion of heretics; the reign-
peror Frederic from his kingdom of Sicily, and gave it ing prince being then equally intent on deftroying the
to Charles of Anjou. fupremacy of the biftiops of Rome, and eftabliihing all.
Chriftianity being thus deformed by the dtemon of other their corruptions of the Chriftian religion,
perfecution upon the continent, we cannot expect that Without perplexing this detail with the various re-
   .r peals and revivals of thefe fanguinary laws in the two
iucceeding reigns, let us proceed to the reign of
queen Elizabeth ; when the reformation was finally
eftablifhed with temper and decency, unfullied with
party-rancouf, or perfonal caprice and refentment.
r own ifland fliould be. entirely free from the fame
fcourge. And therefore we find among our ancient
precedents a writ de haretico comburendo, which is
thought by fome to be as ancient as the common law
itfelf. However, it appears from thence, that the
viftion of herefy by the common law was not in any By ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 1. all former ftatutes relating to-
petty ecclefiaftical court, but before the archbiftrop herefy are repealed, which leaves the jurifdidfion of he-
himfelf in a provincial fynod ; and that the delinquent refy as it flood at common law; viz, as to the inflidtion
was delivered over to the king to do as he fliould pleafe of common cenfures, in the ecclefiaftical courts; and in
with him: fo that the crown had a controul over the cafe of burning the heretic, in the provincial fynod only.,
fpiritual power, and might pardon the convidi by if- Sir Matthew Hale is indeed of a different opinion, and
fuing no procefs againft him ; the writ de hteretico com' holds that fuch power refided in the diocefan alfo; tho*
hurendo being not a writ of courfe, but iffuing only by he agrees, that in either cafe the writ de haretico com-
the fpecial dlredlion of the king in council.
burendo was not demandable of common right, but
But in the reign of Henry IV. when the eyes of the grantable or otherwife merely at the king’s diferetion.
-"'"I-’    —-"'A •-1— f“-A- But the principal point now gained was, that by this
ftatute a boundary is for the firft time fet to what fhall
be accounted herefy ; nothing for the future being to
„ „ be fo determined, but only fuch tenets, which have
an increafe of their own power, obtained an adl of par- been heretofore fo declared, 1. By the words of the
liament, which fharpened the edge of perfecution to its canonical feriptures ; 2. By the firft four general coun-
utmoft keennefs. For, by that ftatute, the diocefan cils, or fuch others as have only ufed the words of the
Chriftian world began to open, and the feeds of the
Proteftant religion (though under the opprobrious name
of lodardy) took root in this kingdom ; the clergy, ta¬
king advantage from the king’s dubious title to demand
holy Scriptures; or, 3. Which ftrall hereafter be fo
declared by the parliament, with the affent of the clergy
in convocation. Thus was herefy reduced to a greater
rprfaint-vr tVinn . «-Vw..wvU t*. *\.a. ^ i   i
alone, without the intervention of a fynod, might con¬
vict of heretical tenets; and unlefs the convidt abjured
his opinions, or if after abjuration he relapfed, the Are- ^ ^  
riff was bound ex ojjicio, if required by the biftiop, to certainty than before ; though it might not have been
commit the unhappy vi&im to the flames, without wait- the worfe to have defined it in terms ftiU more precife
ing for the confent of the crown. By the ftatute and particular: as a man continued ftill liable to be
2 Hen. V. c. 7. lollardy was alfo made a temporal of- burnt, for what perhaps he did not underftand to be
ftnee, and indiftable in the king’s courts ; which dkh herefy, till the ecclefiaftical judge fo interpreted the
not thereby gain an exclufive, but only a concurrent, words of the canonical feriptures.
jurifdidion with the biflrop’s confiftory. For the writ de haretico comlurendo remained ftill in
Afterwards, when the final reformation of religion force; and we have inftances of its being put in exe-
began to advance, the power of the ecclefiaftics was cution upon two Anabaptifts in the feventeenth of E-
fomewhat moderated ; for though what herefy ri, was hzabeth, and two Arians in the ninth of James I. But
not then precifely defined, yet we are told in fome h was totally aboliftred, and herefy again fubjeded on-
points what it is not: the ftatute 25 Hen. VIII. c. 14. ly to ecclefiaftical corredion, pro falute anima, by vir-
declaring, that offences againft the fee of Rome are not tue of the ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 9.: for, in one and the
herefy ; and the ordinary being thereby reftrained from fame reign, our lands were delivered from the flavery
proceeding in any cafe upon mere fufpicion ; that is, of military tenures; our bodies from arbitrary impri-
unlefs the party be accufed by two credible witneffes, fonment by the habeas corpus ad; and our minds from
or an indidment of herefy be firft previoufly found in the tyranny of fuperftitious bigotry, by demoliftiing
the king’s courts of common law. And yet the fpirit this laft badge of perfecution in the Engliflr law.
of perfecution was not yet abated, but only diverted Every thing is now as it fliould be, with refped to
isto a lay channel. For in fix years afterwards, by the fpiritual cognizance, and fpiritual punifliment of
herefy 4
HER
herefy : unlefs perhaps that the crii
ftri&ly defined, and no profecution permitted, even
the ecclcfiaftical courts, till the tenets in queftion aic
' by proper authority previoufiy declared to be heretical,
Under thefe r.eftriftions, it feems neceffary for the fup-
[ 47s 1 H E E.
ought to be more train ; and for the other he ftiall feize, and not diftrafa. Heriffcr,
If the lord purchafe part of the tenancy, heriot-fervice H f
is extinguifhed ; but it is not fo of heriot-cuftom. Herman-
HERISSON, in fortification, a beam armed with ma~
a great number of iron fpik.es with their points out- ’
port of the national religion, that the officers of the wards, and fupported by a pivot on which it turns,
church fliould have power to cenfure heretics ; yet not Thefe ferve as a barrier to block up any pafiage, and
to harafs them with temporal penalties, much lefs to are frequently placed before the gates, and more efpe-
exterminate or deftroy them. The legiflature hath in- cially the wicket-doors, of a town or fortrefs, to fecure
deed thought it proper, that the civil magiftrate ffiould thofe paffages which muft of neceffity be often opened
again interpofe, with regard to one fpecies of herefy, and fliut.
very prevalent in modern times; for by ftatute 9 8c 10 HERITABLE rights, in Scots law, fignify all
W. III. c. 32. if any perfon educated in the Chriftian rights affe&ing lands, houfes, &c. or any immoveable
religion, or profeffing the fame, fhall by writing, print- fubjeft.
ing, teaching, or advifed fpeaking, deny «ny one of
the perfons in the holy Trinity to be God, or maintain
that there are more gods than one, he ffiall undergo
the fame penalties and incapacities which were juft
HERITAGE, in Scots law, lands, houfes, or any
immoveable fubjeft, in contradiftindlion to moveables
or moveable fubje&s. It alfo fometimes fignifies fuch
immoveable property as a perfon fucceeds to as heir to
now mentioned-to be inflicted on apoftafy by the fame another, in contradiftindtion to that which he himfelf
purchafes or acquires in any other manner, called
que/l.
HERMiEA, in antiquity, ancient Greek feftivals
in honour of the god Hermes or Mercury. One of
thefe was celebrated by the Pheneatae in Arcadia; a
fecond by the Gyllenians in Elis; and a third by the
Tanagrasans, where Mercury was reprefented with a
ram upon his fhoulder, becaufe he was faid to have
walked thro’ the city in that pofture in time of a plague.
It appears, from Edward the Confeflbr’s laws, that and to have cured the flck ; in memory of which, it
the military force of this kingdom was in the hands of was cuftomary at this feftival for one of the moft beau-
the dukes or heretochs, who were conftituted through tiful youths in the city to walk round the walls with a
every province and county in the kingdom, being fe- ram upon his ftioulder.—A fourth feftival of the fame
1 o , .  j . - . . _ . . - - - -
ftatute.
HERETIC, a general name for all filch perfons
under any religion, but efpecially the Chriftian, as pro-
fefs or teach religious opinions contrary to the efta-
- blilhed faith, er to what is made the ftandard of or-
rthodoxy. See Heeesy.
HERETOCHS, among our Saxon anceftors, fig-
> milled the fame with dukes or duces, denoting the com¬
manders or leaders of their armies.
k&ed out of the principal nobility, and fuch as
moft remarkable for being fapientes,Jideles, & ammofi.
Their duty was to lead and regulate the Englilh armies,
with a very unlimited power; and becaufe of their great
power, they were ele&ed by the people in their full af-
fcmbly, or folkmote, in the fame manner as Iheriffs
were elefted.
HERFORDEN, or Herwarden, a free and im¬
perial town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia,
and capital of the county of Ravenffierg. Here is a fa¬
mous nunnery belonging to the Proteftants of the con-
. feffion of Augfburg, whofe abbefs is a princefs of the
name was obferved in Crete, when it was ufual for the
fervants to fit down at the table while their mafters
waited ; a cuftom which was alfo obferved at the Ro¬
man Saturnalia.
HERMAN (Paul), a famous botanift in the 17th
century, was born at Hall in Saxony. He pra&ifed
phyfic in the ifle of Ceylon, and was afterwards made
profeffor of botany at Leyden, where he died in 1695.
He wrote a catalogue of the plants in the public gar¬
den at Leyden, and a work intitled Flora Lugduno-
Batava jlores.
HERMANN (James), a learned mathematician of
empire, and has a voice and place in the diet. It is the academy at Berlin, and a member of the academy
featedon the-river Aa. E. Long. 8.47. N. Lat. 52. 12. of fciences at Paris, was born at Bafil in 1678. He
HERGUNDT, a town of Upper Hungary, re- was a great traveller, and for fix years was profeffor
markable for its rich mines of vitriol. Thofe who work of mathematics at Padua. He afterwards went to
in the mines have built a fubterraneous town, which Mufcovy, being invited thither by the Czar in 1724.
Las a great number of inhabitants. E. Long. 18. 15. At his return to his native country, he was made pro-
N. Lat. 48. 30. feffor of morality and natural law at Bafil; and died
HERIOT, in law, a cuftcmary tribute of goods there in 1733. He wrote feveral mathematical works,
and chattels, payable to the lord of the fee on the de- HERMANNIA, in botany : A genus of the pen-
eeafe of the owner of the land. See Tenure. tandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs of
Her'wt is of two forts—viz. 1. Heriot-cuftom, where plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
heriots have been paid time out of mind by cutlom, 37th order, Columnifera. The capfule is quinquelocular;
after the death of a tenant for life. In fome places, the petals at the bafe are femitubulated and oblique,
there is a cuftomary compofition in money, as 10 or 20 Species. 1. The lavendulifolia, hath a fhrubby ftalk
Ihilliugs in lieu of a heriot, by which the lord and te- and flender branches, very bufhy, about a foot and an
nant are both bound, if it be an undifputably ancient half high, fmall, fpear-lhaped, obtufe and hairy leaves,
cuftom; but a new compofition of this fort will not bind with clufters of fmall yellow flowers along the fides of
the reprefentatives of either party-.- 2. Heriot-fervice, the branches, continuing from June to Autumn,
.when a tenant holds by fueh fervice to pay heriot at 2. The altlueifolia hath a Ihrubby ftalk, and foft woolly
the time of his death ; which fervice is exprdfed in the branches, growing two feet high, with numerous yel-
iked of feoffment.—For this latter the lord (hall dif- low flowers in loofe fpikes .growing at the end of the
branches.
HER [ 479 I HER
Berman- branches, and making their appearance in July. 3. The
ftadt- groffularifolia hath a fhrubby ftalk and fpreading
^ II ^ branches, growing three or four feet high, with bright
phrodite. yellow flowers coming out in great numbers at the ends
y of all the (hoots and branches in April or May. 4. The
alnifolia hath a (hrubby ftalk and branches growing
irregularly four or five feet high, with pale yellow
flowers in (hort fpikes from the fides and ends of the
branches, appearing in April or May. 3. The hyflb-
pifolia hath a (hrubby upright ftalk, branching out la¬
terally fix or feven feet high, with pale yellow flowers
in clufters from the fides of the branches, appearing in
May and June. There are 14 other fpecies.
Culture. All thefe plants-are natives of Africa, and
therefore muft be kept in a green-houfe during the
winter in this country. They are propagated by cut¬
tings of their young (hoots, which may be planted in
pots of rich earth any time from April to July.
HERMANSTADT, a handfome, populous, and
ftrong town of Hungary, capital of Tranfilvania, with
a biihopls fee. It is the refidence of the governor of
the province ; and is feated on the river Ceben, in E.
Long. 23. 40 N. Lat. 46. 25.
HERMANT (Godfrey), a learned doftor of the
Sorbonne, born at Beauvais in 1617. He wrote many
excellent works; the principal of which are, 1. The
lives of St Athanafius, St Bafil, St Gregory Na-
yianzen, St Ghryfoftom, and St Ambrofe. 2. Four
pieces in defence of the rights of the univerfity of Pa¬
ris againft the Jefuits. 3. A French tranflation of St
Ghryfoftom’s treatife of Providence, and St BafiPs A-
feetics. 4. Extrafts from the councils ; publifhed af¬
ter his death, under the title of Claws difciplina ecclejia-
Jlica. He died fuddenly at Paris in 1690.
' HERMAPHRODITE, is generally underftood
to fignify a human creature poflefled of both fexes, or
who has the parts of generation both of male and fe¬
male. Tire term however is applied alfo to other ani¬
mals, and even to plants.—The word is formed of the
Greek EfftKteeinoe, a compound of Mercuryf
and AppoSim Venus; q. d. a mixture of Mercury and
Venus, i. e. of male and female. For it 'is to be ob-
ferved, Hermaphrodhtns was originally, a proper name,
applied by the heathen mythologifts* to a fabulous dei¬
ty, whom fame reprefent as a fon of Hermes, Mercury,
and Aphrodite, Venus ; and who, being defperately in
love with the nymph Salmafis, obtained of the gods to
have his body and hers united into one. Others fay,
that the god Hermaphroditus was conceived as a com.
pofition of Mercury and Venus; to exhibit the union
between eloquence, or rather commerce, whereof Mer¬
cury was god, with pleafure, whereof Venus was the
proper deity. Laftly, others think this junction in¬
tended to (how that Venus (pleafure) was of both
fexes; as, in effed, the poet Calvus call Venus a god.
PeHeutemque Deum Pcnertm.
As alfo Virgil, JEneid.- lib. ii.
Difceda, at ducentt Deo fiammam inter et hojlei ■
M. Spon obferves, Hefychius calls Venus Aphrodites j
and Theophraftus affirms, that Aphrodites, or Venus,
is- Hermaphroditus; and that in the ifland of Cyprus
(he has a ftatue, which reprefents her with a beard like
a mane—The Greeks: alio call hermaphrodites
androgyni, q. d. men-women. See. the article Andro- Henna*
GYNES. Phrodite.-
In a treatife by Mr Hunter, in the 69th volume of ■'
the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, hermaphrodites are di¬
vided into natured and unnatural or monftrous. The firfb
belongs to the more Ample orders of animals, of which-
there are a much greater number than of the more per-
fed. The unnatural takes place in every tribe of ani¬
mals having diftind fexes, but is more common in fome>
than in others. The human fpecies, our author ima¬
gines, has the feweft ; never having feen them in that-
fpecies, nor in dogs ; but in the horfe, (heep, and black-
cattle, they are very frequent.
From Mr Hunter’s account, however, it does not
appear that fuch a creature as a perfed hermaphrodite^
has ever exifted. All the hermaphrodites which he
had the opportunity of feeing had the appearance o£
females, and were generally faved as fuch. In tho
horfe they are very frequent; and in the moll perfed.
of this kind he ever faw, the tefticles had come down
out of. the abdomen into the place where the udder
(hould have been, and appeared like an udder, not fo-
pendulous as the ferotum in the male of fuch animals.-
There were alfo two nipples, of which horfes have n»
petfed form ; being, blended in them with the (heath-
or prepuce, of which there was none here. The ex-,
ternal female parts were exadly fimilar to thofe of a-
perfed female ; but inftead of a common-fized clito¬
ris, there was one about five or fix inches long; which
when ered, flood almoft diredly backwards.
A foal afs very fimilar to the above was killed, and
the following appearances were obferved on difledion*
The tefticles were not come down as in the former,
poffibly becaufe the. creature was too young. It had
alfo two nipples ; but there was no penis paffing round
the pubes to the belly, as in the perfed male afs. The
external female parts were fimilar to thofe of the (he-
afs. Within the entrance of the vagina was placed
the clitoris; but much longer than that of a true fe¬
male, being about five inches long. The vagina was
open a little farther than the opening of the urethra
into it, and then became obliterated ; from thence, up
to the fundus of the uterus, there was no canal. At
the fundus of the common uterus it was hollow, or had
a cavity in it, and then divided into two, viz. a right
and a left, called the horns of the uterus, which were
alfo pervious. Beyond the termination of the two
horns were placed the .ovaria, as in. the true female ;
but the Fallopian tubes could not be found.—From the
broad ligaments, to the edges of which the horns of
the uterus and ovaria were attached, there paffed to¬
wards each groin a part limilar to the round ligaments
in the female, which were continued into the rings of
the abdominal mufcles? but with this diflerence, that
there were continued with them a procefs or theca of
the peritonaeum, fimilar to the- tunica vaginalis com¬
munis in the male afs; and in thefe thecae were found
the tefticles* but no vafa deferentia could be obferved
paffing from them.
In mod fpecies of animals, the produ&ion of her¬
maphrodites appears to be the effeft of chance;
but in the black .cattle it feems to be an eftabliftied
principle of their propagation. It is a well-known
facl, and, as far as hath yet been difeovered, appear* .
t® .>
HER [ 480 1 HER
Herma- to be unlverfal, that when a cow brings forth two
;phrodire. cajves> one 0f them a bull, and the other a cow to ap-
' v- pearance, the cow is unfit for propagation, but the
bull-calf becomes a very proper bull. They are known
not to breed ; they do not even fhow the leaft inclina¬
tion for the bull, nor does the bull ever take the leaft
notice of them. Among the country people in Eng¬
land, this kind of calf is called a free-martin ; and this
Angularity is juft as well known among the farmers as
either cow or bull. When they are preferved, it is for
the purpofes of an ox or fpayed heifer; viz. to yoke
with the oxen, or fatten for the table. They are much
larger than either the bull or the cow, and the horns
grow longer and bigger, being very fimilar to thofe of
an ox. The bellow pf a free-martin is alfo fimilar to
that of an ox, and the meat is fimilar to that of the
ox or fpayed heifer, viz. much finer in the fibre than
either the bull or cow ; and they are more fufceptible
of growing fat with good food. By fome they are
fuppofed to exceed the ox and heifer in delicacy of
tafte, and bear a higher price at market ; this, how¬
ever, does not always hold, and Mr Hunter gives an
inftance of the contrary. The Romans, who called
ihe bull taurus, fpoke alfo of taura in the feminine
gender different from cows. Stephens obferves, that
it was thought they meant by this word barren cows,
who obtained the name becaufe they did not conceive
arty more than bulls. He alfo quotes a paffage from
Columella, lib. vi. cap. 22. “ And, like the tauree,
which occupy the place of fertile cows, Ihould be re¬
jected or fent away.” He likewife quotes Varro, De
re rujlica, lib. ii. cap. 5. “ The cow which is barren
is called taura.'" From which we may reafonably con¬
jecture, that the Romans had not the idea of the cir-
cumftances of their production.
Of thefe creatures Mr Hunter diffeCted three, and
the following appearances were obferved in the moft
perfeCt of them.—The external parts were rather fmaller
than in the cow. The vagina palled on as in the cow
to the opening of the urethra, and then it began to
contraCt into a fmall canal, which palfed on to the di-
vifion of the uterus into the two horns; each horn paf-
fxng along the edge of the broad ligament laterally to¬
wards the ovaria. At the termination of thefe horns
were placed both the ovaria and tefticles, both of which
were nearly about the fize of a fmall nutmeg. No
Fallopian tubes could be found. To the tefticles were
vafa deferentia, but imperfeCt. The left one did not
come near the tefticle; the right only came clofe to it,
but did not terminate in the body called epididymis.
They were both pervious, and opened into the vagina
near the opening of the urethra.—On the pofterior
furface of the bladder, or between the uterus and blad¬
der, were the two bags called the vejicuhe feminales in
the male, but much fmaller than what they are in
the bull: the duCts opened along with the vafa de¬
ferentia.
Concerning hermaphrodites of the human fpecies,
much has been written, and many laws enaCted about
them in different nations; but the exiftence of them is
Hill difputed. Dr Parfons has given us a treatife on
the fubjeft, in which he endeavours to explode the no¬
tion as a vulgar error. According to him, all the her¬
maphrodites that have appeared, were only women
whofe clitoris from fome caufe or other was overgrown;
N° 152.
and, in particular, that this was the cafe with an An- Henna-
gola woman Ihown at London as an hermaphrodite Phrodite*
fome time ago. •—y—
Among the reptile tribe, indeed, fuch as worms,
fnails, leeches, &c. hermaphrodites are very frequent.
In the memoirs of the French academy, we have an ac.
count of this very extraordinary kind of hermaphro¬
dites, which not only have both fexes, but do the office
of both at the fame time. Such are earth-worms,
round-tailed worms found in the inteftines of men and
horfes, land-fnails, and thofe of frefti waters, and all the
forts of leeches. And, as all thefe are reptiles, and
without bones, M. Poupart concludes it probable, that
all other infers which have thefe two chara&ers are
alfo hermaphrodites.
The method of coupling praftifed in this clafs of
hermaphrodites, may be illuftrated in the inftance of
earth-worms. Thefe little creatures creep, two by
two, out of holes proper to receive them, where they
difpofe their bodies in fuch a manner, as that the head
of the one is turned to the tail of the other. Being
thus ftretched length wife, a little conical button or pa¬
pilla is thruft forth by each, and received into an aper¬
ture of the other. Thefe animals, being male in one
part of the body, and female in another, and the body
flexible withal, M. Homberg does not think it impof-
fible but that an earth-worm may couple with itfelf,
and be both father and mother of its young ; an
obfervation which, to fome, appears highly extrava¬
gant !
Among the infefts of the foftor bonelefs kind, there
are great numbers indeed, which are fo far from being
hermaphrodites, that they are of no fex at all. Of this
kind are all the caterpillars, maggots, and worms, pro-^
duced of the eggs of flies of all kinds: but the reafoa
of this is plain ; thefe are not animals in a perfeft ftate,
but difguifes under which animals lurk. They have no
bufinefs with the propagating of their fpecies, but are
to be transformed into animals of another kind, by
the putting off their feveral coverings, and then only
they are in their perfect ftate, and therefore then only
ffiow the differences of fex, which are always in the
diftinft animals, each being only male or female,
Thefe copulate, and their eggs produce thefe crea¬
tures, which (how no fex till they arrive at that per-
fedft ftate again.
Hermaphrodite Flowers^ in botany. Thefe are
fo called by the fexualifts on account of their contain,
ing both the antherae and ftigma, the fuppofed organs
of generation, within the fame calyx and petals. Of
this kind are the flowers of all the claffes in Linnaeus’s
fexual method, except the claffes monoecia and dicecia;
in the former of which, male and female flowers are
produced on the fame root; in the latter, in diftimft
plants from the fame feed—In the clafs polygamta,
there are always hermaphrodite flowers mixed with
male or female, or both, either on the fame or diftinft
roots. In the plantain-tree the flowers are all herma¬
phrodite ; in fome, however, the antherae or male or¬
gan, in others the ftigma or female organ, proves ab¬
ortive. The flowers in the former clafs are ftyled fe¬
male hermaphrodites; in the latter, male hermaphrodites.
—Hermaphrodites are thus as frequent in the vege¬
table kingdom as they are rare and fcarce in the aniT
HER [ 481 ] HER
HERMAS, an ecclefiaftical author of the firft cen¬
tury ; and, according to Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome,
the fame whom St Paul falutes in the end of his epiftle
to the Romans. He wrote a book in Greek fome time
before Domitian’s perfecution, which happened in the
year 95. This work is intitled "The Pajlor, from his
reprefenting an angel fpeaking to him in it under the
form of a Ihepherd. The Greek text is loft, but a
very ancient Latin verfion of it is ftill extant. Some
of the fathers have confidered this bock as canonical.
The beft edition of it is that of 1698, where it is to
be found among the other apoftolical fathers, illuftra-
ted with the notes and corre&ions of Cotelerius and
Le Clerc. With them it was tranflated into Engliftr
by Achbifhop Wake, the belt; edition of which is that
of 1710.
Hermas, in botany : A genus of the monoecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. The
umbel in the hermaphrodite is terminal; there is an
univerfal involucrum and partial ones. The rays of the
fmall umbels are lobed ; the central one flower-bearing;
there are five petals, and as many barren ftamina ; the
feeds are two fold and fuborbicular. In the male the
lateral umbels have univerfal and partial involucra; the
fmall umbels are many-flowered ; there are five petals,
and five fertile ftamina.
HERMES, or Herma, among antiquaries, a fort
of fquare or cubical figure of the god Mercury, ufually
made of marble, though fometimes of brafs or other ma¬
terials, without arms or legs, and planted by the Greeks
and Romans in their crofs-ways.
Servius gives us the origin thereof, in his -comment
on the eighth book of the jEneid. Some Ihepherds,
fays he, having one day caught Mercury, called by the
Greeks Hermes, afleep on a mountain, cutoffhis bands;
from which he, as well as the mountain where the ac¬
tion was done, became denominated Cyllenius, from
xuxxoe maimed: and thence,, adds Servius, it is that cer¬
tain ftatues without arms are denominated Hermefes or
Herma. But this etymology of the epithet of Cyllenius
contradi&s moft of the other ancient authors; who de¬
rive it hence, that Mercury was born at Cyllene, a city
of Elis, or even on the mountain Cyllene itfelf, which
had been thus called before him.
Suidas gives a moral explication of this cuflom of
making ttatues of Mercury without arms. The Her¬
mefes, fays he, were ftatues of ftone placed at the vefti-
bules or porches of the doors and temples at Athens ;
for this reafon, that as Mercury was held the god of
fpeech and of truth, fquare and cubical ftatues were pe¬
culiarly proper ; having this in common with truth, that
on what fide foever they are viewed, they always appear
the fame.
It muft be obferved, that Athens abounded more
4han any other place in Hermefes : there were abun¬
dance of very fignal ones in divers parts of the city, and
they were indeed one of the principal ornaments of the
place. They were alfo placed in the high-roads and
crofs-ways, becaufe Mercury, who was the courier of
the gods, prefided over the highways; whence he had
his furname of Trivius, from trivium s and that of Via-
cus, from via.
From Suidas’s account, above cited, it appears,
that the terms termini, ufed among us in the door cafes,
balconies, &c. of our buildings, take their origin from
V01..VIII. Part II.
thefe Athenian Hermefes ; and that it was more proper
to call them hermetes than termini, becaufe, though the
Roman termini were fquare Hones, whereon a head was
frequently placed, yet they were rather ufed as land¬
marks and mere ftones than as ornaments of building.
See the articles Mercury and Thoth.
HERMETIC, or//ARAf£T/c^£-^r/, a name given
to chemiftry, on a fuppofition that Hermes Trifmegi-
ftus was the inventor thereof, or that he excelled there¬
in. See Thoth.
Hermetical Philofophy is that which undertakes to
folve and explain all the phenomena of nature, from
the three chemical principles, fait, fulphur, and mer,
cury.
Hermetical Pbyfic, or Medicine, is that fyftem or
hypothefis in the art of healing, which explains the
caufes of difeafes, and the operations of medicine, on
the principles of the hermetical philofophy, and parti¬
cularly on the fyftem of alkali and acid.
Hermetical Seal, a manner of flopping or doling
glafs veffels, for chemical operations, fo very accurately,
that nothing can exhale or efcape, not even the molt
fubtile fpirits. It is performed by heating the neck of
the vefiel in t^e flame of a lamp till it be ready to melt,
and then with a pair of pincers twilling it clofe toge¬
ther. This they call putting on Hermes's feat. There are
alfo other ways of fealing vefiels hermetically; viz. by
flopping them with a plug or ftoppleof glafs, well luted
into the neck of the vefiel; or, by turning another ovum
philofophicum upon that- wherein the matter is con¬
tained.
HERMHARPOCRATES, or Hermarpocra-
TES, in antiquity, a deity, or figure of a deity, com-
pofed of Mercury, and Harpocrates the god of Silence.
M. Spon gives us a hermharpocrates in his Rech+
Cur. de VAntiquite, p. 98. fig. 15. having wings on his
feet like Mercury, and laying his finger on his mouth
like Harpocrates. It is probable they might mean,
by this combination, that filence is fometimes elo¬
quent.
HERMIANI, or Hermiatitje, a fed of heretics
in the fecond century, thus called from their leader
Hermias. They were alfo denominated Seleuciani.
One of their diftinguilhing tenets was, that God is
corporeal. Another, that Jefus Chrift did not afeend
into heaven with his body, but left it in the fun.
HERMIONE (anc. geog.), a confiderable city of
Argolis. It was in ruins (except a few temples) in
the time of Paufanias; who fays that the new city was
at the diftance of four ftadia from the promontory on
which the temple of Neptune Hood. It gave name
to the Sinus Hermionicus, a part of the Sinus Argo-
licus.
HERMIT, or Eremit, Eremita, a devout per-
fon retired into folitude, to be more at leifure for prayer
and_ contemplation, and to difencumber himfelf of the
affairs of this world.—The word is formed from the
Greeks®-, defert or wildernefs; and, according to
the etymology, ihould rather be wrote Eremit.
Paul furnamed the Hermit, is ufually reckoned the
firft hermit; though St Jerome at the beginning of
the life of that faint fays, it is not known who was
the firft.—-Some go back to John the Baptift, others
to Elias : others make St Anthony the founder of the
eremitical life; but others think that he only rekind-
3 O led
Hermetic
HER r 482 ] HER
Hermit led and heightened the fervout thereof, and hold that matter. The opinions of Hermogenes, with regard to Her more
fl the difciples of that faint owned St Paul of Thebes the origin of the world and the nature of the foul, were l!
Hermoge-£or t{je t]lat praftifed it. The perfecutions'of warmly oppofed by Tertullian. e'~ne' f
« ni^ns' Decius and Valerian are fuppofed to have been the The Hermogenians were divided into feveral branches
‘ occafion.—Several of the ancient hermits, as St An- under their refpe&ive chieftains, viz. Hermiani, Seleu-
thony, &c. though they lived in deferts, had yet num- cians, Materiari, &c.
bers of religious accompanying them. HERMON, or Aermon (anc. geog.); a moun-
There are alfo various orders and congregations of re- tain of the Amorites, called .Sanior by the Phcenici-
ligious diftinguilhed by the title of y as, hermits ans, and Sanir or Senir by the Amorites, on the call
of St Auguftine, of St John Baptift, of St Jerom, of of Jordan. It is alfo called Sion, (Mofes) ; but muft
St Paul, See. not be confounded with the Sion of Jerufalem. By
Hermit (Gaytier Peter the), a French officer of the Sidonians it was called Scirion ; in the vul^ate, it
Amiens in Picardy, who quitted the military profef- is called Sarion. Jofhua informs us, that it was the
lion, and commenced hermit and pilgrim. Unfortunate- dominion of Og king of Baffian ; which muft be un-
ly, he travelled to the Holy Land about the year 1093 ; derftood of its fouth fide. It is never particularly
and making a melancholy recital of the deplorable mentioned by profane writers; being comprifed under
fituation of a few Chriftians in that country to Pope the appellation Libanus, or Antilibaniis, with which
Urban II. and at the fame time enthufiaftically lament- mountain it is joined to the eaft. It is alfo called Her-
ing that Infidels (hould be in poffeffion of the famous monim plurally, Plalm xlii. 6. becaufe it was extenfive,
city where the Author of Chriitianity firft promulgated and contained feveral mountains.
his facred doftrines, Urban gave him a fatal commif- HERMUS, (anc. geog.), a river of Ionia ; which
fion to excite all Chriftian princes to a general war rifing near Dorylseum, a town of Phrygia, in a motin-
againft the Turks and Saracens the poffeflbrs of the tain facred to Dindymene or Cybele, touched Myfia,
Holy Land. See Crusades. and ran through the Regio Combufta, then through
HERMITAGE properly fignifies a little hut or the plains of Smyrna down to the fea, carrying along
habitation, in fome defert place, where a hermit with it the Pa&olus, Hyllus, and other lefs noble ri-
dwells. vers. Its waters were faid to roll down gold, by Vir-
Hermitage is alfo popularly attributed to any religi- gil and other poets,
ous cell, built and endowed in a private and reclufe HERNANDR1A, Jack-in-a-box-tree : A ge-
place, and thus annexed to fome large abbey, of which nus of the triandria order, belonging to the moncecia
the fuperior was called hermita. clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking un-
HERMODACTYL, in the materia medica, a root der the 38th order, Tricocca. The male calyx is tri-
brought fr nn Turkey. It is of the fhape of a heart partite ; the cor “ia tripetalous; the female calyx is trun-
fiatted, of a white colour, compaA, yet eafy to cut or cated, quite entire; the corolla hexapetalous; the plum
powder ; of a vifeous fweetilh tafte, with a light degree hollow, and open at the mouth or upper part, with a
of acrimony. Hermoda&yls were of great repute a- loofe kernel.
mong the ancients as a cathartic; but thofe we now Species. 1. The fonora, or common jack-in-a-box,
meet with in the (hops have very little purgative virtue; is a native of both the Indies. It grows 20 or 30
Neumann declares he never found them to have any feet high ; and is garnifhed with broad peltated leaves,
effeA at all. — The hermoda&il is the root of the Col- and moncecious flowers, fucceeded by a large fwollen
chicum variegatum, according to fome; others fuppofe hollow fruit formed of the calyx; having a hole or
it to be the root of the Iris tuberofa. open at the end, and a hard nut within. The wind
HERMOGENES, the firft and mod celebrated blowing into the cavity of this fruit makes a very
architeA of antiquity, was, according to Vitruvius, whittling and rattling node, whence comes the name;
born at Alanbada, a city in Carla. He built a tern- 2. The ovigera grows many feet high, garnithed with
pie of Diana at Magnefia ; another of Bacchus at large oval leaves not peltated ; and monoecious flowers,
Tros ; and was the inventor of feveral parts of archi- fucceeded by a fwollen fruit open at the end, and a nut
teAure.. He compofed a book on the fubjeA, which within.
L loft. Ufes. The fonora, in Java, affords a fure antidote
HERMOGENES-TarfenJis, a rhetorician and orator, and againft poifon, if you either put its fmall roots on the
who was in every refpeA a prodigy. At 17 years wounds or eat them ; as was difeovered to Rumphius by
of age he publifhed his fyftem of rhetoric, and at a captive woman in the war between the people of Ma-
20 his philofophic ideas : but at 25 he forgot every cafar and the Dutch in the year 1667. The foldiers
thing he had known. It is faid, that his body being of the former always carry this root about them, as a
opened after his death, his heart was found of an ex- remedy againft wounds with poifonous arrows,
traordinary fize, and all over hairy. He died about Culture. Both thefe plants being tender exotics,
i68 B. C. muft be planted in pots of rich earth, and always
HERMOGENIANS, a feA of ancient heretics, kept in a hot-houfe; in which, notwithftanding all
denominated from their leader Hermogenes, who lived the care that can be taken, they feldom flower, and
towards the clofe of the fecond century. Hermogenes never grow beyond the height of common fhrubs, tho*
ellabliflied matter as his firft principle ; and regarding in the places where they are natives they arrive at
matter as the fountain of all evil, he maintained that the height of trees. They are propagated by feeds-
the world, and every thing contained in it, as alfo procured from the Weft Indies.
the fouls of men and other fpirits, were formed by the HERNE, a town of Kent, 6 miles from Canterbu-
Jjhytjj ffom an uncreated and eternal ajiafs of corrupt ry, 12 from Margate, and 14 from Feverfham. It for-
HER [ 483 1 HER
Hernia merly had a market, and has now a fair on Eafter-
II Tuefday. The church is a large ancient ftru&ure, with
1 Hero- a tower of flint, and has fix flails of the cathedral kind,
witi! diviiions of the choir from the nave by a carved
fcreen of oak. The church is 113 feet long. The
ftone font is very ancient. Here the great Dr Ridley,
the Engliih martyr, was vicar. Here is a commodious
bay, frequented by colliers, &c.
HERNIA, in medicine and furgery, a defcent of
the inteftines or omentum out of their natural place;
or rather, the tumour formed by that defcent, popular¬
ly called a rupture. The word is Latin, hernia, and
originally fignifies the fame with tumor fcroti, called alfo
ramex. Prifcian obferves, that the ancient Marfi gave
the appellation hernia to rocks; whence fome will have
hernias thus called propter duritiem, on account of their
hardnefs. Scaliger choofes rather to derive the word
from the Greek ramus, branch. See {Index to)
Surgery.
HERNIARIA, rupture-wort : A genus of the
digynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
1 ith order, Sarmentacea. The calyx is quinque partite;
there is no corolla ; there are five barren ftamina, and a
monofpermous capfule.
Species. There are four fpecies, of which the only
remarkable one is the glabra, or fmooth rupture-wort,
a native of many parts of England. It is a low trail¬
ing plant, with leaves like the fmaller chickweed ; the
flowers come out in clufters from the fide of the ftalks
at the joints, and are of a yellowilh green colour.
Ufes, &c. This plant is a little faltilh and aftrin-
gent. The juice takes away fpecks in the eye. Cows,
Iheep, and horfes, eat the plant; goats and fwine re-
fufe it.
HERO, in Pagan mythology, a great and illuf-
trious perfon, of a mortal nature, though fuppofed by
the populace to partake of immortality, and after his
death to be placed among the number of the gods.
The word is formed of the Latin heros, and that of
the Greek femi-deus, “ demi-god.”—The Greeks
ere&ed columns and other monuments over the tombs
of their heroes, and eftablilhed a kind of worlhip in
honour of the manes both of their heroes and heroines.
The Romans alfo raifed ftatues in honour of their he¬
roes ; but there were fix of their heroes of a fuperior
order, and who were fuppofed to be admitted into the
community of the twelve great gods : thefe were Her¬
cules, Bacchus, Efculapius, Romulus, Caftor, and
Pollux. Writers have diftinguilhed between the wor-
fhip which the ancients paid to their heroes and that
• offered to their gods. The latter, it is faid, confifted
of facrifices and libations; the former was only a kind
of funeral honour, in which they celebrated their ex¬
ploits, concluding the rehearfal with feafts.
Hero is alfo ufed in a more extenfive fenfe, for a
great, illuftrious, and extraordinary perfonage ; par¬
ticularly in refpedt of valour, courage, intrepidity, and
other military virtues.
F. Bouhours makes this diftinftion between a great
man and a hero, that the latter is more daring, fierce,
and enterprifing ; and the former more prudent,
thoughtful, and referved. In this fenfe we properly
fay, Alexander was a hero, Julius Caefar a great man.
Hero of a poem or romance, is the principal perfo- Hero
nage, or he who has the chief part in it. Thus the U.
hero of the Iliad is Achilles ; of the Odyffey, Ulyffes ; Herodian,»
of the jEneid, .Eneas ; of Taffo’s Jerufalem, God- v
frey of Bulloign ; of Milton’s Paradife Loft, Adam ;
though Mr Dryden will have the devil to be Milton’s
hero, becaufe he gets the better of Adam, and drives
him out of Paradife.
Hero, in fabulous hiftory, a famous prieftefs of
Venus, lived at Abydos, in a tower fituated on the
banks of the Hellefpciit. She being beloved by Lean-
der, who lived at Seftos on the other fide of the ftrait,
he every night fwam over to vifit her, being dire&ed
by a light fixed on the tower. But the light being put
out in a ftormy night, the youth miffed his way, and
was drowned ; on which Hero threw herfelf into the
fea, and perilhed.
Hero, the name of two celebrated Greek mathe¬
maticians; the one called the o/d, and the other the
young. Hero. The younger was a difciple of Ctefibius.
They are known by two works tranflated into Latin
by Barochius: Spiralium liber, by Hero fenior; and
Trati at. artis et machin. militar. by Hero junior. They
flourilhed about 130 and 100 B. C.
HEROD, falfely ftyled the Great, king and exe¬
crable tyrant of Judaea ; who, on the ftrength of a
mifinterpreted prophecy, caufed all the male children
of Bethlehem and its neighbourhood to be maffacred
by his foldiers at the time of the birth of Chrift, in the
vain hope of deftroying the Saviour of mankind. He
died, eaten with worms, two or three years after the
birth of our Saviour, at the age of 71, after a reign
of 43 years. He had ordered that all the perfons of
quality, whom he kept in prifon, Ihould be maffacred
the moment the breath was out of his body, in order
that every confiderable family in the kingdom might
fhed tears at his death ; but that inhuman order was
not executed.
HERODIAN, an eminent Greek hiftorian, who
fpent the greateft part of his life at Rome, flourilhed
in the third century, in the reigns of Severus, Cara-
calla, Heliogabalus, Alexander, and Maximin. His
hiftory begins from the death of Marcus Aurelius
the philofopher ; and ends with the death of Balbinus
and Maximin, and the beginning of the reign of Gor¬
dian. It is written in very elegant Greek ; and there
is an excellent tranflation of it into Latin, by Ange-
lus Politianus. Herodian has been publilhed by Henry
Stephens in 4to, in 1581 ; by Boeder, at Stralburg,
in 1662, 8vo; and by Hudfon, at Oxford, in 1600,
8vo.
HE ROD IANS, a fed among the Jews at the time
of our Saviour ; mentioned Math. xxii. 16. Mark iii. 6.
The critics and commentators are very much divided
with regard to the Herodians. St Jerom, in his Dia¬
logue againft the Luciferians, takes the name to have
been given to fuch as owned Herod for the Mefilah ;
and Tertullian and Epiphanius are of the fame opi¬
nion. But the fame Jerom, in his Comment on St
Matthew, treats this opinion as ridiculous; and main¬
tains, that the Pharifees gave this appellation by way
of ridicule to Herod’s foldiers who paid tribute to the
Romans; agreeable- to which the Syrian interpreters
render the word by the domejlks of Herod, i. e. “ his
3 O 2 courtiers.’*
HER [ 484 ] HER
Herodotus, courtiers.” M. Simon, in his notes on the 22d chap-
y ter of Matthew, advances a more probable opinion.
The name Herodian he imagines to have been given
to fuch as adhered to Herod’s party and intereft ; and
were for preferving the government in his family, a-
bout which were great diviiions among the Jews.—F.
Hardouin will have the Herodians and Sadducees to
have been the fame.—Dr Prideaux is of opinion
that they'derived their name from Herod the Great,
and that' they were diftinguifhed from the other Jews
by their concurrence with Herod’s fcheme of fubjeft-
ing himfelf and his dominions to the Romans, and
likewife by complying with many of their heathen
ufages and cuftoms. This fymbolizing with idolatry
upon views of intereft and worldly policy, was proba¬
bly that leaven of Herod, againft which our Saviour
cautioned his difciples. It is farther probable that
they were chiefly of the fe£l of Sadducees ; becaufe
the leaven of Herod is alfo denominated the leaven of
the Sadducees.
HERODOTUS, an ancient Greek hiftorian of
Halicarnaflus in Caria, fon of Lyxus and Dryo, w'as
born in the firft year of the 74th Olympiad, that is,
about 484 B. C. The city of Halicarnaflus being at
that time under the tyranny of Lygdamis grandfon
of Artemifia queen of Caria, Herodotus quitted his
country and retired to Samos 5 from whence he tra¬
velled over Egypt, Greece, Italy, &c. and in his tra¬
vels acquired the knowledge of the hiftory and origin
of many nations. He then began to digeft the ma¬
terials he had collefted into order, and compofed that
hiftory which has preferved his name among men ever
lince. He wrote it in the ifle of Samos, according to
the general opinion.— Lucian informs us, that when
Herodotus left Caria to go into Greece, he began to
confider with himfelf.
What he ftiould do to be for ever known
And make the age to come his own,
in the moft expeditious way, and with as little trouble
as pofiible. His hiftory, he prefumed, would eafily
procure him fame, and raife his name among the Gre¬
cians in whofe favour it was written : but then he fore-
faw that it would be very tedious to go through the
feveral cities of Greece, and recite it to each refpe&ive
city; to the Athenians, Corinthians, Argives, Lace¬
demonians, &c. He thought it moft proper there¬
fore to take the opportunity of their afiembling all
together; and accordingly recited his work at the
Olympic games, which rendered him more famous
than even thofe who had obtained the prizes. None
were ignorant of his name, nor was there a Angle per-
fon in Greece who had not feen him atthe Olympic games,
or heard thofe fpeak of him who had feen him there.
Elis work is divided into nine books ; which, accord¬
ing to the computation of Dionyftus Halicarnaflenfis,
contain the moft remarkable occurrences within a pe¬
riod of 240 years ; from the reign of Cyrus the firft
king of Perfia, to that of Xerxes when the hiftorian
was living. Thefe nine books are called after the
names of the nine mufes, each book being diftinguifti-
cd by the name of a mufe ; and this has given birth to
two difquifitions among the learned : 1. Whether they
were fo called by Herodotus himfelf; and, 2. For what
reafon they were fo called. As to the firft, it is ge¬
nerally agreed that Herodotus did not impofe thefe
names himfelf j but it is not agreed why they were
impofed by others. Lucian tells us, that thefe names Herodotus
were given them by the Grecians at the Olympic games, 11
when they were firft recited, as the beft compliment H£ron•,
that could be paid the man who had taken pains to do ”" y
them fo much honour. Others have thought that the
names of the mufes have been fixed upon them by way of
reproach ; and were defigned to intimate, that Hero¬
dotus, inftead of true hiftory, had written a great deal
of fable. But, be this as it will, it is certain, that
with regard to the truth of his hiftory, he is accufed
by feveral authors ; and, on the other hand, he has not
wanted perfons to defend him. Aldus Manutius, Joa¬
chim Camerarius, and Henry Stephens, have written
apologies for him ; and, among other things, have very
juftly obferved, that he ftldom relates any thing of
doubtful credit without producing the authority on
which his narration is founded ; and, if he has no cer¬
tain authority to fix it upon, ufes always the terms ut
ftrunt, ut ego audivi, &c.
There is aferibed alfo to Herodotus, but falfely, a
Life of Homer, which is ufually printed at the end of
his work —He wrote in the Ionic dialed!, and his ftyle
and manner have ever been admired by all people of
tafte. There have been feveral editions of the works
of this hiftorian ; two by Henry Stephens, one in
1570, and the other in 1592 ; one by Gale at London
in 1679; an^ onc ky Gronovius at Leyden in 1715,
which is the laft and beft, though not the beft printed.
HEROIC, fomething belonging to a hero, or he¬
roine. Thus we fay, heroic aftions, heroic virtue, A-
roic ftyle, heroic verfe, heroic poet, heroic age, &c.
Heroic /tge, is that age or period of the world
wherein the heroes, or thofe called by the poets the
children of the gods, are fuppofed to have lived.—The
heroic age coincides with the fabulous age.
Heroic Poem is that which undertakes to deferibe
lome extraordinary adtion, or enterprize. Homer, Vir¬
gil, Statius, Lucan, Tafib, Camoens, Milton, and Vol¬
taire, have compofed heroic poems. In this fenfe, heroic
poem coincides with epic poem.
Heroic Verfe, is that wherein heroic poems are
ufually compofed; or, it is that proper for fuch
poems. In the Greek and Latin, hexameter ver'fes are
peculiarly denominated heroic verfes, as being alone
ufed by Homer, Virgil, &c. Alexandrine verfes, of
12 fyllables, were formerly called heroic verfes, as being
fuppofed the only verfe proper for heroic poetry ; but
later writers ufe verfes of ten fyllables.
HEROINE, Heroina, or Herois, a woman that
has the qualities and virtues of a hero, or that has
done fome heroic adtion.
HERON, in ornithology. See Ardea.
This bird is a very great devourer of filh, and will
do more mifehief to a pond than even an otter. Some
fay that an heron will deftroy more fifti in a week than
an otter will in three months ; but that feems carrying
the matter too far. People who have kept herons,
have had the curiofity to number out the fiflr they fed
them with into a tub of water ; and counting them,
again afterwards, it has been found that a heron will
eat 50 moderate-fized dace and roaches in a day. It
has been found, that in carp-ponds vifited by this bird,
one heron will eat up 1000 ftore carp in a year, and
will hunt them fo clofe that very few can efcape. The
readied method of deftroying this mifehievous bird is-
by filhing for him in the manner of pike, with a
baited
HER [ 485 ] HER
Herpes baited hook. When the haunt of the heron is found The manner of repacking them is, to take out the Herring.
„ II out, three or four fmall roach or dace are to be pro- herrings, wafh them out in their own pickle, and lay —
. cured, and each of them is to be baited on a wire with them orderly in a fre/h barrel: thefe have no fait put
- a flrong hook at the end ; entering the wire juft under to them, but are clofe packed, and headed up by a
the gills, and letting it run juft under the ikin to the fworn cooper, with pickle, when the barrel is half full.
tail: the fifti will live in this condition five or fix days,
which is a very effential thing; for if it is dead, the heron
will not touch it. A ftrong line, about two yards long,
is then to be prepared of filk and wire twifted toge¬
ther; tie this to the wire that holds the hook ; and to
the other end there is to be tied a ftone of about a
pound weight. Let three or four of thefe baits be
funk in different fhallow parts of the pond, and in a
night or two the heron will not fail of being taken by
one or other of them.—When hawking was in ufe,
the heron afforded a great deal of fport to people who
loved that diverfion. There is but very little art in
this flight of the hawk ; but as both birds are large
The pickle is' brine ; fo ftrong as that the herring will
fwim in it.
2. Summers, are fuch as the Dutch chafers or divers
catch from June to the 15th of July. Thefe are
fold away in fea-fticks, to be fpent prefently, in regard
of their fatnefs; becaufe they will not endure repack¬
ing. They go one with another, full and (hotten j
but the repacked herrings are forted, the full herrings
by themfelves.
3. The Jhotten and Jich herrings by themfelves ; the
barrel whereof is to be marked diftinctly.
4. Crux herrings ; which are fuch as are caught af¬
ter the 14th of September. Thefe are cured with
and courageous, the fight is finer than in the flight of that kind of fait called fait upon fait, and are carefully
fmalit r birds that make no refiftance.
HERPES, in medicine, a bilious puftule, which
breaking out in different manners upon the fkin, ac¬
cordingly receives different denominations. See (the
Index fubjoinedto) Medicine.
HERRERA tordesileas (Anthony), a Spanifh
hillorian, was fecretary to Vefpafian Gonzaga vice¬
roy of Naples, and afterwards hiftoriographer of the
Indie-, under king Philip If. who allowed him a con-
fiderable penfion. He wrote a general hiftory of the
Indies, in Spaniflr, from 1492 to 1554 ; and of the
world (not fo much efteemed), from 1554 to 1598.
He died in 1625, aged about 66.
Herrera (Ferdinand de), an eminent Spaniflr poet,
of the 16th century, was born at Seville, and piinci-
pally fucceeded in the lyric kind. Befides his poems,
he wrote notes on Garcilaflb de la Vega, and an ac¬
count of the war of Cyprus, and the battle of Le-
pauto, &c.
HERRING, in ichthyology, a fpecies of Clupea.
The name herring is derived from the German heer,
an army, which expreffes their number, when they mi¬
grate into our feas. Herrings are found in great plen-
forted out, all full herrings, and ufed in the repacking.
5. Carved herrings. Thefe ferve to make red her¬
rings, being fuch as are taken in the Yarmouth feas,
from the end of Auguft to the middle of Oftober;
provided they can be carried afhore within a week,
more or lefs, after they are taken. Thefe are never
gipped, but rowed in fait, for the better preferving of
them, till they can be brought on fhore ; and fuch as
are kept to make red herrings are wafhed in great vats
in frefh water before they are hung up in the herring-
hangs or red-herring houfes.
As for the manner of faking heirings. The nets be¬
ing haled on board, the fifties are taken out, and put
into the warbacks, which Hand on one fide of the vef-
fels. When all the nets are thus unloaded, one fills
the gippers bafkets. The gippers cut their throats,
take out their guts, and fling out the full herrings into
one bafket, and the fliotten into another. One man
takes the full bafket when they are gipped, and car¬
ries them to the tower-back, wherein there is fait.
One boy rows and ftirs them about in the fait, and an¬
other takes them, thus rowed, and carries them irf
bafkets to the packers. Four men pack the herrings
ty from the higheft northern latitudes as low as the into one barrel, and lay them, one by one, ftraight and
northern coafts of France. They are alfo met with in even ; and another man, when the barrel is full, takes
vafllhoals on the coaft of America, as low as Caroli- it from the packers. It is left to (land a day, or more,
na : they are found alfo in the fea of Kamtfchatka, open to fettle, that the fait may melt and* diffolve to
and poflibly reach Japan : but their winter rendezvous pickle ; after which it is filled up, and the barrel
is within the ar&ic circle, whither they retire after headed. The pickle is to be ftrong enough to fuftain
fpawning, and where they are provided with plenty of a herring; otherwife the fifh decay in it. See Herrin-?-
infedt food. For an account of the remarkable mi- Fishery.
gration of herrings, and the hiftory of the fifhery, &c. It is unlawful to buy or fell herrings at fea before
fee Clupea and Herring-Fishery. the fiftermen come into the haven, and the cable of
They are in full roe at the end of June, and con- the ftip bedrawn to the land. 31 Edw. III. flat. 2. No
tinue in perfection till the beginning of winter, when herring fhall be fold in any veffel, but where the bar-
they begin to depofite their fpawn. rel contains thirty-two gallons, and half barrel and fir-
There are different names given to preferved her-  J" 1 1 .. .1 . _
rings, according to the different manners wherein they
are ordered : as, 1. Sea-ficks ; which are fuch as are
caught all the lifting feafon, and are but once packed.
kin accordingly ; and they muft be well packed, of
one time’s packing and faking, and be as good at the
middle as the ends, on the pain of forfeiting 3s. 4d. a
barrel, &c. by flat. 22 Edw. IV. cap. 2. The veffels
A barrel of thefe holds fix or eight hundred ; eight for herrings are to be marked with the quantity and
barrels go to the tun by law ; a hundred of herrings place where packed, and packers to be appointed and
is to be a hundred and twenty ; a laft is ten thoufand, fworn in all fifting-ports, &c. under the penalty of
and they commonly reckon fourteen barrels to the laft.
There are others, repacked on ftore, called repack¬
ed herrings; feventeen barrels of fea-fticks commonly
make from twelve to fouiteen of repacked herrings.
100I. flat. 15 Car. II. cap. 16.
Herring (Thomas), archbiftop of Canterbury,
was the fon of the rev. Mr John Herring, redlor of
Walfoken in Norfolk, where he was born in 1693.
£ “ He
HER [ 486 ] HER
Herring J}e wag educated at Jefus-college, Cambridge ; was to the fuperintendence of an elder, co-elder, and vice-
Hernlwt afterwar<^s chofen fellow of Corpus Chrifti college, and elder. Particular attention was paid by thefe feveral
continued a tutor there upwards of feven years. Pla-
- ving entered into prielt’s orders in 17x9, he was fuc-
ceffively minifter of Great Shelford, Stow cum Qui,
and Trinity in Cambridge; chaplain to Dr Fleet-
wood, bilhop of Ely ; re&or of Rettingdon in Ef-
clafles to the inftrutdion of youth ; and as a great part
of their worfhip confifted in finging, they pretended
that children were inllrufted in their religion by hymns.
There are fome perfons of both fexes appointed by ro¬
tation to pray for the fociety, who are admoniihed of
fex, and of Early in Hertfordlhire ; preacher to the their duty by inward feeling ; and they pretend to de-
Society of Lincoln’s Inn, chaplain in ordinary to his termine the divine will in particular cafes by calling
late majefty, redlor of Blechingly in Surry, and dean lots. All matrimonial contrails are fubjeft to the di-
of Rochelier. In 1737 he was confecrated bilhop of reftion and approbation of the elders. This fe£t pro-
Bangor, and in 1743 tranllated to the archiepifcopal
fee of York. When the late rebellion broke out in
felfed in their firft ellablifhment to belong to the Lu¬
theran church ; but count Zinzendorf, for the greater
Scotland, and the king’s troops were defeated by the credit of this new fociety, afterwards pretended that
Highlanders at Preftonpans, he diftinguilhed himfelf it was a revival of the ancient Moravian church, or
by removing the general panic, and awakening the
nation from its lethargy. He convened the nobility,
gentry, and clergy of his diocefe ; and addrefled them
in a noble fpeech, which had fuch an efFe& upon his
auditory, that a fubfeription enfued, to the amount of
forty thoufand pounds; and the example was followed
by the nation in general. On the Death of Dr Potter
in 1747, he was tranflated to the fee of Canterbury ,•
but in 1753 was feized with a violent fever, which
brought him to the brink of the grave ; and after lan-
Bohemian brethren, who were converted from popery
by John Hufs. But this feems to have been a mere
pretence. Such was the origin of a fedl, which in
procefs of time became very confiderable and exten-
five, and which adopted tenets and practices as infa¬
mous as they are fingular. Zinzendorf was denomi¬
nated the truftee and guardian of the brethren; in
1737 he was confecrated bilhop of this fe&, a dignity
which he refigned in 1740. Towards the clofe of the
year 1744, he was denominated miniller plenipotenti-
guilhing about four ^ears, he died on the 13th of ary and ceconomill ; and it was enadled, that nothing
March 1757. He expended upwards of fix thoufand of importance Ihouldbe done without his confent; and
pounds in repairing and adorning the palaces of Croy- he afterwards Ityled himfelf the lord advocate of the
don and Lambeth. This worthy prelate, in a moll
eminent degree, pofieffed the virtues of public life;
unltas fratrum. Zinzendorf has travelled in perfon all
over Europe, and been twice in America ; and he has
bis mind Was filled with unaffefled piety and benevo- alfo fent miffionaries almoll throughout the known
lence, he was an excellent preacher, and a true friend world. It would be endlefs to recount the numberlefs
to religious and civil liberty. After his death was
publilhed a volume of his fermons on public occa-
fiens. \
HERRISON. See Herisson.
HERNHUTTERS, in tcclefiafticalhillory, the name
artifices which this fedtary has made ufe of to ellablilh
his own authority, and to extend the intereft of his
party. According to his own account, publilhed in
1749, the fociety had almoll a thoufand labourers
difperfed all over the world, who preached in fourteen
of a fanatical fedt, called alfo Moravians, which fprung languages, and ninety-eight different ellablilhments,
up in Upper Lufatia towards the beginning of this among which are cailles, that have twenty, fifty, or
century. This fedt was founded by Nicholas Lewis ninety apartments. How far thefe boalls are jullified
count of Zinzendorf; and to his adlivity and zeal the by fadl, we cannot pretend to determine; but it is
progrefs of it is to be aferibed. According to the ac¬
count which he gives of himfelf, he had formed a de-
fign, when only ten years old, of colledling a fmall
fociety of believers, who Ihould altogether employ
themfelves in exercifes of devotion under his direc¬
tion. Accordingly, when he became of age, in the
certain, that the decline of this fedl has been no lefs
fignal and rapid than its progrefs. With regard to the
tenets of the Hernhuters, it may be obferved, thjt at
their firll rife they profeffed to admit the confeffion of
Auglburgh, and count Zinzendorf has always referred
to this confeffion as the llandard of his dodtrine. How-
year 1721, he fettled at Bertholfdorf, a village in Up- ever, it is well known, that he has advanced the moll
per Lufatia, where he was foon joined by a number of pernicious notions, and recommended the moll abo-
profelytes from Moravia ; fo that in a few years Ber¬
tholfdorf became a confiderable village, having an
orphan houfe, and other public buildings. In 1728,
thirty-four new houfes were eredted ; and in 1732 the
number of inhabitants amounted to fix hundred. From
the name of a hill in the neighbourhood of this vil¬
lage, called the Huth-berg, thefe c donilts gave their
dwelling place the appellation of Huth des Herrn, and
minable praclifes ; fuch notions and practices as disfi¬
gure the facred truths of the gofpel, and fap the foun¬
dations of morality. The count himfelf fpeaks in very
derogating terms of the feripture ; and exprefsly afferts,
that the reading of the feripture appears to him to
be more dangerous than ufeful to fociety. To avoid
idolatry, he fays, people ought to be taken from the
Father and Holy Ghofl, and condudted to Chrilt,
afterwards Hernhuth, fignifying the guard or protec- with whom alone we have to do. The Holy Gholl is
tion of the Lord -, whence arofe the denomination of called by the Hernhuters the eternal wife of God, the
their fed. As their number incteafed, Zinzendorf mother of Chrift, the mother of the faithful, and of
eftablifhed a peculiar dilcipline ; dividing his adherents
into different claffes of married men, married women,
widowers, widows, maids, bachelors, and children;
each clafs being under the infpeftion of a diredlor,
chofen by its members; and the claffes are alfo fubjedl
the church. The language of their devotion is ob-
feene and abominable ; and the ideas excited by it are
fuch as no challe mind can entertain. In fome of their
hymns of devotion, they make their direft addreffes
to what was formerly adored at Lampfacus. The con-
4 jugal
Hernhttt-
Herfe
HER [ 487 1 H E S
jugal aft is a piece of fcenery, in which the male re-
prefents Chrift the hulband of fouls, and the female
the church; and they have aftually appointed fuch
ceiemonies, in the celebration of marriage, as fuppofe
them to have entirely given up all fenfe of fhame.
Count Zinzendorf exprefsly declares, that the law is
not a rule of life to a believer ; that the moral law be¬
longs only to the Jews, and that a converted perfon
cannot fin againft. light. We fhall only add, that no
examples can be found of a fanaticifm more extrava¬
gant, and a myfticifm more grofs and fcandalous, than
thofe of the Hernhuters ; and it would be impoffible to
multiply fpecimens of their creed or devotion, extraft-
ed from the fermons and writings of their founder,
without offending the chafte reader. Thofe whofe cu-
liofity leads them to wifh for farther information, may
confult Mofheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. v. p. 85, note (sj.
Warburton’s Doftrine of Grace, vol. ii. p. 153 and
Rimius’s Candid Narrative of the Rife and Progrefs
of the Hernhuters, commonly called Moravians, or
Uiritas Frarrum, &c. 1753, and Supplement, See. pub-
lifhed in 1755.
HERSE, in fortification, a lattice, or portcullis,
in form of an harrow, befet with iron fpikes. The
word is French, and literally fignifies “ harrow
being formed of the Latin herpex or irpex, which de¬
notes the fame.
It is ufually hung by a rope fattened to a moulinet;
to be cut, in cafe of furprife, or when the firft. gate
is broken with a petard, that the herfe may fall, and
flop up the paffage of the gate or other entrance of a
fort refs.
The herfe is otherwife called a far 1'aftn, or cataract;
and when it confifts of ftraight itakes, without any
crofs pieces, it is called orgues.
Herse, is alfo a harrow, vrhich the befieged, for
want of chevaux de frife, lay in the way, or in breach¬
es, with the points up, to incommode the march as
Well of the horfe as of the infantry.
HERSILLON, in the military art, a fort of plank
or beam, ten or twelve feet long, whofe two fides are
drove full of fpikes or nails, to incommode the march
of the infantry or cavalry. The word is a diminutive
of htrfe; the herfiilon doing the office of a little herfe,.
See Herse.
HERTFORD. See HARTFORDi
HERTHA, or Herthus, in mythology, a deity
worthipped by the ancient Germans. This is men¬
tioned by Tacitus,* in his book De Morilus Germano?
rum, cap. 40. Voffius conjeftures, that this goddefs
was Cybele ; but fire was more probably Terra or the
Earth ; hecaufe the Germans (till ufe the word/a«v for
the earth, whence alfo the Engldh earth. Some have
fuppofed that Stonehenge was a temple confecrated to
the goddefs Hcrta.
HERTZBERG, a confiderable town of Germany,
in the deflorate of Saxony, and on the confines of
Lufatia. E. Long. 13 37. N. Lat. 51. 42.
HERVEY (James), a late divine of exemplary
piety, was bon in 1714, and fucceeded his father in
the livings of Weftou Favell and Collingtree in North-
hamptonftiire. Thefe being within five miles of each
other, he attended alternately with his curate; till be¬
ing confined by his ill health, he refided conftantly at
Wehonwhere he diligently gurfued the labours of
the miniftry and his ftudy, under the difadvantage of a
weak conftitution. He was remarkably charitable;
and defired to die juft even with the world, and to be,
as he termed it, his own executor. This excellent di¬
vine died on Chriftmas-day 1758, leaving the little he
poffcffed to buy warm cloathing for the poor in that
fevtre feafon.—No work is more generally or deferved-
ly known than his Meditations and Contemplations : con¬
taining, Meditations among the Tombs, Refleftions on
a Flower garden, a Defcant on Creation, Contempla¬
tions on the Night and Starry Heavens, and a Win¬
ter-piece. The fublime fentiments in thefe pieces have
the peculiar advantage of being conveyed in a flowing
elegant language, and they have accordingly gone thro*
many editions. He publifhed befides, Remarks on Lord
Bolinglroke> s Letters on Hiflory ; Lher on and Afpafio, or
a Series of Dialogues and Letters on the moji important
SuhjeEts ; fume fermons, and other trafts.
Herpey IJland, one of the South-Sea iflands, difeo-
vered by CaptainCook, September 23. 1773, who gave
it that name in honour of the earl of Brittol. It is a
low ifland, fituated in W. Long. 158. 54 S. Lat. 19. 8.
HESBON, Esebon, or Hefelon (anc. geog.), the
royal city of the Amorites, in the tribe of Reuben, ac¬
cording to Mofes: Though in Joftiua xxi. 39. where
it is reckoned among the Levitical cities, it is put in
the tribe of Gad ; which argues its fituation to be on
the confines of both. It is thus determined by Jerome,
who lays, that in his time it was called EJbus. A con¬
fiderable city, in the mountains of Arabia which lie
over againft Jericho, diftant 20 miles from the river
Jordan ; not indeed in the fame latitude with Jericho,
but fomewhat more to the north, becaufe fituated on
the borders of the Gadites ; and called a city of Ara¬
bia, becaufe the Arabs were at that time poflefled of
the Lower Petraea.
HESIOD, a'very ancient Greek poet; but whe¬
ther cotemporary with Homer, or a little older or
younger than him, is not yet agreed among the learn¬
ed; nor is there light enough in antiquity to fettle the
matter exaftly. His father, as he tells us in his Opera
et Dies, was an inhabitant of Cuma, one of the Eolian
ifles, now called Taio Nova;, and removed from thence
to Afcra, a little village of Bceotia, at the foot of
mount Helicon, where Hefiod was probably born, and
called, as he often is, Afcraus, from it. Of what qua¬
lity his father was, is nowhere faid ; but that he was
driven by his misfortunes from Cumae.to Afcra, He¬
fiod himfelf informs us. His father feems to have
profpered better at Afcra than he did in his own coun¬
try ; yet Hefiod could arrive at no higher fortune than
keeping (beep on the top of mount Helicon. Here
the mufes met with him, and enteied him into their
fervice
t.rewhile as they ihe lhe)iherd fwain behold,
Feeding beneath the facred mount his fold,
With love of charming fohg hi- hreaft they fir’d,
There me the heav’nly mufe? fii tl infpir’d;
Theie, when the maid., of Jove the fib nee broke,
1 o Hefiod thus, the (hepherd Twain, they fpoke, &c
To this account, which is to be found in the begin¬
ning of his Generatio. Deonim, Ovid alludes in thefe,
two lines:
Nec mit i funt vifa Clio, Cliufque forores,
iervanti pecudis vallibus Afcra tuis.
Nor Cin 1 nor her fiftc-s have I feen.
As Hefiod law them in th’Afcraean green-
©in
Hervey
Hefiod..
H E S L 488 ] H E S
H fi-d On life death of the father, an cftate was left, which
H ought to have been equally divided between the two
ilef^ende?. brothers Hetiod and Perfes; but Perfes defrauded him
v ' ' in the divifion, by corrupting the judges. Hefiod
was fo far from refenting this injuftice, that he exprefles
a concern for thofe miftaken mortals who place their
happinefs in riches only, even at the expence of their
virtue. He lets us know, that he was not only above
want, but capable of afliiling his brother in time of
need ; which he often did though he had been fo ill
ufed by him. The laft citcumftance he mentions rela¬
ting to himfelf is his conqueft in a poetical contention.
Archidair.us, king of Euboea, had inilituted funeral
games in honour of his own memory, which his fons
afterwards took care to have performed. Here He¬
fiod was a competitor for the prize in poetry ; and
won a tripod, which he confecrated to the mufes.
Hefiod having entered himfelf in the fervice of the
mufes, left off the paftoral life, and applied himfelf to
the ttudy of arts and learning. When he was grown
old, for it is agreed by all that he lived to a very great
age, he removed to Loci is, a town about the fame di-
ffance from mount Parnaffus as Afcra was from Heli¬
con. His death was tragical. The man with whom
he lived at Locris, a Milefian born, ravifhed a maid
in the fame houfe; and though Hefiod was entirely ig¬
norant of the fadt, yet being malicioufly accufed to
her brothers as an accomplice, he was injurioufly
(lain with the raviiher, and thrown into the fea.
The Theogony, and Works and Dayst are the only
undoubted pieces of this poet now extant: though it
is fuppofed that thefe poems have not defcended per-
feft and finilhed to the prefent time. A good edition
of Hefiod’s works was publiflied by Mr Le Clerc at
Amfterdam in 1 701.
HESPER, Hesperus, in aftronomy, the evening
ftar ; an appellation given to Venus when fhe follows
or fets after the fun. The word is formed of the Greek
F.trrtptii • and is fuppofed to have been originally the
proper name of a man, brother of Atlas, and father
of the Hefpevides.
Diodorus, lib. iii. relates, that Hefperus having a-
feended to the top of mount Atlas, the better to ob-
ferve and contemplate the liars, never returned more ;
and that hence he was fabled to have been changed
into this liar.
HESPERIA, an ancient name of Italy; fo called
by the Greeks from its weftern fituation. Hefperia
was alfo an appellation of Spain; but with the epithet
altima (Horace), to diftinguilh it from Italy, which
is called Hefperia magna (Virgil), from its extent of
empire.
HESPERI cornu, called the Great Bay by the
author of Hanno’s Periplus: but moll interpreters,
following Mela, underhand a promontory; fome Cape
Verd, others Palmas Cape: Voffius takes it to be the
former, fmce Hanno did not proceed fo far as the lat¬
ter cape.
HESPERIDEiE (from the Hefperides, whofe or¬
chards are faid to have produced golden apples), golden
or precious fruit: the name of the 19th.order in Lin¬
naeus's Fragments of a Natural Method. See Botany,
p.461.
HESPERIDES, in the ancient mythology, were
the daughters of Hefper or Hefperus, the brother of
No 153.
Atlas. According to Diodorus, Hefperus and Atlas Hefperide*
two brothers, who poffeffed great riches in the weilern *1
parts of Africa. Hefperus had a daughter called Hef- Hef^u Ig*f
peria, who married her uncle Atlas, and from this mar- '
riage proceeded feven daughters, called Hefper ides from
the name of their mother, and Atlantidcs from that of
their father. According to the poets, the Hefperides
were three in number, jEgle, Arethufa, and Hefper-
thufa. Hefiod, in his Theogony, makes them the
daughters of Nox, Night, and feats them in the fame
place with the Gorgons; viz. at the extremities of
the weft, near mount Atlas : it is on that account he
makes them the daughters of Night, becaufe the fun
fets there. The Hefperides are reprefented by the
ancients as having the keeping of certain golden
apples, on the other fide the ocean. And the poets
give them a dragon to watch the garden where the
fruit grows: this dragon they tell us Hercules Hew,
and carried off the apples.—Pliny and Solinus will
have the dragon to be no other than an arm of
the fea, wherewith the garden was encompaffed, and
which defended the entrance thereof. And Varro
fuppofes, that the golden apples were nothing but
fheep. Others, with more probability, fay they were
oranges.
The Gardens of the Hesperides are placed by fome
authors at Larach, a city of Fez ; by others, at Ber-
nich, a city of Barca, which tallies better with the
fable. Others take the province of Sufa in Morocco
for the illand wherein the garden was feated. And,
laftly, Rudbecks places the Fortunate Illands, and the
gardens of the Hefperides, in Sweden.
HESPERIDUM insulae (anc. geog.), iflands
near the Hefperi Cornu ; but the accounts of them
are fo much involved in fable, that nothing certain
can be affirmed of them.
HESPERIS, rocket, Dame's Violet, or queen's gilli-
flower: A genus of the liliquofa order, belonging to
the tetradynamia claCs of plants ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 39th order, Siliquofe. The
petals are turned obliquely; there is a glandule within
the fhorter ftamina ; the filiqua almoll upright ; the
ftigma forked at the bafe, connivent, or clofing at the
top ; the calyx clofe.
Species I. The matronalis, 01 common fweet feent-
ed garden-rocket, hath fibrous roots, crowned with a
tuft of long, fpear-ftiaped, rough leaves; upright,
fingle, hairy ftalks two feet high ; garniffied with
oval, lanceolate, flightly indented, clofe-fitting leaves;
and the ftalk and branches terminated by large and
long fpikes of fweet-feented flowers of different colours
and properties in the varieties, of which there are a
great number. All the varieties of this fpecies are fo
remarkable for imparting a fragrant odour, that the
ladies were fond of having them in their apartments.
Hence they derived the name of dame's violet; and,
bearing fome refemblance to a ftock-gilliflower, were
fometimes alfo called queen's giUtfloiver; but are now
mqft commonly called rocket. 2. The inodora, or
fcentlefs rocket, hath a fibrous root; upright, round,
firm ftalks, two feet high, garniflred with fpear-fhaped,
acute-pointed, fharply indented, clofe-fitting, leaves;
and all the branches terminated by large fpikes of
fcentlefs flowers, with obtufe petals, of different co¬
lours and properties in the varieties. This fpecies
makes
H E S [ 489 1 H E S
J Hefperus, makes a fine appearance, but hath no fcent. 3. The
i|t Hefle. triftis, or dull-flowered night-fmelling rocket, hath
i'1™ v fibrous roots; upright, branching, fpreading, briftly
ftalks, two feet high ; fpear-lhaped pointed leaves;
and fpikes of pale purple flowers, of great fragrance
in the evening.
Culture. All the fpecies are hardy, efpecially the
firft and fecond, which profper in any of the open
borders, and any common garden-foil; but the third,
being rather impatient of a fevere froft, and of much
moifture in winter, flrould have a dry warm fituation,
and a few may be placed in pots to be flickered in cafe
of inclement weather. They may be propagated either
by feeds, by offsets, or by cuttings off the ftalks.
HESPERUS, in fabulous hiftory, fon of Cephalus
by Aurora, as fair as Venus, was changed into a ftar,
called Lucifer in the morning, and Hefperus in the
evening. SccHesper.
HESSE, a country of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine; bounded on the fouth by the bi-
fhoprick of Fulda ; on the eaft by the principality of
Hersfeld, Thuringia, and Eichsfeld, as alfo by that of
Calenburg; on the north by the bifhoprick of Pader-
born and Waldek, the duchy of Weftphalia, and the
county of Witgenftein ; and on the weft, by Naffau-
Dillenburg, the county of Solins, and Upper-Ifenburg.
In the above limits, the county of Katzenellnbogen
and .fome other terrritories are not included. The
whole country, in its utmoft length, is near 100 miles,
and in fome places near as much in breadth. The air
is cold, but wholefome ; and the foil fruitful in corn,
wine, wood, and pafture. The country abounds alfo
in cattle, fifh, and game; fait fprings, baths, and mi¬
neral waters. The hills, which are many, yield filver,
copper, lead, iron, alum, vitriol, pit-coal, fulphur,
boles, a porcelain earth, marble, and alabafter. In
the Eder, gold is fometimes found ; and at Franken-
berg a gold mine was formerly wrought. Befides
many leffer ftreams, Hefle is watered by the Following
rivers, vvx,. the Lhan, the Fulda, the Eder or Schwalm,
the Werra or Wefer, and Diemel. The Rhine alfo
and the Mayne pafs through the country of Katze¬
nellnbogen. This country, like moft others in Ger¬
many, has its ftates, confifting of the prelates, as they
are called, the nobility, and the towns. The diets Art
divided into general and particular, and the latter into
the greater and fmaller committees. The houfe of
Hefle is divided into two principal branches, vi%. Caf-
fel and Darmftadt, of which Philipfdale, Rhinfeldts, and
Homburg, are collateral branches; the two firft of
Hefle-Caflel, and the laft of Hefle-Darmftadt. Their
rights and privileges are very confiderable. In par¬
ticular, they have feveral votes at the diets of the em¬
pire ; and caufes, not exceeding 1000 florins, are de¬
termined by the courts of the country, without appeal.
The princes of Hefle-Caflel are not of age till they
are 25, but thofe of Heffe-Darmftadt are fo at 18.
The right of primogeniture hath been eftabliftied in
both houfes. The revenues of Darmftadt are faid to
amount to near 100,0001. a-year, and thofe of Hefle-
Caflel to near 200,000!. The fmall county of Schaum-
berg alone yields a revenue of 10,0001, and that of
Katzenellnbogen, with the forefts of Richardfwalde,
it is faid, was farmed near 200 years ago at x 2,0001.
The prince of Hefle-Caflel has 40 or 50,000 men in
Vox.. VIII. Part II.
his dominions fit to bear arms; and the troops that he Heffir,
hires out have often brought him in large fums, efpe- Ueflian
daily from Great Britain. He keeps a Handing ar- Fly‘
my of 15,000 men. This family is allied to moft if ’ V
not all of the Proteftant princes in Europe. The
branches of Caflel, Homburg, and Philipfdale, ate Cal-
vinifts; that of Darmftadt, Lutherans; and that of
Rhinfeldts, Roman Catholics. The prefent prince of
Hefle-Caflel, indeed, in the year 1749, embraced the
Roman Catholic religion ; but in 1754 drew up, and
confirmed by oath, an inftrument, of which all the
Proteftant princes are guarantees, declaring that the
eftabliftied religion of his dominions ftiould continue in
every refped as before, and that his children ftiould be
brought up and inftru&ed therein. Here, as in the
other Proteftant Lutheran countries of Germany, are
confiftories, fuperintendants, and infpeftors of the
church. In the whole langraviate are three univerfi-
ties, befides Latin fehools and gymnafia, for the edu¬
cation of youth. The manufa&ures of Hefle are linen
cloth, hats, ftockings, gloves, paper, goldfmiths wares ;
and'at Caflel a beautiful porcelain is made. They have
alio the fineft wool in Germany ; but are reproached
with want of induftry, in exporting inftead of manufac¬
turing it themfelves.—This is fuppofed to have been
the country of the ancient Catti, mentioned by Taci¬
tus, &c. who, in after-ages, were called Chatti, Cha/Jij
HaJJi, and Hejfi. The two chief branches of Caflel
and Darmftadt have many rights and privileges in com¬
mon, which we have not room to fpecify. Both of
them have a feat and vote in the college of princes at
the diet of the empire, and thofe of this circle. Each
of thefe princes, befides their guards and militia, main¬
tains a confiderable body both of horfe and foot.
HESSIAN fly, a very mifehievous infett which
lately made its appearance in North America ; and
whole depredations threaten in time to deftroy the
crops of wheat in that country entirely. It is, in its
perfedl ftate, a fmall winged infe& ; but the mifehief
it does is while in the form of a caterpillar; and the
difficulty of deftroying it is increafed by its being as
yet unknown where it depofits its eggs, to be hatched
before the firft appearance of the caterpillars. Thefe
mifehievous infefts begin their depredations in autumn,
as foon as the wheat begins to ftioot up through the
ground. They devour the tender leaf and ftem with great
voracity, and continue to do fo till flopped by the
froft; but no fooner is this obftacle removed by the
warmth of thefpring, but the fly appears again, laying
its eggs now, as has been fuppofed, upon the Items of
the wheat juft beginning to fpire. The caterpillars,
hatched from thefe eggs, perforate the Hems of the re¬
maining plants at the joints, and lodge themfelves in
the hollow within the corn, which ffiows no fign of
difeafe till the ears begin to turn heavy. The ftem*
then break ; and being no longer able to perform their
office in fupporting and fupplying the ears with nou-
riftiment, the corn perifhes about the time that it goes
into a milky ftate. Thefe infetts attack alfo rye,
barley, and timothy-grafs, though they feem to pre¬
fer wheat. The deltru&ion occafioned by them is
defenbed in the American Mufcum (a magazine pub-
liftied at Philadelphia) for February 1787, in the fol¬
lowing words: “ It is well known that all the crops
of wheat in all the land over which it has extended,
3 P have
H E S [ 490 1 H E S
HeHian have fallen before it, and that the farmers beyond it
dread its approach ; the profpeft is, that unk-fs means
» are difeovered to prevent its progrefs, the whole con¬
tinent will be over-run a calamity more to be dread¬
ed than the ravages of war.”
This terrible infedt appeared firft in Long Ifland
during the American war, and was fuppofed to have
been brought from Germany by the Heffians; whence
it had the name of the HejfianJly. From thence it has
proceeded inland at the rate of about 1 5 or zo miles
annually; and by the year 1789 had reached 200
miles from the place where it was firlkobferved. At
that time it continued to proceed with unabating in-
creafe ; being apparently flopped neither by rivers nor
mountains. In the fly ftate it is licewife exceedingly
troublefome ; by getting into hmfes in fwaims, fall¬
ing into vi&uals and drink ; filling the windows, and
flying perpetually into the candles. It ftill contiriued
to infeft Long Ifland as much as ever ; and in many
places the culture of wheat was entirely abandoned.
The American S'ates are likewifc infefted with ano¬
ther mifehievous infedt, named the Virginian wheat Jly.
This, however, has not yet palled the river Delawaie ;
though there is danger of its being gradually inured to
colder climates fo as to extend its depredations to the
northern colonies alfo. But it is by no means the
fame with the Heflian fly. The wheat-fly is the fame
•with that whofe ravages in the Angumois in France
are recorded by M. du Hamel; it eats the gtain, and
is a moth in its perfedl flate. On the other hand, the
Hcffian fly has hitherto been unknown to naturalifts;
it eats only the leaf and ftalk ; and, in its perfect flate,
is probably a tenthredo, like the black negro-fly of the
turnip.
As of late years great quantities of wheat were im¬
ported from America into Britain, it became an ob¬
ject worthy ■>£ the attention of government to confider
how far it was proper to allow of fuch importation,
left this deftrudlive infeft might be brought along with
the grain. The matter, therefore, was fully can vailed
before the privy council; and the following is the fub-
ftance of the information relative to it; and in confe-
quence of this, the importation of American wheat was
forbid by proclamation.
1. By a letter, dated aadApril 1788, MrBond, conful
at Philadelphia, informed the marquis of Caermarthen,
that there was a defign to export wheat from thence
to England ; that the fly had made great depreda¬
tions ; and that there might be danger of its thus be¬
ing conveyed acrof$ the Atlantic. He added, that it
was not known where the eggs of the infeft were de-
pofited, though it wasfuppofedto be in the grain. Steep¬
ing the feed in elder juice he recommended as an ef
feftual remedy and prefervative of the crop.
2. In conkquence of this information ins Lordlhip
wrote to Sir Jofeph Banks, prefident of the royal fo-
ciety, deflring him to inquire as much as pofiible con¬
cerning the infeft, both with regard to its natural hif-
tory, and the method of preventing its ravages. In
this refearch, however, that learned gentleman miftook
the infeft called the Jiving weevil for the HeJJian Jly. Of
this infeft he gives a defeription * ; but in a little
* See time, being fenlible of his miftake, he obferved to
WtwiI- the council, that his report to the marquis of Caer-
marthai applied not to the He Ilian fly, but to a differ¬
ent infeft, viz. the jlying weevil; that the danger of Ht-ffia*
importing this infeft was much greater than that ofthe F1T
Heflian fly. The corn already brought from Ameri-
ca, he was of opinion, might eafily be examined, and
a difeovery made whether the fly had been there. A-
mong other methods which might be ufed for this pur-
pofe, that of putting the corn among water was one,
when the iufeftcd grains would rife to the top, and
might then be opened and examined. Some flight
trials of that kind he had already made ; and found
manifeft figns of the fly in fome grains which he had
opened.
3. A farther account of the infeft was given by Dr
Mitchel, in confequence of the above mentioned letter
from the marquis of Caermarthen. According to
him it was firfl difeovered in the year 1776, on
Staten Ifland, and the weft-end of Long Ifland ; lince
that time it proceeded regularly through the fouthern
diilrift of the ftate of New York, part of Connefticut ;
and at the time of giving the account, July 1 788, had
got into New Jerfey. As it appeared about the
time that the Hcffian troops arrived, an opinion had
gone abroad that they brought it along with them ;
but the D.jftor was of opinion that it is a native ani¬
mal, nourifhed by fome indigenous plant, but which
then, for the firit time, came among the wheat, and
found it proper food. He had feeu the caterpillar,
chryfalls, and fly, but never could find the egg, or
difeover where it is depofited. The caterpillar ap¬
pears, as has already been laid, in autumn, and, after
having devoured the tender italk, foon becomes a chry-
falis, coloured like a flax-feed ; which, being fixed be¬
tween the leaf and the ftalk, injures the plant by its
mechanical prefiure : from this proceeds the fly, which
is either able of itfelf to fuftain the intenfe winter
frofts, or lays eggs capable of doing it. Early in the
fpiing the caterpillar appears again, even when the
heat is fcarce fufficient to make the wheat gh>w; its
ravages, therefore, are at this period particularly de-
ftrudtive; and it pafles through its metamorphofes
with fuch fpeed, as to produce a third generation while
the wheat is yet tender and juicy : however, as the
corn has by this time grown confiderably, the third ge¬
neration is not fo dtftruftive as the fecond. It hurts
chiefly by rendering the ftraw weak, and liable to
break down when loaded afterwards bv the weight of
a full ear; “ and fometimes (fays the Doftcr) it will
be infefted by the fourth fwarm before harveli.”
4. In another communication of Sir Jofeph Banks,
dated July 24. 178H, he makes fome general obfer-
vations on the nature of thofe caterpillars from wh’ch
flying infedts proceed ; and to which clafs both the
flying weevil and Heffi in fly belong. Nature, he ob-
fervts, has provided againll the kinds of danger thefe
tender iniedts are moft likely to meet with. Thus, in
climates where the winters are fevere, the eggs of the
molt tender infefts refill the force of the ufual froft ;
in feafons of remarkable feverity, indeed, fome are de-
ftroyed ; but a fufficient number always efcape for pro¬
pagating the fpecies. The young caterpillar, if hatch¬
ed before its proper food be ready, will furvive even
weeks before it perilhes for want of nouriffiment; and
in fome few inftances where it is hatched in the au¬
tumn, it is direfted by inftinft to fpin a web, in which
it remains torpid and without food during the whole
winter.
’
H E S [ 40i ] H E S
1 Iltflian winter. The chryfalis, though deprived of loco-mo-
tion, is capable of lefifting various dangers, arifing from
is v. v cold, heat, wet, &c. and the length of time which the
animal remains in that Hate is capable of very confider-
able extenfion. The complete animal, tender as it ap¬
pears, and intended to exift no longer than is necef-
fary to fulfil the bufinefs of propagation, which, in
fome fpecies, is gone through in a few days, neverthe-
lefs is capable, in fome inftances, of enduring the utmoft
variation of climate ; and if, by accidental circum-
ftances, the fexes are prevented from meeting, its (hort
life is extended to many times the amount of its ufual
duration.
The obfervatiwis on the fly made by Sir Jofeph in
this paper, are flot different from thofe already related;
only he diflents from the opinion of Mr Bond, that
the eggs are laid on the grain ; thinking it more pro¬
bable from analogy, that they are depofited on the
ftraw ; and being (haken off from thence by the ftrokes
of the flail in threfhing, are mixed with the corn ;
from whence it muft be very difficult to feparate them.
Hence he concluded, that there was an apparent and
Ivery great rifle of importing the eggs along with the
corn ; and there was no doubt, that when once they
had got a footing, they would eftabliffi themfelves in
Britain as well as in America. It mull be obferved,
however, that none of the grain which w’as examined
(bowed any figns of this fly, its eggs, or caterpillars ;
fiich infefts as were found in fome difeafed fpecimens
being only the weevils common in England as well as
in other countries; though fome which were infpec-
ted in the month of Auguft this year contained the
chryfalis of fome infefts, which Sir Jofeph Banks was
of opinion might be the flying weevil; and as he did
not know whether thefe would revive or not, he gave it as
his opinion, that the cargo in which they were found
ought not to be fuffered to come into the kingdom.
5. In order to procure all the intelligence that could
be had concerning thefe infedts, the duke of Dorfet
addrefftd a letter to the royal fociety of agriculture in
France, to know whether any of them exiit in that
country. The report of the fociety was accompanied
with a drawing of two infe&s ; one of which was fup-
pofed to be the caterpillar of the Heffian fly, from its
attacking the wheat only when in the herb ; begin¬
ning its ravages in autumn, reappearing in the fpring,
and undergoing the metamorphofes already mention¬
ed. “ That infedf (fay the fociety) whofe havoc has
been well known in America only fince 1776, does
not appear to differ from it, as well as we can judge
from a very {hort defeription of thofe which have been
obferved in the north, and of which the hiftory is
contained in the different volumes of the academy of
fciences of Stockholm. We know that there cxift in
France caterpillars whofe manner of living refembles
that of thofe infedls ; but the mifehief which they do
to corn having never been confiderable enough to at¬
tract the attention of government, and not having been
ourfelves engaged in following in detail the hillory of
that Ipecics of caterpillar, we regret not being able to
1 fay any thing particular upon that fubjeft.” The reft
of the report contains an account of the flying weevil.
6. I urther recourfe was now had to America for
information. The marquis of Caermarthen wrote to
Sir John Temple at New York, the Biitiffi conful ge¬
lt
neral; and this gentleman applied to colonel. Morgan, Keflian
who had been more curious with relpedt to this infedt
than any other ptrlon with whom he was acquainted.
His account was, that the Heffian fly was firft intro¬
duced into America by means of fome' ftraw made ufe
of in package, or otherwife landed on Long Ifland at
an early period of the late war; and its firft appear¬
ance was in the neighbourhood of Sir William Howe’s
debarcation, and at Flat Buffi. From thence it
fpread in every direction, but at firft very flowly j
and it was not till the year 1786 that they reached
Mr Morgan’s farm, fituated not quite 50 miles from
New York. No damage was done the firft feafon,
and very little the fecond; but in 1788 they were
materially damaged, and in fome places totally deftroy-
ed all round. “ The name of Heftan Jly (fays Mr
Morgan) was given to this infedft by myfelf and a
friend early after its firft appearance on Long Ifland.”
In a letter to General Waffiington, dated July 31ft
1788, Mr Morgan treats particularly of the infedt it-
felf, and mentions feveral experiments made by himfelf
to oppofe its depredations. The refult of thefe was, that
good culture of ftrong foil, or well manured lands, may
fometimes produce a crop of wheat or barley, when
that fowed on poor or middli-ng foil, without the other
advantages, will be totally deftroyed. “ But (fays
he) as the infedt lives in its aurelia Hate in ftraw and
litter through the winter, I find that unmixed barn¬
yard manure fpread on the land in the fpring multi¬
plies the fly to an aftoniffiing degree ; hence the farmer
will fee the neceffity of mixing his yard with earth and
marie in heaps ; adding, where he can do it, a quan¬
tity of lime, and changing the heaps, after they have
undergone the neceffary fermentation, that their parts
may be well incorporated, and a new digeftion brought
on, which will effedtually deftroy the infedb Rolling
of wheat juft before the firft frofts in autumn, and foon
after the laft in fpring, or before the wheat begins to
pipe or fpindle, has alfo a good effedf. In the firft
place, it is a part of good culture ; and, fecondly, the
roller crulhes and deftroys a great proportion of the
infedt. Top-drtffings of lime, or of live affies, are
ufeful as manures, and may (when applied about the
times I have mentioned as proper for rolling) be of-
feniive to the infedt; but if ufed in fufficient quantity to
deftroy them, would, I believe, deftroy the wheat alfo.
In the year 1 782, a particular.fpecies of wheat was in¬
troduced on Long Ifland, which is found to refill the
fly, and to yield a crop when all other wheats in the
fame neighbourhood are deftroyed by it. But as this
wheat has been incautioufly fowed in fields with other
kinds, it has generally become fo mixed by the far¬
mers, as to fuffer in its charadter in proportion to this
mixture ; infomuch, that fome farmers, from inatten¬
tion to this circumftance, have condemned it altogether.
Fortunately, however, fome crops have been preferved
from this degeneration ; and I was fo lucky as to pro¬
cure the whole of my laft year’s feed of the pureft kind;
the confequence of which has been a good crop, whilft
my neighbours fields, fowed with other kinds of wheat,
have been either totally deftroyed or materially in¬
jured. I have fatisfied myfelf that this fpecies of wheat
was brought to New York in 1782 ; that a cargo of
it was then fent to Meffrs Underhill’s mill to be ma-
nufadlured into flour ; and that, from feed faved out
3 P * ef
H E S [49
Heflian of this parcel, the yellow-bearded wheat was propaga-
ted. It is a generally received opinion, that the capa-
v “ city of the yellow-bearded wheat to refill the attacks
of the fiy is owing to the hardnefs or folidity of the
ftraw; but when we refit 61 that other wheats are
fometimes wholly cut olf in the fall of the year, and
fometimes early in the fpring, before the feafon of its
running to ftraw, we ftiall be induced to afiign fome
other caufe. I cannot point out more than two di-
ftindtions of this from other wheats. The firft is in
the ear, at or after harveft. The obvious difference,
then, is in the colour of the chaff. The fecond can
only be obferved by the miller, who fays, ‘ this grain
requires to be more aired and dried than any other
wheat before grinding, or it will not yield its flower
fo kindly, as it is of a more oily nature ; but when thus
aired and dried, the quality and quantity of its flour is
equal to that of the bell white wheat.”
7. In a letter from Mr Wadfworth, dated 22d Au-
guft 1788, we are informed, that the experiments
made with elder juice, recommended as a preventative
of this evil by Mr Bond, were fallacious, and had fail¬
ed in every inftance in * 787 ; but the efficacy of the yel¬
low bearded wheat in refilling the attacks of the fly is
confirmed. The progrefsof the fly northward is like-
wife confirmed; but we are told that it has difappeared
in many places near New York, where it formerly
abounded.
8. In confequence of the correfpondence between
the marquis of Caermarthen and Mr Bond, the latter
made very particular inquiry concerning this mifchie-
vous infedt, and has given a better account of it than
any of the above. “ The Heflian fly (fays he) is a
fmall dark fly, with thin, long, black legs ; clear tranf-
parent wings, extending far beyond the body of the
trunk ; with fmall, though perceptible, horns or feelers
projefting from the fnout. Thefe I have feen appear
in fize and ftiape like a little fly which attacks cheefe
in this country, and which is very clofely watched by
the keepers of dairies here, as produdlive of the worm
or fleippers which deftroy cheefe ; and it is remark¬
able. that the worm produced from the egg of the
Heflian fly, though rather thinner and longer, bears a
ft rung relemblance to the worm in cheefe. The horns
which evidently appear on the Heflian fly may be
provided by nature as feelers to enable them to perfo¬
rate hard grain, as well as grain in a fofter ftate ; tho’
I have not yet feen any perfon who has perceived the
egg, worm, or fly in the grain of the wheat, or who
has found any nit, mucus, or even dull in the dry ftraw,
in ricks or barns, to induce a belief that the egg is
there depofited after the harveft. One publication,
figned a Landholder, goes fo far as to favour the idea
that the fly even perforates the feed, and depofits its
eggs therein. His ideas have been condemned, as
tending to miflead others ; but by no means confuted
either by reafon or experiment. An obfervation I
made mylelf, gave me fome caufe to apprehend that the
idea mentioned in the paper figned a Landholder was
founded in fact : Upon examining a barn, in a country
wherein the fly had not been known to injure the har-
veft (though it has now certainly made its appearance
there within a few weeks), I obferved in the flaws and
apertures where the wood was decayed, over which
cobwebs w ere woven, feveral of thefe flies _ entangled
2 1 H E S
in the webs, many of them dead, but fome alive, and HefRare
ftruggling to difengage themfelves ; from hence I con-
eluded that there was a propenfity in the fiy to get in- ~ ’ '
to the mow; but whether with a purpofe of mere fhel-
ter and nurture, or with a view to depofit its eggs, I
am at a lofs to decide.”
9. Mr Bond now refers to fome obfervations by a
Mr Potts and Mr Cleaver, which, with fevefal other
papers on the fubjedl, he had inclofed in his letter to
the marquis. The former was a farmer in the county
of Chefter, who flacked his wheat in autumn 1788, at
a time when the fly had not been feen in or near that
county. About fix or feven weeks after the harveft
he had occafion to threflr fome of his wheat; and with
a view to prevent its fcattering and v^lting, he threw
the fheaves from the rick upon a large flieet. On ta¬
king up the fheaves to carry them to the threfhing-
floor, he perceived a great number of flies, anfwering
precifely the defeription of the Pleflian fly, lying upon
the fheet, fome dead, and others in a torpid ftate ;
from whence he concluded that the fly had got a
footing in his rick; but from any examination either
of the ftraw or grain, no trace of the eggs being de¬
pofited was difeovered. Mr Cleaver, a farmer in the
fame county, apprehending that the fly might ap¬
proach his neighbourhood, fowed fome wheat in his
garden, which grew fo as to appear above ground in
lefs than a fortnight, when a violent north-eaft wind
came on ; and, immediately after he perceived fmall
clouds of flies over and about the wheat he had fown.
He examined the grain in a few days; and found that
numbers of the flies had depofited their eggs in the
heart of the main ftalk, and many of them lay dead
on the ground where the wheat was fown, and near
it. Many of the eggs were found in the ftalk; and
fome fmall white worms produced from other eggs
were lately difeovered in the llalk very near the root
of the wheat. Wherever thefe worms were found,
-the whole of the individual ftalk was perceptibly
changed in point of colour, tending to a yellowifh
call; the top hanging down quite (hrunk and wither¬
ed. In fome of the wheat which was carefully ex¬
amined, the eggs were found within the ftalk of a
very minute fize and whitilh colour, with fomething
of a yellow tinge. In thofe where the worm was
formed, it was carefully wrapped up, furrounded by
different coats of the (hoot in which it lay, as if it
had been Ikilfully and tenderly rolled up for its pre-
fervation ; around it the ftalk was plainly eaten away,
fome nearly through. The worm ftrongly refembles
the (kipper in cheefe, fomewhat thinner, and rather
longer, of a whitifh caft. The ground on which this
wheat was fown was rich garden ground, high and
dry ; the natural foil a ftrong red clay; few of the
(hoots, of which there were many in one clufter in
proportion to their number, were hurt by the fly.
This was imputed to the (Length of the foil, which
producing a robuft powerful growth, refifted, in a
great degree, the attack of the fly, though the weak
(hoots fuffiered generally.
10. A fimilar account of the Heffian fly is given by
Mr Jacobs, an experienced farmer in the county of
Montgomery. From his obfervations the egg isufually
depofited in the funnel or (heath a little above the firft
joint. When the eggs are laid in the autumn or
H E S r 493 J H E S
Heflian fpring, they are utterly deftru&Ive of the growth of
Fly- the wheat; but when they are depofited Ihortly be-
fore the harveft, the grain or even the italk is fcarcely
affedted, efpecially in rich ground. The egg, he fays,
is at firft very minute ; it grows rapidly, becomes full
and large, and turns to a brown hue", in fize and co¬
lour very like a flax feed. A material difference was
alfo perceived between rich and poor ground with re-
fpedt to the ravages of the fly; but none between moift
and dry foils. He is alfo of opinion that the yellow-
bearded wheat will refifl: the attacks of the fly ; and that
rolling and feeding the wheat will be of great fervice.
it. A farmer in Jerfey, who dates his letter fre.m
Hunterdon, Jan. 30. 1787, obferves, that though the
fly is fuppofed to advance about 15 miles annually,
and neither waters nor mountains obftrudt its paf-
fage; yet when difturbed, he never faw them take a
flight of above five or fix feet; neverthelefs they are
fo adfive, that it is very difficult to catch them. They
firft appear towards the end of September; and foon
after their eggs appear hatched, in colour and fize like
a flax feed : they are very low at the joints; fome even
in the ground; and here they harbour all winter. On
their firft appearance in any diftrift, their numbers be¬
ing fmall they feldom cut off the crop in this ftate,
which is often the cafe the fecond or third year. In
the fpring, after warm weather, they again appear
as a fmall worm, and deftroy the crop. The remedies
propofed by this farmer are, fowing upon rich ground
elder, and rolling. A gentleman whofe account was
dated on the firft of'November 1786, fays, that their
eggs refemble what is commonly called the jly-llow on
meat, being very imall, and only one in a place. Soon
after, the other blades of wheat proceeding from the
fame kernel inclofe the firft, the egg is covered, and
agreeable to the ufual progrefs of infedts arrives at the
ftate of a worm, and defccnds towards the root, where
it confumes the tender blade, fometimes deftroying the
whole crop in the fall ; but if, by rcafon of thg. fer¬
tility of the foil, and other concurrent circumftances,
the vegetation is fo rapid as to baifie their efforts, fome
of the latter-laid eggs, when at the worm ftate, en¬
trench themfelves in the ground to the depth of an
inch or more, -where he had found them after fevere
frofts changed from a white to a greenilh colour, and
almoft tranfparent; from this they proceed to the au-
relia ftate, and thus continue probably in the ground
till the fpring, when the fly is a^in produced, which
again lays its eggs, pud finiftres the work begun in the
fall, to the total deftrudiion of the crop. Another piece
of intelligence he gives,but not from his own obferva-
tion, that by feeding the wheat very clofe in the win¬
ter and fpring, if the land is rich, it will again fpring
up, and the worms do not much injure the fecond
growth. By another correfpondent we are informed,
that maritime places are lefs liable to be infefted with
the fly than the interior parts of the country ; and
therefore recommends as an experiment, that fine fait
ihould be fprinkled on the wheat juft before, or very
foon after, the appearance of the fly. By others, el¬
der has been much recommended, as well as rolling,
&c. though the bearded wheat already mentioned
feems to be the only effediual remedy.
iz, By another communication from Mr Morgan
to the Philadelphia Society for promoting agriculture, Heffian-
he informs us, that he had made himfelf acquainted fly‘
with the fly by breeding a number of them from the <,'*'*"*
chryfalis into the perfeft ftate. The fly is at firft of
a white body with long black legs and whifkers, fo.
fmall and motionlefs as not to be eafily perceived by
the naked eye, though very difcernible with a micro-
fcope ; but they foon become black and very nimble,
both on the wing and feet, being about the fize of a
fmall ant. During the height of the brood in June,
where 50 or roo of the nits have been depofited on
one ftalk of wheat, he has fometimes difcovered, even
with the naked eye, fome of them to twift and move
on being difturbed : this is while they are white ; but
they do not then travel from one ftalk to another, nor
to different parts of the fame ftalk. The ufual time
of ftieir fpring-hatching from the chryfalis is in May.
“ Thofe (fays he) who are doubtful whether the fly
is in their neighbourhood, or cannot find their eggs or
nits in the wheat, may fatisfy themfelves by opening,
their windows at night and burning a candle in the
room. The fly will enter in proportion to their num-
bersabroad. The firft night after the commencement
of v«eat harveft, this feafon, they filled my dining-
rooiAin fuch numbers as to be exceedingly troubie-
fome in the eating and drinking veflels. Without ex¬
aggeration I may fay, that a glafs-tumbler from which
beer had been juft drank at dinner, had 500 flies in it
in a few minutes. The windows are filled with them
when they defire to make their efcape. They are very
diftinguiftiable from every other fly by their horns or
whifkers.” With regard to the cure, it feems to be
confirmed that the fowing of that called the yellow-
bearded wheat can only be depended upon-. The fly in¬
deed will refide in fields of this wheat, and lay its eggs
upon, the ftalks ; but no injury was ever known to hap¬
pen except in one fingle initance, where it was fown *
in a field along w-ith the common fort, and that in a.
very fmall proportion to it. By another account, how¬
ever, we are told that the yellow-beaided wheat is equal¬
ly liable to be deflroyed in the autumn with the common
kind ; fo that the only method of fecuring the crop^
is by fowiag it late in the feafon, when the fly is molt-
ly over.
13. The utmoft pains were taken by the Britifh
government to find out whether this deftru&ive infedt
exifts in Germany or any of the northern countries of
Europe ; but from the accounts received, it appears
that it has not hitherto been obferved, or at leaft if it
exifts, the damage done by it is too inconfiderable to
attradf notice.
14. From the whole correfpondence on this fubjed,
which from the abridgement juft now given of it is
evidently fomewhat difcordant, Sir Jofeph Banks drew
up a report for the privy council, dated March 2. 1 789,.
in which he ftates the following particulars: r. The
appearance of the fly in Long Ifland was. firft obfer¬
ved in 1779.. We muft fuppofe this to be meant
that its deftrudtive effedls became then firft percep-
tible; for it feems undoubtedly to have been known
in the year 1776. 2. The opinion of colonel Mor¬
gan, that it was imported by the Heflians, feems to be
erroneous, as no fuch infedl can be found to exift in
Germany or any other part of. Europe. 3. Since its-,
fir
H E S C 494- ] H E S
Ileltian firft appearance in Long Ifland it has advanced at the
rate of 15 or 20 miles a year, and neither wateis nor
U“’’'v mountains have impeded its progrefs. It was feen
croffing the Delaware like a cloud, from the Fall’s
Townfhip to Maketield ; had reached aratoga, 200
miles from its firit appearance, infefting the counties
of Middlefex, Somerfet, Huntington, Morris, Suflex,
the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, all the wheat coun¬
ties of Conne&icut, &c. committing the moft dread¬
ful ravages; attacking wheat, rye, barley, and timothy-
grafs. 4. The Americans who have fuffered by this
infed, fpeak of it in terms of the greateft horror. In
colonel Morgan’s letter to. Sir John Temple, he ufes
the following expreffions. “ Were it to reach Great
Britain, it would be the greateli fcourge that ifland
ever experienced ; as it multiplies from heat and igoi-
fture, and the moft intenfe frofts have no effecd on the
egg or aurelia. Were a fmgle ftraw, containing the
infeft, egg, or aurelia, to be carried and fafely depo
filed in the centre of Norfolk in England, it would
multiply in a few years, fo as to deftroy all the wheat
and barley crops of the whole kingdom. There can¬
not exift fuch an atrocious villain as to commit fuch
an ad; intentionally. 5. No fatisfa&bry account of
the mode in which this infed is propagated has hither¬
to been obtained. Thofe which fay that the eggs are
depofited on the ftalk from fix or eight to 50, and by
their growth comprefs and hinder the ftalk from grow¬
ing, are evidently erroneous, and the authors of them
have plainly miftaken the animal itfelf for its eggs. It
is fufficient to remember, that eggs do not grow or
increafe in bulk, to prove that what they obferved
was not eggs. 6. The landholder’s opinion, that the
eggs are depofited on the ripe grains of wheat, though
contradided by colonel Morgan, is not difproved, as
the colonel advances no argument againft it. 7. A
letter dated New York, September 1. 1786, fays that
the eggs are depofited on the young blade, refembling
what we call a jly-bloiv in meat ; very final!, and but
one in a place : but this, though the only natural mode
of accounting for the appearance of the infed, had it
been true, muft undoubtedly have been confirmed by
numbers of obfervations. 8. Even though this fliould
be found hereafter to be the cafe, there will ftill re¬
main a danger of the aurelias being beaten off by the
flail from the ftraw in threftiing the wheat, and im¬
ported into Britain along with it; the prefence of thefe
flies in barns having been fully proved by the obferva¬
tions of Meffrs Potts and Bond. 9. None of the re¬
medies propofed againft this deftrudive infed have
been in any degree tffedual, excepting that of lowing
the yellow bearded wheat; the ftraw of which is fuf-
ficiently ftrong to refill the impreffion of the infed,
and even if its eggs are depofited upon it receives little
injury in point of produce in grain : this provides,
However, no remedy for the lofs of the barley crop,
nor for that which muft be incurred by fowing the
yellow-bearded wheat on lands better fuited by nature
for the produce of other kinds : it appears alfo that
this very kind is liable to degenerate, and probably
from a different caufe than that propofed by colonel
Morgan, viz. the mixture with common wheat. 9.
Though the Agricultural Society at Philadelphia, as
well as colonel Morgan, have declared their opinions
decifively that no danger can arife from wheat import¬
ed into Britain, as the infed has no immediate con* Hefflan
nedion with the grain ; yet with nearly if not exadly
the fame materials before him which thefe gentlemen , “
were furnifhed with. Sir Jofeph Banks could not avoid
drawing a conclufion diredly contrary ; and he con¬
cludes his report with the words of Mr Bond in a let¬
ter to the marquis of Caermarthen. “ Satisfadory as it
would be to my feelings to be able to fay with preci-
fion, that I apprehend no danger of extending the
mifehief by feed, my duty urges me to declare, that
I have not heard or feen any conclufive fad by which
I could decide on a matter of fuch imponance; and
till that tell occurs, the wifdom of guarding againft fo
grievous a calamity is obvious.”
On the 27th of April the fame year, another,pa¬
per, by way of appendix to the foregoing, was given
in by Sir Jofeph Banks. In this he again obferves,
that none of the deferiptions of any European infed
hitherto publiftied anfwer exadly to the Heffian fly.
In a letter from Mr Bond to the marquis ofCaersaar-
then, he mentions another kind of infed in the ftate
of Maryland, called by way of eminence the Jly ; and
which in fome things refembles the Heflian fly, though
it cannot be accounted the fame. It makes its way
into the mow, and bites the ends of the grain percep¬
tibly, and no doubt depofits its eggs in the grain it¬
felf ; fince it has been obferved, that wheat recently
threflied, and laid in a dry warm place, will foon be
covered with an extreme clammy cruft, which binds
the wheat on the furface together in fuch a way as to
admit its being lifted in lumps; but the wheat beneath
will not be hurt to any coniiderable depth. Such is
the quality of this fly, that if the hand be inferted in¬
to the heap affeded by it, watery blifters are imme¬
diately raifed ; and the farmers and flaves, riding up¬
on bags of this infeded wheat, never fail to befeverely
bliftered thereby. “ This infed (fays he) is called
in Maryland the Revolution Jly, by the friends of the
Britifti government \ but from all I can learn it is not
the fame infed which originated on Long Ifland, and
is. called the Heflian jly (by way of opprobrium) by
thofe who favoured the revolution. All the papers I
have read on the Heflian fly are very inaccurate, not
to fay contradidory ; and I am convinced it is by no
means a fettled point at this moment in what manner
and place the eggs of thefe infeds are depofited. The
policy which induced government to open the ports
being founded on an appearance of a fcarcity of corn,
that evil may be remedied by the admifiion of flour
inftead of grain ; and tho’ the countries from whence
the flour is carried will have the advantage of the
manufadure, ftill that cannot be reckoned as an ob-
jed, when oppofed in the fcale to an evil of fuch im-
menfe magnitude as the introdudion of fo deftrudive
an infed may occafion. The ravages here are beyond
conception ruinous. Many farmers have had their
crops fo completely cut off as to be left without bread-
corn or even feed-corn. If the meafure of confining
the importation to flour alone (hotild be adopted, great
attention fhould be paid to the quality of the flour ad¬
mitted into the Britifh ports. An infinite deal of the
wheat of the laft harvelt is of a very wretched qua¬
lity ; and ftratagems iwill be practifed to give an ex-
tenfive vent to fo effential a ftapl'e of the middle ftatesof
America.”
Ift
Hcfychim
II
Heteroge-
H E T I 495 1 H E T
In another letter to the fame nobleman, Mr Bond
exprefles himfelf to the following purpofe. “ I have
not been able to eolleft any decided information which
fixes the effential point, how far the infe£t may be
communicated by feed. It is a matter at this time
quite undecided heic : nor have I heard or obferved
any very conclufive reafon to fuppofe that the fly makes
its way generally into barns and ricks. A very intel¬
ligent farmer in the county of Bucks, informed me
that it was the prevailing opinion there, and fo I found
it, that the fly did not either in the field or in the
mow affedt the grain of the wheat : a neighbour of
his, in threlhing the little wheat he had faved laft har
veft, obferved the fly rife from the ftraw in great num¬
bers wherever it was ftruck by the flail; but though
it was at firft prefumed^ that the fly had infinuated it-
felf into the mow for the purpoTe of depofiting its eggs
in the grain or in the ftraw, no trace of the egg
could be difcovered from the appearance of any mucus
or duft, either in the grain or in the ftraw ; hence
it was inferred that all the mifchief was done in the
field ”
HESYCHIUS, the moft celebrated of all the an¬
cient Greek grammarians whofe works are now extant,
was a Chriftian ; and, according to fome, the fame
with Hefyehius patriarch of Jerufalem, who died in
609. He wrote a Greek lexicon ; which, in the opi¬
nion of Cafaubon, is the moft learned and ufeful work
of that kind produced by the ancients. Sehrevelius
publifhed a good edition of it in 1668, in 410, with
notes; but the beft is that of John Alberti, printed at
Leyden in 1746, in two vols folio.
HETERIARCH, HjEteriarcha, in antiquity,
an officer in the Greek empire, whereof there were
two fpecies ; the one called Amply heteriarch, and the
other great heteriarck, who had the diredlion of the
former.
The word is Greek, formed of the Greek
trails Jbcius, “companion, ally,” and aPX” hnperimn,
“ command.” Their principal funftion was to com¬
mand the troops of the allies; befides which, they
had fonffe other duties in the emperor’s court, defcribed
by Codin, DeOfficiis, cap. 5. n. 30, 31,42, 37.
HETEROCLTi E, Heterocliton, in grammar,
an irregular or anomalous word, which either in de-
clenfion, conjugation, or regimen, deviates from the
ordinary rules of grammar. The word is Greek,
>a<To>; formed of alter, “ another, different,” and
xaivw, “ I decline.”
Heteroclite is more peculiarly applied to nouns
which vary or are irregular in point of declenfion ; ha¬
ving fewer cafes, numbers, &c..than ordinary ; or that
are of one declenfion in one number, and another in
another : as. Hoc vas, ncifis; heec ’vafa, vajorum.
HETERODOX, in polemical theology, fomething
that is contrary to the iaith or do&rine cftabhlhed in
the true church. The word is formed of the Greek
iTiftooJjos • a compound of“ alter,” and “opi¬
nion.” Thus, we fay a heterodox opinion, a. heterodox
divine, &c. The word ftands in oppofition to or¬
thodr x.
HETEROGENEITY, in phyfics, the quality or
diijefiton which denominates a thing heterogeneous.
The word is alfo uied for the heterogeneous parts
themfelves ; in which fenfe, the heterogeneities of a Hetfroge
body are the fam< thing with the impurities thereof. neon;
HETEROGENEOUS, ot Heterooenesl, lite- HJ .
rally importsfomething ofa different nature,or thatcon- e'*1'
fifts of parts of different or diffimilar kinds; in oppofition V
to homogeneous. The word is Greek ; formed of f^or
alter, “different,” and genus, “ kind ;” q. d. com-
pofed of different kinds of parts.
Heterogeneous Light, is by Sir Ifaac Newton faid to
be that which confilts of rays of different degrees ofre-
frangibility. Thus the common light of the fu.i or clouds
is heterogeneous, being a mixture of all forts of rays.
Heterogeneous Nouns, one of the three variations
in irregular nouns; or fuch as are of one gender in the
Angular number ,and of another in the plural. —Hetero¬
geneous, under which are comprehended mixed nouns,
are iix-fold. 1. Thofe which are of the mafeuline
gender in the Angular number, and neuter in the plu¬
ral; as, hie tartarus, heec tarlara. 2. Thofe which are
mafeuline in the lingular number, but mafeuhne and
neuter in the plural ; as, hie locus, hi loci & h<ec loca.
3. Such as are feminine in the Angular number, but
neuter in the plural; as, heec carbafus, iff heec carbafa.
4. Such nouns as are neuter in the Angular number,,
but mafeuline in the plural ; as, hoc ccclum, hi cedi.
5. Such as are neuter in the Angular, but neuter and
mafeuline in the plural ; as, hoc rajlrum, hi rajlri. Iff
heec retflra. And, 6. Such as are neuter in the Angu¬
lar, but feminine in the plural number; as, hoc epulum,
hee epulee.
Heterogeneous Quantities, are thofe which are of
fuch different kind and confideration, as that one of
them, taken any number of times, never equals or ex¬
ceeds the other.
Heterogeneous Surds, are fuch as have different ra¬
dical figns ; as, \/aa, and in/bb; ^9, and 7v/l9-
HETER.OSCI1, in geography, a term of relation,,
denoting fuch inhabitants of the earth as have their
lhadows falling but one way, as thofe who live between
the tropics and polar circles ; whofe lhadows at noon
in north latitude are always to the northward, and in
fouth latitude to the fouthward.
HETH, the father of the Hittites, was the eldcft
fon of Canaan (Gen. x. 15.), and dwelt fouthward of
the promifed la id, at Hebron or thereabouts. Ephron,
an inhabitant of Hebron, was of the race of Heth,.
and this whole city in Abraham’s time was peopled
by the children of Heth. There are fome who main¬
tain that there was a city called Heth, but we find no
footfteps of it in the feripture.
HETRURIA, and Etruria, a celebrated country'
of Italy, at the weft of the Tyber. It originally con¬
tained 12 different nations, which had each their re-
fpe&ive monarch. Their names were Veientes, Clu-
fini, Pcrufini, Cortonenfes, Arretini, Vetuloni, Vula-
turani, Rufellani, Volfcinii, Tarquinii, Falifci, and
Gaeretani. The inhabitants were particularly famous-
for their fuperilition and ftrift confidence in omens,,
dreams, auguries, &c. They all proved powerful and
refolute enemies to the rifing empire of the Romans,
and were conquered only after much effufion of blood.
HEViEI (anc. geog.), one of the feven people who
occupied Canaan; a principal and numerous people, andt
the fame with the Kadmoneri, dwelling at the foot of*
Herman.’,
H E U [ 496 J HEX
Heuchera Heraion and partly of Libanus, or between Libanus
and Hermon (Judges iii. 3.) To this Bachart refers
^ Heuiden tjje faj)ie8 concerning Cadmus and his wife Harmonia,
-y.——. Hermonia, changed to ferpents; the name Hem de¬
noting a wild bead, fuch as is a ferpent. Cadmus, who
is faid to have carried the ufe of letters to Greecerfeems
to have been a Kadmonean; of whom the Greeks fay
that he came to their country from Phoenicia. .
HEUCHERA., in botany ; a genus of the digynia
order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants.
There are five petals ; the capfule is biroftrated and bi¬
locular.
HEVELIUS, or Hevelke, (John), an eminent
aftronomer, was born at Dantzic in 1611. He ftu-
died in Germany, England, and France, and every
where obtained the efteem of the learned. He was the
firft that difcovered a kind of libration in the moon,
and made feveral important obfervations on the other
planets. He alfo difcovered feveral fixed ftars, which
he named the jirmament of Sobujhi, in honour of John III.
king of Poland. His wife was alfo well flailed in
ailronomy, and made a part of the obfervations pub-
liihed by her hufband. In 1673 publifhed a de-
fcription of the inftruments with which he made his
obfervations, under the title of Machina Calejlis : and
in 1679 he published the fecond part of this work ;
but in September thedame year, while he was at a feat
in the country, he had the misfortune to have his houfe
at Dantzic burnt down. By this calamity he is faid
to have fuftained a lofs of feveral thoufand pounds ;
having not only his obfervatory and all his valuable in¬
ftruments and apparatus deftroyed, but alfo a great
number of copies of his Machina Calejiis ; which acci¬
dent has made this fecond part very fcarce, and confe-
quently very dear. In the year 1690 were publifhed
Firmamentum Sobiefcianum.. and Prodromus aftronomica iff
nova tabula folares, una cum catalogo Jixarum, in which
he lays down the neceffary preliminaries for taking an
exaft catalogue of the ftars. But both thefe works
are pofthumous; for Hevelius died in 1687, on his
birth-day, aged 76. He w'as a man greatly efteemed
by his countrymen, not only on account of his greac
reputation and flcill in aftronomy, but as a very excel¬
lent and worthy magiflrate. He was made a burgo-
mafter of Dantzic; which office he is faid to have exe¬
cuted with the utmoft integrity and applaufe. He was
alfo very highly efteethed by foreigners; and not only
by thofe flailed in aftronomy and th£ fciences, but by
foreign princes and potentates: as appears abundantly
from a colledtion of their letters which were printed at
Dantzic in the year 1683.
HEURN1US, or Van Heurn, (John), a learned
phyfician, was born at Utrecht in 1543 ; and ftudied
at Louvain, Paris, Padua, and Pavia. At his return to
his native country he became magiftrate of Amfterdam;
after which he was profeffor of phyfic at Leyden, and
reftor of the univerfity of that city, where he died in
1601. He wrote, among other works, feveral trea-
tifes on the difeafes of different parts of the body, and
feveral commentaries on the works of Hippocrates 
Otho Heurnius his fon was alfo profeffor of phyfic at
Leyden, and wrote fome books.
HEUSDEN, a ftrong town of the United Pro¬
vinces, in Holland, feated on the river Maefe, among
N°<53-
marfhes, with a handfome caftle, in E. Long. c. 2.
N. Lat. 51.47. & i
HEWSON (William), a very ingenious anatomift,
was born in 1739. He became affiftant to Dr Hunter,
and was afterwards in partnerfhip with him ; but, on
their difagreement, read anatomical le&ures at his own
houfe (in which'he was feconded by Mr Falconer).
He wrote Inquiries into the Properties (of the Blood,
and the Lymphatic Syflem, 2 vols; and difputed with
Dr Monro the difcovery of the lymphatic fyftem of
veffels in oviparous animals. He died in 1774.
HEXACHORD, in ancient mufic, a concord call¬
ed by the moderns afixth.
HEXAGON, in geometry, a figure of fix fidesand
angles; and if thefe fides and angles are equal, it is called
a regular hexagon.
HEXAHEDRON, in geometry, one of the five
platonic bodies, or regular folids, being the fame with
a cube.
HEXAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verfe
confifting of fix feet ; the firft four of which may be
indifferently either fpondees or da&yles; the fifth is
generally a da&yl and the fixth always a fpondee. Such
is the following verfe of Horace :
123 456
Aut pro\deJJe vo\lunt, aut\ dek\clarc po\eta.
HEXAMILION, Hexamili, ox Hexamilium, a
celebrated wall, built by the emperor Emanuel in 1413
over the ifthmus of Corinth. It took its name from
ftx, and which in the vulgar Greek fignifies
a mile, as being fix miles long.
The defign of the hexamilion was to defend Pelopon-
nefus from the incurfions of the barbarians. Amurath II.
having raifed thefiegeof Conftantinopleintheyear 1424,
demolifhed the hexamilium, though he had before con¬
cluded a peace with the Greek emperor. The Venetians
reftored it in the year 1463, by 30,000 workmen, em¬
ployed for 15 days, and covered by an army commanded
by Bertoldo d’Efte general of the land forces, and Louis
Loredano commander of the fea.—The infidels made
feveral attempts upon it; but were repulfed, and obli¬
ged to retire from the neighbourhood thereof: but
Bertoldo being killed at the fiege of Corinth, which
was attempted foon after, Bertino Calcinato, who took
on him the command of the army, abalfdoned, upon
the approach of the beglerbeg, both the fiege and the
defence of the wall which had coft them fo dear; upon
which it was finally demolifhed.
HEXnNDRIA, in botany, (from fix, and
a man); the name of the fixth clafs in Linnaeus’s
fexual method, confifting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which are furnifhed with fix ftamina or male
organs, that are of an equal length. See Botany,
p. 430.
HEXAPLA (formed of iljix, and I open, I
unfold), in church-hiftory, a Bible difpofed in fix co¬
lumns ; containing the text, and divers verfions there¬
of, compiled and publifhed by Origen, with a view of
fecuring the facred text from future corruptions, and
to correct thofe that had been already introduced.
Eufebius, Hift. Eccl. lib. vi. cap. 16. relates, that
Origenvafter his return from Rome under Caracalla,
applied himfelf to learn Hebrew, and began to colledt
the feverai verfions that had been made of the facred
writings,
Hewfon
Hexapla.
HEX t 497 ] HEY
>2 Hexapla. writings, and of thefe to compofe "his TYtrapla and
'"" " i Hexapla ; others, however, will not allow him to have
begtfn till the time of Alexander, after he had retired
into Paleftine, about the year 231.
To conceive what this Hexapla was, it muft he ob-
ferved, that, befides the tranflation of the facred wri¬
tings, called the Septuagint, made under Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus, above 280 years before Chrift, the Scripture
had been fince tranllated into Greek by other interpre¬
ters. The firft of thofe verfions, or (reckoning the
■ Septuagint) the feccnd, was that of Aquila, a profe-
lyte Jew, the firft edition of which he publilhed in the
12th year of the emperor Adrian, or about the year
of Chrift 128 ; the third was that of Symmachus, pub-
lifired, as is commonly fuppofed, under Marcus Aure¬
lius, but, as fome fay, under Septimius Severus, about
the year 200; the fourth was that of Theodotion,
prior to that of Symmachus, under Commodus, or
about the year 175. Thefe Greek verfions, fays Dr
Kennicott, were made by the Jews from their corrupt¬
ed copies of the Hebrew, and were defigncd to (land
in the place of the Seventy, againft w hich they were
rejudiced, becaufe it feemed to favour the Chriftians.
'he fifth was found at Jericho, in the reign of Cara-
calla, about the year 217; and the fixth was difcover-
ed at Nicopolis, in the reign of Alexander Severus,
about the year 228 : laftly, Origen himfelf recovered
part of a feventh, containing only the Pfalms.
Now Origen, who had held frequent difputations
with the Jews in Egypt and Paleftine, obferving that
they always objected againft thofe pafiages of Scrip¬
ture quoted againft them, and appealed to the Hebrew
text; the better to vindicate thofe paflages, and con¬
found the Jews by ftiowing that the Seventy had given
the fenfe of the Hebrew, or rather to fhow by a num¬
ber of different verfions what the real fenfe of the He¬
brew was, undertook to reduce all thefe feveral verfions
into a body along with the Hebrew text, fo as they
might be eafily confronted, and afford a mutual light
’to each other.
He made the Hebrew text his ftandard; and allow¬
ing that corruptions might have happened, and that
the old Hebrew copies might and did read differently,
he contented himfelf with marking fuch words or fen-
tences as were not in his Hebrew text, nor the later
Greek verfions, and adding fuch words or fentences as
were omitted in the Seventy, prefixing an afterifk to
the additions, and an obelifk to the others.
In order to this, he made choice of eight columns :
in the firft he gave the Hebrew text in Hebrew cha-
rafters ; in the fecond the fame text in Greek charac¬
ters; the reft were filled with the feveral verfions above-
mentioned ; all the columns anfwering verfe for verfe,
and phrafe for phrafe ; and in the Pfalms there was a
ninth column for the feventh verfion.
This work Origen called F.§aa-x« Hexapla, q. A. fex-
tuple, or work of fix columns, as only regarding the
firft fix Greek verfions. See Tetrapla.
Indeed, St Epiphanius, taking in likewife the two
columns of the text, calls the work OEtapla, as confift-
ing of eight columns.
This celebrated work, which Montfaucon imagines
confifted of fifty large volumes, periftied long ago,
probably with the library at Csefarea, where it was
preferved, in the year 653 ; though feveral of the an¬
cient writers have preferved us pieces thereof: parti*
Vol. VIII. Part II.
cularly St Chryfoftom on the Pfalms, Philoponus in Hexaftyie
his Hexameron, &c. Some modern writers have ear- H
neftly endeavoured to colleft fragments of the Hexa-, e>’ °n'.
pla, particularly Flaminius Nobilius, Drufius, and F. " * -
Montfaucon, in two folio volumes, printed at Paris in
>7 13'
HEXASTYLE, in architecture, a building with
fix columns in front.
HEXHAM, a town of Northumberland, fituated
near the conflux of the north and fouth Tyne. It is
commonly reckoned to be the Hlexodunum of the Ro¬
mans, where the firft cohort of the Spaniards were in
garrifon. It was made a biftiop’s fee by Etheldreda,
wife of king Egfred, in the year 675. Its firft bi-
fliop St Wilfred built here a moft magnificent cathe¬
dral and monaftery, and it was poffeffed by feven bi-
fhops fucceffively ; but being very much infefted by
the Danes, the fee was removed to Yoik. The town
and priory were deftroyed by the Scots in 1296, and
pillaged again in 1346. There was a remarkable and
bloody battle fought near this town between the
houfes of Lancafter and York, wherein the former
were defeated, chiefly by the extraordinary bravery
and condudl of John Nevil, lord Montacute, who was
for that reafon created earl of Northumberland. The
prefent town is not populous, and the ftreets are nar¬
row, with ill-built houfes. The market-place, near
the centre of the town, is a fpacious fquare, it is fup-
plied by a fountain with water. Among the remains
of ancient ftrudlures is a gateway of Saxon architec¬
ture, leading to the priory, but of a much older date.
There are two ancient towers in the town, one of
which is ufed as a fcffions-houfe, and was formerly an
exploratory tower; the other is on the top of a hill
towards the Tyne, of remarkable architecture, which
has been much higher than at prefent, and has two
dungeons within it, befides feveral chambers with very
little narrow windows. The town has a charity or
grammar fchool. It was in 1571 annexed to the
county of Cumberland : but only in civil matters; for
its ecclefiaftical jurifdiCHon is not the fame with the
reft of the county, it being ftill a peculiar belonging
to the archbifhop of York; and the vulgar ftill call the
neighbouring country Hexhamfhire. It is a corpo¬
ration governed by a bailiff chofen yearly. Newcaftle
is about 15 miles diftance. The markets here are
Tuefday and Saturday; fairs on Auguft 5. and No¬
vember 8. A rivulet, called Hexbold, runs by the
town, which fometimes overflows fuddenly.
HEYDON, a little, pleafant, well-built town of
Yorkfhire, in that part called Holdernejfe, feated on a
river that falls into the Humber. It has now but one
church, tho’ there are the remains of two more ; and
had formerly a confiderable trade, which is now loft,
on account of its being fo near Hull. The houfes
being rebuilt, adds to the beauty of the place. It is
a corporation ; and is governed by a mayor, a re¬
corder, nine aldermen, and two bailiffs, who have the
power of choofing fheriffs, and are jufticesof the peace.
It fends two members to parliament. W. Long. o. 55.
N. Lat. 53.46.
Heydon (John), who fometimes affumed the name
of Eugenius Theadidachis, was a great pretender to fldll
in the Roficrucian philqfophy and the celeftial figns,
in the reign of king Charles I.; and wrote a confider¬
able number of chemical and aftrological works, with
3 very
H K Y [ 498 ] H I B
Heylin, very fmgular titks.- This ridiculous author was much
Heywood. reforted t0 Jjy the duke of Buckingham, who was in-
”~y fatuated with judicial aftrology. He employed him
to calculate the king’s and his own nativity, and was
allured that his ftars had promifed him great things.
The duke alfo employed Heydon in fome treafonable
and feditious pra&ices, for which he was fent to the
Tower. He loft much of his former reputation by tell¬
ing Richard Cromwell and Thurloe, who went to him
difguifed like cavaliers, that Oliver would infallibly be
hanged by a certain time ; which he out-lived feveral
years.
HEYLIN (Dr Peter), an eminent Englilh writer,
was born at Burford, in Oxfordlhire, in 1600. He
ftudied at Hart Hall, Oxford; where he took his de¬
grees in arts and divinity, and became an able geogra¬
pher and hiftorian. He v/as appointed one of the
chaplains in ordinary to King Charles I. was pre-
fented to the reftory of Hemingford in Huntington-
fhire, made a prebendary of Weftminfter, and obtain¬
ed feveral other livings : but of thefe he was deprived
by the parliament, who alfo fequeftered his eftate ; by
which means he and his family were reduced to great
neceffity. However, upon the reftoration, he was re-
'ftored to his fpiritualities; but never rofe higher than
to be fubdean of Weftminfter. He died in 1662; and
was interred in St Peter’s church in Weftminfter,
where he had a neat monument ere&ed to his memory.
His writings are very numerous: the principal of which
are, t. Microcofmus, or a Defcription of the Greats
World. 2. Cojmographia. 3. The Hiftory of St George.
4. Ecclefm Vindicata, or the Church of England Jufti-
fied. 5. Hiftorical and Mifcellaneous Tracts, &c.
HEYWOOD (John), one of our moft ancient dra¬
matic poets, was born at North-Mims, near St Alban’s
in Hertfordftrire, and educated at Oxford. From
thence he retired to the place of his nativity; where
he had the good fortune to become acquainted with
Sir Thomas More, who, it feems, had a feat in that
neighbourhood. This patron of genius introduced our
comic poet to the princefs Mary, and afterwards to
her father Henry, who, we are told, was much de¬
lighted with his wit and Ikill in mufic, and by whom
he was frequently rewarded. When his former pa-
tronefs, queen Mary, came to the crown, Heywood
became a favourite at court, and continued often to
entertain her majefty, exercifing his fancy before her, even
to the. time that Jhe lay langui/hing on her deathbed. On
the accefiion of Elizabeth, being a zealous Papift, he
thought lit to decamp, with other favourites of her
deceafed majefty. He fettled at Mechlin in Flanders,
where he died in the year 1565.—John Heywood was
a man of no great learning, nor were his poetical ta¬
lents by any means extraordinary ; but he poiTeffed ta¬
lents of more importance in the times in wljich he
lived, namely, the talents of a jefter. He wrote feve¬
ral plays ; 500 epigrams; A Dialogue in Verfe concern¬
ing Englijh Proverbsi and The Spider and Fly, a Para¬
ble, 3 thick 4to. Before the title of this laft work is
a whole-length wooden print of the author; who is
alfo reprefented at the head of every chapter in the
book, of which there are 77.—He left two fons, who
both became Jefuits and eminent men: to*. Ellis Hey¬
wood, who continued fome time at Florence under the
patronage of cardinal Pole, and became fo good a
mafter of the Italian tongue, as to write a treatife In Heywood
that language, intitled II Moro; he died at Louvain Hji,|*fcus
about the year 1572. His other fon was Jafper Hey- 1 t cus,f
wood, who was obliged to refign a fellowlhip at Ox¬
ford on account of his immoralities: he tranflated
three tragedies of Seneca, and wrote various poems
and devifes ; fome of which were printed in a volume
intitled The Paradife of Dainty Devifes, qto, 1573.
He died at Naples in 1597.
Heywood (Eliza), one of the moft voluminous no¬
vel writers this ifland ever produced ; of whom we know
no more than that her father was a tradefman, and that
fhe was born about the year 1696. In the early part
of her life, her pen, whether to gratify her own difpo-
fition or the prevailing tafte, dealt chiefly in licentious
tales, and memoirs of perfonal fcandal: the celebrated-
Atalantis of Mrs Manley ferved her for a model; and
The Court of Carimania, The new Utopia, with fome
other pieces of a like nature, were the copies her
genius produced. She alfo attempted dramatic wri¬
ting and performance, but did not fucceed in either.
Whatever it was that provoked the refentment of Pope,
he gave full fcope to it by diftinguifhing her as one of
the prizes to be gained in the games introduced in ho¬
nour of Dullnefs, in his Dunciad. Neverthelefs, it
feems undeniable, that there is much fpirit, and much
ingenuity, in her manner of treating fubje&s, which
the friends of virtue may perhaps wifti ftie had never
meddled with at all. But, whatever offence (lie may
have given to delicacy or morality in her early works,
ftie'appears to have been foon convinced of, and endea¬
voured to atone for, in the latter part of her life ; as
no author then appeared a greater advocate for virtue.
Among her riper prodinftions may be fpecified, The Fe¬
male Spectator, 4 vols; The hiflory of Mifs Betfy
Thoughtlefs, 4 vols ; Jemmy and Jenny JeJfamy, 3 vols ;
The invifible fpy, 4 vols; with a pamphlet, intitled A
prefent for a fervant-maid. She died in 1759-
HIAMEN, or Emouy. See Emouy.
HIATUS, properly fignifies an opening, chafm,
or gap ; but it is particularly applied to thofe verfes
where one word ends with a vowel, and the following
word begins with one, and thereby occafions the mouth
to be more open, and the found to be very harftr.
The term hiatus is alfo ufed in fpeaking of manu-
feripts, to denote their defetls, or the parts that have
been loft or effaced.
HIBISCUS, Syrian mallow : A genus of the
polyandria order, belonging to the monodelphia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 37th order, Colamniferse. The calyx is double, the
exteiior one polyphyllous, the capfule quinquelocular
and polyfpermous.
Species. Of this genus there are 36 fpecies ; the
molt remarkable are, 1. The Syriacus, commonly call¬
ed althrcea frutex, is a native of Syria. It rifes with
Ihrubby ftalks to the height of eight or ten feet, fend¬
ing out many woody branches covered with a fmooth
grey bark, garnifhed with ’oval fpear-lhaped leaves,
whofe upper parts are frequently divided into three
lobes. The flowers come out from the wings of the
ftalk at every joint of the fame year’s Ihoot. They
are large, and ihaped like thofe of the mallow, having
five large roundiih petals which join at their bafe,
fpreading open at the top, in the ftiape of an open.
H I B C 499 ] H I B
Ribifcus., bell. Thefe appear in Auguft ; and if the feafon is
—v—- not too Warm, there will be a fucceffion of flowers till
September. The flowers are fucceeded by fhort cap-
fuks, with five cells, filled with kidney-lhaped feeds ;
but unlefs the feafon proves warm, they will not ripen
in this country. Of this fpecies there are four or five
varieties, difl'ering in the colour of their flowers : the
molt common hath pale purple flowers with dark bot¬
toms ; another hath bright purple flowers with black
bottoms; a third hath white flowers with purple bot¬
toms ; and a fourth variegated flowers with dark bot¬
toms. There are alfo two with variegated leaves, which
are by fome much efteemed. All thefe varieties are
very ornamental in a garden. 2. The Rofa Sinenfis,
I with an arborefcent ftem, and egg-pointed fa wed leaves.
It is a native of the Eaft Indies, whence it has got
the name of China rofe; but the feeds having been
carried by the French to their Well India fettlements,
it hath thence obtained the name of Martinico rofe. Of
this there are the double and Angle flowering kinds ;
the feeds of the firft frequently produce plants that
have only Angle flowers, but the latter feldom vary to
the doublekind. 3. The mutabilis, or changeable rdfe,
has a foft fpungy fiem, which by age becomes ligneous
and pithy. It rifes to the height of 12 or 14 feet,
fending out branches towards the top, which are hairy,
garnilhed with heart-lhaped leaves, cut into five acute
angles on their borders, and flightly fawcd on their
edges; of a lucid green on their upper fide, but pale
below. The flowers are produced from the wings of
the leaves ; the Angle are compofed of five petals which
fpread o|>en, and are at firll white, but afterwards
change to a blufh rofe colour, and as they decay turn
purple. In the Weft Indies, all thefe alterations hap¬
pen on the fame day, and the flowers themfelves are of
no longer duration ; but in Britain the changes are
not fo fudden. The flowers are furrounded by Ihort,
thick, blunt, capfules, which are very hairy ; having
five cells, which contain many fmall kidney-Ihaped
feeds, having a fine plume of fibrous down adhering
to them. 4. The albemofchus, or mulk-feeded hibif-
cus, is a native of the Weft Indies, where the French
cultivate great quantities of it. The plant rifes with
an harbaceous ilalk three or four feet high, fending
out two or three fide-branches, garnilhed with large
leaves cut into fix or feven acute angles, fawed on their
edges, having long footftalks, and placed alternately.
The Hacks and leaves of this fort are very hairy. The
flowers come out from the wings of the leaves upon
pretty long footftalks which Hand erect. They are
large, of a fulphur colour, with purple bottoms ; and
are fucceeded by pyramidical five-cornered capfules,
which open in five cells, filled with large kidney-flia-
ped feeds of a very mulky odour. 5. The tiliaceus, or
maho-tree, is a native of both the Indies. It rifes
with a woody, pithy ftem, to the height of ten feet,
dividing into feveral branches towards the top, which
are covered with a woolly down, garni/hed with heart-
fliaped leaves ending in acute points. They are of a
lucid green on their upper fide, and hoary on the un¬
der fide, full of large veins, and are placed alternately.
The flowers are produced in loofe fpikes at the end of
the branches, and are of a whitilh-yeilow colour. They
are fucceeded by ftiort acuminated capfules, opening
in five cells, filled with kidney-fhaped feeds. 6. The
trionum, Venice mallow, or flower ef an hour, is a
native of fome parts of Italy, and has long been cul¬
tivated in the gardens of this country. It rifes with
a branching ftalk a foot and an half high, having many
Ihort fpines, which are foft and do not appear unlefs
clofely viewed : the leaves are divided into three lobes,
which are deeply jagged almoft to the midrib. The
flowers come out at the joints of the ftalks, upon pret¬
ty long foot-ftalks. They have a double empalement;
the outer being compofed of ten long narrow leaves,
which join at their bafe : the inner is of one thin leaf
fwollen like a bladder, cut into five acute fegments at
the top, having many longitudinal purple ribs, and is
hairy. Both thefe are permanent, and inclofe the
capfule after the flower is paft. The flower is com¬
pofed of five obtufe petals, which fpread open at the
top ; the lower part forming an open bell-lhaped flow¬
er. Thefe have dark purple bottoms, but are of a
pale-fulphur-colour above. In hot weather the flow¬
ers continue but a few hours open ; however, there is
a fucceffion of flowers that open daily for a coniider-
able time. 7. The efculentus, or eatable hibifeus, rifes
to five or fix feet; has broad five-parted leaves, and
yellow large flowers. The pod or okra is from two
to fix inches long, and one inch diameter. When
ripe, it opens longitudinally in five different places,
and difeharges a number of heart-lhapcd feeds.
Culture. The firft fort may be propagated either by
feeds or cuttings. The feeds may be fown in pots fill¬
ed with light earth about the latter end of March, and
the young plants tranfplanted about the fame time
next year. They will fucceed in the full ground 5 but
mull be covered in winter whilft youug, otherwife
they are apt to be deftroyed. The fecond, third, fifth,
and feventh forts are propagated by feeds, which muft
be fown in a hot bed. The young plants are to be
tranfplanted into fmall feparate pots, and treated like
other tender vegetables, only allowing them a good
ftiare of air. The fourth fort is annual in this coun¬
try, though biennial in thofe places where it is native.
It is propagated by feeds, and muft be treated in the
manner dirt&ed for Amaranth. The fixth fort is pro¬
pagated by feeds, which fhould be fown where the
plants are defigned to remain, for they do not bear
tranfplanting well. They require no other culture than
to be kept free from weeds, and thinned where they
are too clofe ; and if the feeds are permitted to fcat-
ter, the plants will come up fully as well as if they
had been fown.
Ufes. The fourth fort is cultivated in the Weft In¬
dies by the French for the fake of its feeds. Thefe
are annually fent to France in great quantities, and
form a confiderable branch of trade, but the pur-
pofes which they anfwer are not certainly known. The
inner rind of the fifth fort is very ftrong, and of great
efteem, which the following recital from Dampier may
ferve to illuftrate : They (the Mulketo Indians) make
their lines, both for filhing and ftriking, with the bark
of Maho, which is a fort of tree or fnrub that grows
plentifully all over the Weft Indies, and whofe bark is
made up of firings or threads very ftrong ; you may
draw it off either in flakes or fmall threads, as you have
occafion.— It is fit for any manner of cordage, and pri-
HID [ 500 1 HID
Hlceias vateers often make their rigging of it. See further the
„ II, tide Bark.
Hida go. rp^e feventh fort is a native of the Weft Indies,
where it is cultivated in gardens and inclofures as an
article of food.—The whole of it is mucilaginous,
efpecially the pods. “ Thefe (Dr Wright informs
us) are gathered green, cut into pieces, dried, and fent
home as prefents, or are boiled in broths or foups for
food. It is the chief ingredient in the celebrated pep¬
per-pot of the Weft Indies, which is no other than a
rich olla : the other articles are either fldh meat, or
dried fifti and capficum. This difh is very palatable
and nourifhing.—As a medicine okra is employed in all
cafes where emollients and lubricants are indicated.”
HICETAS of Syracufe, aft ancient philofopher
and aftronomer, who taught that the fun and ftars
were motionlefs, and that the earth moved round them.
This is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the
firft hint of the true fyftem to Copernicus. He flou-
riflred 344 B. C.
HICKES (George), an Englifh divine of extra¬
ordinary parts and learning, born in 1642. In 1681
he was made king’s chaplain, and two years after
dean of Worcefter. The death of Charles II. flopped
his farther preferment; for though his church prin¬
ciples were very high, he manifefted too much zeal
againft Popery to be any favourite with James II. On
the revolution, he with many others was deprived for
refufing to take the oaths to king William and queen
Mary ; and foon after, archbifhop Bancroft and his
colleagues confidering how to maintain epifcopal fuc-
ceffion among thofe who adhered to them, Dr Hickes
carried over a lift of the deprived clergy to king James;
and with his fan&ion a private confecration was per¬
formed, at which it is faid lord Clarendon was prefent.
Among others, Dr Hickes was confecrated fuffragan
bifhop of Thetford, and died in 1715.—He wrote, 1,
Injlitutiones Grammatics Anglo- Saxonies, et Mafo-Go¬
thics. 2. Antiqua Hteratura feptentrionalis. 3. Two
treatifes, one of the Chriftian priefthood, the other
of the dignity of the epifcopal order. 4. Jovian, or
an anfwer to Julian the apoftate. 5. Sermons ; with
many temporary controverftal pieces on politics and
religion.
HICKCUP, or Hiccough, a fpafmodic affe&ion
of the ftomach, cefophagus, and mufcles fubfervient
to deglutition, arifing fometimes from fome particu¬
lar injury done to the ftomach, cefophagus, diaphragm,
&c. and fometimes from a general affe&ion of the
nervous fyHem. See (the/«<&* fubjoined to) Medicine.
HIDAGE (Hidagium), was an extraordinary tax
payable to the kings of England for every hide of
land. This taxation was levied not only in money,
but in provifion, armour, &c.; and when the Danes
landed in Sandwich in 994, king Ethelred taxed all
his lands by hides ; fo that every 310 hides found one
Ihip furnifhed, and every eight hides furnifhed one jack
and one faddle, to arm for the defence of the kingdom,
&c. — Sometimes the word hidage was ufed for the
being quit of that tax : which was alfo called kidegild,-,
and interpreted, from the Saxon, “ a price or ran-
fom paid to fave one’s Ikin or hide from beating.”
HIDALGO, in modern hiftory, a title, given in
Spain to all who are of noble family.
The Hidalgos claim a defeent from thofe valiant fol«
diers who retired into Caftile, and the mountains of Hidalgo..
Afturias, and other remote parts of Spain, on the in- »' "
vafion of the Moors, where having fortified themfelves,
they fucceffively defeended into the plains, in propor¬
tion to the fuccefs of their arms: from the notoriety
of their perfons, or the lands they became poffeffed off
they acquired the appellation of Hidalgos notorios. Hi*
dalgos de folar conocido. or de tqfa folariega. Of thefe, ac¬
cording to Hernando Mexia, there are three forts; the
firft being lords of places, villages, towns, or caftles*
filfm whence they took their firnames, as the Guzmansr
Mendozas, Laras, Guivaras, and others ; the fecond,
who recovered any fortrefs from the Moors, as the
Ponces of Leon, and others ; and the third fort, from
the places where they lefided, or held jurifdiclion, as
Rodrigo de Narvaez was called of Antequera, from
being Alcayde there. But this definition is not con-
fidered as exact or conclufive by Otalora, another ci¬
vilian, who fays that the true meaning of Hidalgos de
folar conocido is explained by the laws of Caftile to be
a well known manfion or poffeffion, the nature of
which is particularly explained in the laws of Parditasy
lib. 5. tit. 35. which deferibe three forts of tenures
called Dev'tfa, Solariega, and Bchctria. By the firft,
lands are devifed by the anceftor ; folar is a tenure
upon another perfon’s manor, and obliges the owner
to receive the lord of the fee when necefiity obliges
him to travel; and Behetria is in the nature of an allo¬
dium. In proportion as thefe Aborigines gained ground
on the Moors, and increafed in their numbers, many
private perfons diftinguiftied themfelvesby their valour,
and obtained teftimonies of their fervices, called cartas
de merced. which ferved them as a foundation of their
birth and good defeent, without which documents
their pofterity could not make it appear ; and if from
a lapfe of time, or other unavoidable accidents, fuch
proof ftiould happen to be loft or deftroyed, the law
affords them a remedy under thefe circumftances, by
a declaration, importing, that fuch perfons as are flip*
pofed to have had fuch certificates, may be relieved
by making it appear that their anceftors, time imme¬
morial, have always been held and reputed as Hidal*
gos, and enjoyed the privileges of fuch, from a ftrong
prefumption in their favour ; the poffefiion of land
having equal force to any other document ; which is
fully fet forth in the Pragmatica of Cordova. To thefe
executory letters are granted, cartas executorias, ex-
preffive of their privileges; and for the better regu¬
lation of thefe matters, proper officers are appointed
in the chancery courts, called alcaldes de lor hidalgos^
who ought to be hidalgos themfelves, and hold jurif*
di&ion in thefe cafes, and no others : but even here
innovations have taken place ; for as thefe grants flow
from the fovereign, who is the fountain of honour,
fome are declared Hidalgos de femgre, by right of de*
feeut, and others de prixilegio,- or by office, in which
the will of the fovereign has made amends for any de*
ficiency of blood.
There is a fet of people near Segovia, at a place
called Zamarramala, who are exempt from tribute on
account of the care they take in fending proper
perfons every night to the cattle of Segovia to keep
centinel—one cries out Vela, vela, hao, and the other
blows a horn, from whence they have been titled he-
dalgos by tk: horn. In Catalonia thofe gentlemen who
are •
HtgaJgo.
HID [ S°i ] HID
are ftylcd Homlre de Pareja, are con fide redthe fame as u. When there are title-deeds or other writings Hidalgo/
hidalgos in Cailile, and were fo called from the word or papers in which two or more perfojis have an equal Hl(le' ,
parejar, to equip, this name being given as a diftinftion right or property, and require a particular charge, ’ -
by Borelo the 4th count of Barcelona, at the fiege they are to be given up by preference to the cuilody
of that city, in 965, who fummoning all his vaffals of an Hidalgo, if any of the parties are fuch.
to come to his afliftance againft ihe Moors, nine hun- 12. The daughter of an Hidalgo enjoys every
dred horfemen well mounted and equipped joined him, privilege of her birth, though married to a commoner)
and with their aid he took the city; and this appella- and a woman who is not an Hidalgo enjoys all thefe
tion has been given in honourable remembrance of this privileges when (he is a widow, following the fortune
loyal aftion. of her hulband.—But if the widow is an Hidalgo, and
Thefe noble hidalgos enjoy many privileges and the late hu/band was a commoner, fhe falls into the
diftinftions; of which the following are the principal, ftate of her hulband after his death, though ihe had
1. The iirft and greatelt privilege which they the privileges of her birth during his life.
hold by law is to enjoy all polls of dignity and honour 13. They are free from all duties, called Pechos, P&-
in the church and Hate, with liberty, when church- didos, Monedas, Marteniegas, Contrihuctones, as well royal
men, of having a plurality of beneiices. They are as civil, and all other levies of whatever kind they may
qualified for receiving all orders of knighthood, and be, with a referve for fuch as are for the public bene*
are to be preferred in all embaflies, governments, and fit, in which they are equally concerned, fuch as the
public commiflions. repairing the highways, bridges, fountains, walls, ds-
2. When they are examined as witnefies in civil ftrudhipn of locufts, and other vermin.
and criminal cafes, their depofitions are to be taken in .14. They are free from perfonal fervice, and from
their own houfes, without being obliged to quit them going to the wars, excepting when the king attends in
to go to thofe of others. perfon ; even then they are not to be forced, but invit-
3. In all. churches, procefiions, and other public ed, and acquainted that the royal ftandard is difplayed*
afts or affemblies, they ate to have the next place of 15. No perfons whatever can be quartered upon,
honour and precedency after the officers of juflice, or lodged in their houfes, except when the king, queen,
conforming themfelves to particular cufloms. prince or infantes are on the road, as in fueh cafes even
4. They are not obliged to accept of any chal- the houfes-of the clergy are not exempts
lenge for combat, fuppofing fuch were allowed of, but 16. They cannot be compelled to accept of the
from thofe w ho are their equals. office of receiver of the king’s rents, or any other em-
5. Though it is forbidden to guardians to pur- ployment which is confidered as mean and derogatory
chafe the eflates of minors, this does not extend to to their dignity and rank.
Hidalgos, in whom the law does not fuppofe any fraud, 17. By a particular cuftom confirmed by royal
an4 they may purchafe them publicly. authority in that part of Caltile beyond the Ebro, ba-
6. They are permitted to be feated in courts of ftards fucceed to their parents, and enjoy their honours
juftice in prefence of the judges, from the refpeft and contrary to the royal and common law.
honour due to them. They have alfo feats in the 18. If a lady, who marries a commoner, fhouM
courts of chancery, in confideratioa of their birth, be a queen* duchefs, marchionefsV or countefs (for
which gives them a right to be near the perfonsof they have no barons in Caftile), fhe not only does
princes. not lofe her rank, but conveys her titles to her hufband,
7. Their perfona are free from arreft for debt, who holds them in right of his wife.
nor can anjr attachment be laid on their dwelling- Thefe are the general privileges which the Hidalgos ,
houfes, furniture, apparel, arms, horfes, or mules in en^oy; there-are fome others of lefsconfequence, as well
immediate ufe : nor can they make a ceffion of their as particular grants to certain perfons and families. An
eftates, nor be diftrefled in fuits of law, farther than ancient and ridiculous cuflom is faid to be obferved by
their circumftances will admit of, but are to be allow- noble ladies who are widows of plebeians, in order to
ed a reafonable and decent maintenaneefor theirfupport. recover their birthright, for which purpofe they carry
8. In cafes of imprifonment for criminal matters, a pack-faddle on their fhoulders to their hulband?s
they are to be treated differently from others. They grave, then throwing it down and ftriking it three
are generally confined to their own houfes w’ith a fafe times, fay, ‘ Villein, take thy villeiny, for I will abide
guard, or under arreft upon their honour, or allowed by my nobility :* and then they recover their privt-
the city or town they lived in, and in particular cafes leges again. -
are fent into caftles. HIDE, the Ikin of beafts; but the word is parti-
p. When puniftiments are infli&ed for criminal cubrly applied to thofe of large cattle* as bullocks-,
caies, they are to be lefs fevere to them than to others, cows, horfes, &o.
as they are not to fuffer ignominious puniftiments, fuch Hides are either raw or green, juft as taken off the
as public ftiame, whipping, gallics, nor are they to be careafe ; falted, or feafoned with fait, alum, and falt-
hanged, but beheaded, excepting in cafes of treafon petre, to prevent their fpoiling ; or curried and tanned,
or herefy. In cafes that do not imply1 a corporal puniftv- See Tanning. -
ment but a pecuniary one, they are treated with more //we of Land, was fuch a quantity of land as might
rigour, and pay a larger fine than others. be ploughed with one plough within the compafs of a
10. They are not to be put to the rack or tor- year, or as much as would maintain a family ; fome
ture, excepting for fuch heinous crimes as are parti- call it 60, fome 80, and others 100 acres,
fuiarly fpecified by the laws.. Hwe Bound. See Farriery, xxiii.
HIERAGIUMji,
HIE [ 502 ] HIE
fiteracium HLERA.CIUM, hawkweed : A genus of the po- fmall channel on the top- A woman was wafhing linen Hierapolk.
H lygamia tequalis order, belonging to the fyngenefia
!. ,t:' ap° 1S' clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un-
v ~ der the 49th order, Compofit*. The receptacle is na¬
ked, the calyx imbricated and ovate ; the pappus Ample
and feflile.
Species. 1. The aurantiacum, commonly called grim
the collier, hath many oblong oval entire leaves, crown¬
ing the root; an upright, Angle, hairy, and almoft leaf-
lefs ftalk, a foot high, terminated by reddilh orange-
coloured flowers in a corymbus. Thefe flowers have
dark oval a(h-coloured calices; whence the name of
grim the collier. 2. The pilofella or moule-ear, hath
bloffoms red on the out-fide, and pale yellow within ;
the cups fet thick with black hairs. The flowers open
at eight in the morning, and clofe about two in the af¬
ternoon. 3. The umbellatum grows to the height of
three feet, with an ere& and firm ftalk, terminated with
an umbel of yellow flowers.
Culture. The firft is the only fpecies cultivated in
gardens. It is propagated by feeds, or parting the
roots. The feed may be fown in autumn or fpring.
In June, when the plants are grown two or three
inches high, they may be picked out and planted in
beds, where they mutt remain till the next autumn,
and then tranfplanted where they are to remain.
Properties. The fecond fpecies is commonly in dry
paftures in England j it has a milky juice, but is lefs
bitter and aftringent than is ufual with plants of that
clafs. it is reckoned hurtful to ftieep. An infedt of
the cochineal genus (Coccus Polonicus) is often found
at the roots, (Aa. Upfal. 1752.) Goats eat it ; flieep
are not fond of it; horfes and fwine refufe it.—The
third fpecies is a native of Scotland, and grows in
rough ftony places, but is not very common. The
flowers are fometimes ufed for dying yarn of a fine
yellow colour.
HIERACITES, in church-hiftory, Chriftian he¬
retics in the third century : fo called from their leader
Hierax, a philofopher of Egypt; who taught that
Melchifedek was the Holy Ghoft, denied the refur-
re&ion, and condemned marriage.
HIERANOSIS, or Morbus Sacer. See (the
Index fubjoined to) Medicine.
HIERA picra. See Pharmacy, n° 826.
HIERAPOLIS, (anc. geog.), a town of Phrygia,
abounding in hot fprings ; and having its name from
the number of its temples. There are coins exhibiting
figures of various gods who had temples here, Of this
place was Epidtetus the ttoic philofopher.—It is now
called Pambouh ; and is fituated near the Scamander,
on a portion of Mount Mcfogis, diftant fix miles from
Eaodicea.—Its file appears at a diftance as a white lofty
cliff ; and upon arriving at it, the view' which it pre-
fents is fo marvellous (fays Dr Chandler), that the de-
feription of it, to bear even a faint refemblance, ought
to appear romantic. Dr Chandler’s deferiptjon is us
follows:
travels in “ The vaft Hope which at a diftance we had taken for
M>W,chalk, was now beheld with wonder, it feeming an im-
p. 229. menfe frozen cafcade, the furface wavy, as of water at
once fixed, or in its headlong courfe fuddenly petrified.
Round about us were many high, bare, ftony ridges ;
and clofe by our tent, one with a wide bafis, and a
{lender rill of water, clear, foft, and warm, running in a
in it, with a child at her back; and beyond were ca¬
bins of the Turcomans, Handing diftinft, much neater
than any we had feen, each with poultry feeding, and
a fence of reeds in front.
“ It is an old obfervation, that the country about the
Mmander, the foil being light and friable, and full of
falts generating inflammable matter, was undermined by
fire and water. Hence it abounded in hot fprings,
which, after palling under-ground from the refervoirs,
appeared on the mountain, or were found bubbling up
in the plain or in the mud of the river: and hence it
was fubjeft to frequent earthquakes ; the nitrous vapour
comprelfed in the cavities, and fublimed by heat or fer¬
mentation, burfting its prifon with loud explofions, agi¬
tating the atmofphere, and lhaking the earth and wa¬
ters with a violence as extenfive as deftrudlive ; and
hence, moreover, the peftilential grottos, which had
fubterraneous communications with each other, derived
their noifome effluvia ; and ferving as fmaller vents to
thefe furnaces or hollows, were regarded as apertures of
hell, as paffages for deadly fumes riling up from the
realms of Pluto, One or more of the mountains per¬
haps has burned. It may be fufpe&ed, that the fur-
face of the country has in fome places been formed from
its own bowels; and in particular, it feems probable,
that the hill of Laodicea was originally an eruption.
“ The hot waters of Hierapolis have produced that
moll extraordinary phamomenon, the cliff, which is one
entire incruftation. They were anciently renowned for
this fpecies of transformation. It is related, they chan¬
ged fo eafily, that being condudled about the vineyards
and gardens, the channels became long fences, each a
Angle ftone. They produced the ridges by our tent.
The road up to the ruins, whiqh appears as a wide and
high caufeway, is a petrification ; and overlooks many
green fpots, once vineyards and gardens, feparated by
partitions of the fame material. The furface of the flat}
above the cliff, is rough with ftone and with channels,
branching out in various dire&ions, a large pool over¬
flowing and feeding the numerous riffs, fome of which
fpread over the Hope as they defeend, and give to the
white ftony bed a humid look, refembling fait or driven
fnow when melting. This cruft, which-, has no tafte or
fmell, being an alkaline, will ferment with acids; and Pi-
cenini relates, that trial of it had been made with fpirit
of vitriol. The waters, though hot, were ufed in agri¬
culture.
“ Tamerlane, when he invaded this country, en¬
camped for the fummer at Tanguzlik, where many of
his men were deftroyed by drinking of a fpripg which
ftagnated and petrified. The Turkifh name Pambouk
fignifies cotton; and, it has been faid, refers to the white-
uefs of the incruftation.
The Ihepherd-poet of Smyrna, after mentioning a
cave in Phrygia facred to the Nymphs, relates, that
there Luna had once defeended from the Iky to En-
dymion, while he was fleeping by his herds; that marks
of their bed were then extant under the oaks; and that
in the. thickets around it the milk of cows had been fpilt,
which men Hill beheld with admiration (for fuch was
the appearance if you faw it very far off) ; but that from
thence flowed clear or warm water, which in a little
while concreted round about the channels, and formed
a ftone pavement. The writer deferibes the cliff of
Hierapolis,
HIE [ 503 1 HIE
Hierapolis. Hierapolis, if I miftake not, as in his time ; and has
added a local ftory, current when he lived. It was the
genius of the people to unite fi&ion with truth ; and,
as in this and other inftances, to dignify the tales of
their mythology with fabulous evidence taken from
the natural wonders in which their country abounded.
“ We afcended in the morning to the ruins, which
are on a flat, palling by fepulchres with infcriptions, and
entering the city from the call. We had foon the
theatre on our right hand, and the pool between us and
the cliff. Oppofite to it, near the margin of the cliff,
is the remains of an amazing ftruCfure, once perhaps
baths, or, as we conje&ured, a gymnafiUm ; the huge
vaults of the roof linking horror as we rode under¬
neath. Beyond it is the mean ruin of a modern fortrefsj
and farther on are maflive walls of edifices, feveral of
them leaning from their perpendicular, the Hones dif-
torted, and feeming every moment ready to fall 5 the
effe&s and evidences of violent and repeated earth¬
quakes. In a recefs of the mountain on the right hand
is the area of a fiadium. Then again fepulchres fuc-
ceed, fome nearly buried in the motmtain-fidc, and one
a fquare building, with an infeription in large letters.
All thefe remains are plain, and of the Hone created by
the waters. The file has been computed about two
hundred paces wide and a mile in length.
“ After taking a general furvey, we returned to the
threatre, intending to copy infcriptions, and examine
more particularly as we changed our ftation. We found
this a very large and fumptuous ffru&ure, and the leall
ruined of any we had feen. Part of the front is Hand¬
ing. In the heap which lies in confufion, are many
fculptures well executed in baffo relievo ; with pieces of
architrave infcribed,. but disjointed ; or fo encumbered
with mallive marbles, that we could collefl from them
no information. The charadler is large and bold, with
ligatures. The marble feats are Hill unremoved. The
numerous ranges are divided by a low femicircular wall,
near mid-way, with infcriptions on the face of it, but
moltly illegible. I copied a fliort but impcrfeft one,
in which Apollo Archegetes of The Leader xs, rcquefied
to be propitious. In another compartment, mention is
made of the city by its name Hierapolis ; and on a third
is an encomium in verfe, which may be thus tranfiated,
“ Hail, golden city Hierapolis, the fpot to be preferred
before any in wide Afis ; revered for the rills of the
Nymphs; adorned with fplendar.” The Nymphs pre-
fided over fprings and fountains.
After attentively viewing them, and confidering their
height, width, and manner of arrangement,-1 am incli¬
ned to believe, that the ancient Afiatics fat at their plays
and public fpe&acles like the modern-, with their legs
croffed or gathered under them; and it is probable upon
carpets.
“ The waters of Hierapolis were furprifingly attem¬
pered for tinging wool, with a colour from roots rival¬
ling the more coilly purples; and were a principal fource
of the riches of the place. The company of dyers is
mentioned in the infcriptipn on the fquare building
among the fepulchres. That heroum or monument was
to be crowned by them with* garlands or feHoons of
flowers. The fprings flowed fo copioufly, that the city
was full of fpontaneous baths ; and Apollo, the tutelar
deity of the Hierapolitans, with JEfculapius and Hy-
giea, on their medals, bear witnefs to the medicinal vir-
3
tues which they poffefs. The people, in fome of their Hieispolia-
infcriptions, are Hyled the mojl fplendid, and the fenate Higres
the mojl powerful. . ^ ' 1
“ The pool before the theatre has been a bath, and
marble fragments are yifible at the bottom of the water,
which is perfectly tranfparent, and of a briny taile.
“ Hierapolis was noted, befides its hot waters, for a
plutonium. This was an opening in a fmall brow of
the adjacent mountain, capable of admitting a man, and
very deep, with a fquare fence before it, inclofing about
half an acre ; which fpace was filled with black thick
mill, fo that the bottom could be fcarcely difcerr.ed.
The air, to thofe who approached it, was innocent on
the outfide of the fence, being clear of the mill in fe-
rene weather, it remaining then within the boundary ;
but there death abode. Bulls, as at Nyfa, dropt down,
and were dragged forth without life; and fome fpar-
rows which Strabo let fly inflantly fell fenfelefs. But
eunuchs, the prieRs of Magna Mater, or Cybele, could
go in quite to the aperture, lean forward, or enter it
unharmed ; but they held their breath, as their vifages
tellified, and fometimes until in danger of fuffocation.
Strabo, the relater, was in doubt whether all eunuchs
could do this, or only they of the temple ; and whether
they were preferved by Divine Providence, as in cafes
of enthufiafm, or were pofftffed of fome powerful anti¬
dotes. But it is likely this m!H was the condenfed
fleam of the hot waters, made noxious by the qualities
of the foil; and that the whole fecret of the priefls
confided in carrying their faces high in the air, as ano¬
ther fpe&ator has obferved they always did ; and in
avoiding refpiration when they Hooped. I had hoped
the defcription of this fpot would have enabled me to
find it, but I fearched about for it unfuccefiively.
“We defcended to our tent at the approach of even¬
ing, by a Heep track down the cliff, beginning beyond
the pool, in which we alfo bathed with pleafure, on the
fide next the gymnafium. Our way was often rough and
flippery, refembling ice, and our horfes with difficulty
preferved their footing. When arrived at our tent, I
renewed my inquiries for the plutonium ; and an old
Turk, with a beard as white as fnow, told me he knew
the place, that it was often fatal to their goats; and
accounting for the effed, faid, it was believed to be the
habitation of a daemon or evil fpirit. We afcended a-
gain early in the morning to the theatre, where he had
promifed to join us; and a live fowl was intended t6
be the martyr of experiment.” But our author was
interrupted by fome banditti, and obliged to leave Hie¬
rapolis in hafte.
HIERARCHY, among divines, denotes the fub-
ordination of angels.
Some of the rabbins reckon four, others ten, orders
or ranks of angels ; and give them different names
according to their different degrees of power and
knowledge.
Hierarchy, like wife denotes the fubordination of
the clergy, ecclefiafiical polity, or the. conflitution
and government of the Chriflian church confidered as
a fociety.
HIERES, the name of fome fmall illands lying
near the coafl of Provence in France, oppofite to the
toums of Hieres and Toulon, where the Englifh fleet
lay many months in 1744, and blocked up the French
and Spanilh fleets in the harbour of Toulon.
HtSRESj:
HIE [ 504 ] HIE
Hieres, a town of Provence in France, feated on and fortitude ; a bullock, of agriculture a horfe, of HieropTy-
the Mediterranean fea. It is a pretty little town, and liberty ; a fphinx, of fubtilty, &c. ph>'-.
was formerly a colony of the Marfilians; and pilgrims Such is the opinion that has generally been embra-
* ufed to embark here for the holy land. But its har- ced, both by ancient and modern writers, of the ori-
bour being now choaked up, it is confiderable only gin and ufe of hieroglyphics. It has been almoft uni-
, for its falt-works. E.X.ong.d. 13. N. Lat. 43. 7. formly maintained, that they were invented by the
HIERO I. and II. kings of Syracufe. See Syr A- Egyptian priefts in order to conceal their wifdom from
cuse. * the knowledge of the vulgar; but the late bifliop
HIEROCLES, a cruel perfecutor of the Chri- Warburton hath, with much ingenuity and learnings
Rians, and a violent promoter of the pcrfecution under endeavoured to fhow that this account is erroneous.
Dioclefian, flourifhed in 302. He wrote fome books According to this writer, the firft kindofhiero-
againh the Chriftian religion ; in which he pretends glyphics were mere piftures, becaufe the moft natural
feme inconllftencies in the Holy Scriptures, and com- way of communicating our conceptions by marks or
pares the miracles of Apollonius Tyanjeus to thofe of figures was by tracing out the images of things; and
our Saviour. He was refuted by Laftanlius and Eu- this is aftually verified in the cafe of the Mexicans,
febius. The remains of his works were colleded into whofe only method of writing their laws and hiftory
. one volume o&avo, by bilhop Pearfon ; and publifhed was by this pifture-writing. But the hieroglyphics
in 1654, with a learned diflertation prefixed to the invented by the Egyptians were an improvement on
work. this rude and inconvenient eflay towards writing, for
Hierocles, a Platonic philofopher of the fifth they contrived to make them both pictures and cha-
^ century, taught at Alexandria, and was admired for rafters. In order to effeft this improvement, they
his eloquence. He wrote feven books upon Provi- were obliged to proceed gradually, by firft making
• dence and Fate ;.and dedicated them to the philofo- the principal circumftance of the fubjeft ftand for the
,pher Olympiodorus, who by his embaflies did the Ro- whole ; as in the hieroglyphics of Horapollo, which
jnans great fervices under the emperors Honorius and reprefent a battle of two armies in array by two hands,
Theodofius the younger. But thefe books are loft, and one holding a ftiield and the other a bow : then put-
-Ave only know them by the extrafts in Photius. He ting the inftrument of the thing, whether real or me-
,wrote alfo-a Commentary upon the golden verfes of Py- taphorical, for the thing itfelf, as an eye and feeptre
. .thagoras; which is ftill extant, and has been feveral to reprefent a monarch, a Ihip and pilot the governor
; timeSipublilhed with thofe verfes. of the univerfe, &c.: and finally, by making one thing
HIEROGEYPHICS, in antiquity, myftical cha- ftand for or reprefent another, where their obfervations
rafters, or fymbols, in ufe among the Egyptians, and of nature or traditional fuperftitions led them to dif-
.that as well in their writings as inferiptions; being the cover or imagine any refembiance : thus, the univerfe
figures of various animals, the parts of human bodies, was defigned by a ferpent in a circle, whofe variegated
and mechanical inftruments. The word is compofed fpots denoted the ftars; and a man who had nobly
of the Greek “f®- facer, “ holy,” and y^uv fculpere, furmounted his misfortune was reprefented by the Ikin
“ to engrave ;” it being the cuftom to have the walls, of the hyaena, becaufe this was fuppofed to furniflr an
.doors, &c. of their temples, obelilks, &c. engraven invulnerable defence in battle.
with fuch figures. The Chinefe writing, he obferves, was the next
Hieroglyphics are properly emblems or figns of di- kind of improvement in the ufe of hieroglyphics. The
vine, facred, or fupernatural things; by which they Egyptians joined charafteriftic marks to images; the
are diftinguifhed from common fymbols, which are figns Chinefe threw out the images and retained only the
of fenfible and natural things. contrafted marks, and from thefe marks proceeded
Hermes Trifmegiftus is commonly efteemed the in- letters. The general concurrence of different people
ventor of hieroglyphics: he firft introduced them into in this method of recording their thoughts can never
the heathen theology, from whence they have been be fuppofed to be the effeft of imitation, finifter views,
..Iran fplanted into the Jewilh and Chriftian. or chance; but muft be confidered as the uniform
Sacred things, fays Hippocrates, (hould only be voice of nature fpeaking to the rude conceptions of
.communicated to facred perfons. Hence it was that mankind : for not only the Chinefe of the Eaft, the
the ancient Egyptians communicated to none but their Mexicans of the Weft, and the Egyptians of the South,
Icings and priefts, and thofe who were to fucceed to but the Scythians likewife of the North, and the in-
the priefthood and the crown, the fecrets of nature, termediate inhabitants of the earth, w'«. the Indians,
Kind the fecrets of their morality and hiftory ; and this Phoenicians, Ethiopians, &c. ufed the fame way of
they did by a kind of cabbala, which, at the fame writing by pifture and hieroglyphic,
time that it inftrufted them, only amufed the rdl of The bifhop farther (hows, that the feveral fpecies of
the people. Hence the uft of hieroglyphics, ormyftic hieroglyphic writing took their rife from nature and
••figures, to veil their morality, politics, &c. from pro- neceliity, and not from choice and artifice, by tracing
fane eyes. This author, it may be obferved, and at large the origin and progrefs of the art of fpeech.
.many others, do not keep to the precife charafter of a He proceeds to (how how in procefs of time the Egyp-
hieroglyphic, but apply it to profane as well as divine tian hieroglyphics came to be employed for the vehicle
.things. of myftery. They ufed their hieroglyphics two ways;
Hieroglyphics are a kind of real charafters, winch the one more fimple, by putting the part for the whole,
.do not only denote, but in fome meafure exprefs, which was the curiologic hieroglyphic; and the other
,the things. Thus, according to Clemens Alexandri- more artificial, by putting one thing of refembling
4ms, Strom, v. a lion is the hieroglyphic of ftrength qualities for another, called the tropical hieroglyphic;
No,53. ' | thus
HIE [ 505 ] HIE
Hierogly- thus the moon was fometimes 'reprefented by a half
t P^ics- circle and fometimes by a cynocephalus. Theyemployed
**'" their proper hieroglyphics to record openly and plainly
their laws, policies, public morals, and hiftory, and all
kinds of civil matters: this is evident from their obeliflcs,
which were full of hieroglyphic charafters, defigned to
record Angular events, memorable aftions, and new
inventions ; and alfo from the celebrated infcription
on the temple of Minerva at Sais, where an infant, an
old man, a hawk, a fifh, and a river-horfe, expreffed
this moral fentence : “ All you who come into the
world and go out of it, know this, that the gods hate
impudence.” However, the tropical hieroglyphics,
which were employed to divulge, gradually produced
fymbols which were defigned to fecrete or conceal:
thus Egypt was fometimes expreffed by the croco¬
dile, fometimes by a burning cenfer with a heart up¬
on it ; where the fimplicity of the firft reprefenta-
tion and the abftrufenefs of the latter fliow, that
the one was a tropical hieroglyphic for communica¬
tion, and the other a tropical fymbol invented for
fecrecy. , »
Enigmatic fymbols were afterwards formed by the
affemblage of different things, or of their properties
that were lefs known ; and though they might have
been intelligible at firft, yet when the art of writing
was invented, hieroglyphics were more generally dif-
ufed, the people forgot the fignification of them, and
the priefts, retaining and cultivating the knowledge of
them becaufe they were the repofitories of their learn¬
ing and hiftory, at length applied them to the purpofe
of preferving the fecrets of their religion.
Symbols were the true original of animal wor/hip in
Egypt, as Sir John Marfham conje&ured. Can. Chron.
p. 5 8. becaufe in thefe hieroglyphics was recorded the
hiftory of their greater deities, their kings, and law¬
givers, reprefented by animals and other creatures.
The fymbol of each god was well known and familiar
to his worfhippers, by means of the popular paintings
and engravings on their temples and other facred mo¬
numents; fo that the fymbol prefenting the idea of
the god, and that idea exciting fentiments of religion,
it was natural for them, in their addreffes to any par¬
ticular god, to turn to his reprefentative mark or fym¬
bol ; especially when we confider farther, that the
Egyptian priefts feigned a divine original for hierogly¬
phic charaders, in order to increafe the veneration of
the people for them. Thefe would of courfe bring
on a relative devotion to thefe fymbolic figures, which,
when it came to be paid to the living animal, would
foon terminate in an ultimate worlhip.
Another confequence of the facrednefs of the hiero¬
glyphic charadters was, that it difpofed the more fu-
perftitious to engrave them on gems, and wear them
as amulets or charms. This magical abufe feems not
to have been much earlier than the eftablifhed worfhip
of the god Serapis, which happened under the Ptole¬
mies, and was firft brought to the general knowledge
of the world by certain Chriftian heretics and natives
of Egypt, who had mixed a number of Pagan fuper-
fiitions with their Chriftianity. Thefe gems, called
abraxas, are frequently to be met with in the cabinets
of the curious, and are engraven with all kinds of
hieroglyphic chara&ers. To thefe abraxas fucceed the
talifmans.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
HIEROGRAMMATISTS, (Hierogrammatei), H«ro-
i. e. holy regijlers, were an order of priefts among the
ancient Egyptians, who prefided over learning and re- 1
ligion. They had the care of the hieroglyphics, andHrerophan-
were the expofitors of religious doftrines and opinions. ten.
They were looked upon as a kind of prophets; and it “ v
is pretended, that one of them predifted to an Egyp¬
tian king, that an Ifraelite (meaning Mofes), eminent
for his qualifications and atchievements, would leffen
and deprefs the Egyptian monarchy.—The hierogram-
matei were always near the king, to affift him with
their informations and counfels. The better to fit
them for this, they made ufe of the Ikill and know¬
ledge they had acquired in the ftars and the motions
of the heavenly lights, and even of the writings of their
predeceffors, wherein their funftions and duties were
delivered. They were exempted from all civil employ¬
ments, were reputed the firft perfons in dignity next
the king, and bore a kind of feeptre in form of a
ploughfhare. After Egypt became a province of
the Roman empire, the hierogrammatei funk into
negledf.
HIEROMANCY, in antiquity, that part of divi¬
nation which predicted future events from obferving
the various things offered in facrificc. See Divina¬
tion and Sacrifice.
HIEROMNEMON, among the ancient Greeks,
fignified a delegate chofen by lot, and fent to the
great council of the Amphiftyons, where he was to
take Care of what concerned religion. The hieromne-
monies were reckoned more honourable than the other
members of that affembly, the general meetings of
which were always fummoned by them, and their
names were prefixed to the decrees made by that
council.
Hieromnemon (compofed of <ffor “ facred,” and
“ one who advertifes or puts in mind of,” an
officer in the ancient Greek church, whofe principal
fun&ion was to Hand behind the patriarch at the fa-
craments, ceremonies, &c. and (how him the prayers,
pfalms, &c. which he was to rehearfe. He alfo clo¬
thed the patriarch in his pontifical robes, and affigned
the places of all thofe who had a right to be around
him when feated on his throne, as the mailer of the
ceremonies now does to the pope.
HIERONYMUS. See Jerome.
HIEROPHANTES, or Hierophanta, (from
afoi holy, and ?>«<»» / appear), in antiquity, a prieft
among the Athenians.
The hierophantes was properly the chief perfon that,
officiated in the eleufinia, that great folemnity facred
to Ceres.
This office was firft executed by Eumolpus, and
continued in his family for 1200 years, though when
any perfon was appointed to this dignity he was requi¬
red alway to live in celibacy.
St Jerome fays, that the hierophantes extinguilhed
the fire of luft by drinking cicuta or the juice of hem¬
lock, or even by making themfelves eunuchs. Apol-
lodorus obferves, that it was the hierophantes who in-
ftrufted perfons initiated into their religion in the
myfteries and duties thereof, and that it was hence he
derived his name : for the fame reafon he was called
prophetes, “ the prophet.” He had officers under him
to do the fame thing, or to affift him therein, who
3 R were
H I G
[
506 I H I G
- were alfo called propheies and exeges, l. e. “explainers don. It has its name from its high fituation, and from Highland-
of divine things.” a gate fet up there about 400 years ago, to receive ers-
To the hierophantes it belonged to drefs and adorn toll for the biihop of London, when the old miry road —
j the ftatues of the gods, and to bear them in procefi^ons from Gray’s-inn Lane to Barnet was turned through
and folemn ceremonies. the bilhop’s park. There was a hermitage where the
HIEJR.OPHYL AX, an officer in the Greek church, chapel now hands ; and one of the hermits caufed, a
who was-guardian or keeper of the holy utenfils, veil- caufeway to be made between Highgate and Iflington,
ments, &c. anfwering to eur facrifta or veftry-keeper. with gravel dug out of the top of the hill, where there
HIGH, a term of relation, importing one thing’s is now a pond. Near the chapel, in 1562, lord chief
being fuperior or above another: thus we fay, a high baron Cholmondely built and endowed a free fchool,
mountain, the high court of parliament, high relie- which was enlarged in 1570 by Edwin Sandys bilhop
vo, Sec. of London.—This village is a noted and airy retirement
High, in mufic, is fometimes ufed in the‘fame fenfe for the gentry and wealthy citizens ; and is a place of
with loud, and fometimes in the fame fenfe -wiHa acute. good accommodation, belides its affording a delightful
High Dutch, is the German tongue in its greatefl and pleafant profpedt over the city and adjacent
purity, &c. as fpoken in Mifnia, &c. country.
High Opcratibn, in chirurgery, is a method ofextradl- HIGHLANDERS, a general appellation for the
ing the ftone ; thus called, becaufe the ftone is taken inhabitants of the mountainous parts of any country,
eut at the upper part of the bladder. See Surgery. In Britain, the name is appropriated to the people
HiGH-Places, were eminences on which the heathens who inhabit the mountainous parts of Scotland, to the
ufed to worlhip their gods, chofen for that purpofe as north and north-weft, including thofe of the Hebrides
being fuppofed to be nearer heaven their conftant reft- or Weftern Ifles.—They are a branch of the ancient
dence. The Jews are frequently blamed for their at- Celtte ; and undoubtedly the defcendants of the firll
tachment to high-places, after the manner of the Gen- inhabitants of Britain, as appears from the many mo-
tiles ; though their profeucha were frequently upon numents of their language Hill retained in the moil an-
mountains with groves planted about them. Where cient names of places in all parts of the ifland. The
high-places are reprobated in fcripture, therefore, we Highlanders, or, as they are often termed by ancient
fhould underftand them as abufed and proftituted to authors, the Caledonians, were always a brave, warlike,
idolatrous purpofes. Before the temple was built, and hardy race of people; and, in the remoteft times,
there was indeed nothing in the high-places very«con- feem to have poflelfed a degree of refinement in fenti-
trary to the law, provided God only was adored there, ment and manners then unknown to the other nations
and that no incenfe or victims were offered to idols, that furrounded them. This appears not only from
Under the judges they feem to have been tolerated ; their own traditions and poems, but alfo from the
and Samuel offered facrifices in feveral places befides teftimony of many ancient authors. This civilization
the tabernacle, where the ark was not prefent. Even was probably owing in a great meafure to the order
in David’s time, they facrificed to the Lord at Shilo, of the bards, or Druids, and fome other inftitutions
Jerufalem, and Gibeon; but after the temple was peculiar to this people.
built, and a place prepared for the fixed fettlement of The ancient Highlanders lived in the hunting ftate
the ark, it was no more allowed of to facrifice out of till fome time after the era of Fingal, who was one of
Jerufalem. Solomon, in the beginning of his reign, their kings towards the clofe of the third century. For
went a pilgrimage to Gibeon ; but from that time we fome ages after that, they turned their chief attention,
fee no lawful facrifices offered out of the temple. to the paftoral life, which afforded a lefs precarious
High Priejl. See Pontifex and Priest. fubfifience. Till of late, agriculture in molt parts of
High Way, a free paffage for the king’s fubje£ts; the Plighlands made but little progrefs.
■’ ’ The Highlanders always enjoyed a king and go¬
vernment of their own, till Kenneth M‘Alpine (anno-
845), after having fubdutd the Pidlilh kingdom,
n which account it is called the king’s high way, though
the freehold of the foil belong to the owner of the land.
Thofe ways that lead from one town to another, and
fuch as are drift or cart ways, and are for all travellers transferred thither, the feat of royalty. This event
in great roads, or that communicate with them, are proved very unfavourable to the virtues of the High-
high ways only; and as to their reparation, are under landers, which from this period began to decline,
the care of furveyors. The country, no longer awed by the prefence of the
HIGH-way men, are robbers on the highway; fovereign, fell into anarchy and confufion. The chief-
for the apprehending and taking of whom, a reward tains began to extend their authority, to form fadions,
of 401. is given by the ftatute of 4 and 5 W. & M. to and to foment divifions and feuds between contending
be paid within a month after convidion by the Iheriff clans. The laws were either too feeble to bind them,
of the county; to which the ftatute 8 Geo. II. cap. 16, or too remote to take notice of them. Hence fprung
fuperadds 101. to be paid by the hundred indemnified all thofe evils which long difgraced the country, and
by fuch taking. difturbed the peace of its inhabitants. Robbery or,
FIIGHAM ferrers, an ancient borough of Nor- plunder, providing it was committed on any one of an
thamptonlhire in England, which has its name from adverfe clan or tribe, was countenanced andauthorifed
the family of the Ferrers, to whom it formerly be- and their reprifals on one another- were perpetual.
Ipnged, and who had a caftle in its neighbourhood. Thus quarrels were handed down from one generation.
It fends one member to parliament. E. Long. 1. 40. to another, and the whole clan were bound in honour
N. Lat. 52. 20. to efpoufe the caufe of every individual that belonged
HIGHGATE, a village five miles nprth of Lon- to it. By this means the genius of the people was.
greatly
H I G t 507 1 H I G
Highland- greatly altered ; and the Highlanders of a few ages
t ers- back were almoft as remarkable for thdr irregular and
* diforderly way of life as their predeceffors were for
their civilization and virtue. It is from not attending
to this diftindtion between the ancient Highlanders and
their pofterity in later times, that many have doubted
the exiftence of thofe exalted virtues afcribed by their
Jioets to the more ancient inhabitants of the country.
But now that the power of the chieftains is again abo-
lifhed, law eftablilhed, and property fecured, the genius
of the people (where it is not hindered by fome other
extraneous caufe) begins again to fhow itfelf in its ge¬
nuine colours; and many of their ancient virtues begin
to Ihine with confpicuous lultre. Juftice, generofity,
honefty, friendlhip, peace, and love, are perhaps no¬
where more cultivated than among this people. But
one of the ftrongeft features which marked the charac¬
ter of the Highlanders in every age, was their bofpita-
lity and benevolence to ftrangers. At night the tra¬
veller was always fure to find a hearty welcome in
whatever houfe he fiiould go to; and the hoft thought
himfelf happier in giving the entertainment than the
gueft in receiving it, Even with regard to their ene¬
mies, the laws of hofpitality were obferved with the
moft facred regard. They who fought againll each
other in the day, could in the night feaft, and even
fleep together, in the fame houfe. From the fame
principle, they were, in moft other cafes, fo faithful
to their truft, that they rarely betrayed any confi¬
dence repofed in them. A promife they thought as
binding as an oath, and held it equally inviolable and
facred.
The Caledonians in all ages have been much addicted
to poetry and mufic. The poems of Offian, fo uni-
verfally repeated, and fo highly efteemed by every
Highlander, are a ftrong proof of the early proficiency
of this people in the poetical art. Even to this day,
tiotwithftanding the many difadvantages they labour
under, the moft illiterate of either fex difcover fre¬
quently a genius for poetry, which often breaks forth
in the moft natural and fimple ftrains, when love, grief,
joy, or any other fubjedt of fong, demands it. Where-
ever their circumftances are fo eafy as to allow them
any refpite from toil, or any cheerfulnefs of fpirits, a
good portion of their time, efpecially of the winter*-
nights, is ftill devoted to the fong and tale. This
laft fpecies of corhpofition is chiefly of the novel-kind,
and is handed down by tradition like their poems.
It was the work of the bards; and proved, while they
exifted, no contemptible entertainment. But fince
the extinftion of that order, both the Gaelic poems and
tales are in a great meafure either loft or adulterated.
*—The genius and character of the Gaelic poetry is
u'ell known. It is tender, fimple, beautiful, and
fublime.
Among the ancient Highlanders, the harp was the
chief inftrument of mufic. It fuited the mildnefs of
their manners, and w^as well adapted to the peace and
quiet which they enjoyed under their own kings. In
a later period, however, when the conftant quarrels of
their chiefs, and the endlefs feuds of contending clans,
turned all their thoughts to war, it was forced to give
place to the bag-pipe, an inftrument altogether of the
martial kind, and therefore well fuited to the ftate of
the country at that time. But ever fince the eaufe
which had brought this inftrument in vogue has ceafed Highland
to operate, the attention to it has been on the decline; ers.
fo that the harp, with very little encouragement, might v-—
again refume the feat from which it was once expelled,
—The moft, and efpecially the oldeft of the High¬
land mufic, having been compofed to the harp, is of
a foft, tender, and elegiac call, as beft fuited to the
genius of that inftrument. Thefe pieces are generally
expreffive of the paffions of love and grief. Other
pieces, which were compofed in their°ftate of war,
and adapted to a different inftrument, are altogether
bold and martial. And many are of a fprightly and
cheerful caft, the offspring of mirth, and the fport of
fancy in the feafon of feftivity. Many of thefe laft
are of the chorus kind ; and are fung in almoft all the
exercifeS in which a number of people are engaged,
fuch as rowing, reaping, fulling, &c. The time of
thefe pieces is adapted to the exercifes to which they
are refpe<ftively fung. They greatly forward the work,
and alleviate the labour. The particular mufic which
is generally ufed by the Highlanders in their dances
is well known by the name of Strathfpey reels.
The language of the Highlanders is ftill the Gaelic;
which, with many of their cuftoms and manners, has
been fecured to them by their mountains and faftneffes,
amidft the many revolutions which the reft of the
ifland has undergone in fo long a couyfe of ages. The
Gaelic feems to be the oldeft and pureft dialed which
remains of the Celtic, as appears from its approach¬
ing the neareft to the names of places, &c. which that
language left in moft countries where it prevailed, and
from its moft obvious affinity to thofe tongues, ancient
or modern, which have been in any meafure derived
from the old Celtic. The Gaelic has all the marks of
an original and primitive language. Moft of the words
are expreffive of fo«e property or quality of the ob-
jeds which. they denote. This, together with the
variety of its founds (many of which, efpecially of
thofe that exprefs the foft and mournful paffions, are
peculiar to itfelf), renders it highly adapted for poetry.
It is generally allowed to have been the language of
court, in Scotland, till the reign of Malcom Canmore.
The Gaelic epithet of Can-more, or “ large head,”
by which this king is diftinguilhed, feems to intimate
fo much. In fome particular parliaments at leaft, it
was fpoken much later, as in that held by Robert the
Bruce at Ardchattan. That it has been formerly a
good deal cultivated, appears from'the ftyle and com¬
plexion of its poems and tales, and from feveral an¬
cient MSS. that have come down to the prefent times.
To ftrangers the Gaelic has a forbidding afped, on ac¬
count of the number of its quiefeent confonants (which
are retained to mark the derivation of w-ords and their
variation in cafe and tenfe), but its found is abun¬
dantly mufical and harmonious; and its genius ftrong
and mafeuline. Its alphabet coniifts of 18 letters, of
which one is an afpirate, 12 are confonants, and five
are vowels.
The Highlanders are beginning of late to apply
to learning, agriculture, and efpecially to com¬
merce, for which their country, every where indented
with arms of the fea, is peculiarly favourable. Cattle
is the chief ftaple of the country; but it produces
more grain than would fupply its infiabitants, if fo
much of it were not confumed in whifky. The natives
3 & 2 are
H I G
[ 508 1
H I G
Highmore, are beginning to avail thenafelves of their mines, woods, ting, he was always remarkable, as the pencil by no Highmore,
   wool, and fiflieries ; and by a vigorous application, with means engroffed his whole attention. His reputation
the due encouragement of government, may become a and bufinefs increafing, betook a more confpicuous
profperous and ufeful people. Hat ion, by removing to a houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn
The Highlanders are of a quick and penetrating ge- Fields, in March 1723-4; and an opportunity foon of-
nius, ftrongly tin&ured with a curiofity or thirtl of fered of introducing him advantageoufly to the nobi¬
knowledge, which difpofes them to learn any thing lity, &c. by his being defired, by Mr Pine the engra-
very readily. They are aftive and induftrious, where ver, to make the drawings for his prints of the knights
oppreffion do?s not difcourage them by fecluding even of the bath, on the revival of that order in 1725. In
the hope of thriving. They are remarkably bold and confequence, feveral of the knights had their portraits
adventurous, which qualifies them for being excellent alfo by the fame hand, fome of them whole lengths;
feamen and foldiers. They are generally of a middle and the duke of Richmond, in particular, was attend-
fize, rather above it than otherwife ; their eyes are ed by his three efquires, with a perfpeftive view of king
bride and lively, their features diftindly marked, and Henry Vllth’s chapel. This capital picture is now at
their perfons tight and well made. Their countenance Godwood. And our artift was fent for to St James’s by
is open and ingenuous, and their temper frank and George I. to draw the late duke of Cumberland, from
communicative. which Smith feraped a mezzotiuto.
HIGHMORE (Jofeph, Efq;) an eminent paint- In 1728, Mr Hawkins Browne, then of Lincoln’s-
er, was born in the parish of St James’s, Garlickhithe,
London, June 13, 1692, being the third fon of Mr
Edward Highmore, a coal-merchant in Thames-ftreet.
Having fuch an early and Itrong inclination to paint¬
ing, that he could think of nothing elfe with pleafure,
h's father endeavoured to gratify him in a propolal to
his uncle, who was ferjeant-painter to king William,
Inn, who had ever a.juft fenfe of his talents and abili¬
ties, addreffed to him a poetical epiftle “ On Defign
and Beauty and, fome years after, an elegant Latin
Ode, both now colle&ed in his poems. In the fu.m-
mer of 1732, Mr Highmore vifited the continent, in
company with Dr Pemberton, Mr Benjamin Robins,
and two other friends, chiefly with a view of feeing the
and with whom Mr (afterwards Sir Jamesj'Thornhill gallery of pictures belonging to the eleSor Palatine at
had ferved his apprenticefhip. But this was afterwards
for good reafons declined, and he was articled as clerk
to an attorney, July 1 8th 1 707 ; but fo much againft
his own declared inclination, that in about three years
he began to form refolutions of indulging his natural
difpofition to his favourite art, having continually em-
Dufleldorp, collefted by Rqbens, and fuppofed the
belt in Europe. At Antwerp alfo he had peculiar
pleafure in contemplating the works of his favourite
mafter. In their roturn they vifited the principal
towns in Holland. In 1734, he made alike excurlion,
but alone, to Paris, where he received great civilities
ployed his leifure hours in defigning, and in the ftudy from hiscountrymen then there, particularly the duke of
of geometry, perfpe&ive, architecture, and anatomy,
but without any inftru&ors except books. He had
afterwards an opportunity of improving himfelf in ana¬
tomy, by attending the ledtures of Mr Chefelden, be-
fides entering himfelf at the painters academy in
Great Queen-ftreet, where he drew' 10 years, and
had the honour to be particularly noticed by Sir God-
Kingllon, Dr Hickman (his tutor), Robert Knight,
Efq; (the late caftiier), See. Here he had the fatis-
faCtion of being ftiown, by cardinal de Polignac, his
famous group of antique ftatues, the court of Lyco-
medes, then juft brought from Rome, and fince pur-
chafed by the king of Pruflia, and deftroyed at Char-
lottenbhurg in 1760 by the Ruffians. In 1742, hff
frey Kneller, who diftinguifhed him by the name of had the honour to paint the late prince and princefs
“ the Young Lawyer.” On June 13th 1714, his of Wales for the duke of Saxe Gotha ; as he did fome
cleikfhip expired ; and on March 26th 17x5, he be- years after the late queen of Denmark for that court,
gan painting as a profeffion, and fettled in the city. The publication of “ Pamela,” in 1744, gave rife to.
In the fame year Dr Brook Taylor publifhed his “Li- a let of paintings by Mr Highmore, which were en-
near Peifpeftive ; or, a new method of reprefenting graved by two French engravers, and publiflied by
juftly all manner of objeCls as tliey appear to the eye in fubfeription in 1745. In the fame year he painted
all fituations,” On this complete and univerfal theory
our artift grounded his fubfequent pra&ice ; and it has
been generally allowed, that few, if any of the profef-
fioft at that time, were fo thorough mafters of that ex¬
cellent but intricate fyftem. in 17x6, he married
Mifs Sufanna Hiller, daughter and heirefs of Mr An¬
thony Hiller of Effingham in Surrey ; a young lady
in every refped worthy of his choice. For Mr Chefel-
den’s “ Anatomy of the Human Body,” publifhed in
1722, he made drawings from the real fubje&s at the
the only original of the late general Wolfe, then about
x8. His Pamela introduced him to the acquaintance
and friendfhip of the excellent author whofe piclune
he drew, and for whom he painted the only original
of Dr Young. In 1750 he had the misfortune tolofe
his wife. On the firft inftitution of the academy of
painting, fculpture, &c. in 1753, was e^e<^e^ one
of the profefTors ; an honoxir which, on account of
his many avocations, he defired to decline. In 1754
he publiflied “ A critical examination of thofe two
time of difleftion, two of which were engraved for Paintings [by RubensJ on the Cieling of the Ban.
that work, and appear, fcut without his name, in tables queting-houfe at Whitehall, in which Archite&ure
xii. and xiii. In the fame year, on the exhibition of is introduced, fo far as relates to Perfpe&ive ; to-
“ The Confcious Lover,” written by Sir Richard gether with the Difcuffion of a Queftion which has
Steele, Mr Highmore addrefled a letter to the author been the Subjedt of Debate among Paintersprint-
on the limits of filial obedience, pointing out a mate- ed in 4to. In the folution of this queftion, he pro¬
rial defeft in the chara&er of Bevil, with that clear- ved that Rubens and feveral other great paintera
Btfs and precifioa for which, in converfation and wri- were miftakea ia the pradlice, and Mr Kirby and fe¬
deral
H I G r 509 ] H I G
Highmore, veral other authors In the theory. And in the 17th
 volume of the “ Monthly Review,” he animadverted
(ancnymoufly) on Mr Kirby’s unwarrantable treat¬
ment of Mr Ware, and delefted and txpofed his er¬
rors, even when he exults in his own fuperior fcience.
Of the many portraits which Mr Highmore painted,
in a large praftice of 46 years (of which feveral hav^
been engraved), it is impoflible and ufelefs to difcufs
particulars. Some of the molt capital in the hiitorical
branch, which was then much lefs cultivated than it is
at prefent, lhall only be mentioned, viz. “ Hagar and
1thmarl,” a prefent to the Foundling-hofpital : “ The
good Samaritan,” painted for Mr Shepherd of Camp-
fey Alia : “ The finding of Mofes,” purchafed at his
fale by colonel (now general) Lifter: “ The Harlawe
family, as defcribed in Clariffa,” now in the pofTefiion
of Thomas Watkinfon Payler, Efq; at Heden in Kent:
“ ClarifTa,” the portrait mentioned in that work :
“ The Graces unveiling Nature,” drawn by memory
from Rubens : “ The Clementina of Grandifon, - and
the queen mother of Edward IV. with her younger
fon, &c. in Weftminfttr-abbey 5” the three laft in the
poffcffion of his fon.
In 1761, on the marriage of his daughter to the
Rev. Mr Duncombe, fon to one of his oldeft friends,
he took a refolution of retiring from bufinefs, and dif-
pofing of his colleftion of piftures, which he did by
auftion, in March 1762, and foou after removed to his
fon in law’s at Canterbury, where he palled the re¬
mainder of his life without ever revifiting the metro¬
polis. But though he had laid down the pencil, he
never wanted employment: fo aftive and vigorous was
his mind, that, with a conftitutional flow of fpirits,
and a rthlh for iaftruftive fociety, he was never lefs
“ alone than when aloneand, befides his proftffion-
al purfuits above mentioned, to philofophv, both na¬
tural and moral, and alfo divinity, he laudably dedica¬
ted his time and attention. No man had more clear-
nefs and precifion of ideas, or a more ardent defire to
know the truth ; and, when known, confcientioufly
to purfue it. With ftrong paffions, ever guided by
the ftrifteft virtue, he had a tender, fufceptible heart,
always open t<f the diftrefles of his fellow-creatures, and
always ready to relieve them. His capital work of
the literary kind was his “ Praftice and perfpeftive,
on the principles of Dr Brook Taylor, Ac.” written
many years before, but not publifhed till 1763, when
it was printed for Nourfe, in one vol. qto. This not
only evinced his fcientific knowledge of the fubjeft,
but removed, by its perfpicuity, the only objeftion
that can be made to the fyftem of Dr Taylor. It ac¬
cordingly received, from his friends'and the intelligent
public, the applaufes it deferved. In 1765 he pub-
lifiied (without his name) “ Obfervations on a
Pamphlet intituled, ‘ Chriftianity not founded on
Argument ;” in which, after fhowing that it is a
continued irony, and lamenting that fo ample a field
fhould be offered the author of it for the difplay
of his fophiftry ; he gives up creeds, articles, and ca-
techifms, as out-works raifed by fallible men, and,
confining himfelf to the defence of the gofpel, or ci¬
tadel, (hows, that pure primitive Chriftianity, though
affaulted by infidels, will ever remain impregnable.
His opinion of Rubens may be feen in the Gentle¬
man’s Magazine for 1766, p. 353, under the title of
“ Remarks on fome paffages in Mr Webb’s inquiry
into the Beauties of Painting, &c.” In the fame Highmore,
year he publilhed, with only his initials, “ J. H.”. ——u
two fmall volumes of “ Effays, moral, religious, and
mifcellaneous; with a Tranftation in profe of Mr
Browne’s Latin Poem on the Immortality of the
Soul,” ftlefted from a large number written at his lei-
fure, at different periods of life. “ As fuch (fays Dr
Hawkefworth) they do the author great credit. They
are not excurlions of fancy, but efforts of thought, and
indubitable indications of a vigorous and aftive mind.”
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 1769, p. 287, he
communicated “ A natural and obvious Manner of
conftrufting Sun-dials, deduced from the Situation
and Motion of the Earth with refpeft to the Sun,”
explained by a fcheme. And in that for 1778, p. 526,
his remarks on colouring, fuggefted by way of a note
on the “ Epiftle to an eminent Painter,” will {how
that his talents were by no means impaired at the age
of 86. Indeed he retained them to the laft, and
had even llrength and fpirit fufficient to enable him to
ride out daily on horfeback the fummer before he died.
A ftrong conftitution, habitual temperance, and con-
ftant attention to his health in youth, as well as in age*
prolonged his life, and preferved his faculties to his.
88th year, when he gradually ceafed to breathe, and,
as it were, fell afteep on March 3. 1780. He was in¬
terred in the fouth aide of Canterbury cathedral, lea¬
ving one fon, Anthony, educated in his own profef-
fion ; and a daughter, Sufanna, mentioned above.
His ab.lities as a painter appear in his works, which
will not only be admired by his contemporaries, but
by their pofterity ; as his tints, like thofe of Rubens
and Vandyek, inftead of being impaired, are improved
by time, which fome of them have now with flood
above 6q years. His idea of beauty, when he indul¬
ged his fancy, was of the higheft kind ; and his know¬
ledge of perfpeftive gave him great advantages in fa¬
mily-pieces, of which he painted more than any one of
his time. He could take a likenefs by memory as-
well as by a fitting, as appears by his picture of the
duke of Lorrain (the late emperor), which Faber en¬
graved ; and thoie of king George II. (in York-aC.
fembly-room) ; queen Caroline, the two Mifs Gun¬
nings, &c. Like many other great painters, he had
“ a poet for his friend,” in the late Mr Browne ; to
which may be added a poem addreffed to him in 1726,
by the Rev. Mr Bunce, at that time of Trinity-hali,
Cambridge, who fucceeded Mr Highmore, and in
1780 was vicar qf St Stephen’s near Canterbury.
HIGHNESS, a quality or title of honour given,
to princes.—The kings of England and Spain had
formerly no other title hut that of highnefs ; the fir it
till the time of James I. and the fecond till that of
Charles V. The petty princes of Italy began firft to
be complimented with the title of higbnefi in the year
1630.—■ J he duke of Orleans affumed the title of royal
higbnefi in the year 1631, to diftinguilh himfelf from,
the other princes of France.
Tne duke of Savoy, late king of Sardinia, bore the
title of royal highnefs, on account of his pretenfions.
to the kingdom of Cyprus.—It is faid that duke only
took the title of royal higbnefi, to put himfelf above the
duke of Florence, who was called great duke; but
the great duke afterwards affumed the title of royal
highnefs, to put himfelf on a level with the duke of
Savoy, ■
§ Tk>
MIL [ 5
•Hi 1 aria 'fhe prince of Conde firft took the title of mojlferene
N hishnefs, leaving that of limple highnefs to the natural
Hilarodi • J °
■ princes.
T ”HILARIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated every
year by the Romans dn the 8th of the calends of
April, or the 25th of March, in honour of Cybele the
mother of the gods.
The hilaria were folemnized with great pomp and
Rejoicing. Every perfon drefled himfelf as he pleafed*
and took the marks or badges of whatever dignity or
quality he had a fancy for. The ftatue of the god-
defs was carried in proceflion through the ftreets of the
city, accompanied by multitudes in the moft fplendid
attire. The day before the feftival was fpent in tears
and mourning. Cybele reprefented the earth, which
At this time of the year begins to feel the kindly
warmth of the fpring ; fo that this fudden tranfition
from forrow to joy was an emblem of the viciffitude of
the feafons, which fucceeded one another.
The Romans took this feaft originally from the
Greeks, who called it q, d. afcenfus; the eve
of that day they fpent in tears and lamentations, and
thence denominated it defcenfus.
Afterwards, the Greeks took the name from
the Romans ; as appears from Photius, in his extradf
of the life of the philofopher Ifidore.
Cafaubon maintains, that befide this particular figni-
fication, the word hilaria was alfo a general name for
any joyful or feftival day, whether public or private
and domeftic. But Salmafius does not allow of this.
Triftan, tom. i. p. 482, diftinguifhes between hilaria
and hilariae. The former, according to him, were
public rejoicings; and the latter, prayers made in
confequence thereof; or even of any private feaft or
rejoicing, as a marriage, &c. The public lafted feve-
ral days; during which, all mourning and funeral ce*
remonies were fufpended.
HILARIUS, an ancient father of the Chriftiart
church, who flourilhed in the 4th century. He was
born, as St Jerome informs us, at Poi&iers, of a good
family ; who gave him a liberal education in the Pa¬
gan religion, and which he did not forfake till he
was arrived at maturity. He was advanced to the bi-
fliopric of Poidtiers in the year 355, according to Ba-
ronius ; and became a moft zealoiis champion for the
orthodox faith, particularly againft the Arians, who
were at that time gaining ground in France. He af-
fembled feveral councils there, in which the determi¬
nations of the fynods of Rimini and Seleucia were coni
demned. He wrote a treatife concerning fynods; and
a famous work in 12 books on the Trinity, which is
much admired by the orthodox believers. He died in
the latter end of the year 367. His works have been
many times publilhed ; but the laft and belt edition of
them was given by the Benedidtines at Paris in 1693.
HILAROlfl, in the ancient mufic and poetry, a
fort of poets among the Greeks, who went about Ring¬
ing little gay poems or fongs, fomewhat graver than
the Ionic pieces, accompanied with fome inftrument.
From the ftreets they were at laft introduced into
trAgedy, as the magodi were into comedy. They
appeared drefted in white, and were crowned with
gold. At firft they wore ftioes ; but afterwards they
affumed the crepida, being only a foie tied over with
« ftrap.
:e ] MIL
HILARY-term. See Term. Hilary
HILDESHEIM, a fmall diftridt of Germany, in ll
the circle of Lower Saxony. It lies between the du-
chies of Lunenburg and Brunfwick; and may be about v'““
25 miles from eaft to weft, and 36 from north to fouth.
It is watered by the rivers Leine .and Innerfty. The
foil is fertile ; and its principal places are Peine, Sar-
fted, Bruggen, and Alveld. Hildelheim, from whence
it takes its name, is governed as an imperial city. Its
bilhop is now' eledtor of Cologne.
Hildesheim, a ftrong city of Germany, in Lower
Saxony, with a Roman-catholic bilhop's fee, whofe
bilhop is fovereign. It is a free imperial city, tho’ in
fome things dependent on the bilhop. It is a large
town, well built and fortified. It is divided into the
Old Town and the New, which have each their fepa-
rate council. It is feated on the river Irneft, in E.
Long. 10. o. N. Lat. 52. 17.
HlLL, a term denoting any confiderable eminence
on the earth’s furface. It is fometimes fynonymous
with the word mountain ; though generally it denotes
only the leffer eminences, the word mountain being
particularly applied to the very largeft. See Moun¬
tain.
Hill (Aaron), a poet of confiderable eminence,
the fon of a gentleman of Malmefbury-abbey in Wilt-
Ihire, was born in 1685. His father’s imprudence having
cut off his paternal inheritance, he left Weftminfter
fchool at 14 years of age ; and embarked for Conftan-
tinople, to vifit lord Paget the Englilh ambaffador
there, who was his diftant relation. Lord Paget recei¬
ved him with furprize and pleafure, provided him a tu¬
tor, and fent him to travel s by which opportunity he
faw Egypt, Paleftine, and a great part of the eaft; and
returning home with his noble patron, vifited moft of
the courts of Europe. About the year 1709, he pub¬
lilhed his firft poem intitled (Camillus, in honour of
the earl of Peterborough who had been general in
Spain; and being the fame year made mailer of
Drury-lane theatre, he wrote his firft tragedy, Elfred, or
the fair Inconftant. In 1710, he became mailer of the
opera-houfe. in the Hay-market; when he wrote an
opera called Rinaldo, which met with great fuccefs, be¬
ing the firft that Mr Handel fet to mufic after he came
to England. Unfortunately for Mr Hill, he was a pro-
jeftor as well as poet, and in 1715 obtained a patent
for extracting oil from beech-nuts; which underta¬
king, whether good or bad, mifcarried after engaging
three years of his attention. He was alfo concerned in
the firft attempt to fettle the colony of Georgia; from
which he never reaped any advantage : and in 1728 he
made a journey into the Highlands of Scotland, on a
fcheme of applying the woods there to Ihip-building ;
in which alfo he loft his labour. Mr Hill feemsto have
lived in perfeCt harmony with all the writers of his time,
except Mr Pope, with whom he had a Ihort paper-war,
occafioned by that gentleman’s introducing him in
the Dunciad, as one of the competitors for the prize
offered by the goddefs of Dullnefs, in the following
lines:
« Then Hill eflay’d; fcarce ranifh’d out of fight,
“ He buoy?up inflant, and returns to light;
“ He bear- no token of the fabler ftreams,
“ And mounts far off among the Swans of Thames.”
This, though far the gentkft piece of fatire in the whole
poerii.
H I L
poem, and conveying at the fame time
J compliment, roufedMr Hid to take fome notice of it
which he did by a poem written during his peregrina¬
tion in the north, intitled, “ The progrefs of wit, a
caveat for the ufe of an eminent writer which he
begins with the following eight lint
[ 5” ] H I L
oblique to Chambers’s Dictionary. He at the fame time ftarted
the Britifh Magazine; and while he was engaged in a
great number of thefe and other works, fome of which
feemed to claim the continued attention of a whole "
life, he carried on a daily efi'ay, under the title of In-
Pope’s too well-known difpofitioii'is elegantly, yet very
feverely characterized :
“ .Tuneful Alexis on the Theme'’ fair fide,
“ The Tadies play-thing anti the Vtuies pride;
“ With merit popular, with wit polite,
“ iiafy tho’ vain, and elegant tho’ iip.ht;
1 “ Defiring and deferving others praife,
“ Poorly accepts a Fame he ne’er repays :
“ Unborn to cherifh, fneakiugly approves;
“ And waiyts the faul to fpread the worth he loves.”
The fneakingly approves, in the lalt couplet, Mr Pope
was much affeCted by; and indeed through their whole
was brought upon the ftage in Drury-lane by Mr Gar¬
rick. He died on the 8th of February 1749, as it
is faid, in the very minute of the earthquake ; and af¬
ter his deceafe four volumes of his works in profe and
verfe were publilhed in oCfavo, and his dramatic works
in two volumes.
Hn l (Sir John), a voluminous writer, was origi¬
nally bred an apothecary; but his marrying early, and
without a fortune, made him very foon look round for
other refources than his profeffion. Having, there¬
fore, in his apprenticefhip, attended the botanical lec¬
tures of the company, and being polfelTed of quick na¬
tural parts, he foon made himfelf acquainted with the
theoretical as well as pra&ical parts of botany: from
whence being recommended to the late duke of Rich¬
mond and lord Petre, he was by them employed in the
infpedfion and arrangement of their botanic gardens.
Aflided by the liberality of thefe noblemen, he exe
cuted a fcheme of travelling over the kingdom, to col¬
led the moft rare and uncommon plants; which he af¬
terward publifhed by fubfeription : but after great rer
fearchesand uncommon induftry, this undertaking turn¬
ed out by no means adequate to his expe&ation. The
ftage next prefented itftlf, as a . foil in which genius
might Hand a chance of flourirtung : but after two or the grandfon of Judas Hakkadofh, or the Saint, the
three unfuccefsful attempts, it was found he had no author of the Milhna, lived in the fourth century/ He
pretenfions either to the fock or bulkin ; which once  r"J “—r ' • • - -
more reduced him to his botanical purfuits, and his
compofed a cycle; and was one of the principal doc.
. , tors of the Gamara. The greateft number of the
bufinefs as an apothecary. At length, about the year Jewifh writers attribute to him the corred edition of
1746, he tranflated from the Greek, a fmall trad, writ¬
ten by Theophraftus, on Gems, which he publilhed by
fubfeription ; and which, being well executed, procured
him friends, reputation, and money. Encouraged by this,
he engaged in works of greater extsnt and importance.
The firft he undertook was A general natural hillory,
in 3 vols folio. He next engaged, in conjundion with
George Loewis Scott, Efq; in furnilhing a Supplement
the Hebrew text which bears the name of Hillel, which
we have already mentioned in the preceding article.
There have been feveral other Jewilh writers of the fame
name.
HILLIA, in botany : A genus of the monogynia.
order, belonging to the hexandria clafs of plants ; and- .
in the natural method ranking with thofe of which the
order is doubtful.. The.calyx is hexaphilkms; the co>
4 rolla...i
Hill
. ir. ’
which Mr JpeSor. Amidft this hurry of bulinefs, Mr Hill was
fo laborious and ready in all his undertakings, and was
withal fo exad an ceconomift of his time, that he fcarce-
ly ever miffed a public amufement for many years :
where, while he relaxed from the feverer purfuits of ftu-
dy, he gleaned up articles of information for his perio¬
dical works. It would not be eafy to trace Mr Hill,
now'Dr Hill (for he procured a diploma from the
college of St Andrew’s), through all his various pur¬
fuits in life. A quarrel he had with the Royal So¬
ciety, for being refufed as a member, which provoked
him to-ridicule that learned body, in A review of the
controverfy afterwards, in which it was generally works of the Royal Society of London, 410, 1751; to-
thought that Mr Hill had much the advantage, Mr gether with his over-wiiting himfelf upon all fubje&s
Pope feems rather to exprefs his repentance by denying - without referve; made him fink in the eftimation of the
the offence, than to vindicate himfelf fuppofing it to public nearly in the fame pace as he had afeended He
have been given. Befides the above poems, Mr Hill, found as ufual, however, refources in his own inven-
among many others, wrote one, called tion. He applied himfelf to the preparation of cer-
upon the actions of Czar Peter the Great; for which tain fimple medicines : fuch as the effence of water-
he was feveral years afterwards complimented with a dock, tin&ure of valerian, balfam of honey, &c. The
gold medal from the emprefs Catharine, according to well known fimplicity of thefe medicines made the
the Czar’s defire before his death. He likewife alter- public judge favourably of their effefts, infomuch that
ed fome of Shakefpeare’s plays, and tranflated fome of they had a rapid fale, and once more enabled the doc-
Voltaire’s. His lad produhiion was Merope ; which tor to figure ia that ftyle of life ever fo congenial to his
inclination. Soon after the publication of the firft of
thefe medicines, he obtained the patronage of the earl
of Bute, through whofe intereft he acquired the ma¬
nagement of the royal gardens at Kew, with an hand-
fome falary : and to wind up the whole of an extraor¬
dinary life, having, a little before his death, feized an
opportunity to introduce himfelf to the knowledge of
the king of Sweden, that monarch inverted him with
one of the orders of his court, which title he had not
the happinefs of enjoying above two years. He died
toward the clofe of the year 1775.
HILLEL, fenior, of Babylon, prefident of the
fanhedrim of Jerufalem. He formed a celebrated fchool
there, in which he maintained the oral traditions of the
Jews againft Shamai, his colleague, whofe difciples
adhered only to the written law ; and this controverfy
gave rife to the feftsof Pharifees and Scribes. He was
likewife one of the compilers of the Talmud. He alfo
laboured much at giving a correft edition of the fa-
cred text ; and there is attributed to him an ancient
manufeript bible, which bears his name. He flou-
rilhed about 39 years B. C, and died in a very advani
ced age.
Hillel, the nafi, or prince, another learned Jew,
H I L l 5'
TIilTfbo. rolla cleft in fix parts, and very long; the berry infe-
r[ori bilocular, and polyfpermous.
HinckJe HILLSBOROUGH, a borough, fair, and pofl-
. u‘^ ey‘ town, in the county of Down, and province of Ultter,
69 miles from Dublin. Here is a fine feat of the earl
of Hillfborough. The town is pleafantly fituated and
atmoft new built, in view of Lilburn, Belfaft, and Car-
rickfergus bay ; the church is magnificent, having an
elegant fpire, as lofty as that of St Patrick’s in Dub¬
lin, and feven painted windows. Here is an excel¬
lent inn, and a thriving manufacture of muflins. It
lias three fairs, and fends two members to parliament.
This place gives title of earl to the family of Hilif-
borough. N. Lat. 54. 30. W. Long. 6. 20.
H1LUM, among botanifts, denotes the eye of a
bean.
H1MERA (anc. geog.), the name of two rivers in
Sicily; one running northwards into the Tufcan fea,
now called Fiume di Termini; and the other fouthwards
into the Lybian ; dividing Sicily into two parts, be¬
ing the boundary between the Syracufans to the eaft
and Carthaginians to the weft; not rifing from the
fame, but from different fprings.
Himf.ra (anc. geog.), a town of Sicily, at the
mouth'of the Himera, which ran northwards, on its
left or weft fide: A colony of Zancle : afterwards de-
ftroyed by the Carthaginians (Diodorus Siculus).
HIMERENSES Thermal (anc. geog.), a town of
Sicily, on the eaft fide of that Himera which runs to
the north. After the deftrudfion of the town of Hi-
mera by the Carthaginians, fuch of the inhabitants as
remained, fettled in the fame territory, not far from
the ancient town. Now Termini. Made a Roman co¬
lony by Auguftus.
HIN, a Hebrew meafure of capacity for things li¬
quid, containing the fixth part of an ephah, or one
gallon two pints Englifti meafure.
HINCKLEY, a market-town of Leicefterfhire,
built on a rifing ground, nearly on the borders of Lei-
^ cefterfhire, from which it is feparated by the Roman
Watling-ftreet road. It is diftant from Coventry and
Leicefter 15 miles each, and 102 from London. It
has been much larger than it is at prefent, the back
lanes between the orchards having evidently been ftreets
originally, and the traces of the town-wall and ditch
are in many places yet vifible. There are veftiges of
two Roman works, viz. the mount near the river, and
the ruins of a bath near St Nicholas church, where
teffelated pavements have been dug up. The Jewery
wall is faid to have been the temple of Janus. The
caftle was inhabited by John of Gaunt; but is now no
more, the feite being converted into garden-ground,
the caftle-hill confiderably lowered, and a gentleman’s
houfe erefted on the fpot in 1 770. The fteeple of the
prefent church was built with feme of the ftones of
the caftle. The town is now divided into the borough,
and the bond without the liberties. It has a good
market on Mondays, and a fair in Auguft. The chief
manufacture is {lockings and fine ale. The town is
faid to contain about 750 houfes. There are two
churches, one chapel, and a place of worftiip for the
Roman Cathdlics, befides four meeting-houfes. The
church is a neat large old ftruCture with a modern
tower and a fpire, the body of it was built in the 13th
century, and near it are three mineral fprings. This
town is faid to be the middle and higheft ground in
N°153.
2 1 H I L
England ; and from it 50 churches may be feen, be- Hind
fides gentlemens feats. It received great damage by li
a fire Sept. 5. 1728. Hindoos.
HIND, a female flag in the third year of its age. —“’V”**
See Cervus.
HINDON, a fmall town of Wiltfhire in England,
which fends two members to parliament. It is fituated
in E. Long. 2. 14. N. Lat. 51. t2.
HINDOOS, or Gentoos, the inhabitants of that
part of India known by the name of Hindqftan or the
Mogul’s empire, who profefs the religion of the Bra-
mins, fuppofed to be the fame with that of the an¬
cient Gymnofophifts of Ethiopia.
From the earlieft period of hiftory thefe people feetn
to have maintained the fame religion, laws, and cuf-
toms, which they do at this day : ^md indeed they and
the Chinefe are examples of perfeverance in thefe re- x
fpefts altogether unknown in the weftern world. In Their div:-
the time of Diodorus Siculus they are faid to have ^ll)n'nto
been divided into feven calls or tribes; but the °C
courfe betwixt Europe and India was in his time fo
fmall, that we may well fnppofe the hiftprian to have
been miftaken, and that the fame tenacity for which
they are fo remarkable in other refpeCls has manifefted
itfelf alfo in this. At prefent they are divided only
into four tribes; 1. The Bramin; 2. The Khatry ;
3. The Bhyfe ; and, 4, The Soodera. All thefe have
diftind and feparate offices; and cannot, according to
their laws, intermingle with each other ; but for cer¬
tain offences they are fubjefl to the lofs of their caft,
which is reckoned the higheft punifhment they can
fuffer ; and hence is formed a kind of fifth caft named
Parian on the coaft of Coromandel, but in the Shan-
ferit or facred language Chandalas. Thefe are efteem-
ed the dregs of the people, and are never employed
but in the meaneft offices. There is befides a general
divifion which pervades the four calls indiferiminately;
and which is taken from the worlhip of their gods
Yifhnou and Sheevah ; the worfhippers of the former
being named Vilhnou-bukht; of the latter, Shecvab-
luhht.
Of thefe four cafts the bramins are accounted the
foremoft in every refpeit; and all the laws have fuch
an evident partiality towards them, as cannot but in¬
duce us to fuppofe that they have had the principal
hand in framing them. They are not, however, al¬
lowed to affume the fovereignty ; the religious cere¬
monies and the inftru&ion of the people being their
peculiar province. They alone are allowed to read the
Veda or facred books ; the Khatries, or caft next in
dignity, being only allowed to hear them read; while
the other two can pnly read the Sajlras or comrlienta- .
ries upon them. As for the poor Chandalas, they
dare not enter a temple, or be prefent af any religious
ceremony.
In point of precedency the bramins claim a fupe-
riority even to the princes; the latter being chofen
out of the Khatry or fecond caft. A rajah will receive
with refpeft the food that is prepared by a brahman,
but the latter will eat nothing that has been prepared
by any member of an inferior caft. The puniftiment
of a bramin for any crime is much milder than if he
had belonged to another tribe; and the greateft crime
that can be committed is the murder of a bramin.
No magiftrate muft defire the death of one of thefe fa¬
cred perfons, or cut off one of his limbs. They muft
H I N r 5
uifciindoos. be readily admitted into the prefence even of princes
"-“nr—~ whenever they pleafe: when paffengers in a boat, they
muft be the firft to enter and to go out; and the wa¬
terman muft befides carry them for nothing; every
one who meets them on the road being likewife obli¬
ged to give place to them.
All the priefts are chofen from among this order,
fuch as are not admitted to the facerdotal fun&ion be¬
ing employed as fecretaries and accountants. Thefe
can never afterwards become priefts* but continue to
be greatly reverenced by the other cafts.
The Khatry or fecctfid call are thofe from among
whom the fovereigns are chofen.—The Bhyfe or Ba¬
nians, who conftitute the third call, have the charge
of commercial affairs ; and the Soodera, or fourth call,
the molt numerous of all, comprehend the labourers
and artifans. Thefe laft are divided into as many
claffes as there are followers of different arts; all the
children being invariably brought up to the profelfion
of their fathers, and it being abfolutely unlawful for
them ever" to alter it afterwards.
No Hindoo is allowed to quit the call in which he
W’as born upon any account. All of them are very
fcrupulous with regard to their diet; but the bra-
mins much more fo than any of the reft. They eat
no flelh, nor Ihed blood ; which we are informed by
Porphyry and Clemens Alexandrinus was the cafe
in their time. Their ordinary food is rice and other
vegetables, dreffed with ghee (a kind of butter melted
and refined fo as to be capable of being kept for a long
time), and feafoned with ginger and other fpices.
The food which they moft efteem, however, is milk
as coming from the cow ; an animal for which they
have the moft extravagant veneration, infomuch that
it is enadled in the code of Gentoo laws, that any one
who exa&s labour from a bullock that is hungry or
thirfty, or that (hall oblige him to labour when fa¬
tigued or out of feafon, is liable to be fined by the ma-
giftrates. The other cafts, though lefs rigid, abftain
very religioufly from what is forbidden them; nor will
they eat any thing provided by a perfon of an inferior
call, or by one of a different religion. Though they
may eat fome kinds of flelh and filh, yet it is counted a
virtue to abftain from them all. None of them are al¬
lowed to tafte intoxicating liquor of any kind. Quin¬
tus Curtins indeed mentions a fort of wine made uie of
by the Indians in his time; but this is fuppofed to have
been no other than toddy, or the unfermented juice of
the cocoa nut. This when fermented affords a fpirit
of a very unwholefome quality; but it is drunk only by
the Chandalas and the lower clafs of Europeans in the
country. So exceedingly bigotted and fuperftitious
are they in their abfurd maxims with regard to meat
and drink, that fome Seapoys in a Britifli fhip having
expended all the water appropriated to their ufe,
would have fuffered themfelves to perilh for thirft ra¬
ther than tafte a drop of that which was ufed by the
(hip’s company.
«f the reft. T*16 religion of the Hindoos, by which thefe maxims
jjion of the are inculcated, and by which they are made to differ fo
Hindoos, much from other nations, is contained in certain books
named Veda, Vedams, or Beds, written in a language
called Shanfcrit, which is now known only to the learn¬
ed among them. The books are fuppofed to have
been the work not of the fupreme God himfelf, but of
Voi. VIII. Part II,
13 1 H I N
an inferior deity named Biimha. They inform us, that Hindoos.
Brama,or Brahma, the fupreme God,having created the "ll<‘
world by the word of his mouth, formed a female dei¬
ty named Bawaney, who in an enthufiafm of joy and
praife brought forth three eggs. From thefe were
produced three male deities, named Brimha, Vijhnou,
and Sheevah. Brimha was endowed with the power
of creating the things of this world, Vilhnou with
that of cherilhing them, and Sheevah with that of re-
ftraining and corredling them. Thus Brimha became
the creator of man ; and in this character he formed
the four cafts from different parts of his own body,
the Bramins from his mouth, the Khatry from his
arms, the Banians from his belly and thighs, and the
Soodera from his feet. Hence, fay they, thefe four
different cafts derive the different offices alfigned them;
the Bramins to teach; the Khatry to defend and go¬
vern ; the Banians to enrich by commerce and agri¬
culture ; and the Soodera to labour, ferve, and obey.
Brama himfelf endowed mankind with paffions, and un-
derftanding to regulate them; while Biimha, having
created the inferior beings, proceeded to write the
Vedams, and delivered them to be read and explained
by the bramins.
The religion of the Hindoos, though involved in fu-
perftition and idolatry, feems to be originally pure;
inculcating the belief of an eternal and omnipotent Be¬
ing ; their fubordinate deities Brimha, Vilhnou, and
Sheevah, being only reprefentatives of the wifdom,
goodnefs, and power, of the fupreme God Brama.
All created things they fuppofe to be types of the at¬
tributes of Brama, whom they call the principle of truth,
the fpirit of tuifdom, and the fupreme being ; fo that it is
probable that all their idols were at firit only defigned
to reprefent thefe attributes. 3
There are a variety of fedts among the Hindoos: Different
two great claffes we have mentioned already, vi%. the *
worlhippers of Vilhnou and thofe of Sheevah ; and
thefe diftingiiilh themfelves, the former by painting
their faces with an horizontal line, the latter by a per¬
pendicular one. There is, however, very little diffe¬
rence in point of religion between thefe or any other
Hindoo fedts. All of them believe in the immortality
of the foul, a ftate of future rewards and punilhments,
and tranfmigration. Charity and hofpitality are in¬
culcated in the ftrongeft manner, and exift among them
not only in theory but in pradlice. “ Hofpitality
(fay they) is commanded to be exercifed even towards
an enemy, when he cometh into thine houfe; the tree
doth not withdraw its lhade even from the wood-cut¬
ter. Good men extend their charity even to the vilelt
animals. The moon doth not with-hold her light even
from the Chandala.” Thefe pure dodtrines, however,
are intermixed with fome of the vileft and moft abfurd
fuperftitions; and along with the true God they wor-
Ihip a number of inferior ones, of whom the principal
are:
1. Bawaney, the mother of the gods, already men- Account of
tioned, and fuperior to all but Brama himfelf; but all their'prim
the other goddeffes are reckoned inferior to their gods cipal dei-
or lords. 1 ties.
2. Brimha, in the Shanfcrit language faid to mean
“ the wifdom of God ;” and who is fupofed to fly on
the wings of the hanfe or flamingo ; an image of which
is conftantly kept near that of the god in the ternpie
3 S where
H I. N [ 5'
f-fx: dnoj. where he is worfhipped. He has a crown on his head,
‘“““'V—' and is reprefented with four hands. In one of thefe
he holds a fceptre, in another the facred books or Ve-
dam, in the third a, ring or circle as the' emblem of
eternity, fuppofed to be employed in affifting and pro¬
tecting his works.
3. Serafwdtej, the goddefs or wife of Brimha, pre-
fides oyer mufic, harmony, eloquence, and invention.
She is alfo faid to be the inventrefs of the letters called
Devanagry, by which the divine will was firlt promul¬
gated among mankind. In the argument of an hymn
addrefled to this goddefs, (he is fuppofed to have a
number of inferior deities acting in fubordination to
her. Thefe are called Rags, and prefide over each
mode, and likewife over each of the feafons. Thefe
feafons in Hindoftan are fix in number; nsix. 1. The
Seefar, or dewy feafon. 2. Heemat, or the cold fea-
fon. 3. Vafant, the mild feafon or fpring. 4. Grefsb-
ma, or the hot feafon. 5. Varfa, the rainy feafon.
6. Saraty the breaking up or end of the rains.
The Rags, in their mufic.al capacity, are accompa¬
nied each with five Ragnies, a kind of female deities or
nymphs of harmony. Each of thefe has eight fons or
genii; and a diftinCt feafon is appointed for the mufic
of each rag, during which only it can be fung or play¬
ed ; and this at diftinCt and Hated hours of the day or
night. A feventh mode of mufic belonging to Deipec,
or Cupid the inflamer, is faid once to have exifted, but
now to be loft ; and a mufician, who attempted to re-
ftore it, to have been confumed with fire from heaven.
4. Vifhnou, the moft celebrated of all the Indian
deities, is fuppofed to fly or ride on the garoora, a
kind of large brown kite, which is found in plenty in
the neighbourhood; and on which Viflinou is fome-
times reprefented as fitting; though at others he is
reprefented on a ferpent with a great number of diffe¬
rent heads. At fome of his temples the bramins
accuftom all the birds they can find, of the fpecies
above mentioned, to come and be fed; calling them
by linking upon a brafs plate. This deity is faid to
have had ten different incarnations to deftroy the giants
with which the earth was infefted; and in thefe he is
reprefented in as many different figures, all of which
are to the laft degree fantaftic and monftrous. His
common form is that of a man with four hands, and a
number of heads fet round in a circle, fuppofed to be
jpmblems of omnifcience and omnipotence. In his firft
incarnation he is reprefented as coming out of the
mouth of a fifh, with feveral hands containing fwords,
&c. In another he has the head of a boar with mon¬
ftrous tulks, bearing a city in the air, and Hands upon
a vanquilhed giant with horns on his head. In others
of his incarnations, he has the head of a horfe or other
animals, with a'great number of arms brandilhing
fwords, &c.
In fome parts of his chara&er this deity is repre¬
fented not as a deHroyer, but a preferver of mankind ;
and he is then diftinguilhed by the name of Hary.
Bilhop Wilkins defcribes an image of him in this cha
rafter at a place namedj/^^aw-yae;^, a fmall rocky illand
of the Ganges in theprovince of Bahar. This image is
of a gigantic fize, recumbent on a coiled ferpent,
whofe numerous heads are twifled by the artift into a
. kind of canopy over the fleeping god, and from each
4 ] H I N
of its mduths iffues a forked tongue, as threatening Hindoos
deftfuftion to thofe who Ihould dare to approach. —v—
5. Sheevah is reprefented under a human form,
though frequently varied, as is alfo his name ; but he
is moft frequently called Sbeevah and Mahackg. In
his deftroying charafter he is reprefented as a man
with a fierce look, with a fnake twilled round his
neck. He is thought to prelide over good and evil
fortune, in token of which he is- reprefented with a
crefcent on his head. He rides upon an ox.
6. Vikrama, the god of viftory, is faid to have had
a particular kind of facrifice offered to him, fomewhat
like the fcape-goat of the Jews, vise,, by letting a horfe
loofe in the forelt, and not employing him again.
7. Tam Rajah, or Darham Rajah, is reprefented as
the judge of the dead, and ruler of the infernal regions,
in a manner fimilar to the Minos and Pluto of the an¬
cient Greeks. He is the fon of Sour, “ the fun,” by
Bifookama daughter of the great architeft of the hea¬
venly manfions, and patron of artificers. He rides
upon a buffalo, with a fceptre in. his hand, having tw«
alliftants, Chiter and Gopt; the former of whom re¬
ports the good, and the latter the bad aftions of men.
Thefe are attended by two genii, who watch every in¬
dividual of the human race ; Chitev’s fpy being on
the right, and Gopt’s on the left. The fouls of
deceafed perfons are carried by the jfamhonts or mef-
fengers of death into the prefence of Darham, where
his aftions are inftantly proclaimed, and fentence paf-
fed accordingly. The infernal manfions are named by
the Hindoos Narekha, and are divided into a great
number of places, according to the degrees of puniftv-
ment to be endured by the criminal; but eternal pu-
nilhment for any offence is fuppofed to be inconfiftent
with the goodnefs of God. Inftead of this, the Hin¬
doos fuppofe, that after the fouls of the wicked have
been puniftied long enough in Narekha, they are fent
back into the world to animate other bodies either of
men or beafts, according to circumftances. Thofe
who have lived a life partly good and partly bad, are
likewife fent back to this world ; and thefe trials and
tranfmigrations are repeated till they be thoroughly
purged of all inclination to fin. But as for thofe holy
men who have fpent their lives in piety and devotion,
they are inftantly conveyed by the genii to the man¬
fions of celeftial blifs, where they are abforbed into the
univerfal fpirit; a ftate according to every idea we
can form equivalent to annihilation !
8. Krijhen and the nine Gopia, among the Hindoos,
conefpond with Apollo and the nine mufes of the
Greeks. This deity is reprefented as a young man
fometimes playing on a flute. He has a variety of
names, and is fuppofed to be. of a very amorous com¬
plexion, having once refided in a diftrift named Birge,
where he embraced almoft all the women in the coun¬
try. From his refidence here, Or from thefe amorous
exploits, he is fometimes called Birge-put.
9. Kamee-deva, the god of love, is faid to be the fon
of Maya, or the general attraftive power; married t®
Re tty, or Affection. He is reprefented as a beautiful
youth, fometimes converfing with his mother or con-
fort in his temples or gardens; at other times riding
on a parrot by moonlight: And Mr Forfter informs us,
that on the taking of Tanjore by the Englilh, a cu¬
rious
Hi: dons.
H 1 N f 515 ] H I N
rious pifture was found, reprefenting him riding on cafe among the weftern heathens. By nature thefe Hindoos,
an elephant, the body of which was compofed of feven demigods are fubjeft to death, but are fuppofed to
young women twifted together in fuch a manner as to obtain immortality by the ufe of a certain drink named
reprefent that enormous animal. This is fuppofed to Amrut. Their exploits in many inftances refemble
be a device of a fimilar nature with that of the Greeks, thofe of Bacchus, Hercules, Thefetts, &c. and in a
who placed their Eros upon a lion; thus intimating, beautiful epic poem named Rancyan, we have an ac-
that love is capable of taming the fierceft of animals, count of the wars of Rain, one of the demigods, with
The bow of this deity is faid to be of fugar cane or Ravana tyrant of Ceylon. ^
offlowers, and the firing of bees ; he has five arrows, All thefe deities are worfhipped, as In other coun- Manner of
each of them tipped with an Indian bloffom of an tries, by going to their temples, falling, prayers, and worfhip,
heating nature. His enfign is a fifh on a red ground, the performance of ceremonies to their honour. They
carried by the foremofl of his attendant nymphs or pray thrice a day, at morning, noon, and evening,
dancing girls. turning their faces towards the call. They ufe many
10. Lingam, correfponding to the Priapus or Phal- ablutions, and, like the Pharifees of old, they always
lus of the ancients, is worfhipped by the Hindoos in wafh before me^ls. Running water is always preferred
order to obtain fecundity. This deity is adored the for this purpofe to fuch as flagnates. Fruits, flowers,
more fervently, as they depend on their children for incenfe, and money, are offered in facrifice- to their
performing certain ceremonies to their manes, which idols ; but for the dead they offer a kind of cake na-
they imagine will mitigate their punifhment in the med Peenda; and offerings of this kind always take
next world. The devotees of the god go naked, but place on the day of the full moon. Nothing fangui-
are fuppofed to b'e fuch fanftified perfons, that women nary is known in the worfhip of the Hindoos at pre¬
may approach them without any danger. They vow fent, though there is a tradition that it was formerly
perpetual chaflity; and death is the confequence of a of this kind; nay, that even human facrifices were
breach of their vow. Hufbands whofe wives are bar- made ufe of: but if fuch a cuftonft ever did exifl, it
rcn invite them to their houfes, where certain cere- mufl have been at a very diflant period. Their facred
monies, generally thought to be effedtual, are per- writings indeed make mention of bloody facrifices of
formed. various kinds, not excepting even thofe of the human
Befides thefe, there are a number of qjher gods race: but fo many peculiarities are mentioned with
whole charafter is lefs eminent, though we are by no regard to the proper vi&ims, that it is almofl impof-
means acquainted, nor are the Hindoos themfelves fible to find them. The only inflance of bloody facri-
perhaps, with the particular rank which each deity fices we find on record among the Hindoos is that of
carries with refpedl to another. Some of thefe dei- the buffalo to Bawaney, the mother of the gods,
ties are, u. Nared, the fon of Brimha, and inventor Among the Hindoos there are two kinds of wor-
of a fretted inftrument named Vene. 12. Lechemy, fhip, diilinguifhed by the name of the worfhip of the
the goddefs of plenty, and wife of Vifhnou. 13. Gow- invflble God and of idols. The worfhippers of the in-
ry, Kaly, from Kula “ time the wife of Sheevah, vifible God are, flridlly fpeaking, deifls : the idolaters
and goddefs of deflruftion. 14. Varoona, the god of perform many abfurd and unmeaning ceremonies, too
the feas and waters, riding on a crocodile. i$.Vayoo, tedious to mention, all of. which are conduced by a
the god of the winds, riding on an antelope with a bramin ; and during the performance of thefe rites,
fabre in his hand. 16. Agnee, the god of fire, riding the dancing women occafionally perform in the court,
on a ram. 1 7. Vafoodka, a goddefs reprefenting the finging the praJfes of the Deity in concert with various
earth. 18. Pakreety, or nature, reprefented by a beau- inflruments. All the Hindoos feem to worfhip the
tiful young woman. 19. Sour or Shan, the fun ; call- fire; at lead they certainly pay a great veneration to
cd alfo the king of the liars and planets, reprefented it. ' Bifhop Wilkins informs us, that they are enjoined
as fitting in a chariot drawn by one horfe, fometimes to light up a fire at certain times, which mufl be pro-
with feven and fometimes with twelve heads. 20. duced by the fri&ion of two pieces of wood of a par-
Sangia, the mother of the river Jumna, and wife of the ticular kind ; and the fire thus produced is made ufe
fun. 21. Chandava, the moon, in a chariot drawn by of for confuming their facrifices, burning the dead, and
antelopes, and holding a rabbit in her right hand, in the ceremonies of marriage.
27. Vreekaflpaty, the god of learning, attended by b.eau- Great numbers of devotees are to be met with every
tifu} young nymphs named Veedyadhares, or proftffors where through Hindoflan. Every call is allowed tovotees. ^
of fcience. 23. Ganes, the god of prudence and poli- affume this way of life excepting, the Chandalahs, who
cy, worfhipped before the undertaking of any thing of are excluded. Thofe held mofl in elteem are named
confequence. 24. Fame, reprefented by a ferpent with Seniafles and Joge^s. The former are allowed no other
a great number of tongues; and known by feveral clothing but what fuffices for covering their nakednefs,
names. 25. Darma dema, the god of virtue, fome- nor have they any worldly goods befides a pitcher and
times reprefented, by a white bull 26. Virflavana or flaff; but though they are ftri&ly enjoined to medi-
Cobhqir, the god of riches, reprefented by a man riding late on the truths contained in the facred writings,
on a white horfe. 27. Dban.wantary, the god of me- they are exprefsly forbiden to argue about them. They
dicine. mull eat but once a day, and that very fparingly, of
Their de- Btfides thefe fupreme deities, the blindoos have a rice or other vegetables; they muft alfo fhow the mofl
snigods. number of demigods, who are fuppofed to inhabit the perfedl indifference about hunger, thirfl, heat, cold,
air, the earth, and the waters, and in fliort the whole or any thing whatever relative to this world ; looking
world ; fo that every mountain, river, wood, town, forward with continual defire to the feparation of the
village, &c. has one of thefe tutelar deities, as was the foul from the body. Should any of them fail in this
3 S 2 ex-
H 1 N [ 516 ] H I N
Hindow. extravagant felf-denial, he is rendered fo much more but, on 4he contrary, the intended huiband makes a Hindoos, s
criminal by the attempt, as he neglefted the duties of prefenttothe father of his bride. Neverthelefs, in many —v—^
ordinary life for thofe of another which he was not cafes, a rich man will choofe a poor relation for his
able to accompliih. The Yogeys are bound to much daughter ; in which cafe the bride’s father is at the ex-
the fame rules, and both fubjedd themfelves to the pence of the wedding, receives his fon-in-law into his
moft extravagant penances. Some will keep their houfe, or gives him a part of his fortune. The bride-
arms conftantly ftretched over their heads till they groom then quits the dwelling of his parents with cer-
become quite withered and incapable of motion ; tain ceremonies, aad lives with his father- in-law. Many
others keep them croffed over their bread during life ; formalities take place between the parties even after the
while others, by keeping their hands conftantly ftuit, match is fully agreed upon ; and the celebration of the
have them quite pierced through by the growth of marriage is attended with much expence; magnificent
their nails. Some chain themfelves to trees or parti- procefiions are made, the bride and bridegroom fitting
cular fpots of ground, which they never quit; others in the fame palankeen, attended by their friends and re-
refolve never to lie down, but fleep leaning againft a lations; fome riding in palankeens, fome on horfes, and
tree : but the moft curious penance perhaps on record others on elephants. So great is their vanity indeed'
is that of a Yogey, who meafured the diftance between on this occafion, that they will borrow or hire numbers
Benares and Jaggernaut with the length of his body, of thefe expenfive animals to do honour to the cere-
lying down and riling alternately. Many of thefe en- mony. The rejoicings laft feveral days ; during the
thufiafts will throw themfelves in the way of the cha- evenings of which, fire works and illuminations are dif-
liots of Vilhnou or Sheevah, which are fometimes
brought forth in proceffion to celebrate the feaft of a
temple, and drawn by feveral hundreds of men. Thus
the wretched devotees are in an inftant crufhed to
pieces. Others devote themfelves to the flames, in
order to (how thtir regard to fome of their idols, or
to appeafe the wrath of one whom they fuppofe to be
offended.
A certain fet of devotees are named Pandarams; and
another on the coaft of Coromandel are named Cary-
Patra Pandarams. The former rub themfelves all over
with cow-dung, running about the country finging
the praifes of the god Sheevah whom they worfhip.
The latter go about afleing charity at doors by ftriking
their hands together, for they never fpeak. They
accept of nothing but rice; and when they have got as
much as will fatisfy their hunger, never give them¬
felves any trouble about more, but pafs the reft of
the day in the (hade, in a ftate of fuch fupine indo¬
lence as fcarce to look at any objeft whatever. The
Tadinums are another fet of mendicants, who fing the
incarnations of Vifhnou. They have hollow brafs rings
round their ancles, which they fill with pebbles ^ fo
that they make a confiderable noife as they walk; they
8 beat likewife a kind of tabor.
Wtldnefs of greateft Angularity in the Hindoo religion,
the Hindoo however, is, that fo far from perfecuting thofe of a
religion contrary perfuafion, which is too often the cafe with
other profeffors, they abfolutely refufe even to admit
of a profelyte. They believe all religions to be equally
acceptable to the Supreme Being; afligning as a rea-
fon, that if the Author of the univerfe preferred one
to another, it would have been impoffible for any other
to have prevailed than that which he approved. Every
religion, therefore, they conclude to be adapted to the
country where it is eftablilhed; and that all in their
9 original purity are equally acceptable.
’Their mar- Among the Hindoos, marriage is confidered as a
r^ges. religious duty ; and parents are ftri&ly commanded to
marry their children by the time they arrive at eleven
years of age at fartheft. Polygamy is allowed ; but
this licence is feldom made ufe of, unlefs there (hould
be no children by the firft wife. In cafe the fecond
wife alfo proves barren, they commonly adopt a fon
from among their relations.
The Hindoos receive no dower with their wives j
played, and dancing women perform their feats ; the
whole concluding with alms to the poor, and prefents
to the bramins and principal guefts, generally confid¬
ing of lhawls, pieces of muflin, and other cloths. A
number of other ceremonies are performed when the
parties come of age, and are allowed to cohabit toge¬
ther. The fame are repeated when the young wife be¬
comes pregnant; when (he paffes the feventh month
without any accident; and when The is delivered of her
child. The relations affemble on the tenth day after
the birth, to affift at the ceremony of naming the child;
but if the bramins be of opinion that the afpedl of
the planets is at that time unfavourable, the ceremony
is delayed, and prayers offered up to avert the misfor¬
tune. When the lucky moment is difeovered, they fill
as many pots with water as there are planets, and offer
a facrifice to them ; afterwards they fprinkle the head
of the child with water, and the bramin gives it fuch
a name as he thinks beft adapted to the time and cir-
cumftances; and the ceremony concludes with prayers,
prefents to the bramins, and alms to- the poor. Mo¬
thers are obliged to fuckle their own children; nor can
this duty be difpenfed with except in cafe of ficknefs.
New ceremonies, with prefents to the bramins, take
place, when a boy comes of age to receive the ftring
which the three nrft cafts wear round their waift. J0
Boys are taught to read and write by the braminSj-e^ucation
who keep fchools for that purpofe throughout the coun- of childr«n«
try. They ufe leaves inftead of books, and write with
a pointed iron inftrument. The leaves are generally
thofe of the palm-tree, which being fmooth and hard,
and having a thick fubftance, may be kept for almoft
any length of time, and the letters are not fubjeft to
grow faint or be effaced. The leaves are cut into (lips
about an inch broad, and their books confift of a num¬
ber of thefe tied together by means of a hole in one
end. Sometimes the letters are rubbed over with a
black powder, to render them more legible. When
they write upon paper, they make ufe of a fmall reed.
Sometimes they are initiated in writing by making
letters upon fand ftrewed on the floor; and they are
taught arithmetic by means of a number of fmall peb«
bles. The education of the girls is much more limited;
feldom extending farther than the articles of their re¬
ligion.
Among thefe people the cuftom of burning the dead
prevails
H I N [ 517
Hindoos, prevails univerfally; and the horrid practice of wives
burning themfelves along with their deceafed hulbands
was formerly very common, though now much lefs fo.
euftom°of Pre^ent it i® totally prohibited in the Britilh domi-
women nions; and even the Mohammedans endeavour to dif-
burning countenance a practice fo barbarous, though many of
themfelves. their governors are accufed of conniving at it through
motives of avarice. At preient it is moft common in
the country of the Rajahs, and among women of high
rank.
This piece of barbarity is not enjoined by any law
exifting among the Hindoos; it is only faid to be pro¬
per, and rewards are promifed in the next world to thofe
who do fo. But though a wife choofes to outlive her
hufband, (he is in no cafe whatever permitted to marry
again, even though the marriage with the former had
never been completed. It is unlawful for a woman to
burn herfelf if Ihe be with child at the time of her huf-
band’s deceafe, or if he died at a diftance from her. In
the latter cafe, however, fhe may do fo if (he can pro¬
cure his girdle or turban to be put on tht funeral pile
along with her. Thefe miferable enthufiafts, who de¬
vote themfelves to this dreadful death, fuffer with the
greateft conftaney ; and Mr Holwel gives an account
of one who, being told of the pain fire mud fuffer
(with aview to diffuade her),'put her finger into the fire
and kept it there for a confiderable time ; after which
fhe put fire on the palm of her hand, with incenfe up¬
on it, and fumigated the bramins who were prefent.
Sometimes a chapel is eredfed on the place where one
of thofe facrifices has been performed ; fometimes it is
inclofed, flowers planted upon it, and images fet up.—
In fome few places the Hindoos bury their dead; and
fome women have been known to fuffer themfelves to
be buried alive with their deceafed hufbands : but the
inftances of this are dill more rare than thofe of burn¬
ing.—No woman is allowed any inheritance among
the Hindoos; fo that if a man dies without male iffue,
his edate goes to his adopted fon or to his neared re¬
lation.
l4 The Hindoos, though naturally mild and timid, will
th fiances of on many occafions meet death with the mod heroic in-
Heroifm a- trepidity. An Hindoo who lies at the point of death,
Hindoos6 w‘^ ta^ °f his deceafe with the utmod compofure ;
and if near the river Ganges, will defire to be carried
out, that he may expire on its banks. Such is the ex-
ceffive veneration they have for their religion and cu-
dorns, that no perfon will infringe them even to pre-
ferve his own life. An Hindoo, we are told, being ill
of a putrid fever, was prevailed upon to fend for an Eu¬
ropean phyiician, who prefcribed him the bark in wine;
but this was refufed with the greated obdinacy even
to the very lad, though the governor himfelf joined in
his felicitations, and in other matters had a confiderable
influence over him. In many indances thefe people,
both in ancient and modern times, have been known,
when clofely befieged by an enemy whom they could
not refib, to kill their wives and children, fet fire to
their houfes, and then violently ruflr upon their adver-
faries till every one was dedroyed. In the late war,
fome Seapoys in the Britidi fervice, having been con¬
cerned in a mutiny, were condemned to be blown away
from the mouths of cannon. Some grenadiers cried
out* that as they had all along had the pod of honour,
they faw no reafon why they fliould be denied it now;
] H I N
and therefore defired that they might be blown away Hindoos,
firft. This being granted, they walked forward to the v—
guns with compofure, begged that they might be fpa-
red the indignityof being tied, and, placing their breads
clofe to the muzzles, were (hot away. The com¬
manding officer was fo much affe&ed with this in-
ftance of heroifm, that he pardoned all the red. t j
In ordinary life the Hindoos are cheerful and lively; Their gene-
fond of converfation and amufements, particularly dan- ral charac-
cing. They do not, however, learn or pra&ife dancingter'
themfelves, but have women taught for the purpofe; and
in beholding thefe they will fpend whole nights. They
difapprove of many parts of the education of European
ladies, as fuppofing that they engage the attention too
much, and draw away a woman’s affe&ion from her
hufband and children. Hence there are few women in
Hindodan who can either read or write. In general
they are finely fhaped, gentle in their manners, and have
foft and even mufical voices. The women of Kafhmere,
according to Mr Forder, have a bright olive comple¬
xion, fine features, and delicate drape ; a pleafing free¬
dom in their manners, without any tendency to immo-
deby. 14
The drefs of the moded women in Hindodan con- Hrefsofthfl
fids of a clofe jacket, which covers their breads, but women'
perfeftly (hows their form. The fleeves are tight, and
reach half way to the elbows, with a narrow border
painted or embroidered all round the edges. Indead
of a petticoat, they have a piece of white cotton cloth
wrapped round the loins, and reaching near the ancle
on the one fide, but not quite fo low on the other. A
wide piece of muffin is thrown over the right fhoulder;
which, paffing under the left arm, is eroded round the
middle, tfnd hangs down to the feet. The hair is ufu-
ally rolled up into a knot or bunch towards the back
part of the head; and fome have curls hanging before
and behind the ears. They wear bracelets on their
arms, rings in their ears, and on their fingers, toes
and ancles; with fometimes a fmall one in their no-
dril.
The drefs of the dancing women, who are likewife
votaries of Venus, is very various. Sometimes they
wear a jama, or long robe of wrought muflin, or gold
and filver tiflue ; the hair plaited and hanging down be¬
hind, with fpiral curls on each fide of the face. They
are taught every accomplifhment which can be fuppo-
fed to captivate the other fex ; form a clafs entirely dif¬
ferent from the red of the people, and live by their own
rules. Their clothes, jewels, and lodging, are confider-
ed as implements of their trade, and mud be allowed
them in cafes of confifeation for debt: They may drink
fpirituous liquors, and eat any kind of meat except
beef: Their dances are faid to refemble pretty exactly
thofe of the ancient Bacchanalians reprefented in fome
of the ancient paintings and has reliefs. In fome of
their dances they attach gold and filver bells to the
rings of the fame metals they wear on their ancles.
The men generally /have their heads and beards, Drefs ofthe
leaving only a pair of fmall whifkers and a lock on the me».
back part of their head, which they take great care to
preferve. In Kaffimerc and fome other places, they let
their beards grow to the length of two inches. They
wear turbans on their heads ; but the bramins who
officiate in the temples commonly go with their heads
uncovered, and the upper part of the body naked:
round;
H I N Is
Hl: i loos, roatui their flioulder they hang the {acred firing called
Zentiar, made of a kind of perennial cotton, and com-
pofed of a certain number of threads of a determined
length. The Khatries wear alfo a firing of this kind,
but compofed of fewer threads ; the Bhyfe have one
with ftill fewer threads, but the Sooderas are not al¬
lowed to wear any firing. The other drefs of the bra-
mins conlifl of a piece of white cotton cloth wrapped
about the loins, defcending below the knee, but lower
on the left than on the right fide. In cold weather
they fometimes put a red cap on their heads, and-wrap
a fhawl round their bodies.—The Khatries, and mod
, other of the inhabitants of this country, wear alfo pie¬
ces of cotton cloth wrapped round them, but which co¬
ver the upper as well as the lower part of the body.
Tar rings and bracelets are wotn by the men as well as
women ; and they are fond of ornamenting themfelves
with diamonds, rubies, and other precious llones, when
they can procure them. They wear flippers on their
feet of fine woollen cloth or velvet, frequently embroi¬
dered with gold and filver; thofe of princes being fome¬
times adorned with precious flones. The lower clafles
wear fandals or flippers of eoarfe woollen cloth or lea¬
ther. Thefe flippers are always put off on going into
any apartment, being left at the door, or given to an
attendant; neverthelefs the Hindoos make no com¬
plaints of the Europeans for not putting off their flioes
when they come into their houfes, which muft certainly
appear very uncouth to them.
Hindoo families are always governed by the eldeft
male, to whom great refpedt is fhown. Filial venera¬
tion is carried to fuph an height among them, that a
fon will not fit down in the prefence of his father until
ordered to do fo : and Mr Forfler obferves, that during
the whole time of his refidence in India, he never faw
a diredl inflance of undutifulnefs to parents; and the
16 fame is related by other writers.
Their hou- The houfes of the Hindoos make a worfe appearance
fes- than could be fuppofed from their ingenuity in other
refpe&s. In the fouthern parts of the country, the
houfes are only of one flory. On each fide of .the door,
towards the flreet, is a narrow gallery covered by the
Hope of the roof which projects over it, and which, as
far as the gallery extends, is fupported by pillars of
brick or wood. The floor of this gallery is raifed about
30 inches above the level of the ilreet, and the porters,
or bearers of palankeens, with the foot-foldiers named
Peons, who commonlyvhire themfelves to noblemen, of¬
ten lie down in this place. This entrance leads into a
court, which is alfo furrounded by a gallery like the for¬
mer. On one fide of the court is a large room, on a
level with the floor of the gallery ; open in front, and
fpread with mats and carpets covered with white cotton
cloth, where the matter of the houfe receives vifits and
tranfa&s bufinefs. From this court there are entrances
by very fmall doors to the private apartments. In the
northern parts, houfes of twto or three ftories are com¬
monly met with. Over all the country alfo we meet
with the ruins of palaces, which evidently {how the mag-
nificence of former times.
Leamingof The bramins of India were anciently much cele-
the Bra- brated for their learning, though they now make a very
“h1*- inconfiderable figure in comparifon with the Europeans.
According to Philoftratus, the Gymnofophifts of Ethi¬
opia were a colony of bramins, who, being obliged to
IS ] H I N
leave India on account of the murder of their king near
the banks of the Ganges, migrated into that country.
The ancient bramins, however, may juftly be fuppo-
fed to have cultivated fcience with much greater fuccefs
than their defcendants can boa!! of, confidering the rui¬
nous wars and revolutions to which the country has
been fubjetted. Metaphyfics, as well as moral and na¬
tural philofophy, appear to have been well underftood
among them 5 but at prefent all the Hindoo knowledge
is confined to thofe whom they call Pundits, “ do£tOr$
or learned men,” Thefe only underttand the language
called Sbanfcrit or Sanfcrit, (from two words fignify-
ing perfection) ; in which the ancient books were writ-
I*
The metaphyfics of the bramins is much the fame VTetaphjr-
wirh that of fome ancient Greek philofophers. They hcs.
believe the human foul to be an emanation from the
Deity, as light and heat from the fun. Gowtama, an
ancient metaphyfician, diftinguifhes two kinds of fouls,
the divine and vital. The former refembles the eternal
fpirit from which it came, is immaterial, indivifible, and
without paflions; the vital foul is a fubtile element which
pervades all things, diftind from organifed matter, and
which is the origin of all our defires. The external
fenfes, according to this author, are reprefentations of
external things to the mind, by which it is furnilhed
with materials for its various operations ; but unlefs the
mind ad in conjundton with the fenfes, the operation
is loft, as in that abfence of mind which takes place in
deep contemplation. He treats likewife of reafon,
memory, perception, and other ab lrad fubjeds. He
is of opinion, that the world could not exift without a
firft caufe ; chance being nothing but the effed of an
unknown caufe : he is of opinion, however, that it is
folly to make any conjedures concerning the beginning
or duration of the world. In treating of providence,
he denies any immediate interpofition of the Deity;
maintaining, that the Supreme Being having created
the fyftem of nature, allowed it to proceed according to
the laws originally imprefled upon it, and man to follow
the impulfe of his own defires, rettrained and conduded
by his reafon. His dodrine concerning a future ftate
is not different from what we have already ftated as the
belief of the Hindoos in general. According tq bifhop
Wilkins, many of them believe that this world is a {late
of rewards and punittiments as well as of probation ;
and that good or bad fortune are the effeds of good or
evil adions committed in a former ftate. I8
The fcience for which the bramins, however, were 'phdraftf*.
moft remarkable, is that of aftronomy ; and in this their nomy.
progrefs was fo great, as'even yet to furnifh matter of
admiration to the moderns.—The Europeans firft be¬
came acquainted with the Indian aftronomy in 1687,
from a Siamefe MS. containing rules for calculating the
places of the fun and moon, brought home by M. Lou-
bere the French ambaflador at Siam. The principles
on which the tallies in this MS. were founded, however,
proved to be fo obfcure, that it required the genius of
Cafiini to inveftigate them. The miflionaries after¬
wards fent over two other fets of tables from Hindo-
ftan; but no attention was paid to them till M. le Gen-
til returned from obferving the tranfit of Venus in 1769.
During the time of his ftay in Hindoftan, the bra¬
mins had been much more familiar with him on account
of his aftronomical knowledge, than they ufually were
3 with
H I N [51
Hindoos. witK Europeans; and he thus had an opportunity of ob-
*—v— taining confiderable infight into their methods of calcu¬
lation. In confequence of this inftru&ion he publiihed
Edm. Phil. ta(j]es an(i ruleS) according to the Indian method, in the
ra^' academy of fciences for 1772 ; and in the explanation
of thefe M. Bailly has employed a whole volume. The
objefts of this aftronomy, according to Dr Playfair,
are, 1. Tables and rules for calculating the places of the
fun and moon. 2. Of the planets. 3. For determin¬
ing the phafes of eclipfes. They divide the zodiac into
27 conftellations, probably from the motion of the moon
through it in 27 days ; and to this lunar motion the
Doctor afcribes the general divifion of time into weeks,
which has prevailed fo univerfally throughout the world.
The days of the week were dedicated to the planets, as
by the ancient heathens of the well, and in precifely
the fame order. The ecliptic is divided into figns, de¬
grees, and minutes, as with us : and indeed their calcu¬
lations are entirely fexagefimal, the day and night be¬
ing, divided into 60 hours ; fo that each of their hours
is only 24 of our minutes, and each of their minutes 24
of our feconds.
The requifites for calculating by the Indian tables
are, t. An obfervation of the celeftial body in fome
pall moment of time, which is commonly called the
Epoch of the tables. 2. The mean rate of the pla¬
net’s motion. 3. The corre&fon on account of the
irregular motion of the body, to be added or fubtrafl-
ed from the mean place, according to circumllances.
They calculate the places of the fun and moon,
toot from the time of their entrance into Aries, but
into the' moveable Zodiac. Thus the beginning of the
year is continually advancing with regard to the fea-
fons; and in 24,000 years will have made the com¬
plete round. The mean place of the fun for any time
is deduced on the fuppofition that 800 years contain
292,207 days ; from whence, by various calculations,
the length of the year comes out only 1' 53" greater
than that of De la Caille ; which is more accurate than
any of our ancient aftronomical tables. In the equa¬
tion of the fun’s centre, however, they commit an er¬
ror of no lefs than 16' : but Dr Playfair is of opinion
that this cannot be aferibed wholly to their inaccuracy,
as there was a time when their calculation approached
very near the truth ; and even at prefent the error is
lefs than it appears to be.
The motions of the moon are deduced from a cycle
of 19 years; during which (he makes nearly 235 revo¬
lutions ; and which period conftitutes the famous cycle
fuppofed to have been invented by Melon the Athe¬
nian aftronomer, and from him called the Metonic Cy¬
cle. They are likewife furprifingly exadt in calcula¬
ting the moon’s apogee and fome of the inequalities of
her motion ; they know the apparent motion of the
fixed liars eaftward, and the Siamefe tables make it
only four feconds too quick ; which ftill fhows a great
accuracy of calculation, as Ptolemy the celebrated
allronomer made an error of no lefs than 14 feconds in
calculating the fame thing. M. Caffini, however, in¬
forms us, that thefe tables are not calculated for the me¬
ridian of Siam, but for a place 180 15' to the weft-
ward of it, which brings us very near the meridian of
Benares, the ancient feat of Indian learning. This
likewife agrees with what the Hindoos call their firft
nievidian, which paffes through Celon, and the banks,
9 ] h 1 N
of the river Remananur. It muft be obferved, howe- HiaJoos.
ver, that the geography of the Hindoos is much more ' ■*.
inaccurate than their aftronomy.
The date of the Siamefe tables is not very ancient;
and that of the tables above mentioned fent from Hin-
doftan by the miffionaries is ftill more modern. Thefe,
however, are written in fuch an enigmatical manner, that
the miflionary who fent them was unable to tell their
meaning; and Dr Playfair fuppofes that even the Bra-
mins themfelves were ignorant of it. Neverthelefs
they were decyphered by M.. le Gentil; who thinks
that they have the appearance of being copied from
inferiptions on ttone. The minutes and feconds are not
ranged in vertical columns, but in rows under one ano¬
ther, and without any title to point out their meaning
or connexion.
The tables of Tirvalore are among the moft remark¬
able of all we are yet acquainted with. Their date,
according to Dr Playfair, correfponds with the year
3102 B. C. thus running up to the year of the world
902, when Adam w^s ftill in life. This era is famous
in Hindoftan under the name of Calyougkam: and as
this extraordinary antiquity cannot but create fome
fufpicion,Dr Playfair has been at fomepainstodetermine
whether it is real or fiftitious, ;. e. whether it has been
determined by aftual obfeivation, or derived by calcu¬
lation from tables of more modern date. The refult
of his labours is, that we are to account the Caly-
ougham as determined by obfervation; and that had it
been otherwife, we muft have been furniftied with in¬
fallible methods of detefting the fallacy. His reafons
for this opinion are,
x. The talk would have been too difficult, even for
modern aftronomers, to make the neceffary calculations,
without taking into account the difturbauces arifing
from the a&ion of the heavenly bodies upon one ano¬
ther, and with which we cannot fuppofe the ancient
aftronomers to have been equally well acquainted with
the moderns. By reafon of thefe variations, as well
as from the fmall errors unavoidable in every calcula¬
tion, any ftt of aftronomical tables will be found pro-
digioufly inaccurate when applied to any period very
far diftant from the time of obfervation. Hence, fays
our author, “ it may be eftablifhed as a maxim, that
if there be given a fyftem of aftronomical tables, founded
on obfervations of an unknown date, that date may
he found by taking the time when the tables reprefent
the celeftial motions moft exa&ly.”—This indeed might
be done, provided we were furniftied with any fet of
perfectly accurate tables with which we.could compare
the fufpe&ed ones; and Dr Playfair thinks it “ a very
reafonable poftulatum”, that our modern aftronomical
tables, though not perfe&ly accurate, are yet capable
of determining the places of the ccleftial bodies with¬
out any fenfible error for a longer period than that of
the Calyougham.
2. By calculation from our modern tables, it appears
that the place df the ftar Aldebaran, at the commence¬
ment of the Calyougham, differs only 53' from what
the Indian tables make it. He thinks this coincidence
the more remarkable, as the bramins, by reafon of
the inaccuracy of their own date, would have erred by
four or five degrees, had they calculated from their moft
modern tables dated in 1491.
3. At the commencement of this epoch (which, ac¬
cording
H I N [ 520
Hindoos, cording to M. Bailly, happened at midnight between
—v—the 17th and 18th of February 3102 B. C.) the fun
was in 10s 30 38' 13" by the Indian tables. But
the mean longitude of the fun, according to the tables
of M. de la Caille, for the fame time, comes out to
be only 10s i° 5' 57", fuppofing the preceflion of
the equinoxes to have been the fame at that time as
now. M. de la Grange, however, has demonftrated,
that, in former ages, the preceffion of the equi¬
noxes was lefs than at prefent; whence there arifes an
equation of i° 45' 227 to be added to the fun’s place
already mentioned ; and thus it will differ only 47' from
the radical place in the tables of Tirvalore. Notwith-
ftanding this reafoning, however, Dr Playfair thinks
that no ftrefs is to be laid upon this argument, as it
depends on the truth of a conje&ure of M. Bailly that
the place of the fun above mentioned was not the
mean but the true one.
4. The mean place of the moon at Benares, calcu¬
lated from Mr Meyer’s tables, for the 18th of Febru¬
ary 3102 B. C. will be 10s o° 51' 16", provided her
motion had all that time been equable : but the fame
aftronomer informs us, that the motion of the moon
is fubje& to a fmall but uniform acceleration, about
9' in 100 years ; which in an interval of 4801 years,
muff have amounted to 5° 45' 44" ; which added to
the preceding, gives to* 6° 37' for the true place of
the moon at the commencement of the Calyougham.
Now the place of this luminary, at that time, by the
tables of Tirvalore, is to* 6°; the difference is lefs
than two thirds of a degree, which, for fo remote a
period, and confidering the acceleration of the moon’s
motion, for which no allowance could be made in an
Indian calculation, is a degree of accuracy that nothing
but a£tual obfervation could have produced.—This
conclufion is confirmed by a computation of the moon’s
place from all the tables to which the Indians could
have any accefs, and of which the enormous errors
would inftantly Ihow the deception. Thus, by the
tables of Ptolemy, the place of the fun would be 1 o
2i'' 157 greater; and that of the moon n*1 52' 7"
greater than has juft been found from the Indian ta¬
bles. By thofe of Ulug Beg, the place of the fun
would be i° 30', and that of the moon 6°, different
from what it is by the Indian tables: and in like man¬
ner our author (hows that the Indian calculations could
not be derived from any other fet of tables extant. In
like manner, he fhows that, with regard to the mean
place of the moon, there is a coincidence for a period
x>f more than 4000 years between the tables of Meyer
and thofe of India named Chrifnabouram; which, though
they bear a more modern date than thofe of Tervalore,
are thus probably more ancient. “ From this remark¬
able coincidence (fays Dr Playfair), we may conclude,
with the high eft probability, that at leaft one fet of
thefe obfervations on which the tables are founded,
is not lefs ancient than the era of the Calyougham :
and though the poffxbility of their being fome ages
later than that epoch is not abfolutely excluded, yet it
may, by ftridl mathematical reafoning, be inferred, that
they cannot have been later than 2000 years before the
Chriftian era.
5. Since the time chat Mr Bailly wrote, every ar¬
gument refpefting the acceleration of the moon’s mo¬
tion has become more worthy of attention, and more
-conclufive. For that acceleration is no longer a mere
153.
J H I N
empirical equation introduced to reconcile the ancient Hindoos,
obfervations with the modern, nor a fa& that can only ~ 'f
be accounted for by hypothetical caufes, fuch as the
refiftance of the ether, or the time neceffary for the
tranfmiffion of gravity ; but a phenomenon which M. de
la Place has with great ability deduced from the princi¬
ple of univerfal gravitation, and ftiown to be neceffarily
connected with the changes of eccentricity in the earth’s
orbit difeovered by M. de la Grange : fo that the ac¬
tion of the moon is indireftly produced by the aftion
of the planets, which alternately increafing and dimi-
niflffng this eccentricity, fubjefts the moon to different
degrees of that force by which the fun difturbs the
time of her revolution round the earth. It is there¬
fore a periodical inequality, by which the moon’s mo¬
tion, in the courfe of ages, will be as much retarded
as accelerated; but its changes are fo flow, that her
motion has been conftantly accelerated, even for a much
longer period than that to which the obfervations
of India extend. To M. de la Grange alfo we
are indebted for one of the moft beautiful of the
difeoveries in phyiical aflronomy, viz. That all the
variations in our fyftem are periodical ; fo that,
though every thing, almoft without exception, be
fubje& to change, It will, after a certain interval,
return to the fame ftate in which it is at prefent, and
leave no room for the ’introduction of diforder, or of
any irregularity that might conftantly increafe. Many
of thefe periods, however, are of vaft duration. A
great number of ages, for inftance, muft elapfe, be¬
fore the year be exaftly of the fame length, or the
fun’s equation be of the fame magnitude, as at prefent.
An aftronomy, therefore, which profeffes to be fo an¬
cient as the Indian, ought to differ confiderably from
ours in many of its elements. If, indeed, thefe differ¬
ences are irregular, they are the effefts of chance, and
muft be accounted errors ; but if they obferve the
laws which theory informs us they do, they muft bft
held as the moft undoubted marks of authenticity.
6. Neither thefe tables of Tirvalore, nor the more
ancient ones of Chrifnabouram, are thofe of the great-
eft antiquity in India. The bramins conftantly refer
to an aftronomy at Benares, which they emphatically
ftyle the ancient; and which, they fay, is not now un-
derftood by them, though they believe it to be much
more accurate than that by which they calculate. »o
From thefe and other fimilar arguments. Dr Play- Conclufions
fair draws the following conclufions with refpeCt to In-
dian aftronomy. 1. The obfervations on which it is cerning the
founded, were made more than 3000 years before the Indian a-
Chriftian era; and in particular, the, places of theftronomy-
fun and moon, at the beginning of the Calyougham,
were determined by adtual obfervation. 2. Though
the aftronomy now in the hands of the bramins is fo
ancient in its origin, yet it contains many rules and
tables that are of later conftruftion. 3. The bafis of
their four fyftems of aftronomical tables is evidently
the fame. 4. The conftruotion of thefe tables implies
a great knowledge of geometry, arithmetic, and even connovett-
the theoretical part of aftfonomy. All this, however, e(j by jyir
we find controverted, or at leaft rendered fomewhat Marfden.
doubtful, by William Marfden, Efq. who has written
a paper on the chronology of the Hindoos in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions for 1790. “ The Kalee Toog
(fays he), or principal chronological era, began in the
year 3102 B. C. according to the common method of
1 computation.
HIM [ s
'TIindoos ■ computation, or in 31 ci according to the agronomical
method, on the 18th of February, at fun-rife ; or at
midnight, according to different accounts, under their
fii ft meridian of Lauia.—At that period it is faid to
be afferted by their aftronomers, that the fun, moon,
and all the planets, were in conjunction according to
their mean places. The reality of this faft, but with
confiderable modification, has received a refpeCtable
fandtion from the writings of an ingenious and cele¬
brated member of the French academy of fciences,
who concludes that the a£tual obfervation of this rare
phenomenon, by the Hindoos of that day, was the
occafion of its eftablilhment as an aftronomical epoch.
Although M. Bailly has fupported this opinion with
his ufual powers of reafoning, and although abundant
circumftances tend to prove their early fkill in this fci-
ence, and fome parts of the mathematics conne&ed
with it; yet we are conftrained to queftion the verity
or poffibility of the obfervation, and to conclude ra¬
ther that the fuppofed conjun&ion was,' at a later pe¬
riod, fought for as an epoch, and calculated retro-
fpectively. That it was widely mifcalculated too, is
fufficiently evident from the computation which M.
Bailly himfelf has given of the longitudes of the
planets at that time, when there was a difference of no
lefs than 730 between the places of Mercury and Ve¬
nus. But fifteen days after, when the fun and moon
were in oppofition, and the planets far enough from
the fun to be vilible, he computes that all, except Ve¬
nus, were comprehended within a fpace of 17" ; and
©n this he grounds his fuppofition of an a&ual obfer¬
vation.
“ In their current tranfaftions the inhabitants of
the peninfula employ a mode of computation of a dif¬
ferent nature, which, though not unknown in other
parts of the world, fs confined to thefe people among
the Hindoos. This is a cycle, or revolving period,
of 60 folar years, which has no farther correfpondence
with their other eras than that of their years refpettively
commencihg on the fame day. Thofe that conftitute
the cycle, inftead of being numerically counted, are
diftinguiflied from each other by appropriate names,
which in their epiftles, bills, and the like, are inferted
as dates, with the months, and perhaps the age of the
moon annexed ; but in their writings of importance
and record, the year of Salaban (often called the Saba
year) is fuperadded'; and this is the more effential, as
I do not find it cuftomary to number the cycles by
any progreffive reckoning. In their aftronomical cal¬
culations we obferve, that they fometimes complete the
year of their era by multiplying the number of cycles
elapfed, and adding the complement of the cycle in
which it commenced, as well as the years of the cur¬
rent cycle ; but from hence we are led to no fatisfac-
tory conclufion concerning this popular mode of efti-
mating time. The prefumption is in favour of its be-
ring more ancient than their hiflorical epochs. The
prefent cycle, of which forty-three complete years were
expired in April 1790, began in 1747, with the year
of Salaban 1669, and of the grand era 4848. M. le
Gentil, to whom Europe is chiefly indebted for what is
known of Flindoo aftronomy, has fallen into an unac¬
countable error with regard to the ytarsof thiscycle,and
then correfpondence with thofe of the Kalee Yoog, as
appears by the comparative table he has given of them,
Vol. VIII. Part II.
2t ] HI N
and other pafrages of his work. He feems to have H’nlow;
taken it for granted, without due examination, that * ^
the year 3600 of the latter muft have been- produced
by the multiplication of the cycle of 60 into itfelf j
and confequently that the firft year of this grand era
muft likewife have been the firft of the cycle. Btit
this is totally inconfiftent with the fait ; the Kalee
Yoog began the thirteenth year of the cycle of 60 ;
and all the reafoning founded on the felf-produ&ion
and harmony of thefe periods rouft fall to the
ground.”
From what Mr Marfden here fets forth, it is plairt
that we muft make very cohfiderable abatements in our
confidence of the extreme antiquity of the Hindoos
obfervations. Indeed we can fcarce conceive a pof¬
fibility of reconciling fuch extravagant antiquity with
the authentic hiftories of which we are poffeffed, or
with thofe of feripture. The want of an ancient hif-
tory of Hindoftan leaves us indeed in the dark, and
gives room for ingenious and fpeculative men to indulge
themfelves in marvellous reveries concerning their anti¬
quity. But the flood, we know, which if it exifted at
all, could not be but general over the whole earth*, * See the
muft have deftroyed every monument of art and fei- ®rtic^e
ence ; and it is furely more reafonable to believe, that
M. le Gentil, or the moft learned man in the prefent
age, has been miftaken (even though wefhould not he
able to determine the particular manner), than at once
to deny the authenticity of all hiftory both facred and
profane, and attempt to evade evidence which no power
of reafoning can ever fet afide. 22
It is, however, undeniable, that the progrefs of the Great fr;;!
Hindoos in geometry as well as aftronomy has been of the Hin"
very great in ancient times. Of this a moft remark-
able inftance is given by Dr Playfair, in their finding8^™
put the proportion of the circumference of a circle to
its diameter to a great degree of accuracy. This is
determined, in the AyeenAhbaryyX.o be as 3927 to 1250;
and which, to do it arithmetically in the iimpleft man¬
ner poffible, would require the infeription of a poly¬
gon 768 fides ; an operation which cannot be per¬
formed without the knowledge of fome very curious
properties of the circle, and at leaft nine extra&ions
of the fquare root, each as far as ten places of deci¬
mals. This proportion of 1250 to 3927 is the fame
with that of 1 to 3.1416 ; and differs very little from
that of 113 to 155 difeovered by Metrus. He and Vieta
were the firft: who furpaffed the accuracy of Archimedes
in the folution of this problem; and it is remarkable
that thefe two mathematicians flourifhed at the very
time that the Ayeen Akbary was compofed among
the Hindoos.— In geography, however, they are
much deficient; and it is very difficult to find out
the true lituation of the meridians mentioned by their
authors from what they have faid concerning them.
The art of painting among the Hindoos is in an im- Painting-,
perfeftftate; nor are there any remains of antiquity fcnlPturei
which evince its ever being more perfed than it is juft &c-
now. Their principal defeA is in drawing, and they
feem to be almoft totally ignorant of the rules of per-
fpedrive. They are much better fkilled in colouring;
and fome of their pidures are finifhed with great
nicety. Their fculptures are likewife rude, and greatly
refemble thofe of the Egyptians. They feem to fol¬
low no regular rules in architefture : their temples In-
3 T deed
k" geometry.
H IN [ 522 1 H I N
Hindoos deed are filled with innutflerable columns, but moft of and in many refpefts inconvenient, fo that incredible Hindoos.
'• them without any juft ihape or proportion. They are labour and patience are neceffary for the accompliih- —v——^
principally remarkable for their immenfe fize, which ment of any piece of work; and for this the Hindoos
24 gives them an air of majefty and grandeur. are very remarkable. Lacquering and gilding are ufed
Mufic. The mufic of the Hindoos is but little known to all over the country, and muft have been ufed in very
Europeans ; and the art feems to have made but little early ages; though in fome places the lacquering is
progrefs among them in comparifon with what it has brought to much greater perfedtion than in others. 4g
done in the weftern countries; though fome of the In- The principal article of food throughout all Hin-Cultureof
dian airs are faid to be very melodious. Their mufical doftan is rice, and of confequence the cultivation of itrice.
inftruments are very numerous : in war they ufe a kind forms the principal objedf of agriculture. In this the
of great kettle drum named nagar, carried by a camel, moft important requilite is plenty of water ; and when
and fometimes by an elephant. The dole is a long there happens to be a fcarcity in this refpedt, a famine
narrow drum flung round the neck; and the tam-tam muft be the confequence. To prevent this as far as
is a flat kind of drum refembling a tabor, but larger pofiible, a vaft number of tanks and water-courfes are
and louder. They ufe alfo the cymbal, which they to be met with throughout the country, though in
name ta/an ; and they have various forts of trumpets, fome places thefe are too much neglefted, and gra-
particularly a great one named tary, which, emits a dually going to decay. After the rice is grown to
moft; doleful found, and is always ufed at funerals, and a certain length, it is pulled up, and tranfplanted into
fometimes to announce the death of perfons of diftinc- fields of about too yards fquare, feparated from each
15 tion. other by ridges of earth; which are daily fupplied
Jugglers, The jugglers among the Hindoos are fo expert, that with water let in upon them from the neighbouring
anden- many the miflionaries have aferibed their tricks to tanks. When the water happens to fall below the
“ 0i fupernatural power; and even fo a late traveller as level of the channels made to receive it, it is raifed by
™ ’ Mr Grofe feems to be not of a very different opinion f. a fimple machine named pkoti, the conftrudtion of
*a/ee ^ Like the Egyptians, they feem to have the power of which is as follows. A piece of timber is fixed up-
difarming ferpents of their poifon ; and there are many right in the ground, and forked fo as to admit another
ftrollers who go about with numbers of thefe animals piece to move tranfverfely in it by means of a ftrong
in bags, having along with them a fmall bagpipe call- pin. The trarifverfe timber is flat on one fide, and
ed magouty, which they pretend is ufeful to bring them has pieces of wood acrofs it in the manner of fteps.
from their lurking places. They take the ferpents, At one end of this timber there is a large bucket, at
though of the moft poifonous kinds, out of the bags the other a weight. A man walking down the fteps
with their naked hands, and throw them on the ground, throws the bucket into the well or tank; by going up,
where they are taught to rear and move about to the and by means of the weight, he raifes it; and another
found of their mufic. They fay that this is accom- perfon (landing below empties it into a channel made
pliihed by means of certain incantations. to convey the water into the fields. The man who
Antiqaity The ufe of fire-arms appears to have been of great moves the machine may fupport himfelf by long bam-
of fire arms antiquity in India. They are prohibited by the code boos that are fixed in the way of a railing from the
among the 0f Qent0o laws, which is certainly of a very ancient top of the piece of upright timber towards the wall.
Hindoos. jatei 'phe phrafe by which they are denominated is A number of other kinds of grain are to be met
agneeajier, or weapons of fire ; and there is alfo men- with in Hindoftan, but wheat is not cultivated farther
tion made of Jhet agnee, or the weapon that kills an fouth than 18° latitude. It is imported, however, to
hundred men at once. It is impofiible to guefs at the every part of the country by the Banjaries. Thefe are Account of,
time when thofe weapons were invented among the a fet of people belonging to no particular call, who the Banja-
Hindoos; but we are certain, that in many places of live in tents, and travel in feparate bodies, each ofr‘cs*
the eaft, which have neither been frequented by Mo- which is governed by its own particular regulations,
hammedans nor Europeans, rockets are almoft univer- They frequently vifit towns on the fea-coaft, with bul-
fally made ufe of as weapons of war. The Hindoo locks loaded with wheat and other articles; carrying
books themfclves aferibe the invention of fire-arms to away in exchange fpices, cloths, but efpecially fait,
Bacjhhoksrma, who formed all the weapons made ufe which they carry into the inland parts of the country,
of in a war betwixt the good and evil fpirits. Fire- Some of their parties have feveral thoufands of oxen,
balls, or blue lights, employed in befieged places in belonging to them. They are rarely molefted, even
the night-time, to obferve the motions of the bdiegers, in time of war, otherwife than by being fometimes.
are met with every where through Hindoftan, and are preffed into the fervice of an army to carry baggage
conftrudted in full as great perfe&ion as in Europe, or provifions ; but for this they are paid, and difmif-
Fireworks alfo are met with in great perfection ; and, fed as foon as the fervice is over. The Hindoos them-
from the earlieft ages, have conftituted a principal felves are prohibited from going out of the country,
article of amufement among the Hindoos. Gun-pow- under the fevereft of all penalties, that of lofing their
der, or a compofition fomewhat refembling it, has been call. Notwithflanding this, however, it is certain that
found in many other places of the eaft, particularly they do fettle in foreign parts in the chara&er of mer-
China, Pegu, and Siam ; but there is reafon to be- chants and bankers. Perhaps thefe may have a tole-
lieve that the invention came originally from Hindo- ration from the principal bramin, or there may be
ftan. Poifoned weapons of all kinds are forbidden in an exemption for people of their profeflion ; but this
r-nuity this country. _ is not known. At any rate, wherever they go, they
vrious The Hindoos are remarkable for their ingenuity in appear inviolably attached to their religious ceremo-
all kinds of handicraft; but their utenfils are fimple, nies, and refufe to eat what is prohibited to them in ;
3 their.
Derivation
cf the
Barnes.
The know¬
ledge of
the Greeks
augmented,
by Alex¬
ander’s ex¬
pedition.
H I N [j23] H I N
their own country. The Ryots, or people who cul- theic ftories are falfehoods. He thinks it is impoffible Hindoftan.
tivate the ground, are in many places in the moll mi- that Alexander could have been ignorant of the wri- *
ferable fituation ; their only food bein r fome coarfe tings of Herodotus, who gave an account of the dif-
rice and pepper, for which they are obliged to en- coveries ot Scyiax ; and with regard to the other cir-
dure all the inclemencies of a burning fun, and the cumftance he expreffes himfelf as follows. “ The
inconveniences which attend alternately wading in ftory of Alexander’s.furprife at feeing the tides in the
water and walking with their bare feet on the ground Indus, appears to me equally improbable; feeing that the
heated intenfely by the folar rays ; by which they fame Herodotus, book iii. fpeaks very particularly, of
are frequently bliftered in a miferable manner. All the tides in the Red Sea, and deferibes them as being
this, however, they fubmit to with the utmoft pa- not only ftrong, but ebbing and flowing every day.
tience, and without making any complaint, expe&ing (That moll intelligent and ingenious traveller M. Vol-
to be releafed from their fufferings by death; though ney informs us, that the tide ebbs and flows three feet
even then their religion teaches them to hope for no- and an half at Suez). Arrian takes no notice of the
thing more than what they call alforption into the ejfence tides until Alexander’s fleet had arrived near the mouth
of the Deity ; a ftate almoft fynonymous with what we of the river. It is true, the tide in the Indus does
call annihilation. not go up fo high as in other rivers of equal bulk,
HINDOSTAN, a celebrated and extenfive conn- and that run on fo fmall a defeent ; but neverthelefs,
try of Alia, bounded on the north by Great and Little as the tide is perceptible at 50 or 60 miles above the
Thibet; on the fouth. by the hither peninfula of In- river’s mouth, we may conclude, that it could hardly
dia, part of the Indian Sea, and Bay of Bengal ; on efcape the notice of Alexander and his people in their
the weft, by Perfia ; and on the eart, by Thibet and voyage from Pattala to the fea, fuppofing they had
the farther peninfula. It is fituated between 84° and not been apprifed of the circumftance. Befides, Ar-
1020 of eaft longitude, and between 21.0 and 36° of nan’s account of the tide which did fo much mifehief
north latitude; being in length about 1204 miles, to the fleet, is deferiptive of the lore, or fudden in-
and in breadth 960; though in fome places much flux of the tide, in a body of water elevated above the
lefs. common furface of the fea; fuch as occurs in the
This country' was in early times diftinguiflied among Ganges, &c. He fays, thofe fliips which lay upon
the Greeks by the name of India, the moft probable the fand were fwept away by the fury of the tide ;
derivation of which, is from Hind the Perfian name, while thofe that ftuck in the mud were fet afloat again
We are aflured by Mr Wilkins, that no fuch words without any damage. To the generality of readers
as Hindoo or Hindoftan exift in the Sanfcrit or learned no reafon will appear why the circumftances of the
language of the country ; in which it is named bhara- fhips fliould be different in the mud and on the
ta, a word totally unknown to Europeans. The firft fand: the fad: is, that the bottoms of channels in
accounts we have of Hindoftan are from Herodotus, great rivers are muddy, while their {hallows are
who lived 113 years before the expedition of Alexan- formed of fand ; and it is the nature of the bore to
der the Great. His accounts, however, convey very take the (horteft cut up a river, inftead of following
little information, as he appears only to have heard of the windings of the channel; confequently it muftcrofs
the weftern part of the country, and that on account the fand-banks it meets in its way, and will alfo prove
of its being tributary to Perfia. He informs us, that more deftrudive to whatever it meets with a-ground
Darius Hyftafpes, about 508 B. C. had fent Scyiax than what is a float.” For an account of the exploits
of Caryandra to explore the river Indus. He fet fail of Alexander in Hindoftan, fee the article Macedon. Hlftor
from Cafpatyrus, a town near the fource of the Indus, The Grecian expedition into India foon excited afrom°the
and the territories of (which major Rennel fup- a general curiofity in the Europeans to become ac-tune of
pofes to bethe modern Pehkely), and continued his courfe quainted with a country fo wealthy and fo remote. Me- Alexanfter
eaftward to. the fea ; then altering his courfe to the gafthenes, the ambaffador of Seleucus, refided long at.^e'Mo°uI
weft, he arrived at that place where the Phoenicians had Palibothra the capital of an Indian nation, and from MohanviU
formerly failed round the continent of Africa ; after him the ancient writers learned moft of what they medans.
which Darius fubdued the Indians, and became mafter knew concerning that part of the world. He lived
of that fea. The northern inhabitants of India, he about 300 years before the Chriftian era, and kept a
fays, refembled the Baftrians in their manners, and journal during the time he refided in India,
were more valiant than the reft; thofe far to the fouth- For fome fhort time the weftern provinces of India
ward were as black as the Ethiopians, killed no ani- continued fubjeft to the Syrian empire founded by Se-
mals, but lived chiefly upon rice ; and clothed them- leucus; but he quickly ceded thefe diftant countries
felves with cotton. By the expedition of Alexander, to one Sandrocottus, who gave him only 500 elephants
the Greeks acquired a little more knowledge of the in exchange. Soon after this the province of Bac-
country of Hindoftan, though he did little clfe than tria likewife became independent; and thus the con-
march over the tra&s deferibed by Herodotus. He neftion betwixt India and the vveftern parts of the world
was Informed of the exiilence of the river Ganges, was entirely diffolved, and we are almoft entirely ignorant
which had not been known to Herodotus; and the of the tranfa&ions of that country till the time of the
ftory of his fuppofing that he had difeovered the fource Mohammedan conqueft. That the extenfive country we
of the Nile, when near the head of the Indus, is well now call Hindojlan was divided among many different
known, as well as his furprife and.confternation when nations, we have no reafon to doubt ; but major Ren-
he arrived at the mouth of that river, on account of nel is of opinion, that however this might be the cafe,
the high tides. Major Rennel is of opinion that both there was generally a large empire or kingdom, which
3 T 2 occupied
H I N t J2+ ] H I N
Kindofiun. occupied the prindpal part of that immenfe valley
through which the Ganges takes its courfe; the capi¬
tal of which has fhi&nated between Dehli and Patna,
as the limits of the empire have varied. This was
named the kingdom of the Prajij or Gangaridie in the
’ times of Alexander and Megafthenes. Major Rennel
is of opinion that it extended weftward to the Pan¬
jab country ; and he alio thinks it probable that the
capital named P'alibothra Hood on the fame fpot which
is now occupied by the city of Patna. The king¬
dom, according to this fuppofition, would occupy part
of Bengal ; and he thinks that it could not be lefs
than that of France. It was on the borders of this
kingdom that Alexander’s army mutinied and refufed
to proceed any farther. Arrian informs us, that the
people were rich, excellent foldiers, and good huf-
bandmen ; that they were governed by nobility, and
5 that their rulers impofed nothing harih upon them.
No ancient rphe Hindoos themfelves pretend to an extravagant
ifor^tobe antiquity; but we are informed by major Rennel, that
credited. “ there is no known hiftory of Hindoftan (that reds
on the foundation of Hindoo materials or records) ex¬
tant before the period of the Mohammedan conquelts;
for either the Hindoos kept no regular hiftories, or
they were all detlroyed, or fecluded from common eyes
by the Pundits. We may judge of their traditions by
that exifting concerning Alexander’s expedition; which
i«, that he fought a great battle with the emperor of
Hindoftan near Delhi, and though vi&orious, retired
to Perfia acrofs the northern mountains ; fo that the
remarkable circumilance of his failing down the Indus,
in which he employed many months, is funk altoge¬
ther. And yet, perhaps, few events of ancient times
xeft on better foundations than this part of the hiftory
of Alexander, as appears by its being fo highly cele¬
brated, not only by cotemporaries, but by feveral of
the moll eminent authors for fome centuries following.
The only traces of Indian hiftory we meet with are in
the Perfian hiftorians. In the beginning of the 17th
century, Mohammed Ferilhta compofed an hiftory of
Hindollan, moft of which was given in that of colo¬
nel Dow, publifhed upwards of 30 years ago; but
with regard to the early part of it, major Rennel is of
g opinion that it cannot at all be depended upon.
Expeditious The authentic hiftory of Hindoftan commences with
of Mah- the conquefts of Mahmud or Mahmood Gazni, about
nmd Gazni t}1£ ear iooo^ His kingdom had arifen out of that
»nto a ia. Saracens, who under the khaliff A1 Walid had
extended their conquefts immenfdy both to the eaft
and weft. Mahmud was the third from Abiftagi a
governor of Khorafan, who had revolted from the king
of Backharia. He poffeffed great part of that coun¬
try formerly known by the name of BaBrla. Gazni,
Gazna, or Ghizni, was the capital; a city which flood
near the fource of the Indus, though Balkh like wife
Claimed this honour. Stibti&agi, the father of Mah-
ijmd, had projefted the conqueft of- the wellern part
of India; but-dying before he could put his defigns
in execution, Mahmud took upon himfelf the condudl
of the expedition ; but previous to his invafion of In¬
dia, he ftrengthened hlmfelf by the conqueft of the
whole of the ancient Ba&ria. His firft invafion took
place in the year 1000; during which he made no
farther progrefs than the province of Moultan. That
part of the country was inhabited by the Kuttry and
Rajpoot tribe, the Malli and Catheri of Alexander, Hin Joflani: f
who Hill retained their ancient fpirit, and made a very —~~V ‘4
flout rdiflance to the armies of that furious enthufiaft.
As he was prompted to this undertaking no lefs by a
defire of exterminating the Hindoo religion than by
that of conqueft, a league was at hill formed again ft
him among all the Indian princes from the banks of
the Ganges to the Nerbudda. Their allied forces, ,
however, were defeated, and the year 1008 was mark¬
ed by the deftrudlion of the famous temple of Nagra*
cut in the Panjab country. Having fatiated himfelf
with plunder on this occafion, Mahmud returned to
his own country ; but in 1011 invaded Hindoftan once
more, deftfoying Tanafar a city on the weft of Delhi,,
and a more celebrated place of worfhfp than Nagra-
cut itfelf. Delhi was reduced on this occafion ; and:
in feven years after Canoge was taken ; the temples
of Matra or Methura, the Methora of Pliny, a city
of great antiquity, and remarkable for a place of wor-
fhipnear Agra, were likewife demolifhed; but he failed
in his attempts on the Rajpoots of Agimere, either
through their own valour or the ftrength of theit
country. His 12th expedition took place in the year
1024, when he deflroyed the celebrated temple of
Sumnaut in the peninfula of Guzerat, adjoining, to the
city of Puttan on the fea coaft, and not far from the
ifland of Din, now in the hands of the Portuguefe. In
this expedition he proved very fuccefsful, reducing
the whole peninfula of Guzerat, with many cities, the
temples of which he conftantly deltroyed ; and indeed
feemed no lefs pleafed with the overthrow of the Hin¬
doo religion than with the conqueft of the country.
At his death, which happened in 1028, he was pof-
feffed of the eallern and by far the largeft part of
Perfia, and nominally of all the provinces from the
weftern part of the Ganges to the peninfula of Gw-
zerat; as well as thofe lying between the Indus and
the mountains of Agimere ; but the. Rajpoots in that
country ftill preferved their independency, which they
have done all along, even to the prefent time.
In the year J158 the empire of Gazna fell to pieces, pivifion of
from the fame caufes by which other large and un-the empire
wieldy ftates have been deftroyed. The weftern and of *pazn.3»
largeft part, which ftill retained the name of Gazna,
was feized upon by the family of Gaurides, fo na- in Hindo- j
med from Gaur or Ghor, a province beyond the In- ft an by dif-
dian Caueafus; while thofe contiguous to both (boresad‘
of the Indus were allowed, to remain in the poffelTion ve“turer^'-
of Chufero or Cufroe, whofe capital was fixed at La¬
hore. In 1184 the pofterity of this prince were dri¬
ven out of their territories by the Gaurides ; by which
means the Mohammedans became neighbours to th€
Hindoos, and in a fliort time began to extend their
dominions to the eaftward. In f 194 Mohammed Go-
ri penetrated into Hindoftan as far as Benares, and
repeated the fame feenes of devaftation which had for¬
merly taken place under Mahmud Gazni. At this pe¬
riod major Rennel is of opinion, that the purity of the
language of Hindoftan began to decline, and conti¬
nued to do fo till it became what it is at prefent; the
original dialetl being what is called the Sanfcrit, and
which is now a dead language. Mohammed Gofi al-
fo reduced the fouthern part of the province of Age-
mere, and the territory to the fouth of the river Jum¬
na, taking polftfliou of the ftrong fortrefs of Gualior^
2. After*
MIN [ PS 1 H r N
Klndoftan. After Krs death in 1205, ^ie cnipire of Gazna was
—* again divided ; and the Patan or Alghan empire was
founded by Cutuib, who had the Indian part, the Per-
flan remaining to Eldoze. Cuttub fixed his imperial
refidence at Delhi; and in 1210 the greateil part of
Hindolfan Proper was conquered by the emperor A1-
tumilh, the fucceffor of Cuttub. After his time the
government of Bengal was always beftowed upon one
of the reigning emperor’s fons ; and during his reign
the bloody Conqueror Jenghiz Khan put an end to the
other branch of the Gaznian empire, known by the
name of Kharaftn ; of which revolution an account is
8 given under the article Gazna ; but Hindoftan was at
Rrft inva- that time left undifturbed. In 1242 the Moguls began
to make irruptions into Indofian, but did not at this
..oguis. tjme majje any permanent conqueft. The country
was now in much the fame ftate in which it had been
before the invufion of the Mahommedans, viz. divided
into a great number of Hates tributary to the empe¬
ror, but in a great meafure independent ; and which
did not fail to revolt whenever a favourable opportu¬
nity offered. The kingdom of Malwa, which had
been reduced by Cuttub in 1205, {hook-off the yoke
in the year 126^, and the Rajpoots were on every oc*
cafton ready to revolt, notwithitanding that their coun¬
try lay in the neighbourhood of the capital. The
moil dreadful maffacres, rebellions, and confufion, flow
took place, which from that period almoft to the time
that the Britifii government commenced, make up the
hiftoty of Hindoflan. The empire being parcelled
Out among a fet of rapacious governors, the people
were reduced to the lad degree of mifery, and were at
laft fo far milled as to imagine that it was their intereft
to take up arms, in order to render thefe governors in¬
dependent. Had the emperors of Hindoftan confulted
their true interell, they would have given up the pro¬
vinces which lay beyond the upper part of the Indus
and the deferts of Agimere ; as thefe formed a bar¬
rier which could not eafily be paffed by any invader.
By negledting this precaution, however, they at lall
gave an opportunity to the Moguls to penetrate into
their country ; and thefe, after feveral invafions, be¬
came at lall fo formidable, that they were permitted by
the emperors, in the year 1 292, to fettle in the coun¬
try. Ac this time the reigning emperor was Ferofe II.
of the tribe of Chilligi or Killigi, fo named from Ktl-
9 lige near the mountains of Gaflr; and in 1293 this
The coun- emperor pfojefted the conqueft of the Deccan; by which
try of De - was meant at that time ail the territory lying to the
can cor.- fouthward of the Nerbudda and Mahanada and Cat-
^tre ‘ tack rivers ; an extent of dominion almoll equal to all
that he. already poffeffed in Hindoftan. Ferofe was
incited to attempt this by the riches of one of the
princes of Deccan ; and the perfon who propofed it
was one Alla, governor of Gurrah, a country nearly
bordering upon that which he was about to invade.
Alla, having accomplilhed his undertaking, during
which he amaffed an incredible quantity of treafure,
depofed and murdered the emperor, affuming to him-,
felf the fovereignty of Hindoftan. He then began a
new plan of conqueft ; and the firft inftance of his fuc-
cefs was the reduction of Guzerat, a ftrong fortrtfsj
which had hitherto remained independent, and, while
it continued fo, was a ftrong obitacle to his defigns
iqpon the Deccan. He next reduced Rantanpout and
Cheitore, two of the ftrongeft forts in the Rajpoot Hinduftin.
country. In 1303 the city of Warangole, capital of v "■'Sfr
a kingdom of the Deccan, named Tellingana, was re¬
duced ; but in the midft of thefe conquefts the Mo¬
guls invaded the country from an oppoiite quarter, and
plundered the fuburbs of Delhi. Notwithftanding this
check the emperor refumed his plan of conqudl; the
remainder of Malwa was fubdued} and in 1 306 the
conqueft of the Deecan was again undertaken. The
condudt of the war was now committed to Cafoor}
who not only carried his army into Dowlatabad, but,
in 13 0, penetrated into the Carnatic alfo. The ex¬
tent of his conquefts in that country is not known ; and
indeed his expeditions feem to have been made with a
view rather to plunder than to atchieve any permanent
conqueft. Thequantity of riches he amaffed wasfo great,
that the fqldiers are faid to have carried away only the
gold, leaving lilver behind them as too cumberfome.
As the treafure carried off on this occafion had beea
accumulating for a number of ages, it is probable that
the country had long remained in a ftate of tranquillity.
Cafoor ftill proceeding in his conquefts, ravaged a -
fecond time the northern part of the Deccan, and
obliged the inhabitants of Tellingana and the Carnatic -
to become tributary to him. Rebellions took place
in 1322 ; but the country was again reduced in 1326,
and the whole Carnatic ravaged from one fea to the
other. This year Alla died, and his fucceffors, not
being poffeffed of his abilities, were unable to retam jo
the dominions he had left. Under the emperor Mo-Revolts amf
hammed III. the people of the Deccan again revolt-confufion
ed, and drove the Mahommedans fo completely out ofthTwhofc^
thefe countries, that nothing remained to them but empire,
the fortrefs of Dowlatabad. In 1344 the city of Bif-
nagar, properly Bijinagur,, was founded by Belaldeo
the king of Deccan, who had headed the inhabitants
in their late revolt. Mohammed in the mean time at¬
tempted to extend his dominions towards the call ; but
while he employed himfelf in this, many provinces were
loft by rebellions in Bengal, Guzerat, and thedPanjab.
His fucceffor Ferofe III. who afeended the throne in
1351, feemed more defirous of improving the remains
of his empire than of extending it; and, during his
reign, which continued for 37 years, agriculture and
the arts were the favourite objeiffs of his purfuit. Af¬
ter his death, in 1388, a rebellion and civil war took -
place, and continued for feveral years; and matters
were brought to a crifis in the time of Mahmud III.
who fucceeded to the throne in 1393 ; and, during
this time, the empire of Hindoftan exhibited the lin¬
gular circumftance of two emperors refiding in the
fame capital, and in arms againil each other. While Connuefls >
matters remained in this lituation, Tamerlane, after ha-and maf-'
ving fubdued all the weltern part of Tartary andfacresof
Alia, turned his arms againft hindoftan in the year ramerlaiie^
1398. His conqueft was eafy, and his behaviour fuch
as rendered him. worthy of the name by which he is
yet known in Hindoftan, “ the deftroying prince.’*
After having brought into captivity a vaft number of
the poor inhabitants, he caufed a general maffacre to
be commenced left, they Ihould join the enemy-in cafe
of any fudden emergency; and in confequence of this
cruel order, upwards of too,coo were put to death in
one hour. In the beginning of the year 1399 fie was
met by the Indian army, whom he defeated with great
ilaughteiv, '
H I N I 526 1 H I N
■Bind' ft an. (laughter, and foon after made himfelf mafter of the poftor Mohammed, and his pofterity continued to en - Hmdoflan.
imperial city of Delhi. At this time the capital con- joy it till the year 1450 ; when Belloli, an Alghan of "■ V" ^
■KRoA ft,-00 nampit n/A dm;. and the tribe of Lodi, took poffeflion of it, the reigning
lifted of three cities, named Old Delhi, Seyri, and Je-
han Penah. Seyri was furrounded with a wall in the
form of a circle; and Old Delhi was the fame, but
much larger, lying to the fouthweft of the other.
Thefe two were joined on each fide by a wall; and the
prince Alla II. having abdicated the government. Un¬
der him all Hindoftan was divided into feparate Hates;
and a prince, whofe title was the king of the Eajl, who
refided at Jionpour in the province of Allahabad,
third, which was larger than the other two, lay be- became fo formidable, that the king of Delhi had only
tween them. As the city made no refiftance, there a fliadow of authority remaining to him A confi-
could not be a pretence for ufing the inhabitants with derable part of the empire, however, was recovered by
any cruelty ; and thus matters pafled on quietly till the the fon of Bell'oli; who, in the year 1501, fixed his
j 2th of January, when the Tartar foldiers infulted royal refidence at Agra.. During his reign the Portu-
fome of the inhabitants at one of the gates. The guefe firft accomplifhed the paffage to India by the
iEmirs were ordered to put a ftop to thefe diforders, Cape of Good Hope, but they had no connexion with
but found it impoffible. The Sultanas, having a curi-
ofity to fee the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a
famous palace adorned with 1000 pillars built by an
ancient Indian king, went in with all the court; and
the gate being thus left open for every body, above
15,000 foldiers got in unperceived. But there was a
far larger number of troops in a place between the ci¬
ties above mentioned, who committed fuch diforders,
that an infurreflion commenced ; fome of the inha-
any other part of Hindoftan than fome maritime
places in the Deccan which had always been indepen¬
dent of the court of Delhi. In 1516, during the
reign of Ibrahim II. matters fell into fuch confufion
that Sultan Baber, a defeendant of Tamerlane, found
means to conquer a very confiderable part of the em¬
pire. His firft expedition took place in the year 1518 ;
and the year 1525 made himfelf mafter of Delhi.
In his laft invafion he is faid to have brought with him
bitants attacking them, while others, in defpair, fet only 10,000 horfe ; having been furnifhed with the
fire to their houfes, and burnt themfelves with their reft by the difaffe&ed fubje&s of the emperor. Du-
.wives and children. The foldiers, taking advantage of ring the five years that he reigned, his chief employ-,
this confufion, pillaged the houfes; while the diforder ment was the reduction of fome of the ealtern pro-
was augmented by the admiffion of more troops, who vinces, but had not time to compofe the difturbances
feized the inhabitants of the neighbouring cities that which took place throughout the whole of his domi-
had fled to Delhi for fhelter. The Emirs caufed the *     
gates to be (hut; but'they were quickly opened by
the foldiers, who rofe in arms again ft their officers ;
fo that, by the morning of the next day, the whole
■army was entered, and the city totally deftroyed.
Borne foldiers carried off no fewer than 150 flaves,
men, women, and children ; nay, fome of their boys
nions. On his death the feeds of rebellion, which Ba¬
ber had not been able to exterminate, produced fo
many revolts and infurredrions, that his fon Humaioon>
though a prince of great abilities and virtue, was dri¬
ven from the throne, and obliged to take ftielter among
the Rajpoot princes of Agimere, where he lived in
great diftrefs. During the time of his exile his fon
had 20 flaves a-piece to their fhare. The other fpoils Ackbar was born, whom Mr Rennel looks upon to be
■in jewels, plate, .and manufadlures, were immenfe : for
the Indian women and girls were all adorned with pre¬
cious ftones, and had bracelets and rings on their hands,
feet, and even toes, fo that the foldiers were loaded
one of the greateft princes that ever fat on the throne
of Hindoftan. The fovereignty was held in the mean
time by an ufurper, named Sheerkhan, who in <545
killed at the fiege of Cheitore, and buried in
with them. On the 15th the Indians attempted to defend magnificent maufoleum, of which Mr Hodges lately
themfelves in the great mofque of Old Delhi; but
being attacked by the Tartars, they were all flaughter-
ed, and towers ere&ed. A dreadful carnage now en¬
dued throughout the whole city, though feveral days
-elapfed before the inhabitants could be forced to quit
exhibited a drawing in this country. His territories,
at the time of his death, extended from the Indus to
Bengal; but fo unfettled was the government, that
after his deceafe no fewer than five fovereigns appear¬
ed in the fpace of nine years. This induced a ftrong
it entirely ; and as they went, the Emirs took many of party in Hindoftan to recal Humaioon; but he lived
them into their fervice. The artifans were alfo diftri- only one year after his return. ra
huted among the princes and commanders, all but the In 1555, Humaioon was fucceeded by his fon Ack- Reign of
mafons, who were referved for the emperor, in order bar, at that time only 14 years of age. During his Ack^ar»a
to build him a large (lone mofque at Samarcand. long reign of 51 years, he eftabliftied the empire on a^®*ce>
After this terrible devaftation, Tamerlane marched more fure foundation than it had probably ever been be-
into the different provinces of Indoftan, every where fore ; though even at this time Mr Rennel is of opinion,
defeating the Indians who oppofed him, and daughter- that all the tranquillity enjoyed by the people was
ing the Ghebrs or worlhippers of fire. On the 25th merely that there was no aftual rebellion. The firft
of March he retired, and thus fet the miferable inha- years of his reign were fpent in reducing the provinces
bitants free from the moft bloody conqueror that had which had revolted from Agimere to Bengal; and the
ever invaded them. He did not, however, difturb the obedience of thefe he took care to fecure as well as
fucceffion to the throne, but left Mahmud in quiet polfible by a careful choice of governors ; particularly
poffefiion of it, referving to himfelf only that of the , by an unlimited toleration in religious matters, and an
Panjab country. The death of Mahmud, which hap- attention to the rights and privileges of the people. In
   ijSy, he refolved to invade the Deccan, which had hi¬
therto refifted the power of the Mogul princes. The
war continued for 20 years ; during all which time no
farther
pened in 1413, put an end to what is called the Patan
dynafty, founded by Cuttub in 1205. He was fuc-
-egeded by Chizer, who derived his pedigree from the im-
H I N [ 527 ] H I N
Hindoftan. farther progrefs was made than the reduftion of the
  weftern part of Berar, Candei/b, Tellingana (a divifion
of Golconda), and the northern part of Amednagur ;
the capital of which, named alfo Amednagiir, was taken
in 1601, after a long and bloody liege, and an ufuccefs-
ful attempt of the princes of the Deccan to relieve it.
Under his fuccelfor Jehan Guire, the project was but
13 faintly carried on ; the empire was difturbed by the re-
Bad con- bellion of Shah Jehan the emperor’s fon; and the infiu-
fu«effors'S ence N°or Je^an h's miftrefs perplexed the councils
of the nation. In this prince’s reign Sir Thomas Roe,
the firfl Englifh ambalfador, arrived at the court of Hin-
dollan. The Portuguefe had now acquired conliderable
pofTeffions in Guzarat and Bengal, but only thofe in the
former province attra&ed the attention of the court; fo
that the Perlian hiftorian takes no notice of thofe in
Bengal. In the reign of Shahvjehan, who fucceeded
his father Jehan Guire in 1627, the conqueft of the
Deccan was more vigoroully pulhed than before ; and
the war was carried on in fuch a deftruftive manner,
that moft of the princes in thofe parts were fain to make
fubmiffion to the emperor. During this reign a war
took place with the Portuguefe, which ended in the ex-
pulfion of the latter from Hoogly on the Ganges. In
his private chara&er Shah Jehan was a very debauched
and wicked prince, which gave occafion to one of his
14 fons named Aureng-%ib or Aureng-zele, to dethrone him.
The empire This prince attained his end by a train of deep hypo-
raifed to itscrjjy an(j Jiffimulation ; covering his ambition with a
height by pretence of religion, and under that pretence commit-
Aureng- ting the greatefl. crimes. Pie engaged in a war with
zebe. two of his brothers, both of whom he defeated by un
forefeen accidents, when he himfelf feemed to be on
the brink of deftrudlion. Having at laft got them in¬
to his power, he put them both to death, and then la¬
mented their misfortune. One of his brothers who
affifted him, was rewarded firft with imprifonment, and
then with death. By the year 1660, he had attained
full polfeffion of the fovereignty, and from that time
to the year 1678 there reigned a profound tranquil¬
lity throughout the whole empire. In the latter part
of his reign he undertook the conqueft of the Deccan,
to which he was fuppofed to be incited by the refolu-
tion and growing power of Sevagee, the founder of the
Mahratta ftate ; and who, in that chara&er, appeared
almoft as a rival to Aurengztbe himfelf. Having
quelled a rebellion of the Patans, who lived beyond the
Indus, he perfecuted the Hindoos to fuch a degree,
that the Rajpoot tribes in Agimere commenced a war
againft him. On this occafion he headed his armies
alfo in perfon ; but having the misfortune to be hem*
med in among the mountains, he would certainly have
been taken prifoner, had not the enemy thought pro¬
per to allow him to efcape. They allowed alfo the
emprefs to make her efcape after Ihe had been a&ually
taken. In 1681 he renewed his incurfions into that
country, took and deftroyed Che&ure, committing
other devaftations, and every where deftroyingthe Hin-
doo-temples and obje&s of worihip ; but notwithftand-
ing all his efforts, he was at laft obliged to abandon his
enterprife, and allow them to remain in peace. From
the year 1678 to the time of his death in 1707, he
is faid to have been chiefly employed in the Deccan,
the greateft part of which he reduced, and for the laft
five years; of his life is faid to have been a Anally cm Hindoftan.
ployed in the field. This long abfence from his capi-
tal could not but be produ&ive of bad confequencesi
Rebellions broke out in various parts of the empire ;
and during this period, the Jats or Jauts firft made
their appearance in the province of Agra. They were
at firft only a fet of banditti; but have fince grown to
be a very confiderable ftate, and once were of fom*
cbnfequence in Upper Hindoftan. After the 10th
year of Aurengzebe’s reign, however, we know very lit¬
tle of his tranfa&ions, as he would not allow any hif-
tory of it to be written. At the time of his death the
empire extended from the 10th to the 35th degree of
latitude, and almoft as many degrees in longitude.
“ His revenue (fays Major Rennel) exceeded 35 mil¬
lions of pounds Sterling, in a country where the pro-
da&s of the earth are about four times as cheap as in
England. But fo weighty a fceptre could be wielded
only by a hand like Aurengzebe’s : and we accordingly
find, that in a courfe of 50 years after his death, a fuc-
ceffion of weak princes and wicked minifteis reduced
this aftonilhing empire to nothing.”
Aurengzebe left four fons; Maufum, afterwards em-fts quick
peror, under the title of Bahader Shah ; Azem, Kaum decline un~
Buih, and Acbar, who had been obliged to fly to Per*dcr his fusT
fia 30 years before on account of his having engagedceffor5*
in rebellion againft his father. A civil war inftantly
commenced between Azemand Mauzum ; the event of
which was decided in a great battle, where 300,000
combatants were brought into the field on each fide.
In this battle Azem was defeated and killed; after
which Mauzuma afcended the throne by the title of Ba¬
hader Shah. He was a prince of confiderable abilities;
but the diforders of the empire were already rifen to
fuch an height, that during his ihort reign of five
years, he found it impoffible to compofe them. He
was firft engaged in war with his brother Kaum Bufti,
whom he alfo defeated and killed; after which his at¬
tention was engaged by the Seiks, a new fet of religion-
ifts, who, during the reign of Shah Jehan, had filent-
ly eftabliftied themfelves along the foot of the eaftern
mountains. They now appeared in arms in the pro¬
vince of Lahora, and ravaged the whole country from
thence to the banks of the Jumna. The emperor march¬
ed againft thefe adverfaries in perfon, and with great
difficulty brought them under fubjedion. Pie then
took up his refidence at Lahore, where he died after
a fliort illnefs, without having ever vilited the imperial
cities of Agra or Delhi.
After the death of Bahader Shah the empire was
again contefted among his four fons. Of thefe the fe-
cond, named Azem Oofhaun, took poffefiion of the
treafures; but was oppofed by his three brothers, who
agreed to divide the empire among them. Azem waa
defeated and killed in a battle, gained chiefly by the-
valour and condud of the youngeft named Shah Jehan;
who feemed refolved to abide by the agreement, and an
a proof of his fincerity, ordered the treafures to be di¬
vided. This was prevented by the intrigues of Zool-
fecar khan, an omrah in high truft. A new civil war-
commenced, in which Jehan Shah was killed. The-
two remaining brothers tried their fortune in a third
battle, which left Jehaunder, the eldeft, in poffefiion off
the throne. In nine months he was dethroned by Fe*-
rakferej.
H I N [ 52S 1 H I N
; SJiri<56ftan. rakfere, or Furrokfere, fon to the deceafed Azem Oo-
fhaun ; having, during his fhort reign, difplayed almoft
anparalleled meannefs of fpirit.
This revolution was accompliflied by the affiflance
of two brothers, Hquffein Ali Khan and Abdoolia
Khan, who had extenfive governments in the eaftera
provinces. The calamities of the empire were not at
all abated during this reign. In 1713 the Seiks
appeared again in arms; and in 1716 were grown fo
formidable, that the emperor himfelf was obliged to
march againft them ;-but we are totally ignorant of the
particulars of this campaign. About this time the
Englith Eaft India company obtained the famous Fir-
-cheEaft In- mm or grant, by which their goods of export and im-
dia com. wr£re exempte^ from duties or cuftoms ; which
was regarded as the company’s commercial charter in
India, while they flood in need of proteftion from the
princes of that country.
Ferokfere was depofed, and his eyes put out by the
- two brothers who had rarfed him to the throne ; and in
. the courfe of the fame year two other emperors, whom
they afterwards fet up, were depofed and murdered :
and thus, in eleven years after the death of Aureng-
zebe, 11 princes of his line, who had either mounted
the throne or been competitors for it, were extermi¬
nated, while the government declined with fu:h rapi-
. dity, that the empire feemed ready to be difmembered
to a greater degree than it had even been before the
invafion of Tamerlane. In 1718 the two brothers
raifed to the throne Mohammed Shah, the grandfon
of Bahader Shah ; but this prince having got fufficient
warning by the fate of his predeceflbrs, took care to
rid himfelf of thefe powerful fubjefts, though this could
not be accomplilhed without a civil war. New ene¬
mies, however, ftarted up. Nizam-al-Muluk, viceroy
■ of the Deccan, had been for fome time augmenting
his power by every poffible method, and was evidently
afpiring at independence. Having received fome af¬
fronts from the two brothers, who for fome time had
ruled every thing with an abfolute fway, he thought
proper to retire to his government. In 1722 he was
invited to court, and offered the place of vizier or prime'
minifler, but declined accepting it,-while the growing
and formidable power of the Mahrattas furnifhed him
with a pretence for augmenting his army. At laft,
having by the year 1738 attained a fufficient degree
of ftrength to ?ccompli(h his purpofes, and confident
of his having a large party at court, he came thither
attended by a great body of armed followers. Find¬
ing, however, that the intereft of the emperor was ftill
too powerful for him, he invited the celebrated Perfian
fnvafion of ufurper Nadir Shah, commonly known by the name
TN’adir of Khouli Khan, to invade Hindoftan. The invitation
i£hah. lWas accepted, and Nadir entered the country without
oppofition. The imperial general Douran being killed
in a (kirmifti, no decihve engagement took place ; and
the Perfian chief, though far advanced into Hindoftan,
yet looked upon matters to be fo uncertain, that he
offered to evacuate the country and retire for 50 lacks
of rupees, about half a million fterling. The intrigues
of the Nizam and his party hindered the emperor from
complying with this moderate demand ; inftead of
which he abfurdly threw himfelf upon the ufurper’s
jncrcy, who then took poffeffion of Delhi, demanding
*54-
16
fFirman
' granted to
a ranfom of 30 millions fterling. At an interview with Hindoftsn.
the emperor, he feverely reprimanded him for his mif- —
condudt; however he told him, that as he was of the
race of Timur (Tamerlane), who had not offended the
reigning family of Perfia, he would not take the em¬
pire from him ; only as he had put him to the trouble
of coming fo far to fettle his affairs, he infilled that his
expences ftiould be paid. The unfortunate emperor
made no anfwer to this fpeech ; but Nadir took care
to enforce the latter part of it. Some time after the
departure of the emperor, Nadir went to the camp to
pay him a vifit; where he feized upon 200 cannon,
with fome treafure and valuable effects, fending them
off immediately to Candahar. He then marched back
to Delhi, where a mob arofe about the price of corn.
As Nadir Shah w'as endeavouring to quell it, a mufleet
was defignedly fired at him, by which he narrowly ef-
caped being killed. Exafperated at this, he command- jg
ed an indiferiminate maffacre to be made, which his Inhabitants
cruel foldiers inftantly put in execution with the greateft of Delhi
alacrity, and i 20,000, or, according to others, 150,000, flaU^te1’*
of the miferable inhabitants were flaughtered without6^"
mercy. This was followed by a feizure of all the
jewels, plate, and valuable articles which could be
found, befides the exadtion of the 30 millions, which
was done with the utmoft rigour ; infomuch that many
of the inhabitants chofe rather to put an end to their
own lives than to bear the torments to which they
were fubjedted in cafe of inability to pay the fum im-
pofed upon them. During thefe horrid feenes. Nadir
caufed the marriage of his fon to be celebrated with a
grand daughter of Aurengzebe ; and after having ex¬
torted every thing which he demanded, at laft. took
leave of the emperor with every mark of fricndftiip.
He put the crown upon his head with his own hands;
and after having given him fome falutary advice rela¬
tive to the government of his empire, he fet out from
Delhi on the 6th of May 1739. 19
By this invafion the empire fuftained prodigious lofs. Miferable
Since the arrival of Nadir in Hindoftan, about 200>00Q ^ndoftan
people had been deftroyed, and goods and treafure car- a)t1^ ^i3a11
ried off to the amount of 125 millions fterling. Mo-departure,
hammed had ceded to the ufurper all the provinces of
Hindoftan fituated to the weft of the Indus. His de¬
parture left the Nizam in poffeffion of all the remain¬
ing power in the empire, which he inftantly made ufe
of to eftablilh himfelf in the fovereignty of the Deccan.
The province of Bengal had already become indepen¬
dent under Aliverdy Cawn, in the year 1738 ; and not
long after, it was invaded by a vaft army of Mahrattas
under fandlion of the empetor’s name; who being un¬
able to fatisfy them in the arrears of tiibute he had
been obliged to confent to pay, fent them into Bengal
to colledl for themfelves. About the fame time, the
Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains which lie between
India and Perfia, creeled an independent Hate on the
eaft of the Ganges, within 80 miles of Delhi.
The total diffolution of the empire feemed now to
be faft approaching. In the confufion which took
place after the murder of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, one
of his generals, feized upon the eaftern part of Perfia,
and the adjoining provinces of India, which had been
ceded to Nadir by Mohammed Shah-; which he form¬
ed into a kingdom ftill known by the name of Canda¬
har
H I N [ 529 ] H I N
i.'xrlindoftan. lar or Abdalli; of which a more particular account is
'-;1 v — given in the fubfequent part of this article.
This year Mohammed Shah died, after a reign of
29 years ; which, confidering the fate of his immediate
predeceffors, and the anarchy univerfally prevalent
throughout Hindoftan, mull be accounted very won¬
derful. He was fucceeded by his fon Ahmed Shah ;
cfuring whofe reign, which lafted about fix years, the
total divifion of the remainder of the empire took
place. Nothing now remained to the family of Ta¬
merlane but a fmall trail of territory round the city of
Delhi, now no longer a capital, and expofed to the re¬
peated depredations of invaders, with confequent maf-
facres and famines. The laft army which could with
propriety be termed imperial, was defeated by the Ro-
hillas in 1749 5 by which their independence was fully
eftablilhed in the eaftern parts of the province of Del¬
hi. The Jauts, 01 Jats, a Hindoo tribe, ellablilhed
themfelves in the province of Agra ; the Deccan and
Bengal were feized upon by their viceroys,* Nizam and
Aliverdy. Oude was feized on by Seifdar Jang (fa¬
ther to the late Sujah Dowlah); Allahabad by Moham¬
med Kocli. Maliva was divided between the Poonah
Mahrattas and feveral native princes and Zemindars ;
Agimere reverted of courfe to its ancient lords, the Raj¬
poot princes ; and the Mahrattas, in addition to their
proper lhare of Maliva, pofTefled the greatdl part of
Guzerat, Berar, and Orifla ; belides their ancient do¬
minions in the Deccan. Thefe people were now be¬
come fo powerful, that they were alternately courted
and employed by the contending parties, like the Swifs
iu Europe ; with this difference, that the Swifs are paid
by thofe who employ them, whereas the Mahrattas al¬
ways take care to pay themfelves. Abdalla having
eftablilhed his empire in the manner above related, en¬
tered Lahore and Moultan, or the Panjab, with a view
to conqueft. “ The whole country of Hindoftan was
in commotion (fays Major Rennel) from one entrance
to the other, each party fearing the machinations or
attacks of the other ; fo that all regular government
was at an end, and villany was pradlifed in every form.
Perhaps in the annals of the world it has ftldom hap¬
pened that the bonds of government were fo fuddenly
diffolved, over a portion of country containing at leaft
ao 60 millions of inhabitants.”
I Firft inter- In 1748 the Nizam died at the age of 104, and was
H ference of fucceeded by his fon Nazirjung, to the prejudice of his
1 ,he French eldeft brother Gazi, vizier to the nominal emperor,
in theaf- ^ie COHtt^s t^iat followed on this occafion for the
fairs of throne of the Deccan, and nabobfhip of Arcot, firft
Hindoftan. engaged the French and Englilh as auxiliaries on op-
pofite fides. This was followed by a long feries of ho-
ililities, which terminated in the total expulfion of the
French from Hindoftan, the entire humiliation of the
Mogul, and his being reduced to the ftate of a mere
tool of the Englilh Eaft India company ; together with
the fubjedlion of a vaft tradt of country to the latter.
Thefe tranfadlions have occaftoned very confiderable
revolutions, not only in the country properly called
Hindojlan, but in other places of that extenfive tradl
ai called the Eajl Indies : for feme account of which fee
Different the article India.
powers The vaft country of Hindoftan is at prefent divided
among among the following powers.
Toftan u 1* Timur Shah, fon of Ahmed Shall, or Abdallah,
divided! Vol.VIII. Part II.
poffeffes an extent of territory to the north weft ward Hindoftan.
before we come to the river Indus. This country, ex-
tending all the way betwixt India and Perfia, is known
by the name of Duran, or Turan ; and was poffeffed
by the Afghans, of whom Abdallah became the fove-
reign. He was defcended from an illuftrious family j
and having the misfortune of being taken prifoner by
Huffein Khan, then chief of Kandahar, along with
his brother Zulfecur Khan, they were releafed by
the celebrated Nadir Shah in his paffage through that
country to Hindoftan ; but as that conqueror Hill
looked upon them with a jealous eye on account of
their great influence with their countrymen, both were
fent to Mazandaran in Perfia. Here Zalfecur Khan,
the brother of Ahmed, died 5 and, fome time after,
we find the latter promoted to the command of a body
of Afghan cavalry in the Perfian army. He continued
attached to the interefts of Nadir while that conqueror
lived; and even attempted, though ineffedlually, to
revenge his death. Proving unfuccefsful in this at¬
tempt, he returned to his own country ; and, arriving
at Kandahar, was fainted chief of the Afghans. In
the courfe of a few months he became mafter of all
the countries which the Mogul had been obliged to
cede to Nadir Shah; and, encouraged by the diftradled
ftate of the affairs of Hindoftan at that time, he croffed
the Indus, and plundered the country to the fouth-
eaft. An indecifive battle fought with the Indian
army under the command of the prince royal and
vizier, in which the latter was killed, obliged Ahmed
to return to his own territories; but he foon undertook
another expedition, in which he conquered the pro¬
vince of Lahore. In 1755 he returned; and after
flaying fome time at Lahore, marched to Delhi the
capital, having been invited thither, as was fuppofed,
by the Mogul himfelf, in order to get rid of the ty¬
ranny of his vizier. The latter was accordingly de-
ferted in a battle by orders of the emperor, and obli¬
ged to furrender himfelf prifoner : but inftead of be¬
ing put to death, he had the addrefs to ingratiate
himfelf with the conqueror ; and the unfortunate Al-
lumghire, the Mogul, was obliged to fubmit to be
ruled by him as before. Ahmed took care to indem¬
nify himfelf for his trouble, by laying the city of Delhi
under a heavy contribution ; and having ftaid for about
a month, during which time he concluded a marriage
betwixt his fon Timur and the emperor’s niece, he
marched againft a tribe of Hindoos named the Jauts,
and conquered the greateft part of the province of
Agra. In this expedition he furprifed the city of
Matra, famous for being the birth-place of Kri/hen,
the Apollo of the Hindoos; and facrificed to the Gopia,
the mufes of the country. He failed in his attempt
to furprife Agra through the refolution of Fazil Cawn
the governor ; after which he led back his troops to
Delhi, where he married the daughter of Mohammed
Shah the late emperor, whom Allumghire had in vain
iblicited for himfelf.
Having fettled his fon Timur in the government of
Lahore, Ahmed quitted Hindoftan, and returned to
his dominions, where he found every thing in confu-
fion. Timur, who during his father’s abfence had
been frequently difturbed by the Seiks, a tribe ©f Hin¬
doos who profefs deifm, was in 1760 driven out by a
vail army of Mahrattas commanded by Roganaut Row
3U the
H I N [ 53° 1 H I N
the Paifhwa’s brother, of whom fo much mention has
already been made. Next year, however, Ahmed
croffed the Indus, and ealily recovered his former ter¬
ritories ; foon after which he became head of a league
formed among fome of the Indian princes, in order to
oppofe the overgrown power of the Mahrattas. In
this enterprife he proved fuccefsful; and overthrew the
Mahrattas in a decifive and very bloody battle, in
which more than 50,000 of them were killed on the
fpot. The purfuit lafted feveral days, and their vaft
army was totally difperfed ; Ahmed being every
where received with acclamations as the deliverer of
the faithful. In 1762 he again croffed the Indus, with
a view to conquer, or rather to exterminate, the Seiks,
whofe incurfions had become very troublefome, and
even dangerous, to his kingdom. Having defeated
their army, and forced them to take refuge in the
woods and ftrong holds, he fet a price on the heads of
all thofe who profeffed their tenets; 'and that with
fuch fuccefs, that heaps of them are faid to have been
piled up in all the principal towns in thefe parts. At
laft, hearing that they had affembled in great numbers
to celebrate an annual feftival, he marched with an
army to furprife them. The Seiks, however, were
well provided for his reception, and an obftinate battle
enfued. During the time of the engagement an eclipfe
of the fun happened, which, though difregarded by
the Seiks, greatly difmayed the fuperftitious Moham¬
medans. Ahmed was therefore defeated; and though
he frequently returned, was never able thoroughly to
fubdue that people. At laft, having been long affli&-
ed with an ulcer in his face, he died on the 15th of
July 1773, at a place named Kohtoba, among the
mountains of Kandahar, to which he had retired for
the fake of coolnefs, and was fucceeded by his fon
Timur, who dill continues to enjoy the fovereignty.
The dominions of this prince extend a very confider-
able way to the northward of the Indus, but he pof-
feffes nothing in Hindoftan belides the province of
Kalhmire.
2. The Seiks inhabit a country on the other fide of
the Indus, and making part of Hindoftan properly fo
called. They derive their origin from a Hindoo named
Nanuch of the call of Khatry. His father, named
Bala Caloo, poffeffed a fmall diftridt in the province of
Lahore named Telvandi, where Nanuck was born in
the year 1470. Like other founders of new feels or
nations, he is faid during his infancy to have given
many indications of his future fuperiority to the reft
of mankind. He feems, however, to have received
no farther education than what was common to young
men of his caft; viz. reading, writing, and arithmetic,
and hearing the faftras or commentaries on the facred
books. In his early youth he was married to a woman
of his own caft, by whom he had two fons. Being a
convert to the worfhip of the Invifible, or deifm, he
accuftomed himfelf to declaim againft the folly of wor-
fhipping idols, and the impiety of paying adoration to
any but the fupreme Being. At the age of 25 he left
his family to vifit Bengal and the eaftern parts of Hin¬
doftan ; in a fecond journey he vifited the fouth, and
in a third he went as far as Perfia and Arabia. On
his return from this laft journey, he expreffed a defire
of remaining in his native country ; and was furniihed,
according to his wilh, with a piece of ground on the
banks of the river Bavy, about 80 miles north-eaftward Hiudoftan.
from the city of Lahore. Here he took up his refi- '"v'-1
dence for the reft of his days ; and choofing to be free
from the cares of this world, he dwelt at a diftance
from his wife and children, who came occafionally to
vifit him. Having acquired great reputation for his
piety, wifdom, and learning, he died at the age of
70 ; and fiuce his death the place of his abode has ob¬
tained the name of Dihra Daira, or “ the place of
worfhip.,> His eldeft fon founded a fed! of devotees
named Nanuck Shoiy; but his fecond employed himfelf
in the ufual occupations of mankind. On account of
the oppreffion of the Mohammedan governors, however,
he removed from Telvandi, the eftate of his anceftors,
and fettled at Kartarpour, which his defeendants itill
poffefs. They are refpe&ed by the Seiks on account
of their being the pofterity of Nanuck, but are not
held in any veneration on a religious account.
The doctrines of Nanuck were taught by a favourite
difciple of his named Lhina, but on whom he bellowed
on his death-bed the appellation of Angud. By him
the doctrines of the fedt were colledted in a work
named Pothy, or “ the book and an hiltory of the
life of Nanuck himfelf was given in another named
Jenum Sally. Both thefe were written in a particu¬
lar kind of charadter called Gour Mouelty, and faid to
have been invented by Nanuck himfelf. Angud named
for his fucceffor another difciple called Amerdofs ; and
this method of continuing the fucceffion feems to have
been pradtifed as long as the difciples continued to
own one fupreme chief.
For many years the Seiks lived in peace, and gained
the good-will of the Mohammedap governors by their
quiet and inoffenfive behaviour. By degrees their
numbers and their power greatly increafed, but in
proportion to their good fortune, they feem to have
loft their virtue ; fo that their gourous, or chiefs, who
had hitherto borne the charadter of apoftles, at laft
flood forth as military leaders. The firft of thefe was
named Taigk, whofe fucceffor, named Govand Sin*,
was the tenth and laft of the gourous. He engaged in
a rebellion againft the government; but was at laft
obliged to fubmit, and even attended the emperor
Bahader Shah in perfon. At laft he was affaffinated
by a Petan foldier, not without a fufpicion of the
emperor himfelf being concerned. As he did not
name a fucceffor, his followers chofe a chief for them*
felves named Banda, who foon began to make depre¬
dations on his neighbours; but being at laft taken pri-
foner, and fent to Delhi with his family and many of
his countrymen, they were all put to an ignominious
death. By this execution the Seiks were fo much ex-
afperated, that they fwore eternal vengeance againft
the Mohammedans, and have ever fince manifefted a
moft implacable hatred againft them. Taking advan¬
tage of the diftradtion of the Mogul empire by the
invafion of Nadir Shah, they conquered feveral pro¬
vinces. Wherever they came they threw down, the
mofques, and obliged every one to quit the country
who refufed to embrace their tenets. Their war with
Ahmed Shah has been already mentioned. Since his
death they have recovered all the territories they loft
during their conteft with him; and now poffefs the
greateft part of Moultan, as well as feveral diftridts ia
the province of Delhi; including in their territories
''fiipindoflau
H I N [ 531 3 H I N
the whole of that rich country named the Panjab, on
account of five rivers which defcend from the northern
mountains, and inclofe or interfeft it, running after¬
wards into the Indus.
The Seiks, as has already been mentioned, worfhip
one God ; but without image, or believing in any me¬
diator. They eat all kinds of meat except beef; fpa-
ring the black cattle, in all probability, on account of
their utility. Pork is very generally eaten, probably
on account of its being forbidden by the Mohamme¬
dans. They are commonly drefled in blue, a colour
reckoned unlucky by the other Hindoos. Their drefs
confifts of blue trowfers of cotton, a fort of plaid ge¬
nerally chequered with blue and thrown over the right
fhoulder, with a blue turban. Their government is
lodged in an afiembly of different chiefs; but who, as
individuals, are independent of one another, and have
feparate territories. They meet annually, or oftener
if occafion requires, at a place called Antlerfer, which
is held in a kind of religious veneration ; where there
is a large tank lined with granite, and furrounded with
buildings, and beautifully ornamented. Their force is
very confiderable, amounting to no fewer than 200,000
cavalry. However, they can feldom be brought to
a& in concert, unlefs the whole nation be threatened
with fome imminent danger. They are a ftrong hardy
race of men, and capable of bearing much fatigue j
and fo expert in war, that of late almoft all the neigh¬
bouring countries have been laid under contribution
by them, feveral petty chiefs having confented to pay
them a fmall annual tribute in order to avoid their in-
curfions. When in the field, none but the principal
officers have tents, and thofe extremely fmall, fo that
they may be flruck and tranfported with the greater
quicknefs and facility. In cold weather the foldiers
wrap themfelves during the night in a coarfe blanket,
which in the time of marching is folded and carried
.on their horfe. Their country is well cultivated, po¬
pulous, and abounding in cattle, particularly horfes,
which are reckoned the belt in all Hindoftan. This
may probably be owing to the ftuds which were for¬
merly eftablifhed in different places of the province of
Lahore on account of the, Mogul himfelf. Stallions
were fent thither from Perfia and Arabia, and there
was a fixed order to fend to the ftuds in Lahore all
fuch Arabian and Perfian horfes as by any accident
fhould be rendered unfit for mounting. Notwithftand-
ing their deifm, the Seiks are faid to have a fuperfti-
tious veneration for their fword; infomuch, that before
one of them will eat with a perfon of another religion,
he draws his fword, and paffing it over the victuals,
repeats fome words of prayer, after which he will
freely partake of them. Contrary to the praftice
of all the other Hindoos, they diflike the fmoking
of tobacco.; but many-of them fmoke and chew
bang, which fometimes produces a degree of intoxi¬
cation.
3. The provinces of Delhi have, in the courfe of a
few years, frequently changed their mailers, but have
fcarce at any period during that time been under the
authority of the fovereign. Their laft governor was
named Nadjiff Khan, under the title of generaliflimo
of the emperor. He was involved in the ruin of Mo¬
hammed Kouly Khan, coufin to Soujah al Dowlah ;
after which he went to Caffim Aty Khan nabob pf
Bengal; after whofe expulfion he retired with a party
of horfe to Bundelcund into the fervice of Rajah Coman
Sing. He next joined the Engliih; and at laft became
the general of Shah Allum. With a body of Engliih
feapoys who had been put under his command, 0and
fome other troops whom he had taken into his fervice,
he fubdued the countries near Delhi, conquered almoft
all the territories of the Jauts, reducing the cities of
Agra, Dieg, and other principal towns. Thefe con-
quefts were indeed effe&ed in the name of the Mogul,
but he derived little benefit from them ; Nadjiff being
the real mafter, and keeping poffeffion of them till his
death, which happened in 1782 : and fince that time
the countries we (peak of have been involved in a fcene
of continual anarchy and bloodftred.
4. Next to the provinces of Delhi are the dominions
of the independent rajahs, whofe dominions lie conti¬
guous to one another. The principal are thofe of
Joinagar or Jaypour, Joadpour or Marwar, Oudiapour
or Chitore, and Jefalmire. Thefc countries are under
a kind of feudal conftitution, and every village is ob¬
liged to furnifti a certain number of horfemen at the
Ihorteft warning. The people are brave, hardy, and
very much attached to their refpe&ive chiefs; and their
army is very formidable, amounting when colle&td to
about 150,000 horfemen.
5. The Jauts were a tribe who followed the occu¬
pation of agriculture in the northern parts of Hindof¬
tan. About 40 years ago they were formed into a
nation by Tackou Souragemul, proprietor of an in-
confiderable diftridl. After making himfelf mafter of
all the countries dependent on Agra, of the town it-
felf, and many other important places, he was killed
in battle with Nadjib ul Dovvlah, the Rohilla chief, in
1763. Since that time the power of this people has
been fo much reduced by domeftic contentions and
foreign wars, that the prefent rajah poffeffes only a
ftrong town named Bartpoor, with a fmall diftria:
around it. The Jauts, however, it is faid, are now
manifefting a martial difpofition, and thus may poffibly
be foon in a condition to recover their former extent
of territory.
6. The moft confiderable of all the Hindoo powers
are the Mahrattas, with_ whom the Europeans firft
became acquainted in their original territories of Ma¬
labar. The firft of their chiefs was named Seeva, or
Seevajee; who is faid to have been defcended from the
ancient Hindoo emperors, and whofe father was lord
of a fmall diftri<ft, for which he paid tribute to the
Mohammedan king of Viziapour. For fome reafon,
unknown to us, he was at laft arrefted by order of
that king, and died in confinement; but his fon
Seeva-jee took up arms in defence of his country, and
made himfelf mafter of feveral important places, with
a confiderable trad of territory, which were afterwards
ceded to him by the queen-regent, the king of Vizia¬
pour having died foon after the commencement of the
war.
Seeva-jee having thus eftabliihed himfelf, foon became
foimidable to his neighbours. Many of the Hindoo
princes put themfelves under his protedion, and he at
length ventured to make war upon the emperor Aureng-
^ebe. In this he proved unfuccefsful, wastaken prifoner,
and carried to Delhi. Having found means, however, to
tnake his efcape, he quickly recommenced hoftilities;
3 U 2 and
H I N
[ 532 1
H I N
Hindoftan. and the emperor, who was now far advanced in life, kind named the Bheemtrteddy horfe, which is greatly Hindoftan.
bought proper to come to an accommodation with fo efteemed, and fold at a very high price. The com- —
troublefome an enemy. On this occafion the Mahrat- mon horfe of thefe parts is lean and looks ill, but is
tas pretend that their prince obtained a grant of \oper abundantly fit for the purpofes of war. The only
cent, on all the revenues of the Deccan; which has weapon ufed by the horfemen is a fabre; in the ufe of
often ferved as a pretence to invade that country, and
levy contributions on the fouthern nabobs. Since that
time the Mahrattas have become fo powerful, that all
the princes of Hindoftan are alarmed when they put
themfelves in motion. Their territories extend about ferent chiefs; and there are likewife many jundis or
IOOO miles in length and 700 in breadth; and they great herds of horfes belonging to particular perfons,
are governed by a number of feparate chiefs, all of who turn thofe they have no occafion for loofe in the
whom acknowledge the Ram Rajah as their fovereign,
and all except Moodajee Booflah acknowledge the
which they are fo dexterous, that it is fuppofed the beft
European huflar would not be more than a match for
a Mahratta horfeman. There are confiderable finds
in every province belonging to the Paiihwa and dif-
open plains.
The Mahratta horfemen are dreffed in ;
quilted
Paifirwa as his vicegerent. The capital of the fovereign jacket of cotton, which is fuppofed to be one of the
was Sattarah ; but the Paifhwa generally refides at beft defences againft a fword that can eafily be con-
Poonah, one degree to the fouthward, and about 100 trived of equal lightnefs ; but the heat of the climate
miles diftani from Bombay. The country extends frequently renders it neceffary to be taken off. The
along the coaft nearly from Goa to Cambay. On the reft of their drefs confifts of a pair of trowfers, and a
fouth it borders on the territories of Tippoo Saib; on kind of broad turban which defeends low enough to
the eaft it has thofe of the Nizam and the rajah of cover the neck and (boulders. In cafes of emergency
Berar; and on the north thofe of the Mahratta chiefs the horfemen carry provifion both for themfelves and
Sindia and Holkar. their horfes in a fmall bag tied upon the faddles: the
7. The rajah of Berar, befides that country, has food of the rider confifts only of a few fmall cakes with
the greateft part of Orixa. His dominions extend a little flour or rice, and fome fait and fpices; the
about 600 miles in length from eaft to weft, and 250 hoife is fed with a kind of peas named gram, or with
from north to fouth. The eaftern part of the Orixa balls made of the flour of thefe peas mixed with but-
«>xtends along the fea-coaft for about 150 Englifh ter, prepared after a certain manner, and named ghee,
miles, and divides the Britifh poffeffions in Bengal together with fome garlic and hot fpices. • Thefe balls
from thofe commonly called the Northern Circars. On are given by way of cordial, and have the property of
the weft his territories border upon thofe of the Pailh- invigorating the animal after extraordinary fatigue,
wa; on the fouth, upon thofe of the Nizam, Mahomet Sometimes it is faid that they add a fmall quantity of
Hvat a Patan chief, Nizam Shah, and Ajid Sing, lang; a kind of drug which poffeffes an exhilarating
The rajah himfelf refides at Nagarpour, about midway virtue, and produces fome degree of intoxication.
The Mahratta cavalry feldom make any ufe of tents:
the officers frequently have no other accommoda-
betwixt Calcutta and Bombay.
8. Madajee Sindia has the greateft part of the go¬
vernment of Malva, together with the province of tion than a fmall carpet to fit and lie on ; and a fingle
Gardeifti. The remainder is under the government of camel is able to carry the whole baggage of the gene-
Holkar; who, as well as Sindia, pretends to be de- ral. The officers, however, are generally well mount-
feended from the ancient kings of Malva. The prin- ed, and have fpare horfes in the field.
cipal refidence of Sindia is at Ugein near the city of
Mundu, which was once the capital of thefe kings.
All the fubje&s and vaffals of the Mahratta princes
are generally ready to follow them into the field; and
Holkar refides at Indoor, a town little more than 30 in any cafe in which the honour or intereft of the na-
miles to the weftward of the former. The dominions tion appears to be concerned, they generally unite in
of thefe, and fome other princes of fmaller note, ex- the common caufe. Before they invade any country,
tend as far as the river Jumma. the general is at great pains to inform himfelf of the
The two laft mentioned princes, though properly nature and fituation of it; and they have now made
Mahrattas, own no allegiance to the Ram Rajah or incurfions into fo many different parts of Hindo-
great chief to whom the main body are nominally fub- ftan, that there are but few countries there with
jeft. Some time ago the Mahrattas aimed at the con- which they are not very well acquainted. Their great
queft of all Hindoftan, and even avowed a defign of fobriety, and the fatigue they are capable of undergo-
expelling all the Mohammedan princes; but their power ing, render them very dangerous enemies. In all their
was effe&ually checked by the Britifti, and their diffen- expeditions the foldier firft provides for his horfe, and
lions among themfelves put an end to all fchemes of that then goes to his own meal; after which he lies down
kind. Still, however, they were ready to watch every contented by the fide of the animal, and is ready to
opportunity of invading the territories of their neigh- mount him at the firft found of the nagar or great
bours; andtheirrefourcesbeingfoconfiderable,they were drum. They have their horfes under the moft ex-
defervedly accounted a very formidable enemy. The cellent management; and by perpetually careffing and
ftrength of their army confifts ohitfly in cavalry ; and converfing with them, the animals acquire a degree of
both men and horfe are capable of enduring a great deal
of fatigue. Bodies of 50 or 60,000 cavalry have been
known to travel 50 miles a day for many days toge-
docility and fagacity unknown in other countries.
When on an expedition, the horfes are accuftomed to
eat grafs pulled up by the roots, which is faid to be
ther; which, confidering the exceffive heat of the very nutritive, and to be deftitute of that purgative
country, muft certainly appear very furprifing. The
country abounds very much in horfes, and there is one
£
quality which belongs to the blade alone. When they
make an invafion, the devaftation is terrible j the cattle
H I N [ 533 1 H I N
Hindoftan. ar« driven off, the harveft deftroyed, the villages burn-
‘■—’■Y"'"-'' ed, and every human creature deftroyed who comes
in their way. Notwithftanding this barbarity in time
of war, however, they are very humane in time of
peace, living in great harmony among themfelves, and
being always ready to entertain and affift ftrangers.
• Many of the cruelties they commit may be juftly reck¬
oned the effects of retaliation for other cruelties exer-
cifed upon them by their adverfaries. Thus in 1771,
after having given Hyder Ally a great defeat, they cut
off the ears and nofes of a whole regiment of prifoners,
and in that condition fent them back to their comman¬
der in return for his having done the fame to a few
prifoners he had taken fome time before.
The revenue of the Paiftiwa is very confiderable ;
being not lefs than ten millions fterling; but after de¬
ducing the expence of colleCion, and the expence of
troops kept in readinefs for the fervice of the ftate, it
is fuppofed that he cannot receive more than four
millions. From this again we muft deduft the ex-
pences of the troops immediately belonging to the Pa-
ilhwa himfelf, and which may amount to about three
millions fterling ; fo that there remains a furplus only
of one million after paying all the neceffary expences
of government. This neverthelefs has been managed
with fuch economy, that though long and expenfive
wars were carried on after the death of Narrain Row,
the ftate was not only clear of debt, but there was a
furplus of two millions in the treafury, which Rogo-
bah difiipated.
9. The Deccan, as left in 1748 by Nizam al Mulek,
was by far the moft important and extenfive foubadary
or viceroy ihip in the empire. It then furpaffed in fize
the largeft kingdom in Europe ; but fince that time
many provinces have been conquered by the Mahrattas,
and the northern Circars by the Britilh. The poffef-
fions of the Nizam are alfo diminifhed by the ceffion
of the Carnatic to the nabob of Arcot; great part of
the territories of Tippoo Saib ; and many other pro¬
vinces of lefs note. Still, however, the Nizam poffeffes
very confiderable territories; but his finances are in fuch
a wretched condition, and his provinces fo ill govern¬
ed, that he is accounted a prince of no confequence,
though otherwife he might be reckoned one of the
moft confiderable powers of Hindoftan.
10. The dominions of Tippoo Saib, the fon and fuc-
ccffor of Hyder Ally, are bounded on the north by the
territories of the Paifhwa; on the fouth by Travancore,
the territory of an independent Hindoo prince; on the
weft by the fea; and on the eaft by a great ridgeof moun¬
tains, which feparate them from the territories of the
nabob of Arcot. The country lying to the eaftward
of thefe mountains is called the Carnatic Payen Ghat,
and to the weftward the Carnatic Bhalla Ghat. The
latter belongs to Tippoo Saib; and the two toge¬
ther make up the country formerly named the Carna¬
tic, though the name is now reftridled to the Payen
Ghat. The fituation of the Bhalla Ghat is confider-
ably more elevated than the other; by which means
the temperature of the air is much cooler. On the
coaft of Coromandel there is a pile of ruins called by
the natives Malamipatam, and by the Britifti the /even
pagodas. Concerning this there is a tradition, that it
once ftood at a confiderable diftance from the fea ;
though moft of the ruins are now covered with water:
and there is likewife a tradition, that the mountains Hindoflam
we fpeak of once formed the boundary of the ocean. "““f.
The revenue and ftrength of Hyder Ally are faid to
have been greatly exaggerated; the former amounting
to no more than four millions annually, though by his
economy and good management he made it anfwer
every purpofe both in time of war and peace. He
was at great pains to introduce the European difei*
pline among his troops; but notwithftanding all his
endeavours, he was far from being able to make them
cope with the Britilh. The advantages he gained were
owing to his vaft fuperiority in cavalry, and the cele¬
rity of his marches; which would have been cdunter-
a&ed had his adverfaries been poffeffed of a good body
of cavalry ; and it is probable that the event of the war
would have been decided in a fingle campaign. His
fon Tippoo Saib is faid to be a man of lefs abilities
than his father, though more violent in his difpofition.
Againft this prince hoftilities have lately been com¬
menced by the Britifli in conjunftion with the Mah¬
rattas, between whom an alliance had been formed.
But this event has not as yet been attended with any
confequences that merit a detail. Ja
With regard to the prefent government of Hin-Govem-
doftan, our limits will not allow us to enter particu- mert of
larly upon it, nor indeed is it perhaps of any impor- Hindoftac#
tance, as the country is divided into fo many different
kingdoms; the fovereigns of which, however they may
differ in other refpe&s, feem all to agree in defpotifm
and oppreffion of their fubje&s. As a very confider¬
able part is now under the dominion of Britain, it
may be neceffary to take fome notice of the behaviour
of our countrymen in that part of the world, efpecially
as an idea of their excefiive defpotifm and oppreffion
of the natives has of late prevailed fo much, that the
national charafiter has fuffiered confiderably by it.
This has ajifen partly from the great pains taken to
propagate it, and partly from the ignorance of thofe
among whom the report was circulated; and the ex-
aggerated accounts and contentions of the members of
the government themfelves, have contributed no lefs
to confirm and heighten the prejudices of the public.
The Britiffi territories in the Eaft Indies were ori- Defence of
ginally under the jurifdi&ion of a governor and 13 the
members; but this number has fluctuated occafionally^
from 14 to 4, at which it was fixed by adl of parlia-^1
ment. In this council all matters, whether relating to
peace or war, government or commerce, were debated,
the governor having no other fuperiority than that of
giving the cafting vote. In other refpedls the whole
executive power was lodged in his hands, and all the
correfpondence with the native princes of India was
carried on by his means, the difpatches to them be¬
ing figned by him fingly ; and all the princes and great,
men who vifited the prefidency were firil received by
him, and then introduced to the counfellors. He was
military governor of Fort William, and commander in
chief of the prefidency ; whence, as by his office he
was invefted with a confiderable degree of power, he
became an objett of fome envy and jealoufy to the
members of the council and other confiderable people
in that part of the world. In confequence of this, the
government was divided into two parties, one fiding
with the governor, and the other oppofing him ; in.
confequence of which, the debates were frequently car-
H I N l 534 T H I N
Hindoftan. vied on with fuch heat and violence, that the records
'■"'“V ’1 of the company are frequently ftufted with nothing but
accounts of the contentions of thefe jarring parties.
This indeed may be looked upon as one of the prin¬
cipal caufes by which the reputation of the Britifh go¬
vernment in the eaftern parts of the world has fuffered;
for as there were very frequently opinions diametri¬
cally oppolite to one another recorded upon the fame
fubjeft, the contending parties in the Britilh parlia¬
ment had always fufficient authority for what they
faid, let them take which fide they would; and thus
the charafters of all concerned in the Eall India go¬
vernment were, by one pefrfon or other, fet forth in the
moft opprobrious light.
Another fource of reproach to the Britilh govern¬
ment in India was, that the court of diredlors in Eng¬
land became infedled with the fame fpirit of party and
contention which pervaded all other departments of
the ftate. Lord Clive and Mr Sullivan were the two
great leaders in thefe party-difputes; and as the in-
tereft of the one or the other prevailed, different per-
fons were appointed to the adminiftration, and diffe¬
rent meafures adopted. The event of all this was,
that whenever a new adminiftration was formed, the
firft objeft was to condemn the meafures of thofe who
had gone before them. Thus, in the year 1764, when
Lord Clive was made governor of Bengal, the new di-
redlors reprefented the affairs of the company as in the
worft fituation imaginable, from which they could on¬
ly be extricated by the abilities of Clive. On the ar¬
rival of the latter in the eaft, he took care to write
home reports to the fame purpofe, and to condemn in
the moft violent manner every thing that had been
done ; the whole body of the company’s fervants were
cenfured indifcriminately without being allowed any
means of defence, as they were in truth ignorant of
the charges brought againft them. When the affairs
of the company were brought under a parliamentary
review in the year 1774, the government was brought
under a new regulation. It now confifted of a gover¬
nor-general and four counfellors ; three of whom were
fent from England; two being military gentlemen of
high rank, and the third a gentleman employed in the
war-office. On their arrival they proceeded in the
fame manner that Lord Clive had done before them:
they pronounced in the moft decifive manner, that the
company’s affairs were in a ruinous ftate ; and that
every fpecies of corruption had been pia&ifed by the
former government. This general accufation, unfup-
ported by any kind of evidence, was the conftant
theme of the difpatches fent by them to England 5
and thus has the reputation of tbe Britifh government
fuffered exceedingly through the unwarrantable liber¬
ties which its own fervants have been allowed to take
with one another. It muft alfo be confidered, that
from the remote fituation of India, and the unavoid¬
able ignorance of its affairs on that account, it was
eafyfor any perfon, whofe malicious purpofes it might
fuit, to prejudice the public againft the fervants of the
company to as great a degree as he pleafed. Hence
fome perfons, foured by difappointment, or envious of
the fuppofed emoluments of others, reprefented matters
in fuch an unfair light to their correfpondents in Eng¬
land, that the moft unjuft and fliameful charges were
■frequently brought againft. innocent perfons, which they
could neither prevent nor defend themfelves againft. Hindofla*.
The dreadful famine which took place in Bengal in the v—^
year 1769, offered to thefe malevolent perfons a moft
fruitful fource of calumny; and many individuals were
accufed of having brought on this dreadful calamity,
which arofe entirely from a natural caufe, ws. the fail¬
ure of the rains, and which no human power could
have prevented or removed.
Opinions of this kind have not only been circulated
through the ifland of Britain in the moft open man¬
ner, but have even appeared in fome very refpe&able
publications. Thus in Mr Smith’s Treatife on the
Wealth of Nations, when fpeaking of the oppreffion
arifing from monopolies, and comparing their effe&s
in different ftates : “ The Englifti company (fays he)
have not yet had time to eftablilh in Bengal fo per¬
fectly deftru&ive a fyftem. The plan of the govern¬
ment, however, has had exaflly the fame tendency.
It has not been uncommon, I am well affured, for the
chief, that is, the firft cletk of a faftory, to order a
peafant to plow up a rich field of poppies, and fow it
with rice or fome other grain. The pretence was to
prevent a fcarcity of provifions; but the real reafon,
to give the chief an opportunity of felling at a better
price a large quantity of opium he had on hand. Upon
othet occaiions the order has been reverfed, and a rich
field of rice or other grain has been plowed up to make
room for a plantation of poppies, when the chief faw
that extraordinary profit was to be made by opium.”
To this, however, the following anfwer has appeared
in a late publication, intitled A fhort Review of the
Britifii government in India. “ The poppy is a plant
which requires a peculiar foil, and particular care in
the culture of it. The medium price of the land on
which it is cultivated is about 11 or 12 rupees a legah,
or one third of an Englifti acre. It is fowed at the
beginning of Oftober, when the feafon of the perio¬
dical rain expires. The plant begins to be fit for in-
cifion, in order to extraS its juice, of which opium is
made, about the end of December, and continues fo
till March. It requires a dry foil, and can be brought
to maturity only in the dry feafon, when the periodi¬
cal rains have ceafed. Paddy or rice lands let on a me¬
dium at three rupees a begah. Rice is fowed about
the end of May, juft before the periodical rains com¬
mence. One crop is raifed about the end of Septem¬
ber ; and another, which is the laft, and by far the
greateft, about the end of December. It requires a
foil faturated with water, and lies foaked in it for a
confiderable time. On this account it is fowed juft
before the periodical rains commence; and nine-tenths
of the quantity of rice produced in the company’s pro¬
vinces grow in the kingdom of Bengal, which is fo
low and flat, that the grounds are either overflowed by
the rivers Ganges and Burrampooter, with their tri¬
butary ftreams, or foaked with the rain which falls
and ftagnates upon them. It is therefore evident,
that the foil and the feafon, which alone can fru&ify
the paddy or rice, would rot and deftroy the poppy ;
and it is therefore as evident, that it is utterly impof-
fible, from the nature of the two plants, that the one
can be plowed up to fow the other.”
With regard to the adminiftration of the Britifh af¬
fairs in the Eaft Indies, it muft alfo be remarked, that
the company now aft in a very different capacity from
what
H I N [ 535 1 H I N
rH Hindoflan. what they originally did. From a fociety of mer-
—* -v  chants, they are now become favereigns. of the coun¬
try to which they trade. The latter chara&er was
quite foreign to them; and they have accordingly look¬
ed upon that of merchants to be the principal one,
■while that of fovereigns was to be only a kind of ap¬
pendage to it. Thus, inftead of adting for the interetl
of the country they govern, and which as fovereigns
they naturally ought to do, they have aded in many
cafes dire&ly oppofite to it, which, as merchants, is
alfo their natural intereft. Hence alfo, wdien the ad-
miniftration in India did any thing in obedience to the
orders of the dire&ors, which orders being didated by
merchants, were prejudicial to the interefts of the
country, that injury has been fometimes unjuilly at¬
tributed to their fervants, who aded merely in obedi¬
ence to the orders they received. On the other hand,
when the India adminiflration aded with the generous
fpirit of fovereigns, they were fometimes blamed by
the diredors, who judged as merchants, and fometimes
by the miniftry, who were always ready upon the final-
left pretence to interfere in their affairs.
At the time when the Britifh adminiftration firft
commenced in Hindoftan, the Hindoo governors were
univerfally named Rajahs; but though many of the
Hindoo families yet bear that title, it does not appear
to refemble, in any manner of way, our titles of nobi¬
lity, or to be a dignity w'hich can be conferred by any
of the princes, or even by the Mogul himfelf. Hence,
in that part of the wrorld there are no ancient nobility,
the titles being conferred merely by ufurpers, who
have neither right nor title derived from any thing but
violence.
In this country we find the title of Zemindar very
common ; a word compounded of two others, figni-
fying, in the Perfic language, a landholder. It ap¬
pears to have been introduced by the Mohammedans,
and to have been a kind of temporary office, prefcri-
bing the performance of certain duties, and requiring
fecurity for the perfonal appearance of the Zemindar.
He is obliged to attend the exchequer of the king’s
chief colleftor, at the commencement of every new
year, to fettle his revenues ; and he is not allowed to
enter upon the duties of his office for the year with¬
out a fpecial order for that purpofe. On the death of a
Zemindar, the candidate for fucceffion mult petition
the fovereign, engaging himfelf to perform all the fti-
pulated duties, and to pay the cuftomary fees ; nor
can he enter upon his office without a.fptcial inveftj-
ture. As the Zemindars were by virtue of their office
inverted with confiderable power, they foon became
not only very defpotic in their own dominions, but by
degrees began to encroach on the power of the fove¬
reign himfelf. After the irruption of Nadar Shah
every thing was thrown into confufipn ; the viceroys
threw off obedience to the emperor, the nabobs threw
off all obedience to them, and ufurped their power ; at
which time it is probable that the Zemindars likewife
affumed powers to which they were by no means in-
titled from their office. Notwithftanding this, how¬
ever, they were fometimes treated by the Mohammedan
governors as mere revenue-officers, and ufed very harfh-
ly. At fome times there were a fet of people bound
for the Zemindars under the title of Woodedars ; and
thde had either a joint power with the former, or
4
were fuperior to them in the colledlion of the reve- HlndoftaH-
nues ; and fometimes they were fuperfeded by officers —< ^
appointed immediately by government itfelf, under
the various names of Slumils, Tahfilders, or Sezawruls.
—The Zemindaries are not limited in extent or value ;
there being fome in Bengal which yield a revenue as
high as 350,000!. fterling, while others fcarcely amount
to 350I. ; but all the great Zemindars, and many of
thofe in middling circumftances, having procured for
themfelves the title of Rajah, affedt much pomp and
ftate in their different diftridls, and keep their inferiors
in as great fubjedlion as the Mohammedan governors
keep them. Some of them alfo have their power aug¬
mented by being of the bramin caft; and by the
reverence fuppofed to be due to religion on that ac¬
count, joined with the power conferred upon them by
the fovereign, they are in general rendered exceedingly
defpotic, with an almoft unlimited authority to plunder
their tenants ; in which they were indulged by the
Nabobs from the motive of plundering them agaim
From the confultations of the feledl committee in
1769, we are informed that the Zemindars have a
power of levying fines at pleafure ; that they raife
large fums from duties colledled in the market; and
that they frequently oblige the ryots or hufbandmen
to work for nothing. In ffiort, the fame claims made
by the European barons on. their vaffals in the times
of the feudal fyftem, are now made by the Zemindars
on the common people of Hindoftan. If one of them
is to be married, if he has a child born, if honours are
to be conferred upon him ; nay, if he is even to be
fined for his own miffiondudt, the poor ryot mult
always contribute his ffiare. Mr Scrofton, in his hif-
tory of Hindoftan, fets forth the fituation of the in¬
habitants in the following words —“ Unhappily for
the Gentoos, themfelves are made the minifters of op-
preffion over each other ; the Moor men, haughty,
lazy, and voluptuous, make them, of whom they have
no jealoufy, the minifters of their oppreffion, which
further anfwers the end of dividing them, and prevents
their uniting to fling off the yoke; and by the ftrange
intoxication of power, they are found ftill more rapa¬
cious and cruel than their foreign mafters: and
what is more extraordinary, the bramins ftill exceed ,
the reft in every abufe of power, and feem to think,
if they bribe God by beftowing a part of their plun¬
der on cows and faquirs, their iniquities will be par¬
doned.”
From this account of the fituation. of the people
of Hindoftan under their native rulers, it' is by no'
means probable that they could make a worfe exchange
by falling under the jurifdi&ion eitherof theMohamme-
dansor Europeans. A notion indeed hath been induftri-
oufly propagated, that the Britiffi government has beha¬
ved with the greateft cruelty in colle&ing the revenues,.
and that they have even invented tortures to make the
rich people difcover their treafures ; but on examining
the matter impartially, the reverfe of this is found to
be true. At the time that the Britilh government inter¬
fered in the affairs of Hindoftan, the provinces were
found to be in a ruinous ftate, in confequence of the
wars which had taken place in the country. Even in
the moft fettled ftate, and when the adminiftration was-
moft regular, the government was altogether defpotie,
and the mode of colledling its revenues extremely ar--
hitrary,^
H I N C 536 1 H I N
bitrary ; the punlfliments infl lifted very cruel; and the
whole fyftem of government fuch as would be reckon¬
ed quite Ihocking in Europe. It is only within thefe
few years that the Britifh could effeftually interpofe in
behalf of the natives 5 and in that fhort time it has
produced a very confiderable reformation. It is cer¬
tain, that the Britifh government has difcouraged op-
preffive meafures as much as poffible ; abolifhed the
cruel modes of puniihment ufed by the Mohammedans ;
and by inftituting a more regular plan of juftice, has
procured eafe and fecurity to the natives, and preferved
them in a ftate of tranquillity altogether unknown to
them before its commencement. Many infiances of
the greateft cruelty exercifed upon the Zemindars and
other colleftors are to be met with in the hiftory of
Bengal, written by a native hiftorian,' and tranflated by
Gladwin : yet the perfon who exercifed thefe cruel¬
ties was dignified with the titles of the faithfulfervant
of the Empire., and the Glory of the Stale; which (hows
that the people were abfolutely familiarifed with cruel¬
ty, and did not know what it was to be under a lenient
government. Since the Britifli had the dominion,
matters have been totally reverfed, and the Hindoos,
inftead of being treated with cruelty, perfecuted on
account of their religion, and compelled to renounce
it, have been ufed with at lead comparative lenity, and
great indulgence has been (hown to them even in their
moft abfurd practices and fupeftitions. When the Bri-
tifli government firft. accepted of the office of Dcwanny,
or colleftion of the revenues, it was not in their power
to interpofe with any kind of efficacy for the relief of
the inhabitants; becaufe it was at firft thought pro¬
per to allows the taxes to be collefted by natives, who
would undoubtedly follow their ancient modes of col¬
leftion. Even at that time, however, the mildnefs of
the Britifti governors had fome effeft upon the Afia-
tics ; fo that the people in general were treated with
more lenity than formerly: and in the year 1772,
when the council of Bengal openly affumed the office
of Dew’an themfelves, an immediate ftop was put to
all thofe arbitrary and oppreffive methods which had
been formerly in ufe. Formerly fome Zemindars had
been flogged even to death, by an inftrument called a
Korah : but from the moment that the Britifti coun¬
cil took the colleftion into their owm hands, not only
this inftrument was laid afide, but all kind of corporal
puniftiment ; by which means the feverity of the
Mohammedan government has been entirely abo-
liftied, and no other puniftrments inflifted in cafes of
infolvency than fuch as are in ufe in our owrn country.
Still, however, in fuch extenfive dominions, where a
^reat (hare of power muft be one w’ay or other com¬
mitted to the natives, it is impoffible but fome arbitrary
afts muft be committed, as the natives are always prone
to afts of defpotifm whenever they can commit them
with impunity ; but examples of this kind cannot with
any degree of candour be brought as a general charge
again ft the Britifti government in India.—Mr Scrofton
gives the following account of the wretched ftate of
the provinces now under the Britifti jurifdiftion at the
time they were ceded to them by the Mogul. “ When
the governors of the provinces found the weaknefs of
the Mogul, and each fet up as fovereign in his own
province, although they could not break through thefe
immutable laws, they invented new taxes under new
names, which doubled or trebled the value of the ori-1
ginal ones, and which the landholder was obliged to
levy upon his tenants. The old dock of wealth for
fome time fupported this ; but when that failed, and
the tenants were ftill preffed for more, they borrowed
money of ufurers at an exorbitant intereft ; and the go¬
vernment ftill continuing thefe demands, the lords of
the lands were obliged to do the fame : but as all this
while the value of lands did not increafe, the con-
fequence was, that at laft, unable to pay the intereft:
of the mortgages, the rents were feized by rapacious
ufurers. The government finding the revenues fall
(hotter every year, at laft fent colleftors and farmers
of the revenues into the provinces. Thus the lord of
the land was divefted of power over his country, and
the tenants expofed to mercilefs plunderers ; till the
farmer and manufafturer, finding that the more they
laboured the more they paid, the manufafturer would
work no more, and the farmer would cultivate no more
than was juft fufficient for the fiibfiftence of his family.
Thus this once flouriftiing and plentiful country has,
in the courfe of a few years, been reduced to fuch mi-
feiy, that many thoufands are continually periftiing
through want. The crown lands are ftill worfe off,
let out to the higheft bidder ; and the Jagheer lands
alone remain unplundered. Hence that equal diftri-
bution of wealth that makes the happinefs of a peo¬
ple, and fpreads a face of cheerfulnefs and plenty
through all ranks, has now ceafed ; and the riches of
the country are fettled partly in the hands of a few
ufurers and greedy courtiers, and the reft is carried out
of the country by the foreign troops taken into pay
to maintain the governors in their ufurpations. This
unhappy decay the India company has already experi¬
enced in the decay of their trade, and the rife and
price of their manufaftures ; and will, I fear, experi¬
ence more and more annually.”
With regard to the depofitions of the Nabobs by the
Britifti, which has been ufed as a great argument
againft the general fpirit of Britifti government in thofe
parts, it muft be remembered, in the firft place,
that thefe Nabobs were mere ufurpers, who had not
the lead title to their dominions, and confequently
could not, in point of right, complain more rea-
fonably of being deprived of their dominions, than
the perfons from whom they had taken them might
do of their injuftice in driving them out. Their
behaviour in government alfo was fuch, that it was
impoffible it could have fubfifted for any length of
time without the abfolute ruin of the countries they
poffcffed. Thus, in the cafe of Jaffier Aly Cawn,
MrVanfittart declared the country to be in fo confufed
and impoveriftied a ftate, that in all human appearance
another month could not have been run through before
he would have been cut off by his own Seapoys for
want of pay, and the city become a feene of plunder
and diforder. On this account he was degraded,
though without any of thofe circumftances of cruelty
which generally charafterife the revolutions in this part
of the world. The adminiftration was transferred to
his fon-in-law Meer Coffim; who being an enemy to
the Britifti government altogether, a war followed,
terminating in his expulfion. This was followed by
the invafion of Sujah Dowlah, and by feenes of horrid
barbarity and devaftation ; when in 1765 Lord Clive
took
H I N [S37l H I N
|i!indoftan. took upon him the office of Dewan, or minifter who fu- venue, whom they left at liberty to plunder all below,
r”V-"— perintends the lands and colleftions of the revenue, referving to themfelves the liberty of plundering them
An account of his proceedings has already been given ; in their turn, when they were fuppofed to have en-
but whatever applaufe he might gain, and in fome riched themfelves with the fpoils of the country. The
refpefts defervedly at the time, it is now faid, with mutfaddies, who ftood between the nabob and zemin-
fome probability, that he raifed the expeftations of dars, and between them and the people, had each
the people of England by far too high. The feeds of their ffiares of the public wealth. Thefe profits were
the fucceeding evils were already fown. Many fources confidered as illegal embezzlements, and therefore were
of wealth were dried up. Raw- filk, cloths, and other taken with every precaution which could enfure fecre-
manufaftures, had formerly been exported to Guzerat, cy f and being, confequently, fixed by no rule, de-
Lahore, and even Ifpahan. This had ceafed on the pended on the temper, abilities, or power, of each
invafion of Nadar Shah’; and the influx of wealth from individual for the amount. It therefore became a duty
the European nations had ceafed before the Britiffi to every man to take the moft effe&ual meafures to
government in Bengal had an exiftence. It was com- conceal the value of his property, and evade every in-
puted that Coffim Aly Cawn robbed the country of quiry into his conduft ; while the Zemindars and
near five millions fterling in jewels and fpecie. China, other landholders, who had the advantage of long pof-
Madras, and Bombay, were fnpplied from Bengal to feffion, availed themfelves of it by complex divifions of
the amount of more than two millions; and feveral the lands, and intricate modes of colleftion, to per-
other circumftances befides thefe contributed to dimi- plex the officers of government, and confine the know-
| niffi the riches and opulence of the country. In the ledge of the rents to themfelves. The internal ma-
mean time the internal adminiftration ©f the country nagement of each diftridt varied no lefs than that of -the
had been extremely defedlive. The Zemindars being whole province. The lands-fubjedl to the fame col-
under very little reftraint, adled in a very arbitrary ledfion, and intermixed with ^each other, were fome
manner within their own diftridls ; and the tenants had held by farm, fome fuperintended by fhickdors or
no redrefs againft the impofitions and exadfions which agents on the part of the colledlor, and were left to
were laid upon them. Meir Coffim appointed Aumils the Zemindars themfelves, under various degrees of
to the colledfion of the revenues rather than Zemindars, control.” For fome political reafons the company,
|i The Aumils derive their authority dire&ly from the though they had acquired the Dewanny, had not yet
perfon who has the command of the country for the chofen to aflume the executive part of the office them-
prefent time, and confequently are more eafily called felves, but committed it to the management of natives,
to an account than the Zemindars. At lait, how- as has already been mentioned, and their plans had
ever, thefe Aumils, having obtained too great an in- been found extremely defective. By the time that Mr
fluence in the country, Lord Clive thought proper to Haftings had been invefted with the government, the
change the plan of colle&ion. Three natives were court of dire&ors had refolved to change their plan,
now appointed, in the nabob’s name, to fuperintend and openly affume the office of the Dewanny; and the
this department ; and one Englifh gentleman, through rules eftablilhed by that gentleman for the colle&ion
whom the bufinefs was tranfa&ed, had his refidence at of the revenues, his mode of adminiftering juftice, and
the nabob’s court, and communicated the intelligence his police for the government of the country, are ftill
to Calcutta. The principal a&ing minifter in this obferved with very little variation,
plan, however, thought proper to change the mode of The plan for collefting the revenues confifted, in
colle&ion once more, and to re-appoint the Aumils ; the firft place, in rendering the accounts as Ample and
|| in confequence of which the revenue became greatly intelligible as poffible ; in the next, in eftablifliing
| diminifhed, aud they were befides complained of as fixed rules for the colledtion ; and in the third, ma-
greatly oppreffing the people. To remedy thefe evils, king the mode of them uniform in all parts of the pro-
! it was firft propofed by Mr Verelft to fend fome of vinces ; and in the fourth, providing for the equal ad-
the company’s fervants into the internal parts of the miniftration of juftice. The power of the Zemindars
country with the title of fupervifors : but the defe&s was now circumfcribed, and their extortions thoroughly
of adminiftration were now beyond their power to re- put a flop to; many vexatious taxes and tolls were
medy ; the revenue was not only greatly diminifhed, abolifhed, and a new mode of collecling the cuftoms
I but the expence of government exceedingly augmented; was eftablifhed, to the great relief of the merchants :
and in the year 1771 the company were alarmed by and fo w'ell were all the parts of this plan found to be
accounts that bills had been drawn upon them to the adapted to the purpofes they were deiigned to anfwer,
amount of i,2oo,oool. At this time Mr Haftings that it has hitherto been made the model of all fubfe-
was appointed to be governor of Bengal; and the con- quent regulations.
fufed ftate in which matters were at the commencement One great obje&ion to the India government is, that
ofhisadminiftration will eafily appearfrom the following the Englifh law, w'hich undoubtedly is better calcu-
part of a letter from the government of Bengal, dated lated than any other for fecuring the liberties of the
in the month of November 1772.—“ Every zeminda- people, has not yet been adopted in India ; whence it
ry was left to its own particular cuftoms. The articles is thought that the company’s fervante have ftill fhow-
w'hich compofed the revenue, the form of keeping the ed a difpofition to opprefs, rather than to relieve, the
accounts, the computation of time, even the techni- opprefled inhabitants of Hindoftan. But in anfwer to
cal terms, which ever form the greateft obfeurity in this it is faid, that the difference betwixt the two coun-
every fcience, differed as much as the foil and produc- tries is fo great, that there can be no comparifon fic¬
tions of the province. The nabobs exa&ed what they twixt the one and the other, nor can the conftitution
could from the zemindars and great farmers of the re- of England be in any degree adapted to that of the
Vol. VIII. Part II. 3 X other.
II 1 N [ 538 1 H I N
Hludoftas. other. The religion, laws, manner?, and cufloms, of
both Hindooa and Mohammedans, are fo effentialiy dif¬
ferent from thofe of this country, that it is impofiible
to affimilate them, (liould ever any thing of the kind
be attempted. The only true method therefore of
judging whether the prefent ftate of Hindoftan is pre¬
ferable to what it formerly was, is to compare it with
what it was under the bell Mogul emperors; and in
this comparifon it muft certainly appear that the pre¬
ference is greatly in favour of the British adminiitra-
tion. In Major Rennel’s work we are informed, that
during the reign of Ackbar,.whom he ftyles “ the glo¬
ry of the honfe of Timur,” the country had never en¬
joyed fo much tranquiftity ; “ but this tranquillity
veould hardly be deemed fuch in any other quarter of
the world, and muft therefore be underftood to mean
a ftate ihort of affual rebellion, or at lead commotion.”
The fame author, fpeaking of the ftate of the Britifh
empire there, ufes the following words: “ The Ben¬
gal provinces, which have been in our atftual pofleftion
near 23 years, have, during that whole period, enjoyed
a greater (hare of tranquillity than any other part of
India, or indeed than thofe provinces had ever expe¬
rienced fince the days of Aurengzebe.” To this we
may add, that the provinces have not only experienced
a perfedt freedom from external invaflons, but likewife
enjoy a degree of internal tranquillity altogether un¬
known before, by the fubjedlion and civilization of a
fet of banditti who inhabited the hills of Rajemahl, and
infefted the travellers who paffed that way ; a wan¬
dering tribe of religious mendicants, who were wont to
commit the greateft enormities.
Another advantage the inhabitants of this country
reap from the Britifti government, is the fecurityfrom
violence and oppreffion either by their Mohammedan
fuperiors or by one another. Under the article Hin¬
doo we have already mentioned the particular circum-
llance that thefe people are liable to the punifhment of
loling their call from a variety of caufes, and that this
is looked upon by them to be the mod grievous cala¬
mity they can fuffer. The Mohammedan governors
frequently took advantage of their fuperftition in this
refpeft to opprefs them ; and this circumftance alone
frequently produced the mod horrid confufion. In
the inftruftions given to the fupervifors, Mr Verelft
informs them, that “ it is difficult to determine whe¬
ther the original cuftoms, or the degenerate manners
of the Muffulmen, have moft contributed to confound
the principles of right and wrong in thefe provinces.
Certain it is (adds he), that almoft every decifion of
theirs is a corrupt bargain with the higheft bidder.
Compenfation was frequently accepted of even for ca¬
pital crimes, and fines became at laft an intolerable
grievance ; nay, fo venal were the judges at that time,
that it became at laft a fettled rule to allow each of
them a fourth part of any property in difpute as a
compenfation for his trouble.— It is impoffible to fup-
pofe that fuch monftrous abufes continue under the
Britiffi government: on the contrary, we muft readily
believe, what the governors themfelves aflert, that im¬
mediately after the provinces fell under Britiffi jurif-
diftion, both Hindoos and Mohammedans have been
left to the free exercife of their religion, laws, and cu¬
ftoms. The Hindoos themfelves acknowledge this,
and are as well pleafed with the mildaefs of the Britiffi
government, as they are difpleafed with the fuperftition Hmdo<h*
and cruelty of the Mohammedans. U nder the Britiffi —-v—•*,
government we cannot fuppofe but that commerce, to
which the inhabitants of this country are fo much ad-
di&ed, will be much more encouraged than by the ava¬
ricious and barbarous Mohammedans. The latter had
impofed fo many rellraints upon trade of all kinds, by
the multitude of taxes colledfed at the landing-places,
watch-houfes, markets, &c. that it was almoft impof¬
fible to carry it on with any advantage. Among other
falutary regulations, however, enaCled by the Britiffi
government in 1772, many of thofe taxes upon com¬
merce were aboliffied, and a plan laid for effectually li¬
berating the inhabitants from thofe ffiackles by which
their commerce had been fo long fettered. — Regard!
has alfo been paid to the inftruftion of the people in
ufeful knowledge; and the feminary eftabliffied at Cal¬
cutta by Sir William Jones, certainly does much ho¬
nour to the founder. Some regard had indeed been
paid to this by the Mohammedan emperors; but at the
time that the Britiffi government commenced, thefe
had been entirely neglerfted, their endowments re¬
fumed by government, and even the buildings fallen
into ruin.
From a comparifon of any government to which the
Hindoos have hitherto been fubjeft, with that of Bri¬
tain, indeed, it is evident that the preference muft be
given greatly in favour of the latter. At the time when
the Britiffi firft vilited that country, they were not |l
under the jurifdiftion of their native fovereigns, nor
had they been fo for a long time before. The Moguls - 8
were not only foreigners, but a moft cruel and deteft-
able race of men ; and it was by ufurpatioos of their
own rebellious fubje&s that the anarchy and confufion
was introduced, in which the country was involved for
fo long a time. The Britiffi are foreigners as well as
the Moguls ; but the latter, who profefs the intolerant
fuperftition of Mohammed, fuffer their condudk to be
influenced by it in fuch a manner as to treat the natives
with the utmoft cruelty. The greateft evil perhaps
which refuks from the Britiffi government is, the ex¬
portation of great Aims of money to a foreign coun^
try ; but this evil, with refpedt to the provinces poffeff-
ed by the Britiffi, exifted alfo under the Mohammedan
government. The Mogul emperors refided at Delhi,
which is far diftant from the provihees of Bengal, Ba-
har, and Oriffa, the territories now poffeffed by Bri¬
tain ; fo that the greateft part of the trealure fent to
that capital was totally loft to them. In the time of . M
Aurengzebe, the emperor’s tribute amounted to three
millions fterling; and of this a confiderable part was
fpecie ; but fince that time the tribute was fixed at only
1,250,000!. and even this was a vaft fum; to which if
we add that carried out of the country by commanders
of mercenary troops who were all foreigners, it is not
unreafonable to fuppofe that under the Mogul govern¬
ment matters were ftill worfe, even in this refpedt, than
under that of Britain.
We fit all conclude this apology for the Britiffi go¬
vernment, with the following extraft from the treatife
lately quoted, A ftvort Review of the Britiffi Govern¬
ment in India. “ A more deteftable or detefted race
of people never appeared than the Mohammedan con¬
querors of India ; whether we confider the brutality of
their paffions, the bigotry of their religion, the corrap-
tio»
H I N
Hindoflan canes here, as well as tobacco ; but the latter is not fo
H rich and ftrong as that of America, for want of know-
Hinnom. j„g how to cure and order it.
‘ v  Hindoftan affords alfo plenty of ginger, together
with carrots, potatoes, onions, garlic, and other roots
known to !us. befides fmali roots and herbs for fal-
lads ; but their flowers, though beautiful to look at,
have no fcent, excepting rofes, and fome few other
kinds. ...
There is a great variety of animals in this country,
both wild and tame ; of the former are elephants, rhi-
nocerofes, lions, tygers, leopaids, wolves, jackals, and
the like. The jackals dig up and eat dead bodies,
and make a hideous noife in the night. The rhi¬
noceros is not common in the Mogul’s empire ; but
elephants are very numerous, fome 12, 14, or ry feet
high. There is plenty of venifon, and game of feveral
kinds ; as red-deer, fallow-deer, elks, antelopes, kids,
hares, and fuch like. None of thefe are imparked,
but all in common, and may be any body’s who will
be at the pains to take them. Among the wild ani¬
mals alfo may be reckoned the mufk-animal, apes,
and monkeys.
Hindoftan affords variety of beafts for carriage, as
camels, dromedaries, mules, afies, horfes, oxen, and
buffaloes. Moft of the horfes are white, and many
curioufly dappled, pied, and fpotted all over. The
flefb of the oxen is very fweet and tender. Being very
tame, many ufe them as they do horfes to ride on.
Inftead of a bit, they put one or two fmali firings
through the griftle of the noftrils, and faflening the
ends to a rope, ufe it inilead of a bridle, which is held
up by a bunch of griftly flefh which he has on the fore¬
part of his back. They faddle him as they do a horfe;
and, if fpurred a little, he will go as faff. Thefe are
generally made ufe of all over the Indies; and with them
only are drawn waggons, coaches, and chariots. Some
of thefe oxen will travel 1 5 leagues in a day. They
are of two forts ; one fix feet high, which are rare;
another called dwarfs, which are only three. In fome
places, where the roads are ftony, they fhoe their oxen
when they are to travel far. The buffalo’s fkin makes
excellent buff", and the female yields very good milk ;
but their fiefh is neither fo palatable nor wholefome
as beef. The fheep of Hindoftan have large heavy
tails, and their flefh is very good, but their wool
coarfe.
This country is much infefted with reptiles and in-
fedls ; fome of a noxious kind, as fcorpions, fnakes,
and rats ; but the lizards, which are of a green colour,
are not hurtful. Snakes and ferpents, we. are told, are
fometimes employed to difpatch criminals, efpecially
fuch as have been guilty of fome atrocioifs crime, that
kind of death being attended with the moft grievous
torture. The moft troublefome infefts in this hot
country are flies, mufketoes, and chinches or bugs,,
the firit by day, and the others in the night; when
they offend no lefs by their flench than their bite.
HINE, or Hind, a hufbandman’s fervant. Thus
the perfon who overfees the reft, is called the mailer’^
bine.
HINNOM, or the Valley of Hinnom,.(.anc, geog.),
a place that lay to the fouth of Jerufalem. It was ai-
£0 called the valley of Tophet, and was remarkable for
the cruel and hatbarous worfhip of the god. Moloch,
H I P
where parents made their children pafs through the Hip
fire in honour of that idol. U ’
HIP, in the materia medica, the fruit of the dog- Hippoca-
rofe or wild brier. See Rosa—They contain a four- fla"unu .
ifh fweetifh pulp ; with a rough prickly matter inclo- " y -
fing the feeds, from which the pulp ought to be care¬
fully feparated before it be taken internally : the Wir-
temberg college obferves, that from a negleft of this
caution, the pulp of hips fometimes occaffons a pruri¬
tus and uneafinefs about the anus; and the conferve
of it has been known to excite violent vomiting. The
conferve is the only officinal preparation of this fruit.
And as it is not fuppofed to poffqfs any particular me¬
dical virtue, but is merely ufed to give form to other
articles, the Edinburgh college have, perhaps without
any material difadvantage, entirely omitted it.
HIPPARCHUS, a great aftronomer, born at Nice
in Bithynia, flourifhed between the 154th and 163d
Olympiads. His commentary upon Aratus’s pheno¬
mena is ftill extant. Rohault was very much miflaken
when he afferted, that this aftronomer was not ac¬
quainted with the particular motion of the fixed ftars
from weft to eaft, by which their longitude changes.
By foretelling eclipfes, he taught mankind not to be
frightened at them, and that even the gods were bound
by laws. Pliny, who tells this, admires him for ma¬
king a review of all the ftars; by which his defeen-
dants would be enabled to difeover whether they are
born and die, whether they change their place, and
whether they increafe and decreafe.
HIPPIA, in botany; a genus of the polygamia
neceffaria order, belonging to the fyngenelia clafs of
plants. The receptacle is naked ; there is no pappus;
the feeds are naked, with very broad margins; the
calyx is heinifpheric, and fubimbricated ; the radius
con lifts of ten corollulse, obfeure, and rather cleft into
three.
H1PPOBOSCA, or Horse-fly, in zoology ; a-
genus of infeCls, belonging to the order of diptera. pjate
The beak confifts of two valves, is cylindrical, obtufe, ccxxxm-
and hanging ; and the feet have ftverai claws. There
are four fpecies, didinguiftied by their wings, &c. The
moft remarkable is the equina, the peft of horfes and
Cows. This infeft is broad, flat, ihining, and as it
were fealy. Its head, thorax, and abdomen, are yel¬
low, undulated with brown ; and.the legs are interfec-
ted with yellow and brown. The wings, crofted one
over the other, exceed the'length of the- body by
above one half; they are tranfparent, tinged with a
little yellow towards their outward edge, and have a
fpot near that edge of a brown colour. Thefe infe&s
are very difficult to be killed on account of the hard
cruilaceous ftiell which covers them; and they fix fo
clofe and fail to the poor animals with their claws, that
they cannot rub or bite them off w-ithout wounding
themfelves. ,
HIPPOCAMPUS, in ichthyology. See Syn-
GNATHUS.
H1PPOCASTANUM, or common borfe-chefnut.
See iEscuLus.—It may be here added,. that from fc-
veral experiments in the French Memoires <PAgriculture,
it appears,that the fruit of the horie-chefqut affords a
wholefome nourifhment for cattle, and may even be
employed with fuccefs for fattening them. It is laid,
to render the tallow of thofe fattened with it partial.
laxly/
C 54' 1
HIP l 542 1 HIP
Hippo- laily firm. The millc yielded by cows fed upon it, is
centaur aif0 fgid to be thicker and richer than that produced
Mi 'ocra ^rom any ot^er kind of food.—The fruit of this tree
‘ tL ^ has been likewife ufed as food for Iheep and poul-
u—y— try, and as foap for walking. It was much employ¬
ed in powder as a fternutatory by an itinerant oculift,
and has been recommended by fome others in certain
ftates of ophthalmia, headach, &c. in which errhines are
indicated. Its effe&s as a fternutatory may alfo be ob¬
tained by ufing it under the form of infufion or decoc¬
tion drawn up into the noftrils. And it is entirely
with a view to its errhine power that it is now intro¬
duced into the pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh col¬
lege. But betides this, the bark has alfo been repre-
fented by fome as a cure for intermittent fevers; and
it is probably with this intention that this part of the
hippocaftanum is introduced as an officinal article in
the Pharmacopceia Roffica.
HIPPOCENTAUR (formed of horfe,’,
Kivreu puvgo, “ I fpur,” and T«.u?of “ bull,” in anti¬
quity, a fabulous monfter, fuppofed to be half horfc
and half man.
What gave occafion to the fable was, that a people
of Theffaly, inhabiting near mount Pelion, became
thus denominated, becaufe they were the firft that
taught the art of mounting on horfeback ; which oc-
cafioned fome of their neighbours to imagine, that the
horfe and man made but one animal.
The hippocentaurs thould feem to have differed from
the centaurs, in this, that the latter only rode on bul¬
locks, and the former On horfes, as the names them-
felves intimate.
HIPPOCRAS, a medicinal drink, compofed of
wine, with fpices and other ingredients infufed there¬
in ; much ufed among the French by way of a cordial
dram after meals._
There are various kinds of hippocras, according to
the kind of wine and the other additional ingredients
made ufe of; as white hippocras, red hippocras, cla¬
ret hippocras, ftrawberry hippocras, hippocras with¬
out wine, cyder hippocras, &c.
That direfted in the late London Difpeftfary, is to
be made of cloves, ginger, cinnamon, and nutmegs,
beat and infufed in canary with fugar; to the infufion,
milk, a lemon, and fome flips of rofemary, are to be
put, and the whole drained through a flannel. It is re¬
commended as a cordial, and as good in paralytic and
all nervous cafes.
HIPPOCRATIA, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
plants ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe
of which the order is doubtful. The calyx is quin-
quepartite ; the petals five, the capfules three in num¬
ber, and'the latter of an obcordate (hape.
HIPPOCRATES, the greateft phyfieian of anti¬
quity, was born in the ifland of Cos in the 80th Olym¬
piad, and flouriihed at the time of the Peloponnetian
war. He was the firft: that we I^iow of who laid down
precepts concerning phyfic; and, if we may believe the
author of his life, who goes under the name of Soranus,
drew his original from Hercules and ^Efculapius. Fie
was firft a pupil of his own father Heraclides, then of
Herodicus, then of Gorgias of Leontinum the orator,
and, according to fome, of Democritus of Abdera. Af¬
ter being inftrufted in phyfic, and in the liberal arts,
and lofing his parents, he left his own country, and Hlppoer^,
praftifed phyfic all over Greece; where he was fo much te*
admired for his flcill, that he was publicly fent for with l!
Euryphon, a man fuperior to him in years, to Per- HlPl!ocre*
diccas king of Macedonia, who was then thought to *”8'
be confumptive. But Hippocrates,, as foon as he ar- '
rived, pronounced the difeafe to be entirely mental, as
in truth it was. For upon the death of his father A-
lexander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his father’s
miftrefs: and this Hippocrates difcerning by the great
change her prefence always wrought upon him, a cure
was foon effefted.
Being intreated by the people of Abdera to come and
cure Democritus of a fuppofed madnefs, he went; but,
upon his arrival, inftead of finding Democritus mad,
he found all his fellow-citizens fo, and Democritus the
only wife man among them. He heard many leflures,
and learned much philofophy from him; which has
made Cornelius Celfus and fome others imagine, that
Hippocrates was the difciple of Democritus, though
it is probable they never law each other till this in¬
terview which was occafioned by the Abderites. Hip¬
pocrates had alfo public invitations to other countries.
Thus, when a plague invaded the Illyrians and Paso*
nians, the kings of thofe countries begged him to come
to their relief: he did not go; but learning from the
meffengers the courfe of the winds there, he concluded
that the diftemper would come to Athens; and, fore¬
telling what would happen, applied -himfelf to take care
of the city and the ftudents. He was indeed fuch a
lover of Greece, that when his fame had reached as
far as Perfia, and upon that account Artaxerxes had
intreated him by his governor of the Hellefpont, with
a promife of great rewards, to come to him, he refufed
to go. He alfo delivered his own country from a war
with the Athenians, that was juft ready to break out,
by prevailing with the Theflalians to come to their af-
fiftance, for which he received very great honours
from the Coans. The Athenians alfo conferred great
honours upon him : they admitted him next to Her¬
cules in the Elulinian ceremonies; gave him the free¬
dom of the city ; and voted a public maintenance for
him and his family in the prytanaeum or council-houfe
at Athens, where none were maintained at the public
charge but fuch as had done fignal fervice to the ftate.
He died among the Lariffseans, fome fay in his 90th
year, Come in his 85th, others in his-iOifth, and fome
in his 109th. The beft edition of his works is that
of Foefius, in Greek and Latin. Hippocrates wrote in
the Ionian dialeft. His aphorifms, prognoltics, and
all that he has written on the fymptomsof difeafes, juft-
ly pafs for matter-pieces. See Hijlory of Medicine.
HIPPOCREME (anc. geog.), a fountain of mount
Helicon, on the borders of Boeotia, facred to the Mu-
fes. Some, as Ovid, make Hippocrene and Aganippe
the fame. See Aganippe. ^
H1PPOPHAGI (anc. geog.), a people of Scythia,
fo called from their living on horfe-flelh : the fare at
this day of the Tartars their defeendants. Alfo a
people of Perfia ( Ptolemy).
H1PPOCREPIS, COMMON HORSE-SHOE VETCH,
in botany : A genus of the decandria order, belong¬
ing to the diadelphia clafs of plants; and in the natu¬
ral method ranking under the 32d order, Papilionacett*
The legumen is compreffed and crooked, with many
5 in-
mm-
drome
n
Hippoly-
H I P [ 543 1 HIP
incifion* on the interior future. There are three fpe-
cies, two natives of the warm parts of Europe, and
one of Britain. They are all low herbaceous trailing
plants, with yellow flowers. They are propagated by
feeds ; but having no great beauty are feldom kept in
gardens.
HIPPODROME, Hifpodromus (compofed of
ixroe “ horle,” and “ courfe,” of the verb
curro, “ I run), in antiquity, a lill or courfe
wherein chariot and horfes races were performed, and
horfes exercifed.
The Olympian hippodrome or horfe-courfe was a
fpace of ground of 600 paces long, furrounded with a
wall, near the city Elis, and on the banks of the ri¬
ver Alpheus. It was uneven, and in fome degree ir¬
regular, on account of the fituation ; in one part was
a hill of a moderate height, and the circuit was adorn¬
ed with temples, altars, and other embellifliments. See
Stadium. There is a very famous hippodrome at
Conftantinople, which was begun by Alexander Seve-
rus, and finifhed by Conftantine. This circus, called
by the Turks atmeican, is 400 paces long, and above
too paces wide. At the entrance of the hippodrome
there is a pyramidal obelilk of granite in one piece,
about 50 feet high, terminating in a point, and charged
with hieroglyphics. The Greek and Latin infcrip-
tions on its bafe Ihow, that it was ere&ed by Theodo-
fius; the machines that were employed to raife it are
reprefented upon it in baffo-relievo. We have fome
vefliges in England of the hippodromus, in w'hich the
ancient inhabitants of this country performed their
races ; the moft remarkable is that near Stonehenge,
which is along trad! of ground, about 350 feet, or
200 druid cubits wide, and more than a mile and three
quarters, or 6000 druid Cubits in length, inclofed quite
round with a bank of earth, extending dire&ly call
and weft. The goal and career are at the eaft
end. The goal is a high bank of earth, raifed with
a Hope inwards, on which thd'ijudges are fuppo-
fed to have fat. The met* are two tumuli, or fmall
barrows, at the weft end of the courfe. Thefc hip¬
podromes were -called in the language of the country
rhedagua, the racer fhedagwr, and the carriage rheda,
from the Britifti word rhcdeg “to run.” One of thefe
hipprodromes, about half a mile to the fouthword of
Leicefter, retains evident tradts of the old name rlye-
dagua, in the corrupted one of raivdiies. There is
another of thefe, fays Dr Stukeley, near Dorchefter;
another on the banks of the river Lowther, near Pen¬
rith in Cumberland ; and another in the valley, juft
without the town of Royfton.
HIPPOGLOSSUS, in ichthyology ; a fpecies of
Pleuronectes.
HIPPOLYTUS, a Ton of Thefeus and Hippolyte,
famous in fabulous hiftory for his virtue and his misfor¬
tunes. Elis ftepmbther Phsedra fell in love with him,
and when he refufed to pollute his father’s bed, fhe ac-
cufed him to Thefeus of offering violence to her per-
fon. Her accufation was readily believed, and The¬
feus intreated Neptune to punifti the incontinence of
his fon. Hippolytus fled from the refentment of his
father ; and as he purfued his way along the fea (bores,
his horfes were fo frightened at the noife of fea calves
which Neptune had purpofely fent there, that they ran
among the rocks till his chariot was broken and his
body torn to pieces. Temples were raifed to his me- Hipp*-
mory, particularly at Trcezene, where he received di- "iane>
vine honours. According to fome accounts, Diana
reftored him to life.
HIPPOMANE, the manchineel-tree : A ge¬
nus of the adelphia order, belonging to the monoecia
clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 38th order, Tricocca. The male has an amen¬
tum and bifid perianthium, w-ithout any corolla; the
female perianthium is trifid ; there is no corolla ; the
ftigma is tripartite; and the plum orcapfule tricocous.
Species, x. The mancinella, with oval fawed leaves,
is a native of all the Weft India iflands. It hath a Plate-
fmooth brownifh bark ; the trunk divides upward intoccxxxlv'
many branches, garniflxed with oblong leaves about
three inches long. The flowers come out in (hort
fpikes at the end of the branches, but make no great
appearance, and are fucceeded by fruit of the fam*
(hape and fize with a golden pippin. The tree grows
to the iize of a large oak. 2. The biglandulofa, with
oblong hay leaves, is a native of South America ; and
grows to as large a fize as the firft, from which it.
differs moftly in the (hape of its leaves. 3. The fpi-
nofa, with holly leaves, is a native of Campeachy,
and feldom rlfes above 20 feet high; the leaves greatly
refemble thofe of the common holly, and are fet with
(harp prickles at the end of each indenture. They
are of a lucid green, and continue all the year.
Culture. Thefe plants being natives of very warm
climates, cannot be preferved in this country without
a ftove; nor can they by any means be made to rife
above five or fix feet high even with that affiltance.
They are propagated by feeds ; but muft have very
little moitture, or they will certainly be killed by it.
Properties. Thefe trees have a very poifonous qua¬
lity, abounding with an acrid milky juice of a highly
cauftic nature. Strangers are often tempted to eat
the fruit of the firft fpecies; the confequences of which
are, an inflammation of the mouth and throat, pains in
the ftomach, &c. which are very dangerous unlefs re¬
medies are fpeedily applied. The wood is much e-
(leemed for making cabinets, book-cafes, &c. being
very durable, taking a fine poliih, and not being liable
to become worm-eaten : but as the trees, abound with
a milky cauftic juice already mentioned, fires are made
round their trunks, to burn out this juice; otherwife
thofe who fell the trees would be in danger of loling
their fight by the juice flying in their eyes. This
juice raifes blifters on the (kin wherever it falls, turns
linen black, and makes it fall out in holes. It is alfo
dangerous to work the wood after it is fawn out ; for
if any of the faw-duft happens to get into the eyes of
the workmen, it caufes inflammations and the lofs of
fight for fome time ; to prevent which, they generally
cover their faces with fine lawn during the time of
working the wood. It is with the juice of this tree
that the Indians ufed to poifon their arrows.
HIPPOMANES, a fort of poifon famous among
the ancients as an ingredient in amorous philters or
love-charms. The word is Greek la-sro/^vxr, com-
pofed of ‘wtvof « a horfe,” and “ fury or mad-
nefs.”
Authors are not agreed about the nature of the
hippomanes. Pliny deferibes it as a blackilh caruncle
found on the head of a new-born colt; which the dam
bite*
HIP [ 544 ] HIP
Hipponax bites ofF and eats as foon as (he is delivered. He adds,
U that if Hie be prevented herein by any one’s cutting it
Hippopo- 0£f fhe wj]i not take to nor bring up the
young. Virgil, and after him Servius and Columella,
defcribe it as a poifonous matter trickling from the pu¬
dendum of a mare when proud, or longing for the
horfe. At the end of Mr Bayle’s Didtionary is a very
learned differtation on the hippomanes, and all its vir¬
tues both real and pretended.
HIPPONAX, a Greek poet, born at Ephefus 540
years before the Chriftian era. He cultivated the
fame fatirical poetry as Archilochus, and was not in¬
ferior to him in the beauty or vigour of his lines. His
fatirical raillery obliged him to fly from Ephefns. As
he was naturally deformed, two brothers, Buphalus
and Anthermus, made a ftatue of him; which, by the
uglinefs of its features, expofed the poet to univerfal
ridicule. Hipponax refolved to revenge the injury ;
and he wrote fuch bitter invedtives and fatirical lam¬
poons againft them, that they hanged themfelves in
difpair. (Cic.ad Fam'd, vii. ep. 24.).
HIPPOPHAE, sea-buckthorn: A genus of the
tetrandria order, belonging to the dicecia clafs of
plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
16th order, Calyciflora. The male calyx is bipartite ;
there is no corolla ; the female calyx is bifid ; there
is no corolla ; there is one ftyle, and a monofpermous
berry.
Species. 1. The rhamnoides hath a fhrubby Item,
branching irregularly eight or ten feet high, having a
dark brown bark. It is armed with a few thorns ;
hath fpear-fhaped, narrow, feffile haves, of a dark green
above, and hoary underneath. 2. The canadenfis hath
a flrrubby brown ftem, branching eight or ten feet high,
with oval leaves, and male and female flowers on dif¬
ferent plants.
Culture, 8cc. Both thefe fpecies are very hardy, and
may be propagated in abundance by fuckers from the
roots, by layers, and by cuttings of their young fhoots.
They are retained in gardens on account of their two-
coloured leaves in fummer; and in winter, on account
of the appearance of the young (hoots, which are co¬
vered with turgid, irregular, fcalybuds. Goats, ftieep,
and horfes, eat the firft. fpecies; cows refufe it.
HIPPOPODES, Hippopedes, or com-
pofed of borfe, and foot, in the ancient geo¬
graphy, an appellation given to a certain people fitua-
ted on the banks of the Scythian fea, as being fuppo-
•fed to have had horfes feet. The hippopodes are
mentioned by Dionyfius, Geogr. v. 310. Mela, lib. iii.
cap. 6. Pliny, lib. iv. cap. 13. and St Auguftine, Be
Civil, lib. xvi. cap. 8. But it is conjedlured, that they
had this appellation given them on account of their
fwiftnefs or lightnefs of foot. Mr Pennant fuppofes
them to have been the inhabitants of the Bothnian
Gulph, and that they were the fame fort of people as
the Finni Lignipedes of Olaus. They wore fnow-fhoes;
which he thinks might fairly give the idea of their be¬
ing, like horfes, hoofed and flrod.
HIPPOPOTAMUS, the river-horse ; a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of belluae, the
chara&ers of which are thefe : It has four fore-teeth in
the upper jaw, difpofed in pairs at a diftance from each
other; and four prominent fore-teeth in the under jaw,
154*
the intermediate ones being longeft : There are two
tulks in each jaw, thofe of the under one very long
and obliquely truncated ; in both they ftand folitary,
and are recurvated: The feet are hoofed on the edges.
There is but one known fpecies, vi%. the amphibius,
or river-hotfe, (Plate CCXXXVI.) The head of this
animal is of an enormous fize, and the mouth vaftly
wide. The ears are fmall and pointed, and lined with¬
in very thickly with Ihort fine hairs. The eyes and
noftrils are fmall in proportion to the bulk of the ani¬
mal. On the lips are fome ftrong hairs fcattered in
patches here and there. The hair on’the body is very
thin, of a whitifh colour, and fcarce difcernible at fir It
fight. There is no mane on the neck, as fome writers
feign, only the hairs on that part are rather thicker.
The Ikin is very thick and ftrong, and of a dufley colour.
The tail is about a foot long, taper, comprefled, and na¬
ked. The hoofs are divided into four parts. The legs are
(hort and thick. In bulk it is fecond only to the elephant.
The length of a male has been found to be 17 feet,
the circumference of the body 15, the height near 7,
the legs near 3, the head above 34, and the girth
near 9. The mouth, when open, is above 2 feet
wide ; and furniftied with 44 teeth of different figures
(including the cutting teeth and the canine). The
cutting, and particularly the canine teeth of the lower
jaw, are very long, and fo hard and ftrong that they
flrike fire with fteel. This circumftance, it is probable,
gave rife to the fable of the ancients, that the hippo¬
potamus vomited fire from his mouth. The fubftance
of the canine teeth is fo white, fo fine, and fo hard,
that it is preferable to ivory for making artificial teeth.
The cutting teeth, efpecially thofe of the under jaw,
are very long, cylindrical, and chamfered. The ca¬
nine teeth are alfo long, crooked, prifmatic, and (harp,
like the tulks of the wild boar. The grinders are
fquare or oblong, like thofe of man, and fo large that
a tingle tooth fometimes weighs three pounds. The
tulks, according to Dr Sparman, are 27 inches long.
—With fuch powerful arms, and fuch a prodigious
ftrength of body, the hippopotamus might render
himfelf formidable to every other animal. But he is
naturally of a mild difpofition, and is only formidable
when provoked. His bulk is fo great, that twelve
oxen have been found neceffary to draw one alhore
which had been (hot in a river above the Cape ; and
Haflelquift fays, its hide is a load for a camel. Tho’
he delights in the water, and lives in it as freely as
upon land ; yet he has not, like the beaver or otter,
membranes between his toes. The great fize of his
belly renders his fpecific gravity neatly equal to that
of water, and makes him fwim with eafe.
Thefe animals inhabit the rivers of Africa, from the
Niger to Berg River, many miles north of the Cape of
Good Hope. They formerly abounded in the rivers
nearer the Cape, but are now almoil extirpated ; and
to preferve the few which are left in Berg River, the
governor has abfolutely prohibited the (hooting them
without particular permiffion.—They are not found in
any of the African rivers which run into the Mediter¬
ranean except the Nile, and even there only in Upper
Egypt, and in the fens and lakes of Ethiopia which
that river paffes through. From the unwieldinefs of
his body and the Ihortnefs of his legs, the hippopo¬
tamus
Hipyope-
taolus.
HIP [ 545 1 HIP
■i'pp'ofota- tanuis is not able to move faft upon land, and is then
mus. extremely timid. When purfued, he takes to the
■'r—\ - water, plunges in, finks to the bottom, and is feen
> walking there at full eafe : he cannot* however, conti-
I nue there long without often rifing towards the furface;
and in the daytime is fo fearful of being difcovered,
that when he takes in frefn air the place is hardly percep¬
tible, for he does not venture even to put his nofe out
of the water. In rivers unfrequented by mankind, he is
lefs cautious, and puts his whole head out of the water.
If wounded, he will rife and attack boats or canoes with
great fury, and often fink them by biting large pieces
out of the fides: and frequently people are drowned by
thefe animals; for they are as bold in the water as they
are timid on land. It is reported that they will at once
biteaman in two.—In (hallow rivers the hippopotamus
makes deep holes in the bottom, in order to conceal
his great bulk. When he quits the water, he ufually puts
out half his body at once, and fmells and looks around;
but fometimes rulhes out with great impetuofity, and
tramples down every thing in his way.—During the
night he leaves the rivers in order to pafture; when he
eats fugar-canes, rufires, millet, rice, &c. confuming
great quantities, and doing much damage in the cul¬
tivated fields. But as he is fo timid on land, it
I is not difficult to drive him off. —The Egyptians
■ (Mr Haffelquift informs us) “ have a curious man¬
ner of freeing themfelves in fome meafure from thia
deftrudtive animal. They remark the places he fre¬
quents mod, and there lay a large quantity of peafe :
|1 when the bead comes on (bore hungry and voracious,
he Jails to eating what is neared him ; and filling his
belly with the peafe, they occafion an unfupportable
third: he then returns immediately into the river, and
drinks upon thefe dry peafe large draughts of water,
which fuddenly caufes his death ; for the peafe foon
begin to fwell with the water, and not long after the
[ Egyptians find him dead on the fhore, blown up, as if
killed with the dronged poifon.” The river-horfe
alfo feeds on the roots of trees, which he loofens with
I his great teeth ; but never eats fiffi, as is afferted by
Dampier. It was reported to Mr Haffelquid, that
the river-horfe is an inveterate enemy to the crocodile,
and kills it whenever he meets it: and that this, with
■L fome other reafons, contributes much to the extirpation
of the crocodile ; which otherwife, confidering the
many eggs they would lay, would utterly dedroy
ft Egypt. But Mt Pennant treats the alleged enmity of
the hippopotamus and crocodile as a vulgar error; an
I eye-witnefs, he tells us, declaring he had feen them
fwimming together without any difagreement.—The
hippopotami deep in the reedy ifiands in the middle of
the dream, and on which they bring forth their young.
A herd of females has but a lingle male : they bring
Ii One young at a time, and that on the land, but fuckle
it in the water.—They are capable of. being tamed.
Belon fays, he has feen one fo gentle as to be let loofe
out of a dable and fed by its keeper without attempt-
|l ing to injure any one. They are generally taken in
pitfalls, and the poor people eat the flefh. In fome
| parts the natives place boards full of (harp irons in the
corn-grounds; which thefe beads drike into their feet,
and lo become an eafy prey. Sometimes they are
itruck in the water with harpoons fadened to cords, and
lo or 12 canoes are employed ih the chace.
Vol. VIII. Part II.
The hippopotamus Was known to the Romans: Hippopota-
Scaurus treated the people with the fight of five cro- mu'*
Codiles and one hippopotame during his redilediip, ^ ^
and exhibited them in a temporary lake. Augudus
produced one at his triumph over Cleopatra.
This animal is the behemoth of Job; who admirably
deferibes its manners, food, and haunts. “ i. Behold
now behemoth, which I made near thee: he eateth
grafs as an ox. 2. Lo ! now his drength is in his
loins, and his force is in the navel of his belly. 3. His
bones are as drong pieces of brafs 5 his bones are like
bars of iron. 4. He lieth under the (hady trees, in
the covert of the reed and fens. 5. Behold! he drinketh
up a river : he trudeth he can draw up Jordan into
his mouth.” The fird, the learned Bochart obferves,
implies the locality of its fituation ; being an inhabi¬
tant of the Nile, in the neighbourhood of Uz, the land
of Job. The fecond deferibes its great drength ; and
the third, the peculiar hardnefs of its bones. The
fourth indicates its refidence amidd the vad reeds of
the river of Egypt, and other African rivers overffia-
dowed with thick foreds. The fifth, the chara&eridic
widenefs of its mouth ; which is hyperbolically de-
feribed as large enough to exhaud fuch a dream as
Jordan.
That this article may include every fort of informa¬
tion which could be colle&ed concerning a creature fo
highly noted and of fuch ancient fame, we (hall add
the following particulars, extracted from Sparman’s
Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, where thefe ani¬
mals are called fea-cows.
_ ‘‘Towards evening (Jan. 24. 1776), we came to a
pit in the river, which our guides knew ufed to be
frequented by fea-cows. For this reafon, all the dif¬
ferent ways by which thefe animals might come up
from the river, were befet by us feparately; our hunt¬
ing-party confiding in the whole of feven perfons, viz.
five of us Chridians, together with my Hottentot and
another belonging to the farmers. Befides this, the
red of the Hottentots were ordered to go to the wind¬
ward and to the more open places ; and by fmacking
their whips, and making other noifes, to frighten and
drive the animal towards us as foon as it fhould make
its appearance: in confequence of which meafures, it
appeared to us, that when at length obliged to go on
(hore in qued of its food, it mud noceffarily come to
the hiding-place of fome one of the hunters. Every
one of thefe places were jud at the edge of the river,
between the reeds which grew on the dry parts of the
river, or on thofe fpots which the water had left, and
at the fame time clofe to the very narrow paths which
the animal had made for itfelf at each place : in con¬
fequence of which difpofition, it would inevitably pafs
not above fix inches, or a foot at mod, from the
mouth of the fportfman’s piece. Confequently our
whole dependence was upon two circumdances; viz.
that our guns (hould not mifs fire, and that the (hot
ffiould not fail to prove mortal. In the former cafe,
the fportfman mud have inevitably paid for his teme¬
rity with his life ; though in the latter he had reafon
to hope, from indances of what had happened to others,
that the fire, together with the report from the piece,
as well as the ball itfelf, would confufe the animal, fo
as to prevent it from immediately making towards its
enemy. The banks of the pit which we then befet
3 Y were
HIP C 546 ] HIP
Hippopota- were in moft places fteep and perpendicular, and the
f, mu^' , pit itfelf was almoft three quarters of a mile long:, but
^ my poll and that of my fellow-traveller (Mr Immel-
man) happened to be at the diftance of not above 30
or 40 paces from each other. To thefe very places
too, after we had waited at them an hour and an half
in the moft profound filence, the enormous animals did
not fail to refort. They had already, while on the
other fide of the river, got fcent of the Hottentots;
and now ftiowed by their fwimming up and down and
blowing themfelves, as well as by a Ihort but acute
and piercing grunt or neighing noife, that they had a
great fufpicion of thefe paffes. I believe Mr Immelman
was not lefs eager and anxious than myfelf, each of us
expefting every moment to have a bout with a huge
enormous beaft which we knew had given certain proofs
of its being able to bite a man afunder. Yet were we
each of us at times no lefs fearful left the other ftlould
have the honour of killing game of fuch confequence.
The hippopotamus, however, left us, and had made its
appearance in the fame manner where the farmers were
ftationed; notwithftanding which, at that very inftant
we heard it (hot at by one of the Hottentots.—The
fable darknefs of the night, and the glittering of the
Hottentot’s piece, together with the loudnefs of the
report from it, occafioned by the weight of the charge,
and the vibrations of the echo prolonging the found
along the neighbouring chain of mountains, all con-
fpired to compofe a moft awful and fuperb fpedlacle,
which was ftill heightened by the expe&ation of feeing
an animal fall fuperior in bulk to the elephant. This
fiiblime fpe&acle was immediately followed by a ridi¬
culous kind of farce performed by a troop of baboons;
which, from their calling and anfwering each other
along a ftraight line, we could difcover to be encamp¬
ed on a fteep rocky mountain in the neighbourhood,
with regular out-pofts in the trees on each fide of it.
After an interval of a couple of minutes, filence again
took place, till two o’clock, when the other Hotten¬
tot fired his piece; and another alarm, though of ftiorter
duration, went through the baboons out-pofts and
head-quarters.
“ The next morning, for the arrival of winch we
ardently longed, in order to fatisfy our curiofity,
our Hottentot fportfmen related to us the following
particulars concerning the adventures of the night.
Involved in darknefs, covered up to the eyes in reeds,
and overihadowed with branches of trees, they could
only get a glimpfe of the animal, and confequently
could not anfwer for their fhots having taken place :
and one of them acknowledged, that he was a little
confufed, as he could not well fee what he was about;
and for the fame reafon fired his piece too foon, before
the animal had well rifen out of the water. The other
indeed had had an opportunity, both with the ball and
fhot that made up the charge, of wounding the animal,
which went on its road, and pafied dire<5tly by him; but
he could not fee which part of the animal prefented itfelf
before the muzzle of his piece. As foon as he had fired,
he flank away, and direftly afterwards heard the beaft
'take to the water. The reft of the Hottentots had obfer-
ved one of thefe animals, probably a different one from
this, run up on a fhallow along the river fide, and thus
make its efcape, without their having been able to pre¬
vent it. After this we ftaid here till the afternoon, in
hopes that the wounded animals would die and rife to Hippopotami
the top of the water. But we ftaid in vain; and to as lnuj-
little purpofe would it probably have been had we "" *
waited ftill longer, as there grew by the fide of the
river a great number of trees, to the roots of which
thefe creatures, it is faid, in the agonies of death,
make themfelves faft by means of their long and
crooked tuiks. On the other hand, fuppofing thefe
two fea-cows to be but flightly wounded, they would
be cautious how they made their appearance ; and in- . 1
deed, in all probability, it would have been a danger¬
ous fervice to the fportfmen who ftiould have ventured
to have followed them any farther. Befides, the wa¬
ter had now, in the fpace of a few hours, rifen confi-
derably, and had overflowed many fpots fit for lying
in ambufli; for which reafon we departed to another
hippopotamus pit lefs than this. Here too we laid,
by way of fnare, a large blunderbufs. The Hottentots
occupied one poft ; two of our company guarded ano¬
ther ; other two (an old farmer and his fon) ftationed
themfelves at the third, and placed me in the middle
of them. Juft in this part the banks of the river were
of a confiderable height, and the rivet itfelf was dried
up near an extenfive ftiallow, where it was fpread out
into a little plain covered with pebble-ftones and gravel.
We three then fet ourfelves down clofe by the fide of
each other, in a path made by the fea-cows, making
ourfelves pretty certain, as the place was flat, and
confequently it was light here, of being able, if any
hippopotamus ftiould chance to come upon the (hallow
and look about it, to fee it plain enough to kill it with
a volley of thiee (hot. But, to the great endangering
of our lives, we on a fudden found the animal much
quicker in its motions, as well as bolder, than we had
thought it: for while I was fitting half afleep, and
moralizing on the fubjeft, (truck with the confidera-
tion that we with our guns had at that prefent moment
the dominion over Job’s leviathan or behemoth; while,
on the other hand, the flies or fmall mufquitos had
the dominion over us (fo much, indeed, that I was
obliged to wrap my face up in a handkerchief), a
fea cow came rulhing upon us out of the river, with a
hideous cry, as fwift as an arrow out of a bow ; at
the fame time I heard the farmer call out, “ Heer
Jefus !” But fortunately at the very inftant he difehar-
ged his piece, which fiaftnng full in the animal’s face,
contributed perhaps more than the ball to make it ftart
back; when fetting up another cry, it threw itfelf into,
the water again with as great precipitation as it cama
out.
“ At this I was not a little alarmed; yet, what
is very Angular, not at the danger, which was real, of
being trampled under foot, or being bitten afunder by
the beaft, but in confequence of my apprehenfions,
which were merely imaginary, of being drowned : for
the rattling noife, arifing from the creature’s running,
out of the water and along the ftoney beech, imme¬
diately fuggefted to me the idea that the river had on,
a fudden overflowed its banks; a fuppofition to which.
I was the more inclined, as I knew that this accident,
happens very frequently here. And as the hippopo¬
tamus, when it is newly come up out of the water, and.
is wet and (limy, is faid to gliften in the moon-fliioe.
like a fifh, it is no wonder that as foon as I took myv
handkerchief front before my eyes, it ftiould appear to
me3
HIP [ 547 3 HIP
'' H-ippopota- me, at fo near a view as I had of it, like a high column
of water, which feemed to threaten to carry us off and
drown us in a moment: for which reafon I ran, or ra¬
ther flew, towards the higher ground, leaving both my
guns and my brother fentinels behind me. But as juft
at this fpot I was prevented by the fteepnefs of the river’s
banks from afcending the heights, and neverthelefs
perceived that neither my companions nor myfelf were
drowned, it ran in my head, for the fpace of feveral
feconds, that we were all of us either dreaming or
delirious. The farmer’s fon had fallen afleep, and ftill
continued to fleep very foundly. As to the farmer
himfelf, who, panting and breathlefs, every now and
then lo' ked up to heaven, and at the fame time, with
much aukwardnefs and buftle, was endeavouring to
make his efcape, I made all the hafte I could to dif-
engage him from a large wrapper, which, as well on
account of his gout as by way of keeping off the flies,
he had wrapped round his legs. 1 then alked him
what courfe the water had taken when it overflowed ?
and he, after a long paufe, anfwered only by alking
me in his turn if I was not mad ? upon which 1 was
almoft ready to put the fame queftion to myfelf. And
even at laft, when all this was unriddled to me, I could
not help doubting of the truth of it, till I found the
farmer’s gun was really difcharged : for the rattling
among the ftones and the fquaftiing in the water, oc-
cafioned by the fea cow, was what I firft heard, and
what made me take to my legs; fo that I did not at-
tehd in the leaft either to the report of the gun or the
cry of the animal, though thefe latter appeared to the
reft of our party the moft terrible: fo much, indeed,
that they occafioned Mr Immelman, together with the
farmer’s fon-in-law,. to fly from their poll; though
they had feen nothing of all that had happened, and
could not eafily have come to any harm.— We conclu¬
ded the chace ; and fpent the remainder of the night
in laughing at each other, in chattering, and forming
various conje&ures on the fubjedt of the precipita¬
tion and impetuous fury of the fea-cow ; which, how¬
ever, was probably as much alarmed and frightened as
we ourfelves could poffibly be : we even fmoked a
couple of pipes while we liftened to the roaring of
the lion, and waited for the approach of the morning.
Several Hottentots then told us, that foon after the
noife and tumult we have been deferibing had ceafed,
they had feen a fea-cow making its way out of the
river towards that fide of it which was unguarded.
“ On the 25th, from fome traces of the fea-cows
which we. found in the dull near another fpot, we
concluded that many of thefe huge amphibious animals
had lately taken up their quarters in a certain pit
thereabouts; which we accordingly prepared to lay
fiege to in every pofiible way. In the mean time, we
faw a young lion make its efcape into a clofe thicket
on the fide of this fame pit, where it might be per-
fedtly fafe from us and our hounds. Not much ap¬
proving of this animal’s being fo near a neighbour to
us, we thought it belt for feveral of us markfmen to
be together at each hiding-place; at the fame time
ordering our Hottentots, partly by making a noife
and uproar, and partly by the means of making large
fires, to frighten the fea-cows from attempting any of
the other paffes. Thefe animals had probably been
Jbefet in the fame manner feveral times before, as this
night we fcarcely heard any thing of them. In the Hippopoui
mean while, however, we flattered ourfelves, that by mus „
continuing to block them up, we fhould at leaft by , -
flarving them force them to quit their afylum, and ex-
pofe themfelves on the land to the fire of our guns.
“ On the 26th likewife we were on the look-out
after thefe animals, between the hours of ten and
eleven in the forenoon, and alfo juft beforedufk, though
upon a quite different plan from what we had before,
as we meant now to hit them on their fnouts the in-
ftant they fhould flick them up within the reach of
our guns out of the water in order to take breath, or
more properly (as it is not unaptly called by the co-
lonifts) to blow themfelves. In order that the fhot
might prove mortal, we were obliged, however, on
this occafion, to diredf it in fuch a manner, that the
ball fhould pafs through the cavity of the nofe into
the brain. It was merely upon this plan that we went
out after the fea-cows before we arrived vxAgterBrunljes-
hoogte, and were ftrengthened by the farmer’s party.
But we conftantly found thefe animals too fhy to allow
us to put our defigns in execution: for although, in
thofe places where they had not bfen frightened or
wounded, they will often in the middle of the day
raife their heads and part of their bodies above the
furface of the water, they at this time fcarcely ventu¬
red juft to put one of their uoftrils only out of it, in
order to breathe almoft imperceptibly ; and this only
for the moft part in thofe fpots in which they were
fheltered from us by the hanging branches of trees.
Notwithftanding this difadvantageous fituation, they,
in confequence of the acutenefs of their fmell, feemed
Hill to difeern us, efpecially when we were to the
windward of them ; as in that cafe they inftantly
withdrew to another part.
“ The fame night we betook ourfelves again to our
polls; and at half an hour after eight, it being already
very dark, a fea-cow began at intervals to put its head
up above the water, and utter a lharp, piercing, and,
as it were, a very angry cry, which feemed to be be¬
tween grunting and neighing. Perhaps this cry may
be bell expreffed by the words h'eurkh burkh, hub-hub:
the two firft being uttered flowly, in a hoarfe but (harp
and tremulous found, refembling the grunting of other
animals; while the third, or compound word, is
founded extremely quick, and is not unlike the neigh¬
ing of a horfe. It is true, it is impoffible to exprefs
thefe inarticulate founds in writing; but perhaps one
may make nearer approaches to it than one can to the
gutturopalatial founds of the Hottentot language. At
eleven o’clock came the fame or elfe fome other hip¬
popotamus, and in like manner vifited the polls we
occupied. He did not, however, dare to come up,
though to our extreme mortification we heard him
come and nibble the boughs which hung over the fur-
face of the water, as well as a little grafs and a few
low Ihrubs which grew here and there on the infide of
the river’s banks. We were, however, in hopes that
this way of living would not long fuffice animals, one
of which only required almoft a larger portion than a
whole team of oxen. Thus far at leaft is certain, that
if one Ihould calculate the confumption of provifions
made by a fea-cow from the fize of its fauces, and from
that of its body and of its belly, which hangs almoft
down to the ground, together with the quantity of
3 Y ? grafs
HIP [ 548 ] HIP
Hippopota- graft which I have at different times obferved to have
. mU8’ been confumed by one of thefe animals in fpots whither
- •v_come over night to graze, the amount would
appear almoft incredible.
“ We paffied the following night at the fame polls
as we occupied on the night preceding, the fea-cows
atting much in the fame manner as before. .On the
38th, after fun-rife, juft as we were thinking of going
from our polls home to our waggons, there comes a
female hippopotamus with her calf, from fome other
pit or river, to take up her quarters in that which we
were then blockading. While fhe was waiting at a
rather fteep part of the river’s banks, and looking back
after her calf, which was lame, and confequently came
on but flowly, fhe received a (hot in her fide, upon
which fhe directly plunged into the river: but was not
mortally wounded; for Flip (the farmer’s fon), the
drowfielt of all fublunary beings, who had fliot her,
and that' inftant could hardly be awakened by two
Hottentots, was ftill half afleep when he fired his
piece. And happy was it for him that the enormous
beaft did not make towards his hiding or rather fleep-
ing place, and fend him into the other world to lleep
for ever. In the mean while his fhot was fo far of
fervice, that one of my Hottentots ventured to feize
the calf, and hold it fall by its hind-legs till the reft
of the hunting party came to his affiftance. Upon
which the calf was fall bound, and with the greatefl
joy borne in triumph to our waggons; though while
they were taking it over a fhallow near the river, the
Hottentots were very much alarmed left the wounded
mother and the other fea cows fhould be induced by
the cries of the calf to come to its refcue; the crea¬
ture, as long as it was bound, making a noife a good
deal like a hog that is going to be killed, or has got
fall between two polls. The found, however, pro¬
ceeding from the hippopotamus calf was more {brill
and harfh. It fhowed likewife a confiderable fhare of
llrength in the attempt it made to get loofe, and was
found to be quite unmanageable and unwieldy : the
length of it being already three feet and a half, and
the height two feet; though the Hottentots fuppofed
it to be no more than a fortnight, or at moft three
weeks, old. When at laft it was turned loofe, it
ceafed crying; and when the Hottentots had paffed
their hands feveral times over its nofe, in order to ac-
cuftom it to their effluvia, began diredlly to take to
them.
“ While the calf was yet alive, I made a drawing of
it, a copy of which may be feen in the Swedifh Tranf-
aftions for 1778. After this it was killed, differed, and
eaten up in left than three hours time. The reafon
of this quick dilpatch was paitly the warmth of the
weather, and partly our being in abfolute want of any
other freffl provifions. We found the flefh and fat of
this calf as flabby as one might have expefted from its
want of age, and confequently not near fo good as
that of the old fea-cows ; of which I found the flefh
tender, and the-fat of a tafte like marrow, or at leaft
rot fo greafy and ftrong as other fat. It is for this
reafon likewife that the colonifts look upon the flefh
and fat of the fea cow as the wholefomeft meat that
can be eaten ; the gelatinous part of the feet in parti¬
cular, when properly dreffed, being accounted a great
delicacy. The dried tongues of thefe animals are alfo
confidered even at the Cape as a rare and favory dt/h. H
On my return to Sweden, I had the honour to fumifli
his majefty’s table with a dried fea cow’s tongue, two
feet and eight inches long. With refpedt to form,
the tongue of a full-grown hippopotamus is very blunt
at the tip, and is in fail broadeft at that part; if at
the fame time it is flanted off towards one fide, and
marked with lobes, as I was informed it is, this cir-
cumftanee may, perhaps, proceed from the fridlion it
fuffers againil the teeth, towards the fide on which the
animal chiefly chews ; at leaft fome traces of this ob¬
lique form were difcoverable on the dried tongue I
am fpeaking of.
“ The hide of the adult hippopotamus bears a great
refemblance to that of the rhinoceros, but is rather
thicker. Whips likewife made of this hide are ftrong-
er, and after being ufed fome time, are more pliable
than thofe made of the hide of the rhinoceros ufually
are, though they are not fo tranfparent as thefe latter
are when new.
“ The food of the hippopotamus confifts entirely of
herbs and graft, a circumftance of which we are in¬
formed by Father Lobo; and which may partly be in¬
ferred from what I have already faid on the fubjedt, as
well as from the figure of the flomach belonging to
the foetus of a hippopotamus given in Mefirs de Buf-
fon and Daubenton’s elegant work. I therefore do
not look upon it as very probable, that thefe animals,
agreeably to the affertions of M. de Buffon, p. 93. or
of Dampier in his voyage, fhould hunt after fifh by
way of preying upon them ; efpecially as in fome of
the rivers of the fouthern part of Africa, where the
fea-cows are feen daily and in great abundance, there
is not a fifh to be feen ; and in others only a few ba-
ftard fpringers, as they are called (cyprtnus gonorynchus}, ,
which are fcarcely as big as a common herring. It is
faid, that a fmall fpecies of carp is ftill more rarely to
be met with here. It is true, that the lea-cows fome-
times frequent the mouths of the rivers here, which,
are full of fea-fifh, and even fometimes the fea itfelf:.
we know, however, that thefe huge quadrupeds are
notwithHanding this obliged to go from thence upon
dry-land in queft of food. Neither is it probable that
they can drink the fea-water; as an inftance was re¬
lated to me of the contrary in a hippopotamus, which*
having been disturbed in the rivers, had taken refuge
in the fea, and yet was obliged to go afhore every,
night and drink frefh water from a well in the neigh¬
bourhood, till at laft it was fhot by fome people that
lay in wait for it there. That the hippopotamufes ac¬
tually- lived in falt-water, I have feen evident proofs at
the mouths both of Kromme and Camtour rivers, parti¬
cularly in the latter, on my journey homewards ;
where many of thefe animals blowed themfelves in
broad-day-light, and thruft their heads up above the
water ; and one of them in particular, which had been
wounded by an ill directed fhot on the nofe, neighed
from anger and refentment. In Krakekamma I faw
on the beach manifeft traces of a hippopotamus which
had come out of the fea, but had retired thither again
dire£lly. That very attentive navigator Captain Burtz
informed me, that he had frequently feen on the eaft-
ern coaft of Africa fea-horfes (meaning probably the
hippopotamus) raife their heads above the furface or
the water, in order to blow themCdves and neigh. I
have
HIP [ 549 I HIP
JTippopota- have been induced to be ratber circumftantial on this
mus• fubjeft, a-s M. Adanfon had taken into his head, in
V... j,js y0yage au Senegal, to limit the abode of the hippo¬
potamus to the frelh water rivers only in Africa; and
M. de Buffon has taken upon him to fupport this opi¬
nion, and to render Kolbe’s teftimony to the contrary
liable to fufpicion.
“ An old experienced huntfman told me, that he
had once feen two hippopotamufes copulate, which
they did in the fame manner as common cattle. Oa
this occafion the beads dood in a lhallow part of the
river, where the water reached up to their knees.
“ The method of catching the hippopotamus con-
fids (befides fhooting it) in making pits for it in thofe
parts which the animal pades in his way to and from
the river: but this method is peculiar to the Hotten¬
tots; and is only pradlifed by them in the rainy feafon,
as the ground in fummer is too hard for that purpoie.
It is faid that they have never fucceeded in killing
this huge aquatic animal with poifoned darts, though
this way of killing game is pradtifed with advantage
by the Hottentots for the dedrudtion both of the ele¬
phant and rhinoceros. The colonids likewife were
not entirely unacquainted with the method mentioned
by M. Haffelquid, as being common in Egypt, viz. to
ftrew on the ground as many peafe or beans as the ani¬
mal can pofiibly eat, by which means it burfts its belly
and dies. But as this method is very expenfive, and
they can generally have this animal for a Angle charge
of powder and a tin ball, (hot in a proper direction,
they chiefly and almoll folely have recourfe to this
cheaper expedient.
“ The hippopotamus is not fo quick in its pace on
land as the generality of the larger quadrupeds, though
perhaps it is not fo flow and Ireavy as M. de Buffon
deferibes it to be ; for both the Hottentots and colo-
nifts look upon it as dangerous to meet a hippopota¬
mus out of the water, efpecially as, according to re¬
port, they had had a recent inftance of one of thefe
animals, which, from certain circumftances, was fuppo-
fed to be in rut, having for feveral hours purfued a
Hottentot, who found it very difficult to make his
efcape. The people of this country did not entertain
that opinion of the medicinal virtues of the hippopo¬
tamus, as they did of certain parts of the elephant and
rhinoceros ; excepting one colonift, who imagined
he had found the os petrofum of this .animal reduced to
powder, and taken in the quantity that would lie on
the point of a knife, excellent in convulfions, and
particularly in the convulfions (Jluypen) of children.
That the flefh is reckoned very wholefome food, I have
already mentioned.
“ Having already exceeded the limits I had pre-
icribed to myfelf, I do not intend to dwell here on the
anatomy of the hippopotamus we caught, particularly,
as the internal conformation of the calves is fomewhat
different from that of the adult animal. I ihall therefore
only briefly mention the following particulars: the llo-
machs were four in number, and confequently one more
than*in the foetus examined by M. Daubenton, which
was kept in fpirits. Compare Buffon, Tom. xii. Tab. iv.
ftg. 2. The two firft ftomachs were each of them about
feven inches long and three inches in diameter ; the
third was nine inches in length, and a.little wider than
a.
the two former; the fourth was feven inches long,Hippopota-
and at the upper part five inches broad, but decreafed mi^
by degrees on one fide till it terminated in the pylorus,
which had an aperture an inch in width, being about
half as wide again as the cardia. I did not obferve
any luch valves as M. Daubenton has delineated. The
fint ftomachwe found moftly empty, it contaliningonly
a few lumps of cheefe or curd; it likewife differed from
the reft by the fuperior finenefs of its internal coat.
The internal membrane of the fecond ftomach was
rather coarfer, and had many fmall Imlesin it; it like¬
wife contained feveral clods of cafeous matter, toge¬
ther with a great quantity of fand and mud. The
third ftomach had very vifible folds, both longitudinal
and tranfverfal, on the inlide of it, and contained ca¬
feous lumps of a yellow colour and harder conliftence'
than the others, together with .feveral leaves quite
whole and frefli, and at the fame time fome dirt. Tire
interior membrane of the fourth ftomach was very
frnooth, though it was not without folds ; in the fto¬
mach itfelf there was a good deal of dirt, with a fmall
quantity of curds, which were whiter than they were
in any of the other ftomachs. This fourth ftomach in
a great meafure covered the reft, being fituated on the
right fide of the animal, and was found to have the up¬
per part of the melt adhering to its fuperior and inte¬
rior edge. This latter vifeus, which was one foot
long and three inches broad, diverged from it down¬
wards on the left fide. The inteftinal canal was 109
feet long; the liver meafured 14 inches from right to
left, and 7 or 8 from the hind part to the fore part.
On its anterior edges it had a large notch, being in
other refpeds undivided and entire ; it was of an ob¬
lique form, being broadeft towards the left fide, where I
difeovered a gall-bladder five inches in length. In the
uterus there was nothing particularly worthy of obferva-
tion. I found two teats, and the heart furrounded with
•much fat; the length of this mufcle was five inches, and
the breadth about four inches and a half. The commu¬
nication between the auricles, called the foramen ovale,
was above an inch in diameter. Each lung was eleven
inches long and undivided: but at the fuperior and
exterior part of the right lung there were two globules
or proceffes elevated half an inch above the furface ;
and on the fide correfponding to it, in the left lung,
and in the upper part of it, there was a little excref-
cence, terminating jn a point: fomevvhat below this,
yet more forwards, there was found likewife a procefs-
half an inch in height. Diredtly over the lower part
of the communication formed between the right and
left lung, there was a kind of creft or comb, meafuring
an inch from the top to the bafis.
“ One of my brother fportfmen faid, he had once
obferved a peculiar kind of vermin on the body of one
of thefe amphibious animals; but on the calf we had
caught we found nothing but a fpecies of leech, which
kept only about the anus, and likewife a good way up
in the ftrait gut, where, by a timely abdradion of the
blood, they may be of ufe to thefe large amphibious
animals ; and particularly may ad as prefervatives a-
gainft the piles, repaying themfelves for their trouble in
kind. Moft of them were very fmall; but on the
other band there was a confiderable number of them. .
The only large one I faw of this fpecies, being fome-
what-:
HIP r 55° 1 H I R
Hlj’pnpota- what more than an inch in length, I defcribed and gent. Goats eat it; cows, (heep, horfes, and fwine, Hirsea
made a drawing of: this is inferted by the name of refufe it. II
■ 'PPuns t}ie Hlrudo Capenfis, corpore fuprh nigricanic, medio Ion- HIRiEA, in botany; a genus of the trigynia order, lr*‘
gitudinaliter fub-bnmneo, fultus pallide fufeo, in the ele- belonging to the decandria clafs of plants. The calyx
gant Treatife on Worms, w hich M. Adolphus Nodeer, is pentaphyllous ; the petals roundifh and unguicula-
firft fecretary of the patriotic fociety, is preparing for ted; there are three bilabiated feeds,
the prefs. Inftead of the lighter coloured ftreak upon HIRAM, a king of Tyre, cotemporary with Solo-
the back, there was difcoverable in fome of thefe leech- mon, whom he fupplied with cedar, gold, filver, and
es one and fometimes two longitudinal brownifh lines, other materials for building the temple. He died
which grew fainter and fainter towards the extremi- 1000 years B. C.
ties. Hiram of Tyre, an artift who aflifted in the con-
“ The huge animal of which we have been fpeak- ftru&ion of Solomon’s temple, and other public build¬
ing, has doubtlefs obtained its prefent name of hippo- ings at Jerufalem, flourilhed 1015 B. C.
potamus, which fignifies river-horfe, merely in confe- . HIRCANIA (anc. geog.) SccHyrcania.
quence of the neighing found it makes; as otherwife HIRCH-horn, a town of Germany, in the circle
in its form it bears not the lead refemblance to a horfe, of the lower Rhine, with a ftrong caftle. It is feat-
But rather to a hog. Neither does it in the lead re- ed on the fide of a hill on the river Neckar, and be-
■femble the ox ; fo it could be only the different do- longs to the elector Palatine. E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat.
machs of this animal which could occafion it to be 49. 28.
called fea-cow at the Cape ; and perhaps it is for the HIRE (Philip de la), an eminent French mathema-
fame reafon that the Hottentots call it the t’gao, which tician and adronomer, born at Paris in j 640. His fa-
nearly approaches to t’kau, the name by which the ther, who was painter in ordinary to the king, defign-
Buffalo is known among thefe people. ed him for the fame profeflion : but he devoted him-
“ From the account given by Bellonius of a tame felf to mathematical dudies, and was nominated to°-e-
-hippopotamus, which he deferibes as a bead of a very ther with M. Picard to make the neceffary obfervations
•mild and gentle nature, as well as from the difpofition for anew map of France by the direftions of M. Colbert,
of the calf we had jud caught, it follows, that this In 1683, he was employed in continuing the famous
animal might be eafily brought over to Europe,-where meridian line begun by M. Picard ; and was next en-
<it has been formerly exhibited at two different times gaged in conftrudling thofe grand aquedufts which
-in the public fpeftacles at Rome. For this purpofe, were projefted by Louis XIV. He died fn 1718, af-
the capture might eafied be made at Konaps-river, ter having written a great number of works, belides fe-
■where thefe animals, according to the accounts given veral occafional papers difperfed in journals, and in me-
me by the Caffres, refide in great abundance; and moirs of the Academy of Sciences,
milch-cows might be kept ready at hand, in order to HIRING, in law. See Borrowing and Hiring.
rear the calf in cafe it was a fuckling. Indeed I am HIRPINI (anc. geog.), a people of Italy, next to
apt to fuppofe, that one a little older than this would the Samnites, to the fouth-eaft, and defeendants from
not be very nice in its food ; as that which we caught them ; fituated to the north of the Picentini, and to
was induced by hunger, asfoon as it was letloofe near the weft of the Apuli, having on the north the A-
the waggon, to put up with fomething not extremely pennin and a part of Samnium. The name is from
delicate, which had been juft dropped from one of our Hirpus, a term denoting a wolf in their language ; ei-
oxen. This perhaps may appear very extraordinary ther becaufe under the condudl of this animal the co¬
in an animal with four ftomachs ; but there have been lony was led and fettled, according to Strabo ; or be-
inftances of this kind known in common cattle, which caufe, like that prowling animal, they lived on plunder,
in Herjedal are partly fed with horfe-dung. (Vid. according to Servius.
^ jjjpjjers's A. A. Hulphers’s Befkrifning om Norrland*, 3:je HIRSBERG, a town of Silefia, in the territory of
Dtfcripi'ion Sami, om Herjedalen, p. 27—87.) I have been likewife Jauer, famous for its mineral baths. It ie feated on the
affured, that this method of feeding cattle has been river Bofar, in E. Long. 17. 50. N. Lat. 50. 50.
praftifed with great advantage in Uplandia, when HIRSCHFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle
there has been a fcarcity of fodder; and that after- of the upper Rhine, and capital of a principality of
wards thefe fame cattle, even when they have not been the fame name, depending on a famous abbey which
in want of proper fodder, have taken to this food was fecularized in favour of the houfe of Caffel. It is
of their own accord, and eaten it without any thing feated on the river Fulda, in E. Long. 9. 52. N. Lat.
clfe being mixed with it.” 51.46.
HIPPURIS, mare’s-tail: A genus of the mo- HIRTELLA, in botany: A genus of the mono-
•nogynia order, belonging to the monandria clafs of gynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants;
plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
15th order, Inundata. There is no calyx, nor any pe- the order is doubtful. There are five petals ; the fi-
tals; the ftigma is fimple; and there is one feed, laments are very long, perfifting, and fpiral; the berry
There is only one fpecies, a native of Britain, and is monofpermous; the ftyle lateral,
which grows in ditches and ftagnant waters. The HIRUDO, the leech; a genus of infe&s belong-
ilower of this plant is found at the bafe of each leaf, ing to the order of vermes inteftina. The body moves
and is as fimple as can be conceived ; there being nei- either forward or backward. There are feveral fpe-
ther empalement nor bloffom; and only one chive, cies, principally diftinguilhed by their colour. The
sene pointal, and one feed. It is a very weak aftrin- moft remarkable are the following.
1. The
H I R f 551 1 H I R
1. The medicinalis, or medicinal leech, the form of the leech does not fallen, a drop of milk is put on the Hirumfo,
J which is well known, grows to the length of two or fpot it is wifhed to fix on, or a little blood is drawn
three inches. The body is of a blackifh brown colour, by means of a flight punfture, after which it imme-
marked on the back with fix yellow fpots, and edged diately fettles. Prudence requires it Ihould be held
with a yellow line on each fide; but both the fpots and falb with a piece of rulh, left it fhould find its way in-
the lines grow faint, and almoft difappear, at fame to the anus when ufed for the hemorrhoids, or pcne*
feafons. The head is fmaller than the tail, which fixes trate into the cefophagus if employed to draw the
itfelf very firmly to any thing the creature pleafes. It is gums; otherwife it would make the greateft havcck
viviparous, and produces but one young one at a time, either in the ftomach or inteftines. In fuch a cafe,
which is in the month of July. It is an inhabitant of the bell remedy is to drink fait water; which is the
clear running waters, and is well known for its ufe in method pra&ifed to make it loofe its hold when it.
bleeding. 2. The fanguifuga, or horfe-leech, is larger fucks longer than was intended. Oil of tartar, vola*
than the former: Its Ikin is fmooth and glofly; the tile alkali, pepper, and acids, make it alfo leave the
body is deprefled; the back is dulky; and the belly part on which it was applied. If, on the contrary, it
is of a yellowifti green, having a yellow lateral mar- is intended it ftiould draw a larger quantity of blood,
gin. It inhabits ftagnafit waters. 3. The geometra, the end of its tail is cut off. It then fucks continually
or geometrical leech, grows to an inch and a half in to make up the lofs it fuftains. The difcharge occa-
length ; and has a fmooth and gloffy fldn of a dulky fioned by the pundlure of a leech is eafily Hopped
brown colour, but in fome feafons greenilh fpotted with brandy or other ftyptics.
with white. When in motion, its back is elevated in- At Ceylon, travellers who walk bare legged are mo-
to a kind of ridge ; and it then appears as if meafut- lefted by the great numbers of leeches concealed under
ing the fpace it'palled over like a compafs, whence its the grafs—All leeches vary in their colours at fome
name. Its tail is remarkably broad; and it holds as feafons, but they are generally of a dulky greenilh
firmly by it as by the head. It is common on Hones brown or yellow, and often variegated. They are
in lhallow running waters; and is often found on trout laid to be very reftlefs before a change of weather, if
and other filh after the fpawning feafon. 4. The mu- confined in glaffes.
ricata, or muricated leech, has a taper body, rounded HIRUNDO, in ornithology, a genus of birds flf
at the greater extremity, and furnilhed with two fmall the order of pafferes. There are 37 fpecies, chiefly
tentacula or horns ftrongly annulated and rugged upon diftinguilhed by their colour. The moft remarkable
the rings, the tail dilated. It inhabits the Atlantic are,
Ocean, and is by the filhermen called the Jea leech. 1. The ruftica, common or chimney-fwallow, is pjat<!
It adheres to filh, and generally leaves a black mark diftinguilhed from all the other fpecies by the fuperior ccxxxw
on the fpot. forkinefs of its tail, and by the red fpot on the fore-
The organs of generation in leeches are formed like head and under the chin. The crown of the head,
thofe of the fea and land fnails. See Helix.—The the whole upper part of the body, and the coverts of
leech’s head is armed with a lharp inftrument that the wings, are black, glofftd with a rich purplilh blue,
makes three wounds at once. They are three lharp moft refplendent in the male: the breaft and belly
tubercles, ftrong enough to cut through the Ikin of a white, and in the male tinged with red : the tail is
man, or even of an ox or horfe. Thtir mouth is as black; the two middle feathers are plain, the others
. it were the body of the pump, and their tongue or marked tranfverfely near their ends with a white fpot:
• flelhy nipple the fucker ; by the working of this piece the exterior feathers of the tail are much longer in the.
of mechanifm, the blood is made to rife up to the con- male than in the female. The food of this fwallow is
duit which conveys it to the animal’s ftomach, which the fame with the others of its kind, viz. infedls. Foi¬
ls a membranaceous Ikin divided into 24 fmall cells, the taking of thefe, in their fwifteft flight, nature has
The blood which is fucked out is there preferved for admirably contrived their feveral parts : their mouths
feveral months almoft without coagulating, and proves aie very wide to take in flies, &c. in their quickeft
a ftore of provifion to the animal. The nutritious motion; their wings are long, and adapted for diftant
parts, pure and already digefted by animals, haven© and continual flight; and their tails are forked, to
call to be difengaged from heterogeneous fubftances; enable them to turn the readier in purfuit of their
nor indeed is there an anus difcoverable in the leech, prey. This fpecies is the firft comer of all the Britiih
mere tranfpiration feems to be all that it performs, the hirundines; and appears in general on or about the 13th.
matter fixing on the furface of its body, and afterwards of. April, though now and then a tlraggler is feen
coming off in fmall threads. Of this an experiment much earlier. This hirundo, though called the chimi
may be tried by putting a leech into oil, where it ney-fwallow, by no means builds altogether in chim*
keeps alive for feveral days; upon being taken out neys, but often within barns and out-houfes againft the
and put into water, there appears to loofen from its rafters; and fo ftie did in Virgil’s time
body a kind of flough ftiaped like the creature’s body.
The organ of refpiration, though unafeertained, feems
to be fituated in the mouth ; for if, like an infedt, it
drew its breath through vent holes, it would not fob-
fill in.oil, as by it they would be flopped up.
Garrula quam tignh nidos fufpendat hirundo.
In Sweden fhe builds in barns, and is called ladu fwalat
, , , the barn fwallow. Befides, in the warmer parts of Europe,,
It fs only the firft fpecies that is ufed in medicine; there are no chimneys to houfes except they are Eng-
being applied to tender parts upon the veffels in order lifh built : in thefe countries fh'e conftrudls her neft in -
to draw off the infpiffated blood with which they are porches, and gate-ways, and galleries, and open halls.,
overcharged, or to phlebotomize young children. If Here and there a bird may affed fome odd peculiar
. place ;:
H I R
Hirando. place: but in general with us this fpecies breeds in chirtl-
r. an{j ioves to haunt thofe ftacks where there is a
conflant fire, no doubt for the fake of warmth. Not that
it can fubfilt in the immediate lhaft where there is a
fire ; but prefers one adjoining to that of the kitchen,
and difregards the perpetual fmoke of that funnel.
Five or fix or more feet down the chimney does this
little bird begin to form her neft about the middle of
May, which confiits, like that of the houfe-martin, of
a cruft or (hell compofed of dirt or mud, mixed with
fhort pieces of ftraw to render it tough and permanent;
with this difference, that whereas the fhell of the mar¬
tin is nearly hemifpheric, that of the fwallow is open
at the top, and like half a deep difh: this neft is lined
with fine graffes, and feathers which are often collec¬
ted as they float in the air. Wonderful is the addrefs
(Mr White obferves) which this adroit bird fhows all
day long in afeending and dtfeending with fecurity
through fo harrow a pafs. When hovering over the
mouth of the funnel, the vibrations of her wings a&-
ing on the confined air occafion a rumbling like thun¬
der. It is not improbable that the dam fubmits to
this inconvenient fituation folow in the fhaft, in order
to fecure her broods from rapacious birds, and parti¬
cularly from owls, which frequently fall down chimneys,
perhaps in attempting to get at thefe neftlings.
This bird lays from four to fix white eggs, dotted
■with red fpecks ; and brings out her firft brood about
the laft week in June, or the firft week in July. The
progreffive method by which the young are introduced
into life is very amufing : Firft, they emerge from
the fhaft with difficulty enough, and often fall down in¬
to the rooms below : for a day or fo they are fed on the
chimney-top, and then are conduced to the dead
leaflefs bough of fome tree, where, fitting in a row,
they are attended with great affiduity, and may then
be called/>myW\r. In a day or two more they become
flyers, but are ftill unable to take their own food :
therefore they play about near the place where the
dams are hawking for flies; and, when a mouthful is
colle&ed, at a certain fignal given, the dam and the
neftling advance, rifing towards each other, and meet¬
ing at an angle; the young one all the while uttering
fuch a little quick note of gratitude and complacency,
that a perfon muft have paid very little regard to the
wonders of Nature that has not often remarked this
feat. The dam betakes herfelf immediately to the bu-
finefs of a fecond brood as foon as ffie is difengaged
from her firft ; which fhe at once afibciates with the
firft broods of houfe-martins ; and with them congre¬
gates, cluftering on funny roofs, towers, and trees.
This hirundo brings out her fecond brood towards the
middle and end of Auguft, All the fummer long is
the fwallow a moft inftru&ive pattern of unwearied in-
duftry and affc&ien ; for from morning to night, while
there is a family to be fupported, fhefpends the whole
day in Ikimtning clofe to the ground, and exerting the
moft hidden turns and quick evolutions. Avenues,
and long walks under hedges, and pafture-fields, and
mown meadows where cattle graze, are her delight,
N* 154.
H I R
efpecially if there are trees interfperfed; becaufe in
fuch fpots infe&s moft hbound. When a fly is taken
a fmart fnap from her bill is heard, refembling the
noife at the ftiutting of a watch-cafe ; but the motion
of the mandibles are too quick for the eye-
The fwallow, probably the male bird, is the excu-
bitor to houfe-martins and other little birds, announ¬
cing the approach of birds of prey. For as foon as an
hawk appears, with a {brill alarming note he calls all the
fwallows and martins about him ; who purfue in a bo¬
dy, and buffet and ftrike their enemy till they have
driven him from the village, darting down from above
on his back, and rifing in a perpendicular line in per¬
fect fecurity. This bird alfo will found the alarm,
and ftrike at cats when they climb on the roofs of
houfes or otherwife approach the nefts. Each fpecies
of hirundo drinks as it flies along, flipping the furface
of the water ; but the fwallow alone, in general, waflies
on the wing, by dropping into a pool for many times
together: in very hot weather houfe-mattins and
bank-martins dip and waffi a little.—The fwallow is a
delicate fongfter, and in foft funny weather flings both
perching and flying; on trees in a kind of concert,
and on chimney tops: it is alfo a bold flyer, ranging to
diftant towns and commons even in windy weather,
which the other fpecies feem much to difiike ; nay,
even frequenting expofed fea-port towns, and making
little excurfions over the falt-water. Horfemen on
wide downs are often clofely attended by a little party
of fwallows for miles together, which plays before and
behind them, fweeping around, and collecting all the
fculking infects that are roufed by the trampling of the
hoifes feet : when the wind blows hard, without this
expedient, they are often forced to fettle to pick up
their lurking prey.
This fpecies feeds much on little coleoptera, as well
as on gnats and flies; and often fettles on dug ground,
or paths, for gravels to grind and digeft its food. Mr
White informs us, that before they depart, for fome
weeks, to a bird, they forfake houfes and chimneys,
and rooft in trees ; and ufually withdraw about the be¬
ginning of October ; though fome few ftragglers may
be feen at times till the firft week in November.
Mr Pennant fays, that for a few days previous to their
departure, they affemble in vaft flocks on houfe-tops,
churches, and trees, from whence they take their
flight (a). They are fuppofed to take up their win¬
ter quarters in Senegal and parts adjacent; and feem
to poffefs in turn the whole of the old continent, be¬
ing known from Norway to the Cape of Good Hope
on the one hand, and from Kamtfchatka to India and
Japan on the other. They are alfo found in all parts
of North America, migrating north and fouth, as with
us. Kalm fays, that in America they build in houfes
and under the outfides of the roofs; alfo on the
mountains, in fuch parts of them as project beyond the
bottom, «s w'ell as under the corners of perpendicular
rocks.
2. The tahitica, or Otaheite fwallow, is five inches
in length ; its body is of a brown-black colour with a
Alining
I 552 1
(a) See Migration.— Concerning the annual difappearance of thefe birds, however, naturalifts have enter*
stained different opinions; a detail of which, as the fubjedl is curious, and would form too long a digreffion in this
jplace, is referved for a feparate article. See Swallow,
H I R [ 553 1 H I R
ttirundo. niining bluifli glofs, the breaft of a fulvous purple,
*T-~ the abdomen of a footy brown ; the bill, tail, and
legs are black. It inhabits the mountainous parts of
Otaheite; See Fig. I.
3. The efculenta, or edible fwallow, according to
BufFon, is lefs than the wren, and only two inches and a
quarter in length. The bill is black ; the upper parts
of the body are brown, the under whitifh ; the tail is
forked, and each feather of it tipped with white : the
legs are brown. See Fig. 2.
Mr Latham thinks, that the fize as above defcribed
Is by much too fmall, as Mr Marfden fays that the
bird “ appears to be the common martin —“ and
(fays Mr Latham) we are much inclined to think
that it is at lead of that fize, from the eggs which ac¬
company the neft now in the Britifh mufeum, which
are as big as thofe of the martin, and of the fame co¬
lour. However, we cannot difpute the point.” The
moft curious part ^>f the natural hifiory of this bird
confifts in the n.eft, which is compofed of fuch mate¬
rials as render it not only edible) but one of the great-
eft dainties of the Afiatic epicures.
Thefenefts (of which a particular account is given
trader the article BiRos-Nefts) are found i'n vaft num¬
bers in certain caverns, in various ifles in the Soolo
Archipelago, fituated between longitude 117 and 120,
latitude 5 and 7 ; particularly in three fmall ifles, or
rather rocks ; in the caverns of which the nefts are
found fixed to the fides in aftdnifhing numbers. They
are alfo found' in amazing quantities on a fmall ifland
called Toe, in the ftraits of Sunda ; the caverns of
which are lined with the nefts : but nowhere in great¬
er abundance than about Croee, near the fouth end of
Sumatra, four miles Up a river of that name. But
they are not peculiar to,the above places;: for they are
likewife common from Java to Cochinchina on the
north, and from the point of Sumatra weft, to New
Guinea on the eaft ; where the fea is faid to be cover¬
ed with a vifeous fubftance like half-melted glue, which
the bird is fuppofed either to take up from the furface
with its bill during flight, or to pick it from the rocks
when left there by the waves.—Of thefe nefts, it is faid
the Dutch alone export from Batavia 1000 pickles (b)
every year, which are brought from the ifles of Co¬
chinchina, and thofe lying to the eaft of them. It is
much to be wondered, that, among other luxuries im¬
ported by us frotn the eaft, the ufe of thefe nefts flrould
not have found a way to our tables ; as being yet fo
fcarce in England as to be kept as rarities in the cabi-
rtets of collectors. The bird itfelf at Sumatra is known
by the name of Layonglayong.
4. The borbonica, or wheat-fwallow, is about the.
fize of the fwift: the plumage above is blackiflt
brown ; beneath grey, marked with longitudinal brown
fpots: the tail is even at the end : the bill and legs are
black. This fpecies inhabits the Ifle of France ; fre¬
quenting places fown with wheat, and glades of woods}
anefting elevated fituattons, and frequently feen perch¬
ed on trees ahd ftones. It follows herds of cattle for
the fake of the' flies-which furfound them ; and is fre¬
quently feen in the’wakfc of fhips in great numbers, in
VOL.VtlL Part II.
the road near the ifle, no doubt for the fame purpofe. Hirundo.
It is often obferved of evenings about the clefts in the
mountains, where it is faid to pafs the night; and
where it makes its ntft, which is compofed of ftraw
and feathers. It lays two-eggs, of a grey colour
dotted with brown.
5. The francica, or grey rumped fwallow, is in length
four inches and a quarter; having the upper parts of
the body blackilh, the rump and under parts whitifh or
grey. This fpecies alfo inhabits the Ifle of France, but
not in great numbers; and is found chiefly in the
neighbourhood of frefh waters. It flies fwift; and is
feldom obferved to perch. It is fuppofed to reft in the
woods at night, being feen about the fkirts of them to¬
wards evening. It is generally very lean, and not good
food.
6. The urbica, or martin, is inferior in fize to the
chimney-fwallow, and its tail much lefs forked. The
head and upper-part of the body, except the rump, is
black gloffcd with blue : the breaft, belly, and rump,
are white : the feet are covered with a ftiort white
down. This is the fecond of the fwallow-kind that ap¬
pears in our country ; and of its manners and economy
we have the following curious account in the Rev.
Mr White’s Natural Hiftory of Selborne. “ They be¬
gin to appear about the 16th of April; and for fome
time they in general pay no attention to the bufinefs of
nidification : they play and -fport about, either to re¬
cruit from the fatigue of their journey, if they do mi¬
grate at all; or elfe that their blood may recover its
true tone and texture after it has been fo long benumb¬
ed by the feverities of winter. About the middle of
May, if the weather be fine, the martin begins to think
in earneft of providing a manfion for its family. The
cruft or fliell of this neft feems to be formed of fuch dirt
or loam as comes moft readily to hand, and is tempered
and wrought together with little bits of broken ftraws
to render it tough and tenacious. As this bird often
builds againft a perpendicular wall without any project¬
ing ledge under, it requires its utmoft efforts to get
the firft foundation firmly fixed, fo that it may fafely
carry the fuperftru&ure. On this occafion the bird not
only clings with its claws, but partly fupports itfelf by
ftrongly inclining its tail againft the wall, making that
a fulcrum ; and thus Readied, it works and plafters the
materials into the face of the brick or ftone. But then,
that this work may not, while it is foft and green, pull
itfelf down by its own weight, the provident architeCt
has prudence and forbearance enough not to advance
her work too fall; but by building only in the morn¬
ing, and by dedicating the reft of the day to food and
amufement, gives it fufficient time to dry and harden.
About half an inch feems to be a fufficient layer for a
day. Thus careful workmen, when they build mud-
walls (informed at firft perhaps by this little bird) raife
but a moderate layer at a time, and then defift ; left the
work ftiould become top-heavy, and fo be ruined by its
own weight. By this method in about 10 or 1 z days
is fornied an hemifpheric ne'ft, with a fmall aperture to¬
wards the top, ftrong, eompaCt, and warm ; and per¬
fectly fitted for aft the purpofes for which it was intend-
3 Z> ed.
(b) The pickle, or pekul, is about 125 pounds ; or, as Dampier fays, 300 pickles are equal to 396 pounds'
Englifti weight.—See Voy. vol. ii. p. 132.
H I R
[ 554 1
H I R
Hirundo. ed. But then nothing is more common than for the bratory motion.—They dip and wafh as they fly fome*
  r. r  .. r— — c~:cu~a r.:^- tjme3 jn very j10t wcat{^r) ^ut not fo frequently as
fwallows. Martins love to frequent towns, efpecially
if there are great lakes and rivers at hand. They are
by far the leaa agile of the Britilh hirundines: their
wings and tails are fliort, and therefore they are not
capable of fqch furprifing turns, and quick and glancing
y houfe-fparrow, as foon as the (hell is finithed, to feiae
on it as its own, to ejeft the owner, and to line it after
it* own manner. After fo much labour is bellowed in
erefting a manfion, as nature feldom works in vain,
martins will breed on for feveral years together in the
fame neft, where it happens to be well Iheltered and fe- _ # w       
cure from the injuries of the weather. The Ihell or evolutions as the fwallow. Accordingly, they make
cruft of the neft is a fort of ruftic-work, full of knobs ufe of a placid eafy motion, in a middle region of the
and protuberances on the outfide : nor is the infide of
thofe that I have examined fmoothed with any exa£l*
nefs at all; but is rendered foft and warm, and fit for
incubation, by a lining of fmall ftraws, grafles, and fea¬
thers ; and fometimes by a bed of mofs interwoven with
wool. In this neft they tread or engender, frequently
during the time of building ; and the hen lays from
three to five white eggs. At firft, when the young are
hatched, and are in a naked and helplefs condition, the
parent birds, with tender affiduity, carry out what comes
away from their young. Was it not for this affe&ion-
ate deanlinefs, the neftlings would foon be burnt up
and deftroyed in fo deep and hollow a neft by their own
cauftic excrement. In the quadruped creation the fame
neat precaution is made ufe of, particularly among dogs
and cats, where the dams lick away what proceeds from
their young. But in birds there feems to be a parti¬
cular provifion, that the dung of neftlings is enveloped
in a tough kind of jelly, and therefore is the eafier con¬
veyed off without foiling or daubing^ Yet, as na¬
ture is cleanly in all her ways, the young perform this
office for themfelves in a little time, by thrufting their
tails out at the aperture of their neft. As the young
of fmall birds prefently arrive at their or ‘ ‘ full
growth,” they foon become impatient of confinement,
and fit all day with their heads out at the orifice, where
the dams, by clinging to the neft, fupply them with
food from morning to night. For a time the young
are fed on the wing by their parents ; but the feat is
done by fo quick and almoft imperceptible a flight, that
a perfon muft have attended very exa&ly to their mo¬
tions, before he would be able to perceive it. As foon
as the young are able to fliift for themfelves, the dams
immediately turn their thoughts to the bufinefs of a
fecond brood : while the firft flight, fliaken off and re-
jedled by their nurfes, congregate in great flocks, and
are the birds that are feen cluftering and hovering on
funny mornings and evenings round towers and fteeples,
and on the roofs of churches and houfes. Thefe con-
gregatings ufually begin to take place about the firft
week in Auguft ; and therefore we may conclude that
by that time the firft flight is pretty well over. The
young of this fpecies do not quit their abodes all toge-
feldom mounting to any great height, and never
fweeping long together over the furface of the ground
or water. They do not wander far for food ; but af-
fe£l flickered diftri&s, over fome lake, or under foms
hanging wood, or in fome hollow vale, efpecially in
windy weather. They breed the lateft of all the fwal¬
low kind : in 1772 they had neftlings on to Oflo-
ber the 21ft, and are never without unfledged young as
late as Michaelmas.—As the fumraer declines, the con¬
gregating flocks increafe in numbers daily, by the con-
liant acceffion of the fecond broods ; till at laft they
fwarm in myriads upon myriads round the villages on
the Thames, darkening the face of the fky as they fre¬
quent the aits of that river, where they rooft. They
retire, the bulk of them I mean, in vaft flocks together
about the beginning of October : but have appeared of
late years in a confiderable flight in this neighbourhood,
for one day or two as late as November the 3d and 6th,
after they were fuppofed to have been gone for more
than a fortnight. They therefore withdraw with us
the lateft of any fpecies. Unlefs thtfe birds are very
fliort-lived indeed, or unlefs they do not return to the
diftridt where they are bred, they muft undergo vaft de-
vaftations. fome how, and fome where ; for the birds
that return yearly bear no manner of proportion to the
birds that retire.”
7. The rufa, or rufous-bellied fwallow, is of the
fame fize with the former ; and has the upper parts of
the body of a gloffy black ; the under rufous, growing
paler towards the vent: the forehead is whitifh ; and
the bill and legs are duflty. Thefe are found at Cayenne,
and not unfrequently as far north asNew-York. They
build in houfes, without any mixture of mud ; fabri¬
cating the neft With mofs, dried plants, and flrort bits
of fticks, all united with a fort of gum, fo as fcarce
to be broken, and lined with feathers ; fufpending it
from the beams and rafter?, fides of walls, and eaves
of houfes. It is fometimes a foot and a half in length j
and is fixed by one of its fides, the opening being
made near the bottom. The female lays four or five
eggs; and the young go out as foon as their wings
will fupport them.
8. The riparia, fand-martin, or fliore-biid, is 4|th
ther ; but the more forward birds get abroad fome days inches in length, with th‘e whole upper parts ofi
before the reft. Thefe approaching the eaves of build- the body of a moufe-colour, the throat and unde*
ings, and playing about before them, make people think parts white, the bill and legs blackifli. It is commoa
that feveral old ones attend one neft. They are often about the banks of rivers and fand pits, where it tere-
capricious in fixing on a nefting-place, beginning many brates a round and regular hole in the fand or earth,
edifices, and leaving them unfiniflied ; but when once a r — e——j ->—•• *—
neft is completed in a flickered place, it ferves for feve¬
ral feafons. Thofe which breed in a ready finifhed
houfe, get the ftart in hatching of thofe that build new
which is ferpentine, horizontal, and about two feet
deep. At the inner end of this burrow docs the bird
depofit, in a good degree of fafety, her rude neft,
confifting of fine grafles and feathers, ufually goofc-
by 10 days or a fortnight. Thefe induftrious artificers feathers, very inartificially laid together. “ Though
are at their labours in the long days before four in the
morning : when they fix their materials, theyplafter them
«n with their chins, moving their heads with a quick vi-
at firft (fays Mr White) one would be diiinclined to
believe that this weak bird, with her foft and tender
bill and claws, flxould ever be able to bore the Hub-
bum
HirunJo,
H I R [ SSS 1 H I R
■Hlrundo. torn fand-bank without entirely difabling' herfelf; yet
with thefe feeble inftruments have I feen a pair of them
make great difpatch ; and could remark how much
they had fcooped that day by the freflt fand which ran
down the bank, and was of a different colour from
that which lay loofe and bleached in the fun. In what
fpace of time thefe little artifts are able to mine and
finifh thefe cavities I have never been able to difcover:
but it would be a matter worthy of obfervation, where
it falls in the way of any naturalift to make his re¬
marks. This I have often taken notice of, that feve-
ral holes of different depths are left Unfinifhed at the
end of fummer. To imagine that thefe beginnings
were intentionally made in order to be in the greater
forwardnefs for next fpring, is allowing perhaps too
much forefight and rerum prudtntia to a fimple bird.
May not the caufe of thefe latebra being left unfinifhed
arife from their meeting in thofe places with flrata too
harfh, hard, and folid, for their purpofe, which they
relinquifh, and go to a frefh fpot that works more free¬
ly ? Or may they not in other places fall in with a foil
as much too loofe and mouldering, liable to flounder,
and threatening to overwhelm them and their labours ?
One thing is remarkable—that, after fome years, the
old holes are forfaken and new ones bored 5 perhaps
becaufe the old habitations grow foul and fetid from
long ufe, or becaufe they may fo abound with fleas as
t6 become untenantable. This fpecies of fwallow
moreover is ftrangely annoyed with fleas : and we have
feen fleas, bed-fleas (puhx irritans), fwarming at the
mouths of thefe holes,-^ke bees on the ftools of their
hives. *
The fand-martin arrives much about the fame time
with the fwallow ; and lays, as fhe does, from four to
fix white eggs. But as this fpecies is cryptogame, carry¬
ing on the bufinefs of nidification, incubation, and the
fupport of its young in the dark, it would not be eafy
to afcertain the time of breeding, were it not for the
coming forth of the broods, which appear much about
the time, or rather fomewhat earlier than thofe of the
fwallow\ The nelllings are fupported in common, like
thofe of their congeners, with gnats and other fmall
infedls ; and fometimes they are fed with Ubellula (dra¬
gon flies) almoft as long as themfelves. This hirundo
is faid to lay only once in a year, and to produce
its young more early than the reft of its tribe : though
from this laft circumftance it would feem probable that
they breed at leaft a fecond time like the houfe-martin
and fwallow. It does not always take pains to make
an hole for a neft; frequently laying in cavities of
quarries, and in •hollows of trees, where it is convenient.
When they happen to breed near hedges and enclofures,
they are often difpofftfled of their breeding holes by the
houfe-fparrow, which is oil the fame account a fell
adverfary to houfe-martins. Thefe hirundlnet are no
fongfters, but rather mute, making only a little harfh
noife when a perfon approaches their nefts. They feem
not to be of a fociable turn, never with us congrega¬
ting with their congeners in the autumn. They have
a peculiar manner of flying ; flitting about with odd
jerk-< and vacillations, not unlike the motions of a
butterfly. Doubtlefs the flight of all hirundines is in¬
fluenced by and adapted to the peculiar fort of infefts
which furnifh their food. Hence (fays Mr White) it
would be worth inquiry to examine what particular
genus of infefts affords the principal food df each
refpe&ive fpecies of fwallow.
9. The montana, or crag-fwallow, is about the fize
of the martin, and in its upper plumage like the
fand-martin: the under part of the body is rufous;
the tail is fcarcely forked; the legs are covered with
grey down mixed with brown ; the bill and the claws
are black. Thefe birds inhabit the rocks and cra£s
about Savoy ; arriving there the middle of April, and
departing the 15th of Auguft, for the moil part; now
and then fome ftragglers remain to the 10th of Octo¬
ber. This fpecies is alfo found in the mountains of
Auvergne and Dauphine j and fpecimens have been
received from Gibraltar.
10. The purpurea, or purple fwallow, is in length
feven inches, and the whole body is of a deep violet,
very glofly: the quills and tail are of the fame colour,
but ft ill deeper, and the laft forked : the legs and claws
are blackiih ; and the bill is black. The colour of the
female is dulky brown, with a flight tinge of violet.
This fpecies is found in fummer in Carolina and Vir¬
ginia ; coming in May, and retiring at the approach
of winter. The common people are very fond of
them ; and make little conveniences of boards on the
outfides of their houfes for the birds to build in, like
as is done for fparrows in England ; being defirous to
keep them near, as they are of much ufe in alarming
the poultry of the approach of the hawk and other
birds of prey ; not only fhrieking violently on the ap¬
pearance of thefe enemies, but attacking them with
all the efforts of our martins in Europe. See fig. 4.
11. The apus, or fwift, is a large fpecies, being
near eight inches long, with an extent of wing near
eighteen inches, though the weight of the bird
is only one ounce. Their feet are fo fmall, that the
a£tion of walking and rifing from the ground is ex¬
tremely difficult ; fo that nature has made it full
amends, by furnifliing it with ample means for an eafy
and continual flight. It is more on the wing than any
other fwallow ; its flight is more rapid, and that at¬
tended with a fhrill feream. It refts by clinging
againft fome v/all, or other apt body ; from whence
Klein ftyles this fpecies hirundo muraria. It breeds
under the eaves of houfes, in fteeples, and other
lofty buildings ; and makes its neft of graffes and
feathers. The feet of this fpecies are of a par¬
ticular ftru&ure, all the toes Handing foreward :
the leaft confifts of only one bone ; the others of an e-
qual number, viz. two each ; in which they differ from
thofe of all other birds: a conftru&ion, however, nicely
adapted to the purpofes in which their feetare employed.
The fwift is a fummer inhabitant of thefe kingdoms.
It comes the lateft, and departs the fooneft, of any of
the tribe ; not always ftaying to the middle of Auguft,
and often not arriving before the beginning of May.
A pair of thefe birds were found adhering by their
claws, and in a torpid ftate, in Feb. 1766, under the
roof of Longnor-chapel, Shropfhire ; on being brought
to a fire, they revived, and moved about the room.
The fabulous hiftory of the manucodiata, or bird of
paradife (fays Mr Pennant), is, in the hiftory of this
fpecies, in great meafure verified. It was believed
to have no feet; to live upon the celeftial dew; to
float perpetually on the atmofphere ; and to perform
all its functions in that element. The fwift aftually
3 Z 2 per-
Hr
H I R .[ 556 1 H I R
• performs what has been in thefe enlightened times dif- Windy weather, and particularly with heavy Ihowers, Hirunda.
proved of the former, except the fmall time it takes they diflike ; and on fuch days’ withdraw, and are -r—*
in fleeping, and what it devotes to incubation ; every fcarce ever feen.—There is a circumftance refpefting
other, aftion is done on wing. The materials of its the co/oar of fwifts (Mr White remarks), which feems
neit it colle&s either as they are carried about by the not to be unworthy our attention.- When they arrive
winds, or picks them up from the furface in its fweep- in the fpring, they are all over of a gloffy dark foot-
.ing flight. Its food is undeniably the infe&s that fill colour, except their chins, which are white ; but, by
the air. Its drink is taken in tranfient fips from the being all day long in the fun and air, they become
water’s furface. Even its amorous rites are performed quite weather-beaten and bleached before they depart,
on high. Few perfons who have attended to them in and yet they return'gloffy-again in the fpring. Now,
a fine fummer’s morning, but mull -have feen them if they purfue the fun into lower latitudes, as fome
make their aerial courfes at a great height, encircling fuppofe, in order to enjoy a perpetual fummer, why do
a certain fpace with an eafy Heady motion. On a
fudden they fall into each others embraces, then drop
precipitate with a loud fliriek for numbers of yards.
they not return bleached ? Do they not rather perhaps
retire to reft for a feafon, and at that jundture moult
and change their feathers, fince all other birds are
This is the critical conjundlure ; and to be no more known to moult foon after the feafon of breeding ?
wondered at, than that infedls (a familiar inftanee)
fhould difcharge the fame duty in the fame element.
The fwift is a moft alert bird, riling very early, and
retiring to rooft very late ; and is on the wing in the
height of fummer at leaft fixteen hours. In the longeft
days it does not withdraw to reft till a quarter before
“ Swifts (continues our author) are very anoma¬
lous in many particulars, diffenting from all their con¬
geners not only in the number of their young, but in
breeding once in a fummer ; whereas all the other Bri-
tifti hirundines breed invariably twice. It is pail all
doubt that fwifts can breed but once, fince they with-
nine in the evening, being the lateft of all day birds, draw in a Ihort time after the flight of their young,
Juft before they retire, whole groups of them affemble
high in the air, and Iqueak, and Ihoot about with
wonderful rapidity. But this bird is never fo much
alive as in fultry jhundery weather, when it eXprefles
great alacrity, and calls forth all its powers. In hot
mornings feveral,. getting together in little' parties,
dalh round the fteeples and churches, fquraking as
and fome time before 'their congeners bring out their
fecond broods. We may here remark, that, as fwifts
But this bird is never fo much breed but once in a fummer, and only two at a time,
~ and the other hirundines twice, the latter, who lay
from four to fix eggs, increafe at an average five times
as fall as the former. But in nothing are fwifts more
Angular than in their early retreat. Tiiey ,1
they go in a very clamorous manner : thefe, by nice to the main body of them, by the tenth of Auguft,
obfervers, are fuppofed to be males ferenading their
fitting hens; and not without reafon, fince they fel-
and fometimes a few days foener : and every ftraggler
invariably withdraws by the twentieth, while their con¬
dom fqueak till they come clofe to the walls or eaves, geners, all of them, ftay till the beginning of October;
^nd fince thofe within utter at the fame time a little
inward note of complacency. When the hen has fat
hard all day, fhe ruflies forth-juft as it is almoft dark,
and ftretches and relieves her w eary limbs, and fnatches
a fcanty meal for a few minutes, and then returns 1
many through all that month, and fome occationally
to the beginning of November. This early retreat is
myfterious and wonderful, fince that time is often the
fweeteft feafon in the year. But, what is more extra¬
ordinary, they begin to retire ftill earlier in the moft
her duty of incubation. Swifts: when wantonly and foutherly parts of Andalufia, where they can be no ways
cruelly (hot while they have young, difeover a little lump
of infe&s in their mouths, which they pouch and hold
under their tongue. Ingeneral, as already obferved, they
feed in a much liigher diftrici than the other fpecies;
they alfo range to vaft diftances ; fince locomotiom is
no labour to them, who are endowed with fuch
influenced by any defc-dl of heat.; or, as one might
fupp >fe, defect of food. Are they regulated, in their
motions with us by a failure of food, or by a propen-
lity to; moulting, or by a difpofition to reft after fo-
rapid a life, or by what ? This is one of thofe inci¬
dents in natural hiftory that not only baffles our
derful powers of wing. At fome certain times in the fearches, but almoft eludes our gueffes V
fummer, however, they have been obferved hawking
very low for hours together over pools and ftreams ;
Swifts never perch on trees or roofs, and fo never
congregate with their congeners. They' are fearlefs
and upon inquiring into the objedl of their purfuit while haunting their netting places, and are not to be
that induced them to.defcend fo much below their feared with a gun ; and are often beaten down with
ufual range, it has been found that they were taking poles and cudgels as they Hoop to go under the eaves.
phryganets, ephemera, andlibelluht (cadew-flies, may flies,
and dragon-flies), that were juft emerged out of theii
Mr White informs us, that having untiled part of a
roof over the neft of a fwift, the dam notwithftand-
aurelia ftate. It appeared then no longer a wonder that ing fat in the neft : fo ftrongly was ftie affedled by
they Ihould be fo willing to ftoap for a prey that af¬
forded them fuch plentiful and fucculent nquriftiment.
— Swifts fometimes purfue and ftrike at hawks that
come in their way ; but not with that vehemence and
fury that fwaJlows exprefs on the fame occafion. They
are out all day long in wet days, feeding about and
natural for her brood, which ftie fuppofed to be
in danger, that, regardlefs of her own fafety, flic
would not ftir, but lay fullenly by them, permitting
herfelf to be taken in hand. Swifts are much infefted
with thofe pefts to the genus called hippobofea hirundi-
and often wriggle and fcratch themfelves, in their
difregarding ftill rain : from whence two things may flight, to get rid of that clinging annoyance. And
fie gathered ; firft, that many infecls abide high in young ones, over-run with thefe infers, are fometimes
the air, even in rain ; and next, that the feathers of found under their nefts, fallen to the ground ; the
thefe birds muft be well preened to refift fo much wet.
number of vermin
4
endering their abode infyppprtabie.
Swifts,
H I -R C 557 1 H I R
Hirundo. Swifts are no fongfters, and have only one harfh
fcreaming note ; yet there are ears to which it is not
difpleafing, from an agreeable aflbciation of ideas, fince
that note never occurs but in the moft lovely furnmer
feather. They never fettle on the ground but through
accident ; neither tan they walk, but only crawl; but
they have a ftrong grafp with their feet, by wdrich
they cling to walls, as already noticed. Their bodies
Ijeing flat, they can enter a very narrow crevice ; and
where they cannot pafs on their bellies, they will turn
up edge wife.—In London a party of fwifts frequents
the tower, playing and feeding over the river juit be¬
low the bridge: others haunt feme of the churches of
the borough next the fields ; but do not venture, like
the houfe-martin, into the clofe crowded part of the
town. The Swedes have beftowed a very pertinent
name on this fwallow', calling it ring fivala, from the
perpetual rings or circles that it takes round the fcene
of its nidification.—As thefe birds are apt to catch at
every thing on the wing, many have taken them by a
bait of a cockchafer tied to a thread, which they have
fwallowed as freely as a fifh theirs. In the Hie of Zant,
the boys are faid to get on an elevated place, and
merely with a hook baited with a feather, have caught
five or fix dozen of them in a day. Befides our illand,
the fwift is known to inhabit the whole of the Euro¬
pean continent ; and has alfo Jseen noticed at the Gape
of Good Hope, and Corolina in North America.
Hence, moft; likely, a general inhabitant of both the
old and new continents.
12. The ambrofiaca, or ambergris fwallbw, is about
the fize of a wren, with grey plumage and a very
forked tail; the bill is blackifti, and the legs are brown.
It inhabits Senegal, and is laid to fmeli very ftrong of
ambergris.
13. The pelafgia, or aculeated fwallow, is fomewhat
lefs than our chimney-fwallow: its plumage is brown,
but at the throat whitifh, and all the tail feathers are
terminated by a bare pointed lhaft. It inhabits Caro¬
lina and Virginia in the fummer time, and builds in
chimneys. See fig. 3.
14. The melba, or w-hite-bellied fwift,’ is in length
8i inches, and weighs two ounces five drams : the
bill is half an inch, fomewhat bent, and black : the
upper parts of the body are of a grey brown; the wings
and tail deepeft, with a glofs of red and green in fome
lights : the throat, bread, and belly, are white ; on the
neck is a collar of grey brown, mixed with blackifh :
the fides are duflty, and white mixed; lower part of the
belly, and under tail-coverts, the fame as the back : the
legs are Hefti-coloured, and covered with feathers on the
fore part and infide : all the toes are placed forward,
as in our fwift. This bird inhabits the mountainous
parts of Spain ; building in the holes of rocks. It
is found alfo on the borders of the Rhone, in Savoy,
the ifle of Malta, Alps of Switzerland, and rock of
Gibraltar. It comes into Savoy the beginning of
April, and frequents the ponds and marfties for 15 or
20 days; after which it retires to the mountainous
parts to breed. It flies higher than our fwift; but
feeds on the fame food, and its flefh is accounted a
delicate morfel. This fpecies is not numerous. Sco-
poli fays it builds on the fummit of the mountains of
Tyrol.
15. The cayennenfis, or white-coloured fwallow, is,
about the fize_ of the martin: the head and bill are Hirundo.
black; the chin and throat white, palling from the ~*~~v 1
laft in a narrow collar round the neck : between the
bill and eye is a ftreak of white, which forks off into two;
one palling a little above and the other a little way be¬
neath the eye: the reft of the plumage is black, with a
glofs of violet; but the greater coverts, neareft the body,
are brown, edged with white : the quills and tail are
black; the laft forked : the legs are black ; and all the
four toes placed before as in our fwift, and covered with
feathers to the claws.—This bird makes its nell in the
houfes at Cayenne. It is of a large fize, in (hape of
a truncated cone ; five inches one way by three the
other, and nine inches in length. It is compofed of
the down of dogs-bane, well wove together ; the ca¬
vity divided obliquely about the middle, lengthways,
by a partition, which fpreads itfelf over that part of
the neft where the eggs lie, which is pretty near the
bafe : a fmall parcel of the fame foft down, forming
a kind of plug, is placed over the top, ferving to keep
the young brood from the impreffion of the air ; from
which we may fuppofe them to be very tender.
16. The erythrocephala, or red-headed fwallow,
has a red brad, with a fttort flat du/ky bill: the back
is dufky, the feathers edged with white : the under
parts of the body are white, the tail coverts pale brown:
the wings are both duiky ; as is alio the tail, which
is a little forked. It inhabits India; and is only the
fize of a fmail humming-bird.
17. The nigra, or black fwallow, meafures near fix
inches in length : the colour of the bird is wholly
black, and the tail is forked. It inhabits St Domingo
and Cayenne ; but is not numerous. It is often feen
to perch on dead trees; and only inhabits dry favannas
inland. It fcoops out a hole in the earth, half a foot
in length, the mouth of it very fmall, fo as juft to per¬
mit entrance : in this cavity it conftrufts the neft and
rears the young.
18. The dominicenfis, or St Domingo fwallow, is
7 inches in length, and wholly black, with the glofs
of poliftied fteel, except the belly and under tail coverts,,
which are white : the tail is very little forked : the
legs, bill, and, claws are brown. It inhabits St Do¬
mingo, and other of the Weft India iflands, in May,
June, and July; and is faid to imitate a lark in its
fong.
To this article we may not improperly fubjoin the
following paper (from the Gentleman’s Magazine) on
the utility.of encouraging the breed of fwallows, fwifts,
and martins. “ The advantages that accrue to man,
from the docility with which the. domefticated animals
accommodate themfelves to his ufes, are obvious. But
there are others, who attend on him of their own ac¬
cord, whofe beneficial exertions are little known or
obferyed. Among, thefe I (hall at prefent only no¬
tice the family, of fwallows (I.nrundines); of the four
kinds of which bird found in our iftand three at¬
tach themfelves to his dwelling, as if peculiarly folici-
tous for his welfare. This connexion feems fo reci¬
procal, that where men do not inhabit, few fwallows-
can find proper conveniences for their fummer-refi-
dences ; and as their food confifts wholly of infers,
the .moft diligent inquirer hath not been able to diL
cover that they injure in the flighted degree the pro-.
dtiffibnls of the field or garden ; a circumilance nearly ,
finguLr
H I
5&ira»do. fingular to thefe birds.
  copying the Grecian writers, brings againft them, of fort.
killing bees, is in this country groundleTs, and I ap
prehend it to be fo in every other s
“ Abfint 
 Meropefque aliasque volucres,
Et manibus Procne pecftus fignata cruentis;
Omnia nam late vaftant, ipiafqOe volantes
R l ^58 ] HIS
The charge which Virgil, thofe who have turned their minds to inquiries of this Hirunda.
H
Ore feru'.it, dulccm nidis immitibus efcam.”
Georg. 1.4.1
Might I not here enlarge on the importance of
refearches into the works of the creation, when we fee 'r
ftatefmen, as in the prefent inftance, making folemn'
applications to thofe who are ftudious of nature, re¬
queuing their dire&ion how to avoid the calamity ap¬
prehended from a fly i And may we not then add, that
the minuteft obfervations of this kind are only deemed
For the mouths of the fwallow tribe are by no means trivial by the indolent and uninformed ?
adapted to catch flinging infc&s with impunity. The “ I recoiled but a Angle complaint againfl the fwal-
birds who prey on bees have a long extended bill con- low, and that is made by Anacreon, Od. 12. who bit-
ftru&ed for that purpofe, very different from that of terly reproaches this bird for difturbing him by its twit-
the fwallow. tering while he was dozing away the intoxicatidn of
“ By the myriads of infefts which every fingle brood the preceding night. Yet, had the poet been tempe-
of fwallows deltroys in the courfe of a fummer, they rate> like. Milton, he would with pleafure have arifen
from his bed at the charm of earlieft birds.
“ With what joy the Grecians welcomed the re¬
turn of the fwallow, appears by the very ancient carol
defend us in a great meafure from the perfonal and
domeftic annoyance of flies and gn^ts; and, what is of
infinitely more confequence, they keep down the num- . ..—    
bers of our minute enemies, who, either in the grub preferved by Athenseus; of which the following is
or winged ftate, would otherwife render the labours tranflation -
-of the hafbandman fruitlefs. Since then fwaHows are
guardians of our corn, they fhould every where be pro-
teffed by the fame popular veneration which in Egypt
defends the Ibis and the ftork in Holland. We more
frequently hear of unproduftive harvefts on the Con¬
tinent than in this country ; and it is well known^that
fwallows are caught and fold as food in the markets of
Spain, France, and Italy. When this practice has
been very general and fuccefsful, I have little doubt
that it hath at times contributed to the fcarcity of
eorn. In England we are not driven to fuch refources
to furnifh our tables. But what apology can be made
for thofe, and many there are, whofe education and
rank ihould have taught them more innocent amufe-
ments, who wantonly murder fwallows, under the idle
The fwallow! the fwallow ! (he does with her bring
Soft feafons aad all the delights of the fpring :
The fwallow ! the fwallow ! we’re fure we are right,
For her back is all black, and her belly all white.
From your (lores, ye good ho life wives, produce, if you pleafe,
Lumps of figs, jogs of wine, and-fonie wheat and fome cheete.
With fome htn eggs the fwallow will well be content.
Mud we go then, or (hall we have any thing fent l
We will not allow you to do as you choofe,
To give or give not, to comply or refufe ;
But will certainly take from its hinges the door, J
Or bear off the good dame as (he fits on the floor; >
She is little and tight, we can manage her fure. J
Open, open the door to the fwallow—for we
Are playful young children, not men—you may fee.
HISPA, in zoology ; a genus of infects belonging
to the coleoptera order, the characters of which are
pretence Of improving their fkill in (hooting game ? thefe: The antennas are fnfiform, growing gradually pja;j
Setting afide the cruelty of ftarving whole nefts of larger from each extremity towards the middle ; and CCXXX.V.
young by killing the dam ; they who follow this bar- are (xtuated between the eyes: the thorax and elytra are
barons diverfion would do well to refleft, that by every covered with protuberances or fpines. The larva of
fwallow they kill, they aflift blafts, mildews, and ver- this infeft feems to be yet wholly unknown. There
min, in caufing a fcarcity of bread. Every lord of a are but two fpecres of the perfeft animal met with in
manor fhould reftrain his game -keeper from this exe- Europe } one of which, the atra, is found in Britain, and
crable practice ; nor (hould he permit any perfon to is all over of a deep unpoliffied black, and has the up-
fport on his lands who does not refrain from it. For per part of its body entirely covered with long and ftrong
my part, 1 am not alhamed to own that I have tempt- fpines, which render it briftly like the (hell of a chef-
ed martins to build around my houfe, by fixing efcal- nut. There is even a fpine at the cafe of the antennas;
lop (hells, in places convenient for their pendant beds the thorax has a row fet tranfverfely, which are forked;
and proeveant cradles ; and have been pleafed to ob- and the elytra are furnifhed with a very great number
ferve with what caution the little jrchited raifed a that are fingle. Its being thus covered with fpines,
buttrefs under each fhell before he ventured to Form makes it relemble a hedge-hog in miniature. It is ra-
his neft on it. ther hard to catch, letting itfelf fall down on the ground
“ What has induced *ne to fend you thefe (IriClures as foon as approached. It bears its antennae upright
at this time, are the accounts of the ravages commit- before it.
ted on the cultivation of corn in the United States of
Morth America, by an infe& called the Hejfian-Fly.
HISPALIS a town of Baetica, in the Farther
Spain ; an ancient mart or trading town on the Baetis,
(See the article HessiJN-Fly.) How far there is dan- navigable quite up to it for (hips of burthen, and thence
ger of this defolating fcourge being imported into this to Corduba for river barges. Called Colenia Romukn-
country by the admifiion of American wheat, I mull fts- It has alfo a conventus juridicus, a court of juftice,
leave to abler entomologifts to decide. But that this or aflizes, (Pliny). Now called Seville. W. Long. 60.
deftru&ive infeft (hould, as hath lately been aflerted, N. Lat. 37.
totally difappear in one feafon, after having for a num- HlSPANIA, called Hefperia Ultima, (Horace),
ber of years fucceffively laid wafte wide extended dif- becaufe the weftmoft part of Europe ; alfo Iberia, from
thrifts, is a phsenomenon hardly to be aflented to by- the river Iberus. Its name Hifpania, or Spania,
6 (Greek),
HIS [ 559 1 HIS
Hifpaniola. (Greek), is of Phoenician original, from its great cum-
V—v*—' ber of rabbits : the Phoenicians, who fettled feveral co¬
lonies on the coaft calling it Spanjah from thefe ani¬
mals. It has the fea on every fide, except on that next
to Gaul, from which it is feparated by the Pyrenees.
The Romans at firft divided it into the Farther and
Hither Spain, under two praetors. In that date it
continued down to Augudus; who divided the Farther
Spain into Baetica, which he left to the people to be
governed by a pro conful; and into Lufitania, which
he added to his own provinces; calling the Hither
Spain Tarraamenfit. Hifpania was a country celebra¬
ted for its fertility, of which it has greatly fallen
fhort in modern times. The people were of a war¬
like turn, (Strabo) ; and their bodies being form¬
ed for hardfhipe and labour, they ever preferred war to
peace, and were remarkably prodigal of life (Juftin,
Sil. Italicus). Spain produced feveral great men, both
in a literary and a political capacity. See Spain.
HISPANIOLA, called alfo St Domingo, the
larged of the Antilles or Caribbee iflands, extending
about 420 miles from ead to wed, and 120 in breadth
from north to fouth; lying between 17° 37' and 20° of
N. Lat. and between 67° 35' and 740 15' W. Long.
The climate is hot, but not reckoned unwholefome ;
and fome of the inhabitants are faid to arrive at the age
of 120. It is fometimes refrelhed by breezes and
rains; and its falubrity is likewife in a great meafure
owing to the beautiful variety of hills and valleys,
woods and rivers, which every where prefent them-
felves. It is indeed reckoned by far the fined and
mod pleafant ifland of the Antilles, as being the bed
accommodated to all the purpofes of life when duly
cultivated.
This ifland, famous for being the earlied fettlement
of the Spaniards in the new world, was at fird in high
edimation for the quantity of gold it fupplied : this
wealth diminifhed with the inhabitants of the country,
whom they obliged to dig it out of the bowels of the
earth ; and the fource of it was entirely dried up,
when they were exterminated, which was quickly done,
by a feries of the mod fhocking barbarities that ever
difgraced the hidory of any nation. Benzoni relates,
that of two millions of inhabitants, contained in the
ifland when difeovered by Columbus in 1492, fcarce
153 were alive in 1545. A vehement defire of open-
ing again this fource of wealth infpired the thought
of getting flaves from Africa ; but, befides that thefe
were found unfit for the labours they were dedined to,
the multitude of mines, which then began to be
wrought on the continent, made thofe of Hifpaniola
no longer of any importance. An idea now fuggeded
itlelf, that their negroes, which were healthy, drong,
and patient, might be ufefully employed m hufbandry ;
and they adopted, through neceflity, a wife refolu-
tion, which, had they known their own intered, they
would have embraced by choice.
The produce of their indudry was at fird extremely
{mall, becaufe the labourers were few. Charles V.
who, like mod fovereigns, preferred his favourites to
every thing, had granted an exclufive right of the
flave-trade to a Flemifh nobleman, who made over his
privilege to the Genoefe. Thofe avaricious republi¬
cans conduced this infamous commerce as all mono¬
polies are conduced; they refolved to fell dear, and Hifpaniola,
they fold but few. When time and competition had »1, y.
fixed the natural and neceflary price • of flaves, the
number of them increafed. It may eafily be imagi¬
ned, that the Spaniards, who had been accudomed to
treat the Indians as beads, did not entertain a higher
opinion of thefe negro Africans, whom they fubditu-
ted in their place. Degraded dill farther in their
eyes by the price they had paid for them, even reli¬
gion could not redrain them from aggravating the
weight of their fervitude. It became intolerable, and
thefe wretched flaves made an effort to recover the un¬
alienable rights of mankind. Their attempt proved
unfuccefsful; but they reaped this benefit from thjir
defpair, that they were afterwards treated with lefs
inhumanity.
This moderation (if tyranny cramped by the ap-
prehenfion of revolt can deferve that name) was at¬
tended with good confequences. Cultivation was pur-
fued with fome degree of fuccefs. Soon after the
middle of the x6th century, the mother country drew
annually from this colony ten millions weight of fugar,
a large quantity of wood for dying, tobacco, cocoa,
cafiia, ginger, cotton, and peltry in abundance. One
might imagine, that fuch favourable beginnings would
give both the defire and the means of carrying them
further ; but a train of events, more fatal each than
the other, ruined thefe hopes.
The firft misfortune arofe from the depopulation of
the ifland. The Spanifh conquefts on the continent
fliould naturally have contributed to promote the fuc¬
cefs of an ifland, which nature feemed to have formed
to be the centre of that vaft dominion arifing around
it, to be the ftaple of the different colonies. But it
fell out quite otherwife: on a view of the immenfe.
fortunes railing in Mexico, and other parts, the rich-
eft inhabitants of Hifpaniola began to defpife their fet-
tlements, and quitted the true fource of riches, which
is on the furface of the earth, to go and ranfack the
bowels of it for veins of gold, which are quickly ex-
haufted. The government endeavoured in vain to put
a flop to this emigration ; the laws were always either
artfully eluded, or openly violated.
The weaknefs, which was a neceflary confequence
of fuch a condufl, leaving the coafts without defence,
encouraged the enemies of Spain to ravage them.
Even the capital of this ifland was taken and pillaged
by that celebrated Engliflv failor. Sir Francis Drake.
The cruizers of lefs confequence contented themfelves
with intercepting veffels in their paffagje through thofe
latitudes, the beft known at that time of any in the
new world. To complete thefe misfortunes, the Ca-
ftilians themfelves commenced pirates. They attacked’
no ftiips but thofe of their own nation.; which were
more rich, worfe provided, and worfe defended, than
any others. The cuftom they had of fitting out (hips
clandeftinely, in order to procure flaves, prevented them,
from being known ; and the affiftance they purchafed.
from the fhips of war, commiflioned to proteA the
trade, infured to them impunity.
The foreign trade of the colony was its only refource
in this diftrefs ; and that was illicit: but as it conti¬
nued to be carried on, notwithftanding the vigilance-
of the governors, or, perhaps, by their connivance,.
the.
HIS 1 560 1 HIS
Hifpanlola. the policy of an exaf^erated and rtiort-fighted court
  *  exerted itfelf in demolifliing moil of the fea-ports,
and driving the miferable inhabitants into the inland
country. This a& of violence threw them into a ftate
of dejefition ; which the incurfions and fettlement of
the French on the iiland afterwards carried to the ut-
moft pitch. The latter, after having made fome Un-
fuccefsful attempts to fettle on the ifland, had part of
it yielded to them in 1697, and now enjoy by far the
beft lhare.
Spain, totally taken up with that vaft empire which
fhe had formed on the continent, ufed no pains to dif-
fipate this lethargy. She even refufed to liften to the
folicitations of her Flemilh fubje&s, who earneftly prefs-
ed that they might have permiffion to clear thofe fertile
lands. Rather than run the rifle of feeing them carry
on a contraband trade on the coafts, <he chofe to bury
in oblivion a fettlement which had been of confequence,
and was likely to become fo again.
This colony, which had no longer any intercourfe
with the mother-country but by a Angle fhip, of no
great burthen, that arrived from thence every third year,
confllled, in 1717, of 18,410 inhabitants, including
Spaniards, Meftees, Negroes, or Mulattoes. The com¬
plexion and charafter of thefe people differed according
to the different proportions of American, European,
and-African blood they had received from that natural
and tranflent union which reftores all races and condi¬
tions to the fame level. Thefe demi-favages, plunged
•in the extreme of floth, lived upon fruits and roots,
dwelt in cottages without furniture, and mofl of them
without clothes. The few among them, in whom in¬
dolence had not totally fuppreffed the fenfe of decency
and tafte for the conveniences of life, purchafed clothes
of their neighbours the French in return for their
cattle, and the money fent to them for the maintenance
of two hundred foldiers, the priefts, and the govern-
'OTent. It doth not appear that the company, formed
HIST
HISTORY, in general, AgniAes an account of
fome remarkable fails which have happened in
the world, arranged in the true order in which they
aftually took place, together with the caufes to which
they were owing, and the different effefts they have
produced, as fdr as can be difcovered.—The word is
Greek, ivop<« ; and literally denotes a fearch of curi¬
ous things, or a’defire of knowing, or even a rehear-
fal of things we have feen ; being formed from the
Verb iVofjv, which prdperly AgniAes to know A thing by
"having feen it. But the idea is now much more eX-
tehfive, and is applied to the knowledge of things
taken from the report of others. The origin is from the
verb‘r “ I knowand hence it is, that among
the ahcients feveral of their great men were called
polyhlftores, i. e. perfons of various and general know-
ledge.
Sometimes, however, the word hiflory is ufed to
fignifv'a flcfcription of things, as well as an account
bf fa fits. Thus Theophraftus calls his work in which
he has treated of the nature and properties of plants;
hijlory of plants ; and we have a treatife of Arillotle,
N° 154-
at Barcelona in 1757, with excluAve privileges for Hiftef,
the re-eltablifhment of St Domingo, hath as yet made
any confiderable progrefs. They fend out only two graPhet‘» ^
fmall velfels annually, which are freighted back with !
Ax thoufand hides, and fome’ other commodities of lif-
tle value. See St Domingo.
HISTER, in zoology; a genus of the coleoptera or¬
der of infedts. The Aril articulation of the antennas is
compreffed and curved ; the laft is conAderably larger
than the others, and appears to be a folid knob : the ^ate,T>, 1
head is drawn within the body ; the mouth is forcipa-!
ted ; the elytra are fhorter than the body ; and the fore¬
legs are dentated. The body of thefe creatures is po-
liAied and Very Alining, and their form almoft fquare;
the thorax large, and highly polifhed : anteriorly it is
made with a flope, in she cavity of which is lodged the
head, the poAtion of which is often only difcovered by
the projection of the maxillae ; for the head, for the
molt part, is fo withdrawn under the thorax, that the
infeCt looks as if it had none. The elytra are as if it
were cut off towards the extremity, and do not cover
the Whole of the abdomen. They are extremely fmooth,
and only have a few ftriae, fcarce perceptible, Atuated
chiefly towards their outward flde. Laftly, the hinder
part of the abdomen, which projects beyond the elytra,
is round and blunt. Thefe infeCts are fometimes found
in cow-dung, and often on fand. They vary prodigi-
oufly in flze ; but diffef very little either in form or co¬
lour, they being all very dark. The larvae, as well as
the perfedl infeCts, are frequently met with in the dung
of horfes; cows, &c.
HISTORIOGRAPHER, a profelfed hiftorian, or
writer of hiftory. See the next article.
The hiftoriographer to his majelty is an officer under
the lord chamberlain ; his falary zcol. per annum.
There is an office of the fame kind in Scotland, with
the fame falary.
O R Y.
intitled an hiftory of animals; and to this day the de-
fcriptioh of plants, animals, and minerals, are called
by the general name of natural hijlory. ^
But what chiefly merits the name of hiftory, and niftory
ivhat is here Cohfidered as fudh, is an account of the how divi-
principal tranfaCtions of mankind fince the beginningde<i*
of the world ; and which naturally divides itfelf into
two parts, namely, civil and eccleftajlical. The firft
contains the hiftory of mankind in their various rela¬
tions to one another, and their behaviour, for their own
emolument, or that of others, in common life; the
fecond confiders them as aCting, or pretending to aft,
in obedience to what they believe to be the will of the
Supreme Being.—Civil hiftory, therefore, includes an
account of all the different itates that have exifted in
the wGrld,'and likewife of thofe men who in different
ages of the world have moll eminently diltinguifhed
themfelves either for their godd or evil aCtions. This
laft part of civil hiftory is ufurtlly termed Biography.
Hiftory is now confidered as a very confiderable
branch of polite literature: few accompliihments ar£
more valued thap an accurate knowledge of the hifto-
ries
Sea. I.
HISTORY.
561
Civil ries of different nations ; and fcarce any literary pro-
Hiftory. duftion is more regarded than a well-written hiftory
' ’ of any nation.
Of th*ftud With regard to the ftudy of hiftory, we muft con-
«f hiftory/ fider, that all the revolutions which have happened in
the world, have been owing to two caufes. 1. The
connexions between the different ftates exifting toge¬
ther in the world at the fame time, or their different
fituations with regard to one another; and, 2. The
different charafters of the people who in all ages
conftituted thefe ftates, their different geniufes and
difpofitions, &c. by which they were either prompted
to undertake fuch and fuch aXions of themfelves, or
were eafily induced to it by others. The perfon who
would ftudy hiftory, therefore, ought in the firft place
to make himfelf acquainted with the ftate of the world
in general in all different ages ; what nations inhabited
the different parts of it ; what their extent of territory
was ; at what particular time they arofe, and when
they declined. He is then to inform himfelf of
the various events which have happened to each par¬
ticular nation ; and, in fo doing, he will difcover
many of the caufes of thofe revolutions, which before
he only knew as faXs. Thus, for inftance, a per¬
fon may know the Roman hiftory from the time of
Romulus, without knowing in the leaft why the city
of Rome happened to be built at that time. This
cannot be underftood without a particular knowledge
of the former ftate of Italy, and even of Greece and
Afia} feeing the origin of the Romans is com¬
monly traced as high as iEneas, one of the heroes
of Troy. But when all this is done, which indeed
requires no fmall labour, the hiftorian hath yet to
ftudy the genius and difpofitions of the different na¬
tions, the charaXers of thofe who were the principal
direXors of their aXions, whether kings, minifters,
generals, or priefts ; and when this is accompliftied,
he will difcover the caufes of thofe tranfaXions in the
different nations which have given rife to the great
revolutions above mentioned: after which, he may
affume the charaXer of one who is perfeXly verfed in
hiftory.
The firft outline of hiftory, as it may be called, is
moft eafily obtained by the infpeXion of an hiftorical
chart; and that fubjoined to the prefent treatife will
anfwer the purpofe as well as any. Along with this
it will be proper to perufe a ftiort abridgement of ge¬
neral hiftory, from the creation of the world to the
prefent time; but in this way there have been but
very few attempts attended with any tolerable fuccefs.
The following is colleXed from refpeXable authori¬
ties, and may ferve to help the ideas of the reader on
this fubjeX.
Sect. I. Civil Hiftory.
History, though feemingly incapable of any natu¬
ral divifion, will yet be found, on a nearer infpeXion,
to refolve itfelf into the following periods, at each of
which a great revolution took place, either with re-
3 gard to the whole world, or a very confiderable part
Jivil of it. 1. The creation of man. 2. The flood. 3. The
0 “ftory how beginning of profane hiftory, i. e. when all the fabu-
•s iv e . |0UJ reiatJons 0f heroes, demi-gods, &c. were ex¬
pelled from hiftorical narrations, and men began to
relate faXs with fome regard to truth and credibility.
V01.VIII. PartII.
4. The conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus, and the de- Civil
ftruXion of the Babylonian empire. 5. The reign of Hlftory* .
Alexander the Great, and the overthrow of the Per- ' 1
fian empire. 6. The deftruXion of Carthage by the
Romans, when the latter had no longer any rival
capable of oppofing their defigns. ). The reign of
the emperor Trajan, when the Roman empire was
brought to its utmoft extent. 8. The divifion of the
empire under Conftantine. 9. The deftruXion of
the weftern empire by the, Heruli, and the fettlement
of the different European nations. 10. The rife of
Mahomet, and the conquefts of the Saracens and
Turks. 11. The crufades, and all the fpace interven¬
ing between that time and the prefent.
Concerning the number of years which have elapfed
fince the creation of the world, there have been many
difputes. The compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory de¬
termine it to have taken place in the year 4305 B. C.
fo that, according to them, the world is now in the
6096th year of its age. Others think it was created
only 4000 years B. C. fo that it hath not yet attained MoAUc ae-
its 6000th year. Be this as it will, however, the count of
whole account of the creation refts on the truth of the ^ creation
Mofaic hiftory ; and which we muft of neceflity ac-
cept, becaufe we can find no other which does notone,
either abound with the groffeft abfurdities, or lead us
into abfolute darknefs. The Chinefe and Egyptian
pretenfions to antiquity are fo abfurd and ridiculous,
that the bare reading muft be a fufficient confutation
of them to every reafonable perfon. See the articles
China and Egypt. Some hiftoriahs and philofophers
are inclined to difcredit the Mofaic accounts, from the
appearances of volcanoes, and other natural pheno¬
mena : but their objeXions are by no means fufficient
to invalidate the authority of the facred writings ; not
to mention that every one of their own fyitems is
liable to infuperable objeXions. See the article Earth.
It is therefore reafonable for every perfon to accept of
the Mofaic account of the creation as truth : but an
hiftorian is under an abfolute neceflity of doing it, be¬
caufe, without it, he is quite deftitute of any ftandard
or fcale by which he might reduce the chronology of
different nations to any agreement 5 and, in fhort,
without receiving this account as true, it would be in a
manner impofiible at this day to write a general hiftory
of the world.
I. The tranfaXions during the firft period, viz. from Hiftory
the creation to the flood, are very much unknown, no- from the
thing indeed being recorded of them but what is to be creat!on to
found in the firft fix chapters of Genefis. In general,the flood*
we know, that men were not at that time in a favage
ftate; they had made fome progrefs in the arts, had
invented mufic, and found out the method of working
metals. They feem alfo to have lived in one vaft com¬
munity, without any of thofe divifions into different na¬
tions which have fince taken place, and which evident¬
ly proceeded from the confufion of languages. The
moft material part of their hiftory, however, is, that
having once begun to tranfgrefs the divine commands,
they proceeded to greater and greater lengths of wic-
kednefs, till at laft the Deity thought proper to fend
a flood on the earth, which dt-ftroyed the whole hu¬
man race except eight perfons, viz. Noah and his fa¬
mily. This terrible cataftrophe happened, according
to the Hebrew copy of the Bible, 1656 years after
4 A die
S6i HIST
Civil the creation ; according to the Samaritan copy, 1307.
Hiftory. j-q,. different conje&ures concerning the natural
' caufes of the flood, fee the article Deluge.
From the 2. For the hiftory of the fecond period we muft again
flood to the have recourfe to the Scriptures, almoft as much as for
beginning that Qf the firft. We now find the human race redu-
of profane cej tQ eigtit perfons poffeffed of nothing but what they
u ory. faved in the ark, and the whole world to be ftoted
with animals from thofe which had been preferred a-
long with thefe eight perfons. In what country their
original fettlement was, no mention is made. The
• See ark is fuppofed to have refted on Mount Ararat in Ar-
Ararat. menia * ; but it is impofiible to know whether Noah
and his fons made any ftay in the neighbourhood of
this mountain or not. Certain it is, that, fome time
after, the whole or the greateft part of the human
race were aflembled in Babylonia, where they engaged
in building a tower. This gave offence to the Deity ;
fo that he punifhed them by confounding their lan¬
guage ; whence the divifion of mankind into different
nations.
According to a common opinion, Noah when dying
left the whole world to his fons, giving Afia to Shem,
7 Africa to Ham, and Europe to Japhet. But this
Nations de* hath not the leaft foundation in Scripture. By the
from'la mo^ Pr°bable accounts, Gomer the fon of Japhet was
* the father of the Gomerians or Celtes;- that is, all
the barbarous nations who inhabited the northern parts
of Europe under the various names of Gauls, Cm-
Inans, Goths, See, and who alfo migrated into Spain,
where they were called Celtiberians From Magog1,
Meftiech, and Tubal, thre,e of Gomer’s brethren, pro¬
ceeded the Scythians, Sarmatians, Tartars, and Mo¬
guls. The three other fons of Japhet, Madai, Javan,
and Tiras, are faid to have been the fathers of the
g Medes, the lonians, Greeks, and Thracians.
From Shem The children of Shem were Elam, Aftrur, Arphaxad,
Lud, and Aram. The firft fettled in Perfia, where
he was the father of that mighty pation : The defeen-
dants of Afhur peopled Affyria, (now Curdejlan) : Ar¬
phaxad fettled in Chaldaea. Lud is fuppofed by Jo-
fephus to have taken up his refidence in Lydia;
though this is much controverted. Aram, with more
certainty, is thought to have fettled in Mefopotamia
9 and Syria.
From Ham The children of Ham were Cufti, Mizraim, Phut,
and Canaan. The firft is thought to, have remain¬
ed in Babylonia, and to have been king of the fouth-
eaftern parts of it afterwards called Khuzejlan. His
defeendants are fuppofed to have removed into the
eaftern parts of Arabia; from whence they by degrees
migrated into the correfponding part of Africa. The
fecond peopled Egypt, Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, Libya,
and the reft of the northern parts of the fame conti¬
nent. The place where Phut fettled is not known :
but Canaan is univerfally allowed to have fettled in
Phoenicia ; and to have founded thofe nations who in¬
habited Judea, and were afterwards exterminated by
the Jews.
Almoft all the countries of the world, at leaft of the
eaftern continent, being thus furnifhed with inhabi¬
tants, it is probable that for many years there would
be few or no quarrels between the different nations.
The paucity of their numbers, their diftance from one
ORY. Sea. I
another, and their direrfity of language, would contri- Civil
bute to keep them from having much communication HilUry.
with each other. Hence, according to the different
circumftances in which the different tribes were placed,
fome would be more civilized and others more barba¬
rous. In this interval, alfo, the different nations pro¬
bably acquired different charadters, which afterwards
they obllinately retained, and manifefted on all occa-
fions; hence the propenfity of fome nations to mo¬
narchy, as the Afiatics, and the enthufiaftic defire of
the Greeks for liberty and republicamfm, &c. ro
The beginning of monarchical government was very Foundation
early; Nimrod the fon of Cu(h having found means to ^"‘8'
make himfelf king of Babylonia. In a fhort time A- Babylonia,
four emigrated from the new kingdom; built Nineveh, Afl')ria,&c
afterwards capital of the Affyrian empire ; and two
other cities called Rezen and Rehoboth, concerning the
fituation of which we are now much in the dark.
Whether Afour at this time fet up as a king for him¬
felf, or whether he held thefe cities as vaffal to Nim¬
rod, is now unknown. It is probable, however, that
about the fame time various kingdoms were founded in
different parts of the world ; and which were great or
fmall according to different circumftances. Thus the
feripture mentions the kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom,
Gomorrah, &c. in the time of Abraham ; and we
may reafonably fuppofe, that thefe kings reigned over
nations which had exifted for fome confiderable time
before.
The firft confiderable revolution we read of is the MigratiMl
migration of the Ifraelites out of Egypt, and their 0fthe
eftablifoment in the land of Canaan. For the hiftory of Ifraelites
thefe tranfa&ions we muft refer to the Old Tcftament, fr°m
where the reader will fee that it was attended with the
moft terrible cataftrophe to the Egyptians, and with
the utter extermination of fome nations, the defeem-
dants of Ham, who inhabited Judaea. Whether the
overthrow of Pharaoh in the Red Sea could affedt the
Egyptian nation in fuch a manner as to deprive them
of the greateft part of their former learning, and to keep
them for fome ages after in a barbarous ftate, is not
eafily determined; but unlefs this was the cafe, it feems
exceedingly difficult to account for the total filence of
their records concerning fuch a remarkable event, and
indeed for the general confiifion and uncertainty in
which the early hiftory of Egypt is involved. The
fettlement of the Jews in the promifed land of Canaan
is fuppofed to have happened about 1491 B. C.
For near 200 years after this period we find no Hiftory oi
accounts of any other nations than thofe mentioned in die Greek
feripture. About 1280 B. C. the Greeks began to
make other nations feel the effe&s of that enterprifing
and martial fpirit for which they were fo remarkable,
and which they had undoubtedly exercifed upon one
another long before. Their firft enterprife was an in-
vafion of Colchis (now Mingnlia), for the fake of the
golden fleece. Whatever was the nature of this ex¬
pedition, it is probable they fucceeded in it; and it
is likewife probable, that it was this fpecimen of the
riches of Afia which inclined them fo much to Afiatic
expeditions ever after. All this time we are totally
in the dark about the ftate of Afia and Africa, except
in fo. far as can be conjedtured from feripture. The
ancient empires of Babylon, Affyria, and Perfia, pro¬
bably
Seft.I. HISTORY. 563
Civil bably ftlll continued in the former continent, and
I Egypt and Ethiopia feem to have been coniiderable
j * kingdoms in the latter.
About 1184 years B. C. the Greeks again diftin-
guifhed themfelves by their expedition againft Troy, a
city of Phrygia Minor; which they plundered and
burnt, maffacring the inhabitants with the moil unre¬
lenting cruelty. ^Eneas, a Trojan prince, efcaped with
fome followers into Italy, where he became the remote
founder of the Roman empire. At this time Greece
was divided into a number of fmall principalities, moft
of which feem to have been in fubjedfion to Agamem-
ndn king of Mycene. In the reign of Atreus, the
father of this Agamemnon, the Heraclidae, or defeen-
dants of Hercules, who had been formerly banilhed by
Euryftheus, were again obliged to leave this country.
Under their champion Hyllus they claimed the king¬
dom of Mycenae as their right, pretending that it be-
| « See longed to their great anceltor Hercules, who was un-
II HtrcuUs. juftly deprived of it by Euryftheus *. The contro-
verfy was decided by Angle combat; but Hyllus being
killed, they departed, as had been before agreed, under
a promife of not making any attempt to return for 50
years. About the time of the Trojan war, alfo, we find
the Lydians, Myfians, and fome other nations of A-
fia Minor, firft mentioned in hiftory. The names of the
Greek ftates mentioned during this uncertain period
are, 1. Sicyon. 2. Leleg. 3. Meffina. 4. Athens.
5. Crete. 6. Argos. 7. Sparta. 8. Pelafgia.
9. Theffaly. 10. Attica, n. Phocis. 12. Locris.
13. Ozela. 14. Corinth. 15. Eleufina. 16. Elis.
17. Pilus. 18. Arcadia. 19. Egina. 20. Ithaca.
21. Cephalone. 22. Phthia. 23. Phocidia. 24. E-
phyra. 25. Eolia. 26. Thebes. 27. Califta. 28. E-
tolia. 29. Doloppa. 30. Oechalia. 31. Mycenae.
32. Euboea. 33. Mynia. 34. Doris. 35. Phera.
36. lola. 37. Trachina. 38. Thrafprocia. 39. Myr-
midonia. 40. Salamine. 41. Scyros. 42. Hype-
ria or Melit6. 43. The Vulcanian ifles. 44. Megara.
45. Epirus. 46. Achaia. 47. The ifles of the Egean
Sta. Concerning many of thefe we know nothing
befides their names: the moft remarkable particulars
concerning the reft may be found under their refpe&ive
articles. .
Of the About 1048 B. C. the kingdom of Judea under
Jews. king David approached its utmoft extent of power. In
its moft flouriftiing condition, however, it never was
remarkable for the largenefs of its territory. In this
refpedt it fcarce exceeded the kingdom of Scotland ;
though, according to the accounts given in feripture,
the magnificence of Solomon was fuperior to that of
the moft potent monarchs on earth. This extraordi¬
nary wealth was owing partly to the fpoils amafled by
king David in his conquefts over his various enemies,
and partly to the commerce with the Eaft Indies
which Solomon had eftablifned. Of this commerce he
owed his (hare to the friendlhip of Hiram king of
Tyre, a city of Phoenicia, whofe inhabitants were now
the moft famed for commerce and (kill in maritime af¬
fairs of any in the whole world.
After the death of Solomon, which happened about
975 B. C. the Jewifti empire began to decline, and
foon after many powerful ftates arofe in different parts
of the world. The difpofition of mankind in general
feems now to have taken a new turn, not eafily ac¬
counted for. In former times, whatever wars might Clv’d
have taken place between neighbouring nations, -we ^
have no account of any extenfive empire in the whole -
world, or that any prince undertook to reduce far di-
ftant nations to his fubjeftion. The empire of Egypt
indeed is faid to have been extended immenfely to the
eaft, even before the days of Sefoftris. Of this coun¬
try, however, our accounts are fo imperfe£t, that
fcarce any thing can be concluded from them. But
now, as it were all at once, we find almoft every nation
aiming at univerfal monarchy, and refufing to fet any
bounds whatever to its ambition. The firft (hock
given to the Jewilh grandeur was the divifion of the
kingdom into two through the imprudence of Reho-
boam. This rendered it more eafily a prey to Shiftiak
king of Egypt; who five years after came and pillaged
Jerufalem, and all the fortified cities of the kingdom
of Judah. The commerce to the Eaft Indies was now
difeontinued, and confequently the fources of wealth
in a great meafure (lopped ; and this, added to the
perpetual wars between the kings of Ifrael and Judah,
contributed to that remarkable and fpeedy decline
which is now fo eafily to be obferved in the Jewilh
affairs. %
Whether this king Shifhak was the Sefoftris of pro¬
fane writers or not, his expedition againft Jerufalem as
recorded in feripture feems very much to refemble the
defultory conquefts aferibed to Sefoftris. His infan¬
try is faid to have been innumerable, compofed of
different African nations; and his cavalry 60,000, with
12co chariots; which agrees pretty well with the
mighty armament aferibed to Sefoftris, and of which
an account is given under the article Egypt, n° 2.
There indeed his cavalry are faid to have been only
24,000; but the number of his chariots are increafed
to 27,000; which laft may not unreafonably be rec¬
koned an exaggeration, and thefe fupernumerary cha¬
riots may have been only cavalry : but unlefs we allow
Sefoftris to be the fame with Shiftiak, it feems impof-
fible to fix on any other king of Egypt that can be
fuppofed to have undertaken this expedition in the days
of Solomon.
Though the Jews obtained a temporary deliverance
from Shiftiak, they were quickly after attacked by
new enemies. In 941 B, C. one Zerah an Ethiopian
invaded Judaea with an army of a million of infantry
and 300 chariots; but was defeated with great (laugh¬
ter by Afa king of Judah, who engaged him with of ,hc Sy*
an army of 580,000 men. About this time alfo werians.
find the Syrians grown a confiderable people, and
bitter enemies both to the kings of Ifrael and Judah ;
aiming in fadl at the conqueft of both nations. Their*
kingdom commenced in the days of David, under Ha-
dadezer, whofe capital was Zobah, and who probably
was at laft obliged to become David’s tributary, after
having been defeated by him in feveral engagements.
Before the death of David, however, one Rezon, who
it feems had rebelled againft Hadadezer, having found
means to make himfelf matter of Damafcus, erected
there a new kingdom, which foon became very power¬
ful. The Syrian princes being thus in the neighbour¬
hood of the two rival ftates of Ifrael and Judah (whofe
capitals were Samaria and Jerufalem), found it an
eafy matter to weaken them both, by pretending to
alfift the one againft the other ; but a detail of the
4 A 2 tranfadliong
j64
HIST
Civil tranfa&iona between the Jews and Syrians is only to
Htftory, foun(i jn the Old Teftament, to which we refer.
”J 1 »~'1 In 740 B- C. however, the Syrian empire was totally
dcftroyed by Tiglath Pilefer king of Aflyria ; as was
alio the kingdom of Samaria by Shalmanefer his fuc-
ceffor in 721. The people were either maffacred, or
carried into captivity into Media, Perfia, and the coun-
*5 tries about the Cafpian Sea.
Wcftern While the nations of the eaft were thus deftroying
nations. other, the foundations of very formidable em¬
pires were laid in the weft, which in procefs of time
were to fwallow up almoft all the eaftern ones. In
Africa, Carthage was founded by a Tyrian colony,
about 869 B. C. according to thofe who afcribe the
higheft antiquity to that city; but, according to others,
it was founded only in 769 or 770 B. C. In Europe
a very confiderable revolution took place about 900
B. C. The Heraclidae, whom we have formerly feen
expelled from Greece by Atreus the father of Agamem¬
non, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts, at laft con¬
quered the whole Peloponnefus. From this time the
Grecian ftates became more civilized, and their hi-
ftory becomes lefs obfcure. The inftitution, or rather
the revival and continuance, of the Olympic games, in
776 B. C. alfo greatly facilitated the writing not only
of their hiftory, but that of other nations; for as each
Olympiad confifted of four years, the chronology of
every important event became indubitably fixed by re¬
ferring it to fuch and fuch an Olympiad. In 748 B. C.
or the laft year of the feventh Olympiad, the foun¬
dations of the city of Rome were laid by Romulus;
and, 43 years after, the Spartan ftate was new mo¬
delled, and received from Lycurgus thofe laws, by ob-
ferving of which it afterwards arrived at fuch a pitch
16 of fplendor.
State of the 3. With the beginning of the 28th Olympiad, or 568
world at c, commences the third general period above men-
the begin- t;one(j when profane hiftory becomes fomewhat more
nmg of the   
o R Y. Sear
tions had taken place. The ancient kingdom of Af- Civil
fyria was deftroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, its Hlftory- ,
capital city Nineveh utterly ruined, and the greateft ‘Y—
part of its inhabitants carried to Babylon. Nay, the
very materials of which it was built were carried off,
to adorn and give ftrength to that {lately metropolis,
which was then undoubtedly the firft city in the world.
Nebuchadnezzar, a wife and valiant priuce, now fat
on the throne of Babylon. By him the kingdom of
Judaea was totally overthrown in 587 B. C. Three
years before this he had taken and razed the city of
Tyre, and over-run all the kingdom of Egypt. He
is even faid by Jofephus to have conquered Spain, and
reigned there nine years, after which he abandoned it
to the Carthaginians ; but this feems by no means pro¬
bable. The extent of the Babylonian empire is not
certainly known : but from what is recorded of it we
may conclude, that it was not at all inferior even in
this refpedt to any that ever exifted ; as the feripture
tells us it was fuperior in wealth to any of the fucceed-
ing ones. We know that it comprehended Phoenicia,
Paleftine, Syria, Babylonia, Media, and Perfia, and
not improbably India alfo ; and from a confideration
of this vaft extent of territory, and the riches with
which every one of thefe countries abounded, we may
form fome idea of the wealth and power of this mo¬
narch. When we confidej alfo, that the whole
ftrength of this mighty empire was employed in beau¬
tifying the metropolis, we cannot look upon the won¬
ders of that city as related by Herodotus to be at all in¬
credible. See Babylon; and Architecture, ri° 13.
As to what paffed in the republic of Carthage about
this time, we are quite in the dark; there being a chafm
its hiftory for no lefs than 300 years.
4. The fourth general period of hiftory, namely, from Fourth pe-
the end of the fabulous times to the conqueft of Ba- TJ°^'
r-.  :  ?. . ftory of th*-
third gene-clear, and the relations concerning the different na-
ral period, tions may be depended upon with fome degree of cer¬
tainty. The general ftate of the wofld was at that
time as follows.—The northern parts of Europe were
either thinly inhabited, or filled with unknown and
barbarous nations, the anceftors of thofe who after¬
wards deftroyed the Roman empire. France and
Spain were inhabited by the Gomerians or Celtes.
Italy was divided into a number of petty ftates, ari-
fing partly from Gaulilh and partly from Grecian co¬
lonies ; among which the Romans had already become
formidable. 'They were governed by their king Ser-
vius Tullius; had increafed their city by the demolition
of Alba Longa, and the removal of its inhabitants to
Rome ; and had enlarged their dominions by feveral
cities taken from their naghbours. Greece was alfo
divided into a number of fmall ftates, among which
the Athenians and Spartans, being the moft remark¬
able, were rivals to each other. The former had,
about 599 B. C. received an excellent legiflation from
Solon, and were enriching themfelves by navigation
and commerce : the latter were become formidable by
the martial inftitutions of Lycurgus ; and having con¬
quered Meflina, and added its territory to their own,
were juftly efteemed the moft powerful people in Greece.
The other ftates of moft confideration were Corinth,
Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia.—In Afia great, revolui-
bylon by Cyrus, is very ftiort, including no more than B°hiylenian
31 years. This fudden revolution was occafioned by empire,
the mifeonduft of Evil-merodacbj-eNebuchadnezzar’s
fon, even in his father’s life-time. For having, in a
great hunting match on occafion of his marriage, en¬
tered the country of the Medes, and fome of his
troops coming up at the fame time to relieve the gar-
rifons in thofe places, he joined them to thofe already
with him, and without the leaft provocation began to
plunder and lay wafte the neighbouring country. This
produced an immediate revolt, which quickly extended
over all Media and Perfia. The Medes, headed by
Aftyages and his fon Cyaxares, drove back Evil-mero-
dach and his party with great {laughter ; nor doth it
appear that they were afterwards reduced even by
Nebuchadnezzar himfelf. The new empire continued
daily to gather ftrength; and at laft Cyrus, Aftyages’s
grandfon, a prince of great prudence and valour, being
made generaliffimo of the Median and Perfian forces,
took Babylon itfelf in the year 538 B. C. as related
under the article Babylon. jg
During this period the Romans increafed in power Of the
under the wife adminiftration of their king Servius Romans,
Tullius, who, though a pacific prince, rendered his ?r
people more formidable by a peace of 20 years than and p£>
his predeceffors had done by all their vi&ories. The fians.
Greeks, even at this early period, began to interfere
with the Perfians, on account of the lonians or Gre¬
cian colonies in Afia Minor. Thefe had been fub*
dued
Sea. I. HIST
Civil {Jued by Crcefus king of Lydia about the year 562,
Hiftory. tyje tjme 0f Nebuchadnezzar’s death. Whether the
— Lydians had been fubdued by the Babylonifh monarch
or not, is not now to be afcertained; though it is
very probable that they were either in fubje&ion to
him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his
death nothing confiderable was undertaken by them.
It is indeed probable, that during the infanity of Nebu¬
chadnezzar, fpoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his king¬
dom would fall into confufion; and many of thofe prin¬
ces whom he formerly retained in fubje&ion would fet
up for themfelves. Certain it is, however, that if the
Babylonians did not regard Crcefus as their fubjedt,
they looked upon him to be a very faithful ally; info-
much that they celebrated an annual feaft in comme¬
moration of a vidtory obtained by him over the Scy¬
thians. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, Croefus
fubdued many nations in Afia Minor, and among the
reft the lonians, as already related. They were, how¬
ever, greatly attached to his government; for though
they paid him tribute, and were obliged to furnifh him
with fome forces in time of war, they were yet free from
all kind of oppreffion. When Cyrus therefore was
.proceeding in his conquefts of different parts of the
Babylonifh empire, before he proceeded to attack the
capital, the lonians refufed to fubmit to him, though
he offered them very advantageous terms. But foon
after, Crcefus himfelf being defeated and taken pri-
foner, the lonians fent ambaffadors to Cyrus, offering
to fubmit on the terms which had formerly been pro-
pofed. Thefe terms were now refufed; and the lo¬
nians, being determined to refill, applied to the Spar¬
tans for aid. Though the Spartans at that time
could not be prevailed upon to give their countrymen
any affiftance, they fent ambaffadors to Cyrus with a
threatening meffage; to which he returned a contemp¬
tuous anfwer, and then forced the lonians to fubmit
at diferetion, five years before the taking of Babylon.
Thus commenced the hatred between the Greeks and
Perfians 5 and thus we fee, that in the two firft great
monarchies the feeds of their deftru&ion were fown
even before the monarchies themfelves were eftablilhed.
For while Nebuchadnezzar was railing the Babylonifh
empire to its utmoft height, his fon was deftroying
what his father built up ; and at the very time when
Cyrus was eftablilhing the Perfian monarchy, by his
ill-timed feverity to the Greeks he made that warlike
people his enemies, whom his fucceffors were by no
means able to refill, and who would probably have
overcome Cyrus himfelf, had they united in order to
attack him. The tranfaftions of Africa during this
period are almoft entirely unknown; though we cannot
doubt that the Carthaginians enriched themfelves by
means of their commerce, which enabled them after-
19 wards to attain fuch a confiderable lhare of power.
FShh gene- ^ Cyrus having now become mailer of all the call,
rio^Hhlo the Afiatic affairs continued for fome time in a Hate
ry of the °f tranquillity. The Jews obtained leave to return to
ews, Ba- their own country, rebuild their temple, and again
ylomans, eftablilh their worlhip, of all which an account is given
Egyptians, jn tjje facre^ writings, though undoubtedly they mud
have been in a Hate of dependence on the Perfians
from that time forward. Cambyfes the fucceffor of Cy¬
rus added Egypt to his empire, which had eithef not
fubmitted to Cyrus,, or revolted foon after his death.
O R Y. 5
He intended alfo to have fubdued the Carthaginians ; .c5vil
but as the Phoenicians refufed to fupply him with ^‘^ory
Ihips to fight againft their own countrymen, he was
obliged to lay this defign afide.
In 517 B. C. the Babylonians finding themfelves
grievoully oppreffed by their Perfian mailers, refolved
to lhake off the yoke, and fet up for themfelves. For
this purpofe, they took care to ftore their city with all
manner of provifions; and when Darius Hyftafpes, then
king of Perfia, advanced againft them, they took the
moft barbarous method that can be-imagined of pre¬
venting an unneceffary confumption of thofe provi¬
fions, which they had fo carefully amaffed. Having
collefted all the women, old men, and children, into
@ne place, they ftrangled them without diftin&ion,
whether wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or fillers;
every one being allowed to fave only the wife he liked
bell, and a maid fervant to do the work of the houfe.
This cruel policy did not avail them : their city was
taken by treachery (for it was impoffible to take it
by force) ; after which the king caufed the walls of
it to be beat down from 200 to 50 cubits height,
that their ftrength might no longer give encourage¬
ment to the inhabitants to revolt. Darius then turned
his arms againft the Scythians ; but finding that ex¬
pedition turn out both tedious and unprofitable, he
dire&ed his courfe eaftward, and reduced all the coun¬
try as far as the river Indus. In the mean time,
the lonians revolted; and being affifted by the Greeks,
a war commenced between the two nations, which was
not thoroughly extinguilhed but by the deftru&ion of
the Perfian empire in 330 B. C. The lonians, how¬
ever, were for this time obliged to fubmit, after a war
of fix years ; and were treated with great feverity by
the Perfians. The conqueft of Greece itfelf was then
proje&ed: but the expeditions for that purpofe ended
moft unfortunately for the Perfians, and encouraged
the Greeks to make reprifals on them, in which they
fucceeded according to their utmoft wilhes; and had
it only been poffible for them to have agreed among
themfelves, the downfal of the Perfian empire would
have happened much fooner than it did. See Athens, .
Sparta, Macedon, and Persia.
In 459 B. C. the Egyptians- made an attempt to
recover their liberty, but were reduced after a war of
fix years- In 413 B. C. they revolted a fecond time :
and being affilted by the Sidonians, drew upon the
latter that terrible deftru&ion foretold by the prophets;.
while they themfelves were fo thoroughly humbled,
that they never after made any attempt to recover their
liberty.
The year 403 B. C. proved remarkable for the re¬
volt of Cyrus againft his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon;
in which, through his own raffinefs, he mifearried, and
loft his life at the battle of Cunaxa in the province of
Babylon. Ten thoufand Greek mercenaries, who ferved
in his army, made their way back into Greece, though x _ 20
furrounded on all fides by the enemy,, and in the heart phon°>‘8
of a hoftile country. In this retreat they were com- treat,
manded by Xenophon, who has received the higheft
praifes on account of his condud and military fldll in
bringing it to a happy-conclufion. Two years after,
the invafions of Agelilaus king of Sparta threatened
the Perfian empire with total deftru&ion; from which,,
howevei, it was relieved by his being recalled in order
<66 H I S T
Civil to defend his own country agalnft the other Grecian
^Hiftory. ftates; anci after this the' Perfian affairs continued in a
more profperous way till the time of Alexander.
Hiftory of During all this time, the volatile and giddy temper
the Greeks, of the Greeks, together with their enthufxaffic defire
of romantic exploits, were preparing fetters for them-
felves, which indeed feemed to be abfolutely neceffary
to prevent them from ddlroying one another. A zeal
for liberty was what they all pretended; but on every
occafion it appeared, that this love of liberty was only a
dafire of dominion. No date in Greece could bear to
fee another equal to itfelf; and hence their perpetual
contefls for pre-eminence, which could not but weaker!
the whole body, and render them an eafy prey to an
ambitious and politic prince, who was capable of ta¬
king advantage of thofe divifions. Being all equally
impatient of reflraint, they never could bear to fubmit
to any regular government; and hence their determi¬
nations were nothing but the decifions of a mere mob,
of which they had afterwards almolt conftantly reafon
to repent. Hence alfo their bafe treatment of thofe
eminent men whom they ought moll to have honoured}
as Miltiades, Ariflides, Themiftocles, Alcibiades, So¬
crates, Phocion, &c. The various tranfadlions be¬
tween the Grecian Hates, though they make a very
confiderable figure in particular hiftory, make none at
all in a general Iketch of the hiftory of the world. We
fhall therefore only obferve, that in 404 B. C. the A-
thenian power was in a manner totally broken by the
taking of their city by the Spartans. In 370, that of
the Spartans received a fevere check from the Thebans
at the battle of Leu&ra; and eight years after was
ftill further reduced by the battle of Mantinea. Epa-
minondas the great enemy of the Spartans was killed ;
but this only proved a more fpeedy means of fubju-
gating all the ftates to ai foreign, and at that time
dtfpicable, power. The Macedonians, a barbarous
nation, lying to the north of the ftates of Greece, were
two years after the death of Epaminondas reduced to
the loweft ebb by the Illyrians, another nation of bar¬
barians in the neighbourhood. The king of Macedon
.being killed in an engagement, Philip his brother
departed from Thebes, where he had ftudied the art of
war under Epaminondas, in order to take poffellion of
his kingdom. Being a man of great prudence and poli¬
cy, he quickly fettled his own affairs ; vanquifhed the
Illyrians; and, being no ftranger to the weakened fitua-
tion of Greece, began almoft immediately to meditate
the conqueft of it. The particulars of this enterprize
are related under the article MacEdon : here it is fuf-
ficient to take notice, that by firft attacking thofe he
was fure he could overcome, by corrupting thofe whom
he thought it dangerous to attack, by fometimes pre¬
tending to aflift one ftate and fometimes another, and
by impofing- upon all as beft ferved his turn, heat
laft put it out of the power of the Greeks to make
any refiftance, at leaft fuch as could keep him from
gaining his end. In 338 B. C. he procured himfelf
to be elefted general of the Amphi&yons, or council
of the Grecian ftates, under pretence of fettling feme
troubles at that time in Greece; but having once ob¬
tained liberty to enter that country with an army, he
quickly convinced the Hates that they mtift. all fubmit
to his will. Pie w'as oppofed by the Athenians and
Thebans; but the inteftine wars of Greece had cut off
o R Y. Sea.!.,
all her great men, and no general was now to be found Civil |
capable of oppofing Philip with fuccefs. Hjflory. |
The king of Macedon, being now mafter of all ’ '* I
Greece, projedled the conqueft of Alia. To this he
was encouraged by the ill fuccefs which had attended
the Perfians in their expeditions againft Greece, the
fuccefles of the Greeks in their invafions, and the re¬
treat of the ten thoufand under Xenophon. All thefe
events {bowed the weaknefs of the Perfians, their vaft
inferiority to the Greeks in military {kill, and howea-
fily their empire might be overthrown by a proper u-
nion among the ftates.
Philip was preparing to enter upon his grand defign, Conqueft of I
when he was murdered by fome affaffins. His fon A- Perfia by I
lexander was poffeffed of every quality neceffary for Alexander. |.
the execution of fo great a plan ; and his impetuofity
of temper made him execute it with a rapidity un¬
heard of either before or fince. It muft be confeffed,
indeed, that the Perfian empire was now ripe for de-
ftruftion, and could not in all probability have with-
ftood an enemy much lefs powerful than Alexander. |
The Afiatics have in all ages been much inferior to the
European nations in valour and military {kill. They
were now funk in luxury and effeminacy; and what
wa's worfe, they feem at this period to have been feized
with that infatuation and diftradtion of counfels which
fcarce ever fails to be a forerunner of the deftru&ion
of any nation. The Perfian minifters perfuadtd their ||
fovereign to rejedft the prudent advice that was given
him, of diftreffing Alexander by laying wafte the coun¬
try, and thus forcing him to return for want of provi- f
fions. Nay, they even prevented him from engaging
the enemy in the moft proper manner, by dividing his I
forces ; and perfuaded him to put Chaiidemus the A-
thenian to death, who had promifed, with 100,000
men, of whom one third were mercenaries, to drive the
Greeks out of Alia. In fhort, Alexander met with
only two checks in his Perfian expedition. The one
was from the city of Tyre, which for {’even months re-
fifted his utmoft efforts ; the other was from Memnon
the Rhodian, who had undertaken to invade Macedo¬
nia. The firft of thefe obftaclts Alexander at laft got
over, and treated the governor and inhabitants with
the utmoft cruelty. The other was fcarce felt; for
Memnon died after reducing forne of the Grecian
iflands, and Darius had no other general capable of
conducing the undertaking. The power of the Per¬
fian empire was totally broke by the vidlory gained
over Darius at Arbela in 331 B. C. and next year a
total end was put to it by the murder of the king by
Beffus one of his fubjefts. 1 ,
The ambition of Alexander was not to be fatisfied h;s con- f. 1
with the poffdfion of the kingdom of Perfia, or indeed qneft of o- p fi
of any other on earth. Nothing lefs than the totalther na- i ■|
fubjedlion of the world itfelf feemed fufficient to him ;t ous*
and therefore he was now prompted to invade every
country of which he could only learn the name, whe¬
ther it had belonged to the Perfians or not. In con-
fequence of this difpofition, he invaded and reduced
Hyrcania, Badlria, Sogdia, and all that vaft tradl of
country now called Bukharm At laft, having entered
India, he reduced all the nations to the river Plypha-
fis, one of the branches of the Indus. But when he
would have proceeded farther, and extended his con-
quefts quite to the eafttrn extremities of Afia, his
troops
Sea. r. h i s 1
Civil troops pofitlvely refufed to follow him farther, and he
Hiftory. was eonftrained to return.^ In 323, this mighty con-
v queror died of a fever ; without having time to fettle
the affairs of his vaft extended empire, or even to name
3 his fucceflbr.
Hiftory of While the Grecian empire thus fuddenly fprung up
the R.O- in the eaft, the rival dates of Rome and Carthage were
mans. making confiderable advances in the weft. The Ro¬
mans were eftablifhing their empire on the moft folid
foundations; to which their particular fituation natu¬
rally contributed. Being originally little better than a
parcel of lawlefs banditti, they were defpifed and hated
by the neighbouring dates. This foon produced wars;
in which, at firft from accidental circumftances, and af¬
terwards from their fuperior valour and conduit, the
Romans proved almoft conftantly victorious. The jea-
louiies which prevailed among the Italian ftates, and
their ignorance of their true intereft, prevented them
from combining again!! that afpiring nation, and cradl¬
ing it in its infancy, which they might eafily have
done; while in the mean time the Romans, being kept
in a ftate of continual warfare, became at laft fuch ex¬
pert foldiers, that no other ftate on earth could reft ft
them. During the time of their kings they had made
a very conliderable figure among the Italian nations ;
but after their expulfion, and the commencement of
the republic, their conquefts became much more rapid
and extenfive. In 501 B. C. they fubdued the Sa¬
bines; eight years after, the Latins; and in 399 the
city of Veii, the ftrongeft in Italy excepting Rome it-
felf, was taken after a liege of ten years. But in the
midft of their fucceffes a fudden irruption of the Gauls
had almoft put an end to their power and nation at
once. The city was burnt to the ground in 383 B, C.
and the capitol on the point of being furprifed, when
the Gauls, who were climbing up the walls in the night,
jefjKr were accidentally difcovered and repulfed*. In a ftiort
time Rome was rebuilt with much greater fplendor
than before, but now a general revolt and combina¬
tion of the nations formerly fubdued took place. The
Romans, however, ftill got the better of their ene¬
mies ; but, even at the time of the celebrated Camil-
lus’s death, which happened about 352 B. G. their
territories fcarce extended fix or feven leagues from
the capital. The republic from the beginning was
agitated by thofe diffenfions which at laft proved its
ruin. The people had been divided by Romulus into
two claffes, namely Patricians and Plebeians, anfwer-
ing to our nobility and. commonalty. Between thefe
two bodies were perpetual jealoufies and contentions ;
which retarded the progrefs of the Roman conquefts,
and revived the hopes of the nations they had conquer¬
ed. The tribunes of the people were perpetually op-
pofing the confuls and military tribunes. The fenate
had often recourfe to a dictator endowed with abfolute
power; and then the valour and experience of the Ro¬
man troops made them victorious: but the return of
domeftic feditions gave the fubjugated nations an op¬
portunity of fhaking off the yoke. Thus had the
Romans continued for near 400 years, running the
fame round tjfhwars with the fame enemies, and reap?
ing very little advantage from their conquefts, till at
laft matters were compounded by choofing one of the
confuls from among the plebeians; and from this time
chiefly we may date the profperity of Rome, fo that
■ , 5
' O R Y. 5*7
by fhe time that Alexander the Great died they were C!v,i
held in confidcrable eftimation among foreign nations. Hntoiy
The Carthaginians in the mean time continued to
enrich themfelves by commerce ; but, being lefs con-Q, f^ ar_
verfant in military affairs, were by no means equal to hi in irs,
the Romans in power, though they excelled them in and of Si.
wealth. A new ftate, however, makes its appearance
during this period, which may be faid to have taught
the Carthaginians the art of war, and by bringing
them into the neighbourhood of the Romans, proved
the firft fource of contention between thefe two power¬
ful nations. This was the ifland of Sicily. At what
time people were firft fettled on it, is not now to
be afeertained. The firft inhabitants we read of were
called Sicani, Siculi, Lajlrigones, &c. but of thefe we
know little or nothing. In the fecond year of the
17th Olympiad, or 710 B. C. fome Greek colonies
are faid to have arrived on the ifland, and in a fhort
time founded feveral cities, of which Syracufe was the
chief. The Syracufans at laft fubdued the original
inhabitants ; though it doth not appear that the lat¬
ter were ever well afFe&ed to their government, and
therefore were on all occafions ready to revolt. The
firft confiderable prince, or (as he is called by the
Greeks) tyrant of Syracufe, was Gelon, who obtained
the fovereignty about the year 483 B. C. At what
time the Carthaginians firft carried their arms into Si¬
cily is not certainly known ; only we are aflured, that
they poffeffed fome part of the ifland as early as 505
B. C. For in the time of the firft cohfuls, the Ro¬
mans and Carthaginians entered into a treaty chiefly in
regard to matters of navigation and commerce; by
which it was ftipulated, that the Romans who ftiould
touch at Sardinia, or that part of Sicily which belong-
ed to Carthage, flrould be received there in the fame
manner as the Carthaginians themfelves. Whence it
appears, that the dominion of Carthage already extend¬
ed over Sardinia and part of Sicily : but in 28 years
after, they had been totally driven out by Gelon ;
which probably was the firft exploit performed by him.
This appears from his fpeech to the Athenian and
Spartan ambaffadors who defired his afiiftance a^ainft
the forces of Xerxes king of Perfia. The Carthagi¬
nians made many attempts to regain their poffefiions in
this ifland, which occafioned long and bloody wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, as related under the ar¬
ticles Carthage and Sicily. This ifland alfo proved
the feene of much daughter and bloodftred in the wars
of the Greeks with one another*. Before the year *See
323 B. C. however, the Carthaginians had made them-and
Lives mailers of a very confiderable part of the ifland;
from whence all the power of the Greeks could not
diflodge them. It is proper alfo to obferve, that af¬
ter the deftruaion of Tyre by Alexander the Great,
almoft all the commerce in the weftern part of the
world fell to the (hare of the Carthaginians. Whether
they had at this time made any fettlements in Spain, is
not known. It is certain, that they traded to that
country for the fake of the filver, in which it was very
rich ; as they probably alfo did to Britain for the tin
with which it abounded, ^ 6
6. The beginning ofthe fixth period prefents us wtth>;od. Hi*,
a ftate of the world entirely different from the fore- ftory of the,.-
going. We now behold all the eaftern part of the M-cedo.
world, from.the confines of Italy to the river Indus, n-‘m €iai
andF"6'
'j6« HIST
Civil and beyond it, newly united into one vaft empire, and
. ‘uory- at tjje fame time ready to fall to pieces for v?ant of a
^ proper head ; the weftern world filled with fierce and
favage nations, whom the rival republics of Carthage
and Rome were preparing to enflave as fall as they
could. The firll remarkable events took place in the
Macedonian empire.—Alexander, as already obferved,
had not diftin&ly named any fucceflbr; but he had
left behind him a vi&orious, and, we may fay, invin¬
cible army, commanded by moft expert officers, all of
them ambitious of fupreme authority. It is not to be
fuppofed that peace could long be preferved in fuch a
fituation. For a number of years, indeed, nothing was
to be feen or heard of but the moft horrid flaughters,
and wickednefs of every kind; until atlaft the mother,
wives, children, brothers, and even lifters, of Alexander
•were cut off; not one of the family of that great con¬
queror being left alive. When matters were a little
fettled, four new empires, each of them of no fmall
extent, had arifen out of the empire of Alexander.
Caffander, the fon of Antipater, had Macedonia, and
all Greece; Antigonus, Alia Minor; Seleucus had
Babylon, and the eaftern provinces; and Ptolemy
Lagus, Egypt, and the weftern ones. One of thefe
empires, however, quickly fell; Antigonus being de¬
feated and killed by Seleucus and Lyfimachus at the
battle of Ipfus, in 301 B. C. The greateft part of
his dominions then fell to Seleucus : but feveral pro¬
vinces took the opportunity of thefe confufions to
fhake off the Macedonian yoke altogether: and thus
were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithynia, Per-
gamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia. The two moft
powerful and permanent empires, however, were thofe
of Syria founded by SSeleucus, and Egypt by Ptolemy
Eagus. The kings of Macedon, though they did not
preferve the fame authority over the Grecian ftates
that Alexander, Antipater, and Caffander, had done,
yet effeftually prevented them from thofe outrages
upon one another, for which they had formerly been
lb remarkable. Indeed, it is fomewhat difficult to de¬
termine, whether their condition was better or worfe
than before they were conquered by Philip; fince,
though they were now prevented from deftroying one
another, they were moft grievoufly oppreffed by the
Macedonian tyrants.
While the eaftem parts of the world were thus de¬
luged with blood, and the fucceffors of Alexander
were pulling to pieces the empire which he had efta-
blifhed; the Romans and Carthaginians proceeded in
*7 their attempts to enflave the nations of the weft. The
Of the Ro- Romans, ever engaged in war, conquered one city
mans and an(i ftate after another, till about the year 253 B. C.
Carthagi- macie themielves mafters of almoft the whole
s' of Italy. During all this time they had met only with
a Angle check in their conquefts; and that was the
invafion of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. That ambitious
and fickle prince had projefted the conqueft af Italy,
which he fancied would be an eafy matter. Accord¬
ingly, in 271 B. C. he entered that country, and
maintained a war with the Romans for fix years; till
at laft, being utterly defeated by Curius Dentatus, he
was obliged to return.
The Romans had no fooner made themfelves mafters
of Italy, than they wanted only a pretence to carry
Np 155. 1
O R Y.
their arms out of it; and this pretence was foon found
out. Being invited into Sicily to affift the Mamer-
tines againft Hiero king of Syracufe and the Car¬
thaginians, they immediately commenced a war with
the latter, which continued with the utmoft fury for
23 years. The war ended greatly to the difadvantage
of the Carthaginians, chiefly owing to the bad con-
duft of their generals; none of whom, Hamilcar Bar¬
cas alone excepted, feem to have been poffeffed of any
degree of military /kill; and the ftate had fuffered too
many misfortunes before he entered upon the command,
for him or any other to retrieve it at that time. The
confequence of this war was the entire lofs of Sicily to
the Carthaginians;^ and foon after, the Romans feized
on the ifland of Sardinia.
Hamilcar perceiving that there was now no alter¬
native, but that in a fliort time either Carthage muft
conquer Rome, or Rome would conquer Carthage,
bethought himfelf of a method by which his country
might become equal to that haughty republic. This
was by reducing all Spain, in which the Carthaginians
had already confiderable poffeffions, and from the
mines of which they drew great advantages. He
had, therefore, no fooner finiflied the war with the
mercenaries, which fucceeded that with the Romans,
than he fet about the conqueft of Spain. This, how¬
ever, he did not live to accooipliflr, though he made
great progrefs in it. His fon Afdrubal continued the
war with fuccefs; till at laft, the Romans, jealous of
his progrefs, perfuaded him to enter into a treaty with
them, by which he engaged himfelf to make the river
Iberus the boundary of his conquefts. This treaty
probably was never ratified by the fenate of Carthage;
nor, though it had, would it have been regarded by
Hannibal, who fucceeded Afdrubal in the command,
and had fworn perpetual enmity with the Romans.
The tranfa&ions of the fecond Punic war are perhaps
the moft remarkable which the hiftory of the world
can afford. Certain it is, that nothing can Ihow more
clearly the flight foundations upon which the greateft
empires are built. We now fee the Romans, the na¬
tion moft remarkable for their military flcill in the
whole world, and who, for more than 500 years, had
been conftantly victorious, unable to refill the efforts
of one Angle man- At the fame time we fee this man,
though evidently the firft general in the world, loft
folely for want of a flight fupport. In former times,
the republic of Carthage fupplied her generals in Si¬
cily with hundreds of thoufands, though their enter-
prizes were almoft conftantly unfuccefsful; but now
Hannibal, the conqueror of Italy, was obliged to
abandon his defign, merely for want of 20 or 30,000
men. That degeneracy and infatuation, which never
fails to overwhelm a falling nation, or rather which is
the caufe of its fall, had now infeCted the counfels of
Carthage, and the fupplies were denied. Neither was
Carthage the only infatuated nation at this time.
Hannibal, whofe prudence never forfook him either
in profperity or adverfity, in the height of his good
fortune had concluded an alliance with Philip king of
Macedon. Had that prince fent an army tq the af-
fiftance of the Carthaginians in Italy ihimediately
after the battle of Cannai, there can be no doubt but
the Romans would have been forced to accept of that
peace
Sea. I,
; Sea. i.
j Civil peace which they fo haughtily refufedf ; and indeed,
. Hiftofy- this offer of peace, in the midft of fo much fuccefs, is
' ^ an inftance of moderation which perhaps does more
Jtagi n®r" honour to the Carthaginian general than all the mili-
la/.’ tary exploits he performed. Philip, however, could
not be roufed from his indolence, nor fee that his own
ruin was connefted with that of Carthage. The Ro¬
mans had now made themfelves mailers of Sicily: after
which they recalled Marctllus, with hia victorious ar¬
my, to be employed againfl Hannibal; and the con-
fequence at laft was, that the Carthaginian armies,
unfupported in Italy, could not conquer it, but were
recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded.
The fouthern nations feem to have been as blind to
their own intereft as the northern ones. They ought
to have feen, that it was neceffary for them to preferve
Carthage from being deftroyed ; but, inftead of this,
Mafiniffa king of Numidia allied with the Romans,
and by his means Hannibal was overcome at the
♦See Zama. baule of Zama*, which finifhed the fecond Punic war,
a8 in 188 B. C.
Of Egypt The event of the fecond Punic war determined the
and Syria. fate 0paimofl; aH the other nations in the world. All
this time, indeed, the empires of Egypt, Syria, and
Greece, had been promoting their own ruin by
mutual wars and inteftine divihons. The Syrian
empire was now governed by Antiochus the Great,
who feems to have had little right to fuch a title.
His empire, though diminifhed by the defection of
the Parthians, was Hill very powerful; and to him
Hannibal applied, after he was obliged to leave
his country, as related under Carthage, n° 152.
Antiochus, however, had not fufficient judgment
to fee the neceffity of following that great man’s
advice; nor would the Carthaginians be prevailed
upon to contribute their afiiftance againlt the nation
which was foon to deftroy them without any provo¬
cation. The pretence for war on the part of the Ro¬
mans was, that Antiochus would not declare his
Greek fubjeCls in Alia to be free and independent
Hates ; a requifition which neither the Romans nor
any other nation had a right to make. The event of
all was, that Antiochus was every-where defeated,
and forced to conclude a peace upon very difadvanta-
29 geous terms.
Of Greece. In Europe, matters went on in the fame way ; the
Hates of Greece, weary of the tyranny of the Mace¬
donians, entered into a refolution of recovering their
liberties. For this purpofe was framed the Achaean
SeeGWr. League f ; but, as they could not agree among them¬
felves, they at laH came to the imprudent determination
of calling in the Romans to defend them againfl; Philip
king of Macedon. This produced a war, in which
the Romans were viftorious. The Macedonians,
however, were Hill formidable ; and, as the intention
of the Romans to enflave the whole world could no
longer be doubted, Perfeus, the fucceffor of Philip, re¬
newed the war. Through his own cowardice he loH
a decifive engagement, and with it his kingdom, which
30 fubmitted to the Romans in 167 B. C.
Deftrudlion Macedon being thus conquered, the next Hep was
Carthage utterly to exterminate the Carthaginians; whofe re-
°' public, notwithHanding the many difaHers that had
befallen it, was Hill formidable. It is true, the Car¬
thaginians were giving no offence ; nay, they even
Von, VIII. Ran II.
HISTORY.
569
made the moft abje£t fubmiffions to the republic of P‘vil
Rome : but all was not fufficient. War was declared Hiltory. ^
a third time againH that unfortunate Hate ; there was ^
now no Hannibal to command their armies, and the
city was utterly deffroyed 146 B. C. The fame year
the Romans put an end to the liberties they had pre¬
tended to grant the cities of Greece, by the entire de-
ffru&ion of Corinth. See that article. 31
After the death of Antiochus the Great, the af-
fairs of Syria and Egypt went on from bad to worfe.
The degenerate princes which filled the thrones ofjujjea.
thofe empires, regarding only their own pleafures,
either fpent their time in oppreffing their fub-
je&s, or in attempting to deprive each other of their
dominions, by which means they became a more eafy
prey to the Romans. So far indeed were they from
taking any means to fecure themfelves againfl; the o-
vergrown power of that republic, that the kings both
of Syria and Egypt fometimes applied to the Roman* *
as protestors. Their downfal, however, did not hap¬
pen within the period of which we now treat.—The
only other tranfaction which makes any confiderable
figure in the Syrian empire is the oppreffion of the
Jews by Antiochus Epiphanes. After their return
from the Babylonifh captivity, they continued in fub-
je&ion to the Perfians till the time of Alexander.
From that time they were fubjeft to the kings of
Egypt or Syria, as the fortune of either happened to
prevail. Egypt being reduced to a low ebb by Anti¬
ochus Epiphanes, the Jews fell under his dominion ;
and being feverely treated by him, imprudently fliow-
ed fome figns of joy on a report of his death. This
brought him againfl; them with a powerful army ; and
in 170 B. C. he took Jerufalem by fform, commit¬
ting the moff horrid cruelties on the inhabitants, in-
fomuch that they were obliged to hide themfelves in
caverns and in holes of rocks to avoid his fury. Their
religion was totally abolilhed, their temple profaned,
and an image of Jupiter Olympius fet up on the al¬
tar of burnt-offerings: which profanation is thought
to be the abomination of deflation mentioned by the
prophet Daniel. This revolution, however, was of
no long continuance. In 167 B. C. Mattathias re-
flored the true worflrip in moff of the cities of Judea ;
and in 165 the temple was purified, and the worlhip
there reftored by Judas Maccabaeus. This was follow¬
ed by a long feries of wars between the Syrians and
Jews, in which the latter were almoft always vi&ori-
ous; and before thefe wars were finilhed, the deftruc-
tion of Carthage happened, which puts an end to the
fixth general period formerly mentioned.
7. The beginning of the feventh period prefents us Seventh p&i
with a view of the ruins of the Greek empire in the “od- Ge-
declining ftates of Syria and Egypt; both of themner?1 ftatc
much circumfcribed in bounds. The empire of Syria
at firft comprehended all Afia to the river Indus, and
beyond it; but in 312 B. C. moft of the Indian pro¬
vinces were by Seleucus ceded to one Sandrocottus, or
Androcottus, a native, who in return gave him 500
elephants. Of the empire of Sandrocottus we know
nothing farther than that he fubdued all the countries
between the Indus and the Ganges ; fo that from this
time we may reckon the greateft part of India inde¬
pendent on the Syro-Macedonian princes. In 250
B. C. however, the empire fuftained a much greater
4 B lofs
C'vtl lofs by the revolt of the Parthians and Baftrians from
. Antiochus Theus. The former could not be fubdued;
' i-1an(j as t}iey jjgjj jn fubjeclion to them the vaft tra£t
which now goes under the name of Perjia, we mud
look upon their defedion as an irreparable lofs. Whe¬
ther any part of their country was afterwards recover¬
ed by the kings of Egypt or Syria, is not very certain;
nor is it of much confequence, fince we are affured
that in the beginning of the feventh period, i. e. 146
B. C. the Greek empires of Syria and Egypt were
reduced by the lofs of India, Perfia, Armenia, Pon-
tus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pergamus, &c. The
general date of the world in 146 B. C. therefore was
as follows. In Afia were the empires of India, Par-
thia, and Syria, with the leffer dates of Armenia,
Pontus, &c. above mentioned ; to which we mud add
that of Arabia, which during the fixth period had
grown into fome confequence, and had maintained its
independency from the days of Idimael the fon of
Abraham. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt
and Ethiopia ; the Carthaginian territories, now fub-
jeft to the Romans; and the kingdoms of Numidia,
Mauritania, and Getulia, ' ready to be fwallowed up
by the fame ambitious and infatiable power, now that
Carthage was dedroyed, which ferved as a barrier a-
gaind it. To the fouth lay fome unknown and bar¬
barous nations, fecure by teafon of their fituation and
infignificance, rather than their drength, or didance
from Rome. In Europe we find none to oppofe the
progrefs of the Roman arms, except the Gauls, Ger¬
mans, and fome Spanifh nations. Thefe were brave
indeed ; but through want of military Ikill, incapable
of contending with fuch maders in the art of war as
33 the Romans then were.
Conquefts The Spaniards had indeed been fubdued by Scipio
«f the Ro- Afrjcanus ;n the time of the fecond Punic war : but,
?Sian8‘ in 155 B. C. they revolted; and, under the conduft
of one Viriathus, formerly a robber, held out for a
long time againd all the armies the Romans could fend
into Spain. Him the Conful Csepio caufed to be
murdered about 138 B C. becaufe he found it impof-
fible to reduce him by force. The city of Numantia
defied the whole Roman power for fix years longer ;
till at lad, by dint of treachery, numbers, and perfe-
verance, it was not taken, but the inhabitants,
reduced to extremity by famine, fet fire to their
houfes, and peridied in the fiames, or killed one ano¬
ther, fo that not one remained to grace the triumph of
the conqueror: and this for the prefent quieted the
red of the Spaniards. About the fame time Attains,
king of Pergamus, left by will the Roman people heirs
- to all his goods ; upon which they immediately feized
on his kingdom as part of thofe goods, and reduced it
to a Roman province, under the name of Jljia Proper.
Thus they continued to enlarge their dominions on
every fide, without the lead regard tojudice, to the
means they employed, or to the miferies they brought
upon the conquered people. In 122 B. C. the Bale¬
aric idands, now called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica,
were fubdued, and the inhabitants exterminated ; and,
foon after, feveral of the nations beyond the Alps
were obliged to fubmit.
In Africa the crimes of Jugurtha foon gave this
ambitious republic an opportunity of conquering the
kingdoms of Numidia and Mauritania: and indeed
this js almod the only war in which we find the Ro- Civil
mans engaged where their pretenfions had the lead
colour of judice ; though in no cafe whatever coaid a C”
nation drow more degeneracy than the Romans did on,
this occafion. The particulars of this war are re¬
lated under the articles Numidia and Rome. The
event of it was the total reduction of the former about
the year 105 B.- C. but Mauritania and Getulia pre¬
ferred their liberty for fome time longer.
In the ead, the empire of Syria continued daily to de¬
cline ; by which means the jews not only had an op¬
portunity of recovering their liberty, but even of be¬
coming as powerful, or at lead of extending their do¬
minions as far, as in the days of David and Solomon.
This declining empire was dill farther reduced by tha
civil diffenfions between the two brothers Antiochu»
Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus; during which the-
cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Gaza, declared
themfelves independent, and in other cities tyrantSr
darted up who refufed allegiance to any foreign power.
This happened about 100 B. C. ; and 17 years after,,
the whole was reduced by Tigranes king of Arme¬
nia. On his defeat by the Romans, the latter redu¬
ced Syria to a province of their empire. The king¬
dom of Armenia itfelf, with thofe of Pontus, Cappa¬
docia, and Bithynia, foon diared the fame fate ; Pon¬
tus, the mod powerful of them all, being fubdued a-
bout 64 B. C. The kingdom of Judea alfo was re¬
duced under the fame power much about this time.
This date owed the lofs of its liberty to the fame
caufe that had ruined feveral others, namely, calling
in the Romans as arbitrators between two contending
.parties. The two fons of Alexander Jannasus (Hyr-
canus and Aridobulus) contended for the kingdom.
Aridobulus, being defeated by the party of Hyrca-
nus, applied to the Romans. Pompey the Great,
who a&ed as ultimate judge in this afiair, decided it-
againd Aridobulus, but at the fame time deprived
Hyrcanus of all power as a king; not allowing him
even to afiume the regal title, or to .'extend his terri¬
tory beyond the ancient borders of Judea. To fuch-
a length did Pompey carry this lad article, that he,
obliged him to give up all thofe cities in Ccelofyria
and Phoenicia which had been gained by his predecef-
fors, and added them to the newly acquired Romar>
province of Syria.
Thus the Romans became maders of all the eadern
parts of the world, from the Mediterranean fea to the
borders of Parthia. In the wed, however, the Gauls
were dill at liberty, and the Spanifh nations bore the
Roman yoke with great impatience. The Gauls in-
feded the territories of the republic by their frequent
incurfions, which were fometimes very terrible; and tho’
feveral attempts had been made to fubdue them,, they
always proved infufficient till the time ,of, Julius Csefar,
By him they were totally reduced, from the rives
Rhine to the Pyrensean mountains, and many of their
nations almod exterminated. He carried his arms
alfo into Germany and the fouthern parts of Bri¬
tain ; but in neither of thefe. parts did he make any
permanent conqueds. The civil wars between him
and Pompey gave him an opportunity of feizing on
the kingdom of Mauritania and thofe parts of Numi¬
dia which had been allowed to retain their liberty.
The kingdom of Egypt, alone remained, and to this
a nothing
Sea. I. HIST
! Civil nothing belonged except the country properly fo call-
. ed. Cyrenaica was bequeathed by will to the Romans
* about 58 B. C.; and about the fame time the ifland of
Cyprus was ferzed by them without any pretence, ex¬
cept a defire of poffeffing the treafure of the king.—
The kingdom of Egypt continued for fome time longer
at liberty; which in fome meafure muft be afcribed
to the internal diffentions of the republic, but more
cfpecially to the amours of Pompey, Julius Caefar,
and Marc Antony, with the famous Cleopatra queen
of Egypt. The battle of Adtium, however, deter¬
mined the fate of Antony, Cleopatra, and Egypt it-
felf; which laft was reduced to a Roman province a-
34 bout 9 B. C.
'Origin and While the Romans thus employed all means to re-
progrcfs of d!uee the 'world to their obedience, they were ma-
the cml -ting one another feel the fame miferies at home which
-Ctome. t^ie7 infixed uP°n other nations abroad. The firft
civil diffenfions took their rife at the fiege of Numan-
tia in Spain. We have already obferved, that this fmall
city refilled the whole power of the Romans for fix
years. Once they gave them a moft terrible and fhame-
ful defeat, wherein 30,000 Romans fled before 4000
Numantines. Twenty thoufand were killed in the
battle, and the remaining ten thoufand fo fhut up,
that there was no poflibility of efcaping. In this ex¬
tremity they were obliged to negociate with the ene-
tny, and a peace was concluded upon the following
terms: 1. That the Numantines fhould fuffer the Ro-
mans to retire unmolefted; and,2.ThatNumantia fhould
maintain its independence, and be reckoned among
•the Roman allies.—The Roman fenate, with an inju-
ftice and ingratitude hardly to be matched, broke this
treaty, and in return ordered the commander of their
army to be delivered up to the Numantines: but they
refufed to accept of him, unlefs his army was deliver¬
ed along with him ; upon which the war was renewed,
and ended as already related. The fate of Numantia,
•however, was foon revenged. Tiberius Sempronius
-Gracchus, brother-in-law to Scipio Africanus the fe-
cond, had been a chief promoter of the peace with the
Numantines already mentioned, and of confequence
had been in danger of being delivered up to them
along with the commander in chief. This difgrace he
never forgot; and, in order to revenge himfelf, under¬
took the caufe of the Plebeians againfl the Patricians,
by whom the former were greatly opprefled. He be¬
gan with reviving an old law, which had ena&ed that
no Roman citizen fhould poflefs more than 500 acres
of land. The overplus he defigned to diflribute among
thofe who had no lands, and to reimburfe the rich out
of the public treafury. This law met with great op-
pofition, bred many tumults, and at laft ended in the
death of Gracchus and the perfecution of his friends,
feveral hundreds of whom were put to cruel deaths
without any form of law.
The difturbances did not ceafe with the death of
Gracchus. New contefls enfued on account of the
Sempronian law, and the giving to the Italian allies
the privilege of Roman citizens. This laft. not only
produced great commotions in the city, but occafioned
a general revolt of the dates of Italy againft the re¬
public of-Rome. This rebellion was not quelled with¬
out the utmoft difficulty : and in the mean time, the
city was deluged with blood by the contending
' ° R Y- ... 571
faAions of Sylla and Menus ; the former of whom Civil
fided with the patricians, and the latter with the pie- , ^
beians. Thefe difturbances ended in the perpetual die- v ' -
tatorfhip of Sylla, about 80 B. C.
From this time we may date the lofs of the Roman
liberty; for though Sylla refigned his didlatorfhip two
years after, the fucceeding contefts between Caefar and
Pompey proved equally fatal to the republic. Thefe
contefts were decided by the battle of Pharfalia, by
which Caefar became in effedl mailer of the empire in
43 B. C. Without lofs of time he then crofted over
into Africa; totally defeated the republican army
in that continent; and, by reducing the country of
Mauritania to a Roman province, completed the Ro¬
man conquefts in thefe parts. His -viflory over the
fons of Pompey at Munda 40 B. C. -fecured him from
any further apprehenfions of a rival. Being there¬
fore foie mafter of the Roman empire, and having all
the power of it at his command, he projefted the greateft
fchemes; tending, according to fome, not lefs to the
happinefs than to the glory of his country : when he
was affaflinated in the fenate-houfe, in the 56th year of
his age, and 39 B. C.
Without inveftigating the political juftice of this
adlion, or the motives of the perpetrators, it is im-
poffible not to regret the death of this great man,
when we contemplate his virtues, and the defigns
w’hich he is faid to have formed : (See Rome). Nor
is it poflible to juftify, from ingratitude at leaft, even
the moft virtuous of the confpirators, when we confi-
der the obligations under which they lay to him. And
as to the meafure itfelf, even in the view of expedien¬
cy, it feems to be generally condemned. In fadt, from
the tranfa&ions which had long preceeded, as well as
thofe which immediately followed, the murder of Cte-
far, it is evident, that Rome was incapable of pre-
ferving its liberty any longer, and that the people had
become unfit for being free. The efforts of Brutus and
Cafiius were therefore unfuccefsful, and ended in their
own deftrudlion and that of great numbers of their
followers in the battle of Philippi. The defeat of the
republicans was followed by numberlefs difturbances, ^
murders, proferiptions, &c. till at laft O&avianus, ha- o&aviamis
ving cut off all who had the courage to oppofe him, puts an end
and finally got the better of his rivals by the vidlory t0^j1.e rt>
at Adtium, put an end to the republic in the year^u K‘
27B.C.
The deftrudlion of the Roman commonwealth pro¬
ved advantageous to the few nations of the world who
ftill retained their liberty. That outrageous defire of
conqueft, which had fo long marked the Roman cha-
radter, now in a great meafure ceafed; becaufe there
was now another way of fatisfying the defires of ambi¬
tious men, namely, by courting the favour of the em¬
peror. After the final redudlion of the Spaniards, there¬
fore, and the conqueft of the countries of Mcefia, Pan-
nonia, and fome others adjacent to the Roman terri¬
tories, and which in a manner feemed naturally to be¬
long to them, the empire enjoyed for fome time a pro¬
found peace.
The only remarkable tranfadlions which took place
during the remainder of the period of which we treat,
were the conqueft of Britain by Claudius and Agrico¬
la, and the deftrudlion of Jerufalem by Vefpafian and
Titus. The war with the Jews began A. D. 67 ; and
4 B 2 wua
36
Eighth pe¬
riod. Ge¬
neral Rate
of the
world.
H I S ,T
was occafioned by their obftinately claiming the city
of Caefarea, which the Romans had added to the pro¬
vince of Syria. It ended in 73, with the moft ter¬
rible deftrudlion of their city and nation ; fince which
time they have never been able to aflemble as a diftindl
people. The fouthern parts of Britain were totally
fubdued by Agricola about ten years after.
In the 98th year of the Chrillian era, Trajan was
created emperor of Rome; and being a man of great
valour and experience in war, carried the Roman con-
qudls to their utmoll extent. Having conquered the
Dacians, a German nation beyond the Danube, and
who had of late been very troublefome, he turned
his arms eaftward ; reduced all Mefopotamia, Chal-
dsea, Affyria; and having taken Ctefiphon, the capi¬
tal of the Parthian empire, appointed them a king,
which he thought would be a proper method of keep¬
ing that warlike people in fubje&ion. After this, he
propofed to return to Italy, but died by the way ; and
with his reign the feventh general period abovemention-
ed is concluded.
8. The beginning of the eighth period prefents us
with a view of one vaft empire, in which almoft all the
nations of the world were fwallowed up. This empire
comprehended the beft part of Britain, all Spain,
France, the Netherlands, Italy, part of Germany, E-
gypt, Barbary, Bildulgerid, Turky in Europe, Tur-
ky in Alia, and Perfia. The ftate of India at this
time is unknown, The Chinefe lived in a remote part
of the world, unheard of and unmolefted by the weftern
nations who ftruggled for the empire of the world.
The northern parts of Europe and Afia were filled
with barbarous nations, already formidable to the Ro¬
mans, and who were foon to become more fo. The
vaft empire of the Romans, however, had no fooher
attained its utmoft degree of power, than, like others
before it, it began to decline. The provinces of Ba¬
bylonia, Mefopotamia, and Affyria, almoft inftantly
revolted, and were abandoned by Adrian the fucceffor
of Trajan in the empire. The Parthians having reco¬
vered their liberty, continued to be very formidable
enemies, and the barbarians of the northern parts of
Europe continued to increafe in ftrength; while the
Romans, weakened by inteftine divifions, became daily
lefs able to refift them. At different times, however,
feme warlike emperors arofe, who put a flop to the in-
curfions of thefe barbarians ; and about the year 215,
the Parthian empire was totally overthrown by the Per-
fians, who had long been fubjeft to them. This revo-
I*itbn proved of little advantage to the Romans. The
Perfians were enemies ftill more troublefome than the
Parthians had been ; and though often defeated, they
ftifl continued to infeft the empire on the eaft, as the
barbarous nations of Europe did on the north. In
360, the defeat and captivity of the Cmperor Valerian
by the Perfians, with the drllurbances which followed,
threatened the empire with utter deftruftion. Thirty
tyrants feized the government at once, and the barba¬
rians ponring in on all fides in prodigious numbers ra¬
vaged almoft all the provinces of the empire. By the
vigorous condufl of Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Pro¬
bus, and Carus, the empire was reftored to its former
luftre ; but as the barbarians were only repulfed, and
never thoroughly fubdued, this proved only a tempo-
jary relief. What was worfe, the Roman foldiers,
grown impatient of reftraint, commonly murdered thofe
o R Y.
Sea. 11
emperors who attempted to revive among them the CivH i'
ancient military difeipline which alone could enfure the Hiilcry. ;j;
vi&ory over their enemies. Under Dioclefian, the dif- ’
orders were fo great, that though the government was
held by two perlbns, they found themfelves unable to
bear the weight of it, and therefore took other two
partners in the empire. Thus was the Roman empire
divided into four parts ; which by all hiftorians is faid
to have been productive of the greateft mifehiefs. As
each of the four fovereigns would have as many officers
both civil and military, and the fame number of forces
that had been maintained by the ftate when gQverned
only by one emperor, the people were not able to pay
the fums neceffary for fupporting them. Hence the
taxes and impofts were increafed beyond meafure, the
inhabitants in feveral provinces reduced to beggary,
the land left untilled for want of hands, &c. An end
was put to thefe evils when the empire was again
united under Conftantine the Great; but in 330 a
mortal blow was given to it, by removing the impe¬
rial feat to Byzantium, now Conftantinople, and ma¬
king it equal to Rome. The introdu&ion and efta-
bliftiment of Chriftianity, already corrupted with the
groffeft fuperftitions, proved alfo a moft grievous de¬
triment to the empire. Inftead of that ferocious and
obftinate valour in which the Romans had fo long been
accuftomed to put their truft, they now imagined them¬
felves fecured by figns of the crofe, and other external
fymbols of the Chriftian religion. Thefe they ufed
as a kind of magical incantations, which undoubtedly
proved at all times ineffecftual; and hence alfo in fome
meafure proceeded the great revolution which took
place in the next period. 37 I
9. The ninth general period (hows us the decline Ninth pe-i
and miferable end of the weftern part of the Roman ”oc’» . Cef
empire. We fee that mighty empire, which formerly ir
occupied almoft the whole world, now weakened by weftern f
divifion, and furrounded by enemies. On the eaft, empire. I
the Perfians; on the north, the Scythians, Sarmatians,
Goths, and a multitude of other barbarous nations,
watched all occafions to break into it; and mifeanied
in their attempts, rather through their own barbarity,
than the ftrength of their enemies. The devaftations
committed by thofe barbarians when they made their
incurfions are incredible, and the relation Ihocking to
human nature. Some authors feero much inclined to
favour them ; and even infinuate, that barbarity and
ignorant ferocity were their chief if not their only
faults: but from their hiftory it plainly appears, that
not only barbarity and the moft ftiocking cruelty, but
the higheft degrees of avarice, perfidy, and difregard
to the moft. folemn promifes, were to be numbered
among their vices- It was ever a fufficient reafon fot
them to make an attack, that they thought their ene¬
mies could not refift them. Their only reafon for
making peace, or for keeping it, was becaufe their
enemies were too ftrong; and their only reafon for
committing the moft horrid maffacres, rapes, and aU
manner of crimes, was becaufe they had gained a vic¬
tory. The Romans, degenerate as they were, are yet
to be efteemed much better than thefe favages ; and
therefore we find not a Angle province of the empire
that would fubmit to the barbarians while the Romans
could poffibly defend them.
Some of the Roman emperors indeed withftood this,
inundation of favages j but as the latter grew daily
more.
gea.I. HIS,'
Civil more numerous, and the Romans continued to weaken
J-liftory. themfelves by their inteftine divifions, they were at
U-—v ja^ 0bi;ge(i to tabe large bodies of barbarians into
their pay, and teach them their military difcipline, in
order to drive away their countrymen, or others who
invaded the empire. This at laft proved its total de-
ftru&ion ; for, in 476, the barbarians who ferved in
the Roman armies, and were dignified with the title of
allies, demanded the third part of the lands of Italy as
a reward for their fervices : but meeting with a re-
fufal, they revolted, and made themfelves mailers of
the whole country, and of Rome itfelf, which from
that time ceafed to be the head of an empire of any
38 confequence.
General This period exhibits a moft unfavourable view
ftat®oftheof the we (tern parts of the world: The Romans,
word‘ from the height of grandeur, funk to the loweft
11 a very, nay, in all probability, almoft extermina¬
ted ; the provinces they formerly governed, inhabited
by human beings fcarce a degree above the brutes;
every art and feience loft; and the favage conquerors
even in danger of ftarving for want of a fullieient
knowledge of agriculture, having now no means of
fupplying themfelves by plunder and robbery as be¬
fore. Britain had long been abandoned to the mercy
of the Scots and Pidts ; and in 450 the inhabitants
had called in the Saxons to their affiltance, whom they
foon found worfe enemies than thofe againft whom
they had implored their aid. Spain was held by the
Goths and Suevians; Africa (that is, Barbary and
Bildulgerid), by the Vandals; the Burgundians, Goths,
Franks, and Alans, had ere&ed feveral fmall ftates in
Gaul ; and Italy was fubje&ed to the Heruli under
Odoacer, who had taken upon him the title of king of
Italy. In the eaft, indeed, matters wore an afpedt
fomewhat more agreeable. The Roman empire con¬
tinued to live in that of Conftantinople, which was
Rill very extenfive. It comprehended all Afia Minor
and Syria, as far as Perfia; in Africa, the kingdom of
Egypt; and Greece in Europe. The Perfians were
powerful, and rivalled the emperors of Conftanti¬
nople ; and beyond them lay the Indians, Chinefe,
and other nations, who, unheard of by the inhabi¬
tants of the more weftern parts, enjoyed peace and
liberty.
The Conftantinopolitan empire continued to decline
by reafon of its continual wars with the Perfians, Bul¬
garians, and other barbarous nations; to which alfo
luperftition and relaxation of military difcipline largely
contributed. The Perfian empire alfo declined from
the fame caufes, together with the inteftine broils from
which it was feldom free more than that of Conftanti¬
nople. The hiftory of the eaftern part of the world
during this period, therefore, confifts only of the wars
between thefe two great empires, of which an account
is given under the articles Constantinople and
Persia ; and which were produ&ive of no other con¬
fequence than that of weakening them both, and ma¬
king them a more eafy prey to thofe enemies who
were now as it were in embryo, but fhortly about to
ereft an empire almoft as.extenfive as that of the Greeks
or Romans.
Hiftory of Among the weftern nations, the revolutions, as might
Italy. naturally be expected from the character of the people,
Xucceeded one another with rapidity. The Heruli un-
r O R Y. 575
der Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under Civil
Theodoric. The Goths were expelled by the Ro- Hiftory. ^
mans; and, while the two parties were contending, , ' '
both were attacked by the Franks, who carried off an
immenfe booty. The Romans were in their turn ex¬
pelled by the Goths : the Franks again invaded Italy,
and made themfelves mafters of the province of Ve-
netia ; but at laft the fuperior fortune of the emperor
of Conftantinople prevailed, and the Goths were fi¬
nally fubdued in 553. Narfes, the conqueror of the
Goths, governed Italy as a province of the eaftern
empire till the year 568, when Longinus his fucceffor
made confiderable alterations. The Italian provinces
had ever fince the time of Conftantine the Great been
governed by confulares, cor re Bo res, and profiles ; no al¬
teration having been made either by the Roman em¬
perors or the Gothic kings. But Longinus, being
inverted with abfolute power by Juftinian, fupprefied
thofe magiftrates; and, inftead of them,-placed in each
city of note a governor, whom he dillinguifhed with
the title of duke. The city of Rome was not more
honoured than any other; for Longinus, having abo-
jifhed the very name offenate and confuls, appointed a
duke of Rome as well as of other cities. To himfelf
he affumed the title of exarch ; and, refiding at Ra¬
venna, his government was ftyled the exarchate of Ra¬
venna. But while he was eftabliftiing this new em¬
pire, the greateft part of Italy was conquered by the
Lombards. 4<>,
In France a confiderable revolution alfo took place. Of Franca;
In 487, Clovis, the founder of the prefent French
monarchy, poffeffed himfelf of all the countries lying
between the Rhine and the Loire. By force or treach¬
ery, he conquered all the petty kingdoms which had
been credited in that country. His dominions had
been divided, reunited, and divided again ; and were
on the point of being unit-ed a fecond time, when the
great impoftor Mahomet began to make a figure in the
world. 4r
In Spain, the Vifigoths eredhed a kingdom ten years Of Spaini
before the conqueft of Rome by the Heruli. This
kingdom they had extended eaftward, about the fame
time that Clovis was extending his conquefts to the
weft; fo that the two kingdoms met at the river Loire.
Thp confequence of this approach of fuch barbarous
conquerors towards each other was an immediate war.
Clovis proved vidtorious, and fubdued great part of
the country of the Vifigoths, which put a final flop
to their conquefts on that fide.
Another kingdom had been founded in the weftern
parts of Spain by the Suevi, a confiderable time be¬
fore the Romans were finally expelled from that coun¬
try. In 409 this kingdom was entirely fubverted by
Theodoric king of the Goths ; and the Suevi were fo
pent up in a fmall diftridt of Lufitania and Galicia,
that it feemed impofiible for them to recover them¬
felves. During the abovementioned period, however,
while the attention of the Goths was turned another
way, they had found means again to eredl themfelves
into an independent ftate, and to become mafters of
confiderably extended territories. But this fuccefs
proved of fhort duration. In 584 the Goths attacked
them ; totally deftroyed their empire a fecond time
and thus became mafters of all Spain, except fome
fmall part which ftill owned fubjeftion to the empe-
3 ro«fc
43
Tcr.th ge-
■ quefts of
the Sard-
44
i<Of the
■Popf t
jporal
^ower.
HIST
rftrs of Coiiftantlnople. Of this part, however, the
Goths became mailers alfo in the year 623 ; which
concludes the 9th general period.
Africa, properly fo called, had changed its mailers
three times during this period. The Vandals had ex¬
pelled the Romans, and erefled an independent king¬
dom, which was at laft overturned by the emperors of
Conftantinople ; and from them the greateft part of it
-was taken by the Goths in 62-0.
10. At the commencement of the tenth general pe¬
riod'(which begins with the flight of Mahomet in
the year 622, from whence his followers date their
era called the Hfgtra), we fee every thing prepared
for the great revolution which was now to take place :
the Roman empire in the weft annihilated ; the Per-
fian empire and that of Conftantinople weakened by
•their mutual wars and inteftine divifions'; the Indians
and other eaftern nations unaccuftomed to war, and
ready to fall a prey to the firft invader 5 the fouthern
parts of Europe in a diftradled and barbarous ftate y
while the inhabitants of Arabia, from their earlieft
•origin, accuftomed to war and plunder, and now unit¬
ed by the moft violent fuperftition and enthufiaftic de- .
fire of conqueft, were like a flood pent up, and ready
to overwhelm the reft of the world.—The northern na¬
tions of Europe and Afia, however formidable in after¬
times, were at prefent unknown, and peaceable, at
lead with refpeA to their fouthern neighbours; fo that
there was in no quarter of the globe any power capa¬
ble of oppofing the conqnefts of the Arabs. With
amazing celerity, therefore, they over-ran all Syria,
.Paleftine, Perfia, Bukharia, and India, extending their
conquefts farther to the eaftward than ever Alexander
had done. Gn the weft fide, their empire extended
over Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, together with the
iflands of Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, &c.
and many of the Archipelago iflands: nor were the
coafts of Italy itfelf free from their incurfions; nay,
they are even faid to have reached the diftant and bar¬
ren country of Iceland. At laft this great empire, as
-well as others, began to decline. Its ruin was very
fudden, and owing to its internal divifions. Mahomet
had not taken care to eftablifti the apofllefhip in his
family, or to give any particular direftions about a
fucceflbr. The confequence of this was, that the ca-
liphat, or fucceflion to the apoftleftiip, was feized by
many ufurpers in different parts of the empire ; while
the true caliphs, who refided at Bagdad, gradually loft
all powCr, and were regarded only as a kind of high-
priefts. Of thefe divifions the Turks took advantage
to eftablifti their authority in many provinces of the
.Mohammedan empire : but as they embraced the fame
religion with the Arabs, and were filled with the fame
enthufiaftic defire of conqueft, it is of little confe¬
quence to diftinguifh between them ; as indeed it fig-
nified little to the world in general whether the Turks
or Saracens were the conquerors, fince both were cruel,
barbarous, ignorant, and fuperftitious.
While the barbarians of the eaft were thus grafping
:n* at the empire of the whole world, great difturbances
happened among the no lefs barbarous nations of the
weft. Superftition feems to have been the ruling mo¬
tive in both cafes. The Saracens and Turks conquer¬
ed for the glory of God, or of his apoftle Mahomet
And .his fiicceffors ; the weftern nations profefled an e-
o r v. sear.
qual regard for the divine glory, but which was only Civil
to be perceived in the refpedl they paid to the pope 1
and clergy. Ever fince the eftablifhment of Chrifti- ' v
anity by Conftantine, the bifhops of Rome had been
gradually extending their power; and attempting not
only to render themfelves independent, but even to af-
fume an authority over the emperors themfelves. The
deftrudlion of the empire was fo far from weakening their
power, that it afforded them opportunities of greatly
extending it, and becoming judges of the fovereigns
of Italy themfelves, whofe barbarity and ignorance
prompted them to fubmic to their decifions. All this
time, however, they themfelves had been in fubjec-
tion to the emperors of Conftantinople; but on the
decline of that empire, they found means to get
themfelves exempted from this fubjeftion. The prin¬
cipal authority in the city of Rome was then engroff-
ed by the bifhop ; though of right it belonged to the
duke appointed by the exarch of Ravenna. But tho’
they had now little to fear from the eaftern empe¬
rors, they were in great danger from the ambition of
the Lombards, who aimed at the conqueft of all Italy.
This afpiring people the bifhops of Rome determined
to check ; and therefore, in 726, when Luitprand
king of the Lombards had taken Ravenna and expel¬
led the exarch, the pope undertook to reftore him.
For this purpofe he applied to the Venetians, who are
•now firft mentioned in hiftory as a ftate of any con¬
fequence ; and by their means the exarch was reftored.
Some time before, a quarrel had happened between
the pope (Gregory II.) and Leo emperor of the eaft,
about the worfhip of images. Leo, who it feems,
in the rhidft of fo much barbarifm, had itill preferved
fome fhare of common fenfe and reafon, reprobated
the worfhip of images in the ftrongeft terms, and com¬
manded them to be deftroyed throughout his domi¬
nions. The pope, whofe caufe was favoured by the
moft abfurd fuperftitions, and by thefe only, refufed
to obey the emperor’s commands. The exarch of
Ravenna, as a fubjedt of the emperor, was ordered to
force the pope to a compliance, and even to feize or a£-
faflinate him in cafe of a refufal. This excited the
pious zeal of Luitprand to affift the pope, whom he
had formerly defigned to fubdue : the exarch was firft
excommunicated, and then torn in pieces by the enra¬
ged multitude : the duke of Naples fhared the fame
fate ; and a vaft number of the Jconocla/ls, or Image-
breakers, as they were called, were flaughtered with¬
out mercye and to complete all, the fubjedls of the
exarchate, at the mitigation of the pope, renounced
their allegiance to the emperor.
Leo was no fooner informed of this revolt than he
ordered a powerful army to be raifed, in order to re¬
duce the rebels, and take vengeance on the pope. A-
larmed at thefe warlike preparations, Gregory looked
round for fome power on which he might depend for
prote&ion. The Lombards were poflefied of fuffi-
cient force, but they were too near and too danger¬
ous neighbours to be trufled ; the Venetians, though
zealous Catholics, were as yet unable to withftand the
force of the empire ; Spain was over-run by the Sa¬
racens : the French feemed, therefore, the only peo¬
ple to whom it was advifeable to apply for aid ; as
they were able to oppofe the emperor, and were likewife
enemies to his edidi. Charles Martel, who at that
time
Sea. I. H I S'*
Civil time governed France as mayor of the palace, was
Hiftory. therefore applied to; but before a treaty could be
W-y-— concluded, all the parties concerned were removed by
death. Conftantine Cqpronymus, who fucceeded Leo
at Conllantinople, not only perfitted in the oppolkion
to image-worihip, begun by his predeceffor, but pro¬
hibited alfo the invocation of faints. Zachary, who
fucceeded Gregory III. in the pontificate, proved as
zealous an adverfary as his predecefibrs. Pepin, who
fucceeded Charles Martel in the fovereignty of France,
proved as powerful a friend to the pope as his father
had been. The people of Rome had nothing to fear
from Conftantinople ; and therefore drove out all the
emperor’s officers. The Lombards, awed by the
power of France, for fome time allowed the pope to
govern in peace the dominictns of the exarchate ; but
in 752, Aftolphus king of Lombardy not only re¬
duced the greatefl part of the pope’s territories, but
threatened the city of Rome itfelf. Upon this an ap¬
plication was made to Pepin, who obliged Aflolphus
to reftore the places he had taken, and gave them to
the pope, or,, as he faid, to St Peter. The Greek
emperor, to whom they of right belonged, remonftra
ted to no purpofe. The pope from that time became
poffeffed of confiderable territories in Italy ; which,
from the manner of their donation, go under the
name of St Peter's Patrimony, It was not, however,
before the year 774 that the pope was fully fecured
in thefe new dominions. This was accomplifhed when
the kingdom of the Lombards was totally deftroyed
by Charlemagne, who was thereupon crowned king
of Italy.' Soon after, this monarch made himfelf ma¬
iler of all the Low Countries, Germany, and part of
Hungary ; and in the year 800, was folemnly crown-
ed emperor of the weft by the pope.
General Thus was the world once more fhared among three
jftate of the great empires. The empire of the Arabs or Saracens
extended from the river Ganges to Spain ; comprer
bending almoft all of Afia and Africa which has ever
been known to Europeans, the kingdoms of China
and Japan excepted. The eaftern Roman empire was
reduced to Greece, Afia Minor, and the provinces ad¬
joining to Italy. The empire of the;weft under Char¬
lemagne, comprehended France,. Germany, and the
greateft part of Italy. The Saxons, however, as yet
poffeffed Britain unmolefted by external enemies, tho’
the feven kingdoms erefted by them were engaged in
perpetual contefts. The Venetians alfo enjoyed a
nominal liberty ; though it is probable that their fin
tuation would render them very much dependent on
the great powers which furrounded them. Of all na¬
tions on earth, the Scots and Pi&s, and the remote
ones of China and Japan feem to have enjoyed, from
their fituation, the greateft (hare of liberty ; unlefs, per¬
haps, we except the Scandinavians,, who, under the
names of Danes and Normans, were foon to infeft their
fouthern neighbours. But of all the European po¬
tentates, the. popes certainly exercifed the greateft au¬
thority ; fince even Charlemagne himfelf fubmitted to
accept the crown from their hands, and his fucceflbrs
made them the arbiters of their differences.
Matters, however, did not Jong continue in this
Hate. The empire of Charlemagne was on the death
of his fon Lewis divided among his three children.
£ndlefs difputes and wars eufued among them, till at
TORY. 575
laft the fovereign power was feized by Hugh Capet Civil
in 987. The Saxon heptarchy was diffolved in 827, Hittory.^
and the whole kingdom of England reduced under one v a
head. , The Danes and Normans began to make de¬
predations, and infeft the neighbouring dates. The
former conquered the Englifti Saxons, and feized the.
government, but were in their turn expelled by the-
Normans in 1066. In Germany and Italy the greatell'
dufturbances arofe from the contefts between the.
popes and the eifiperors. To all this if we add the
internal contefts which happened through the ambition
of the powerful barons of every kingdom, we can fcarce
form an idea of times more calamitous than thofe of
which we now treat. All Europe, nay, all the world,,
was one great field of battle ; for the empire of the
Mahometans was not in a more fettled (late than that
of the Europeans. Caliphs, fultans, emirs, &c. wa¬
ged continual war with each other in every quarter;
new fovereignties every day fprung up, and were as
quickly deftroyed. In (hort, thro’ the ignorance and
barbarity with which the whole world was overfpiead,
it feemed in a manner impoffible that the human race
could long continue to exift ; when happily the crufades,.
by direfting the attention of the Europeans to one
particular objeift, made them in fome.meafure fufpend
their daughters of one another. 4g
11. The crufades originated from the fuperftition of Eleventh,
the two grand parties into which the world was at that period,
time divided, namely, the Chriftians and Mahometans. ^®scru“
Both looked upon the fmall territory of Paleftine, which ^
they called the I/o/y Land, to be an invaluable acquifi-
tion, for which no fum of money could be an equiva¬
lent ; and both took the mod unjuftifiable methods to
accomplidi their defines. The fuperftition of Omar the
fecond caliph had prompted him to invade this coun¬
try, part of the territories of the Greek emperor, who
was doing him no hurt;. and now when it had been fo
long under the fubjeclion of the Mahometans, a fimi-
lar fuperftition prompted the pope to fend an army .for
the recovery of it. The crufaders accordingly poured,
forth in multitudes, like thofe with which the kings of.
Perfia formerly invaded Greece ; and their fate was
pretty fimilar. Their impetuous valour at firft, in¬
deed, carried every thing before.them : they recovered,
all Paleftine, Phoenicia, and part of Syria, from the in¬
fidels ; but their want of conduct foon loft what their
valour had obtained, and very few of that vaft multi¬
tude which had left Europe ever returned to their na-.
live countries. A fecond, a third, and feveral other,
crufades, were preached, and were attended with a like
fuccefs in both refpe&s: vaft numbers took the crofsr
and repaired to the Holy Laud ; which they polluted
by the mod abominal maffacres. and treacheries, and
from which very few of them returned, In the third
crufade Richard I. of England was embarked, who
feems to have been the beft general,that ever went into
the eaft : but even his valour and (kill were not fuffi-
cient to repair the faults of his companions; and he
was obliged to return even after he had entirely de¬
feated his antagonifts, and was within fight of. Jeru-.
falem.
But while the Chriftians and Mahometans were thus Conquefts •
fuperftitioufly contending for a fmall territory in the of the K*- -
weftern parts of Afia, the nations in the more eafterly guis.
parts were threatened with total extermination. Jen-
57^ HIST
Civil ghiz Kban, the greatsft as well as the moft bloody
, Hiftory. conqueror that ever txifted, now makes his appearance.
• v The rapidity of his conquefts feemed to emulate thofe
of Alexander the Great; and the cruelties he com¬
mitted were altogether unparalleled. It is worth ob-
ferving, that Jenghiz Khan and all his followers were
neither Chriftians nor Mahometans, but ftrift deifts.
For a long time even the fovereign had not heard
of a temple, or any particular place on earth ap¬
propriated by the deity to himfelf, and treated
the notion with ridicule when it was firft mentioned
to him.
The Moguls, over whom Jenghiz Khan aflumed the
fovereignty, were a people of Fall Tartary, divided in¬
to a great number of petty governments as they are at
this day, but who owned a fubje&ion to one fovereign,
whom they called Vang-khan, or the Great Khan.
Temujin, afterwards Jenghi%-Khan, was one of thefe
petty princes; but unjuftly deprived of the greateft part
of his inheritance at the age of 13, which he could not
recover till he arrived at that of 40. This correfponds
with the year 1201, when he totally reduced the re¬
bels ; and as a fpecimen of his lenity caufed 70 of
their chiefs to be thrown into as many caldrons of
boiling water. In 1202, he defeated and killed Vang-
khan himfelf (known to the Europeans by the name of
Prefter John of Afa) ; and poffeffing himfelf of his vaft
'dominions, became from thenceforward altogether ir-
Yefiftible. In 1206, having ftill continued to enlarge
his dominions, he was declared khan of the Moguls
and Tartars ; and took upon him the title of Jengh'n
Khan, or Phe mojl Great Khan of khans. This was
followed by the reduftion of the kingdom of Hya in
China, Tangut, Kitay, Turkeftan, Karazm (the king¬
dom of Gazna founded by Mahmud Gazni), Great
Bukharia, Perfia, and part of India ; and all thefe vaft
regions were reduced in 26 years. The devaftations and
daughters with which they were accompanied are un¬
paralleled, no fewer than 14,470,000 perfons being
computed to have been maffacred by Jenghiz Khan du¬
ring the laft 22 years of his reign. In the beginning
of 1227 he died, thereby freeing the world from a
mod bloody tyrant. His fucceflbrs completed the con-
tpieft of China and Korea; but were foiled in their
attempts on Cochin-china, Tong-king, and Japan.
On the weftern fide the Tartar dominions were not
much enlarged till the time of Hulaku, who conquer¬
ed Media, Babylonia, Mefopotamia, Aflyria, Syria,
Georgia, Armenia, and almoft all Afia Minor ; put¬
ting an end to the empire of the Saracens by the taking
of Bagdad in 1258.
The empire of Jenghiz Khan had the fate of all
others. Being far too extenfive to be governed by one
Bead, it fplit into a multitude of fmall kingdoms, as it
bad been before his time. All thefe princes, however,
owned allegiance to the family of Jenghiz Khan till
the time of Timur Bek, or Tamerlane. The Turks,
in the mean time, urged forward by the inundation of
Tartars who poured in from the eaft, were forced up¬
on the remains of the Greek empire ; and at the time
of Tamerlane above-mentioned, they had almoft con¬
fined this once mighty empire within the walls of Con-
ftantinople.
Of Tamer- II? tlie ycar the family of Jenghiz Khan be-
Tane. coming extind in Perfia, a long civil war enfued; du-
N° 1JJ.
o R Y. Sea. r.
ring which Timur Bek, one of the petty princes a- Civil
mong which the Tartar dominions were divided, found Hhlory'-
means to aggrandize himfelf in a manner fimilar to "i
what Jenghiz Khan had done about 150 years before.
Jenghiz Khan, indeed, was the model whom he pro-
pofed to imitate ; but it muft be allowed that Timur
was more merciful than Jenghiz Khan, if indeed the
word can be applied to fuch inhuman tyrants. The
plan on wliich Jenghiz Khan condu&ed his expedi¬
tions was that of total extermination. For fome time
he utterly extirpated the inhabitants of thofe places
which he conquered, defigning to people them anew
with his Moguls ; and in confequence of this refolu-
tion, he would employ his army in beheading 100,000
prifoners at once. Timur’s cruelty, on the other
hand, feldom went farther than the pounding of 3000
or 4000 people in large mortars, or building them a-
mong bricks and mortar into a wall. We muft ob-
ferve, however, that Timur was not a deift, but a
Mahometan, and conquered exprefsly for the purpofe
of fpreading the Mahometan religion ; for the Moguls
had now adopted all the fuperftitions and abfurditiea
of Mahomet. Thus was all the eaftern quarter of the
world threatened anew with the moft dreadful devaita-
tions, while the weftern nations were exhaufting them-
felves in fruitlefs attempts to regain the Holy Land.
The Turks were the only people who feem at this
period to have been gathering ftrength, and by their
perpetual encroachments threatened to fwallow up
the weftern nations as the Tartars had done the eaf¬
tern ones.
In 1362, Timur invaded Bukharia, which he re¬
duced in five years. He proceeded in his conquefts,
though not with the fame celerity as Jenghiz Khan, till
the year 1387, when he had fubdued all Perfia, Arme¬
nia, Georgia, Karazm, and great part of Tartary.
After this he proceeded weftward, fubduing all the
countries to the Euphrates ; made himfelf mafter of
Bagdad ; and even entered Ruffia, where he pillaged
the city of Mofcow. From thence he turned his arms
to the eaft, and totally fubdued India. In T393, he
invaded and reduced Syria ; and having turned his arms
againft the Turks, forced their fultan Bajazet to raife
the fiege of Conftantinople. This brought on an en¬
gagement, in which Bajazet was entirely defeated and
taken prifoner ; which broke the power of the Turks
to fuch a degree, that they were not for fome time
able to recover themfelves. At laft this great con¬
queror died in the year 1405, while on his way to
conquer China, as Jenghiz Khan had done before
k’m' 49
The death of Timur was followed almoft immedi-state of
ately by the diffolution of his empire. Moft of the world fir i
nations he had conquered recovered their liberty.tlm'
The Turks had now no further obftacle to their con-
queft of Conftantinople. The weftern nations having
exhaufted themfelves in the holy wars, as they were
called, had loft that infatiable thirft after conqueft
which for fo long time poffefted the minds of men.
They had already made confiderable advances in civi¬
lization, and began to ftudy the arts of peace. Gun¬
powder was invented, and its application to the pur-
pofes of war already known ; and, though no invention
threatened to be more deftruftive, perhaps none was
ever more beneficial to the human race. By the ufe
of
Sea.rI. HISTORY.
Civil
Hiftory.
of fire-arms, rations are put more on a level with each
other than formerly they were ; war is reduced to a
regular fyftem, which may be ftudied with as much
fuccefs as any other fcience. Conquefts are not now
to be made with the fame eafe as formerly ; and hence
the laft ages of the world have been much more quiet
and peaceable than the former ones. In 1453, the
conqueft of Conftantinople by the Turks fixed that
wandering people to one place ; and though now they
poffefs very large regions both in Europe, Afia, and
Africa, an effeaual ftop hath long been put to their
further progrefs.
About this time, alfo, learning began to revive in
Europe, where it had been long loft ; and the inven¬
tion of printing, which happened about the fame
time, rendered it in a manner impofiible for barbarifm
ever to take place in fuch a degree as formerly. All
nations of the world, indeed, Teem now at once to
have laid afide much of their former ferocity ; and,
though wars have by no means been uncommon, they
have not been carried on with fuch circumftances of
fury and favage cruelty as before. Inftead of attempt¬
ing to enrich themfelves by plunder, and the fpoils of
their neighbours, mankind in general have applied
themfelves to commerce, the only true and durable
fource of riches. This foon produced improvements
in navigation; and thefe improvements led to the difcove-
ry of many regions formerlyunknown. Atjthefametime,
the European powers, being at laft thoroughly fenfible
that extenfive conquefts could never be permanent, ap¬
plied themfelves more to provide for the fecurity of
thofe dominions which they already poffeffed, than to
attempt the conqueft of one another: and this pro¬
duced the policy to which fo much attention was late¬
ly paid, namely, the preferring of the balance of Europe ;
that is, preventing any one of the nations from ac¬
quiring fufficient ttrength to overpower another.
In the end of the 15th century, the vaft continent
of America w’as difeovered; and, almoft at the fame
time, the paffage to the Eaft-Indies by the Cape of
Good-Hope. The difeovery of thefe rich countries
gave a new turn to the ambition of the Europeans.
To enrich themfelves, either by the gold and filver
produced in thefe countries, or by traffic with the
natives, now became the obje£t. The Portuguefe had
the advantage of being the firft difeoverers of the eaf-
tern, and the Spaniards of the weftern countries. The
former did not negle-A fo favourable an opportunity of
enriching themfelves by commerce. Many fettlements
were formed by them in the Eaft-India ifiands, and on
the continent; but their avarice and perfidious beha¬
viour towards the natives proved at laft the caufe of
their total expulfion. The Spaniards enriched them¬
felves by the vaft quantities of the precious metals im¬
ported from America, which were not obtained
but by the moft horrid maffacres committed on the na¬
tives, and of which an account is given under the dif¬
ferent names of the American countries. Thefe pof-
feffions of the Spaniards and Portugnefe foon excited
other European nations to make attempts to (hare with
them in their treafures, by planting colonies in diffe¬
rent parts of America, and making fettlements in the
Eaft Indies : and thus has the rage of war in fome
meafure been transferred from Enrope to thefe diftant
regions; and, after various contefts, the Britifh at laft
Vol.VIII. Part II.
obtained a great fuperiority both in America and the
Eaft-Indies.
In Europe the only confiderable revolutions which
happened during this period, were, The total expulfion
of the Moors and Saracens from Spain, by the taking
of Grenada in 1491 ; the union of the kingdoms of
Arragon and Caftile, by the marriage of Ferdinand
and Ifabella; and the revolt of the dates of Holland
from the Spaniards. After much contention and blood.-
(hed, thefe laft obtained their liberty, and were decla¬
red a free people in x 609; fince which time they have
continued an independent and very confiderable nation
of Europe.
In Afia nothing of importance hath happened fince
the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks. That
continent is now divided among the following nations.
The moft northerly part, called Siberia, extending to
the very extremity of the continent, is under the
power of Ruffia. To the fouthward, from Afia Mi¬
nor to China and Korea, are the Tartars, formidable
indeed from their numbers, but, by reafon of their
barbarity and want of union, incapable of attempting
any thing. The Turks poffefs the weftern part of
the continent called Afta Minor, to the river Euphra¬
tes. The Arabs are again confined within their own
peninfula; which they poffefs, as they have ever done,
without owning fubje&ion to any foreign power. To
the eaft of Turky in Afia lies Perfia, now more con¬
fined in its limits than before ; and to the eaftward of
Perfia lies India, or the kingdom late of the Mogul,
comprehending all the country from the Indus to the
Ganges, and beyond that river. Still farther to the
eaft lie the kingdoms of Siam, Pegu, Thibet, and
Cochin-China, little known to the Europeans. The
vaft empire of China occupies the moft eafterly part
of the continent; while that of Japan comprehends
the iflands which go by that name, and which are
fuppofed to lie at no great diftance from the weftern
coafts of America.
In Africa the Turks pbffefs Egypt, which they
conquered in 1517, and have a nominal jurifdi&ion
over the dates of Barbary. The interior parts are
filled with barbarous and unknown nations, as they
have always been. On the' weftern coafts are many
fettlements of the European nations, particularly the
Britiflr and Portuguefe; and the fouthern extremity
is poffeffed by the Dutch. The eaftern coafts are al¬
moft totally unknown. The Afiatic and African iflands
are either poffeffed by the Europeans, or inhabited by
favage nations.
The European nations at the beginning of the 17th
century were, Sweden, Mufcovy, Denmark, Poland,
Britain, Germany, Holland, France, Spain, Portu¬
gal, Italy, and Turky in Europe. Of thefe the Ruf¬
fians, though the moft barbarous, were by far the
moft confiderable, both in regard to numbers and
the extent of their empire ; but their fituation made
them little feared by the others, who lay at a diftance
fromjthem. The kingdom of Poland, which was firft
fet up in the year xoco, proved a barrier betwixt
Ruffia and Germany; and at the fame time the policy
above mentioned, of keeping up the balance of power
in Europe, rendered it probable that no one Euro¬
pean nation, whatever wars it might be engaged in,
would have been totally deftroyed, or ceafed to exift
4C as
HISTORY.
Hgion fel-
dom hap-
Sea. li
as a dtftinft kingdom. The late diftnemberment of natural things are apt to do. The expe&ation of Ecclefial
Poland, however, or its partition between the three worldly riches can ealily induce one nation to attack !l
powers Ruflia, Hungary, and Pruflia, was a ftep very another; but it is not eafy to find any thing which 1 ory* 1
inconfiftent with the above political fyftem ; and it is will induce a nation to change its religion. The in- ''
furprifing with what tamenefs it was acquiefced in by vifible nature of fpiritual things, the prejudice of ba¬
the other powers. Subfequentcircumftances,particularly bit and of early education, all Hand in the way of
the paffivenefs with which the ambitious defigns of changes of this kind. Hence the revolutions in reli •
Ruffiaagainft the Porte have been fo long beheld, feem gion have been but few, and the duration of almoft
to indicate a total dereli&ion of that fcheme of equi- any religion of longer Handing than the moft cele-
librium, formerly fo wifely, though perhaps fometimes brated empires; the changes which have happened,
too anxioufly, attended to. in general have acquired a long time to bring them
The revolt of the Britilh colonies in America, it about, and hillory fcarce affords an inltance of the
was hoped by the enemies of Britain, would have given religion of any nation being effentially and fuddenly
a fatal fhock to her ftrength and wonted fuperiority. changed for another.
The confequences, however, have been very different. With regard to the origin of religion, we mud have
Thofe colonies, it is true, have been disjoined from recourfe to the Scriptures; and are as neceffarily con-
the mother-country, and have attained an independent flrained to adopt the account there given, as we are
rank among the nations. But Britain has had no caufe to adopt that of the creation given in the fame
to repine at the feparation. Divefted only of a fplen- book; namely, becaufe no other hath made its ap-
did encumbrance, an expenfive and invidious appanage, pearance which feems in any degree rational, or con-
fhe has been left to enjoy the undivided benefits of her fillent with itfelf.—In what manner the true religion
native vigour, and to difplay new energies, which pro- given to Adam was falfified or corrupted by his de-
mife her mild empire a long and profperous duration, fcendants before the flood, doth not clearly appear from
On the other hand, the flame which was to have blazed Scripture. Idolatry is not mentioned: neverthelefs
only to her prejudice, has brought confufion on her we are affured that the inhabitants of the world were
chief foe; and the ambition and tyranny of that branch then exceedingly wicked ; and as their wickednefs did
of the houfe of Bourbon which has been long the petl not confift in vvorfiiipping falfe gods, it may be con-
of Europe, now lie humbled in the dull. The French, eluded that they wor(hipped none at all; i. e. that the
indeed, have thus become a nation of freemen as well crime of the antediluvians was deifm or atheifm.
as ourfelves, and as well as the Americans; who, by After the flood, idolatry quickly made its appear- o^n of!
the way, were never otherwife, nor ever knew what op- ance; but what gave rife to it is not certainly known, idolatry,
preflion was except in infli&ing it upon their African This fuperfiition indeed feems to be natural to man,
brethren. But neither is the French revolution an efpecially when placed in fuch a fituation that he hath
event which Britons, as lovers of liberty and friends to little opportunity of inftru&ion, or of improving his
the rights of mankind, fhould regret; or which, even in rational faculties. This feems alfo probable from a
a political view, if duly confidered, ought to excite caution given to the Jews, left, when they looked up
either their jealoufy or apprehenfion. In fine, we feem to the fun, moon, and flars, and the reft of the holt
to be advancing to a great era in the hiftory of hu- of heaven, they fhould be driven to worjhip than. The
man affairs. The emancipation of France, it is not origin of idolatry among the Syrians and Arabians,
to be doubted, will in time be followed by that of and alfo in Greece, is therefore accounted for with
Spain and other countries of Europe. The papal great probability in the following manner, by the au-
power, too, that fcom-ge of nations, is declining; and thor of The Ruins of Balbeck. “ In thofe uncomfort-
the period feems to he approaching when the Roman able defarts, where the day prefents nothing to the
pontiff will be reduced to his original and fimple title view but the uniform^ tedious, and melancholy profpedt
oi li/hop of Rome. More liberal ideas both in politics of barren fands, the night difclofes a moft delightful
and religion are everywhere gaining ground. The and magnificent fpe&acle, and appears arrayed with
regulation, and perhaps in time the abolition, of the charms of the moft attractive kind. For the moft
flave-trade, with the endeavours of the focieties for part unclouded and ferene, it exhibits to the wonder-
difeovering Africa, may lead to the civilization of ing eye the hoft of heaven in all their variety and glo-
fome parts of that immenfe continent, and open new ry. In the view of this ftupendous feene, the tranfi-
markets for our manufactures. Finally, the Ameri- tion from admiration to idolatry was too eafy to unin¬
cans approach fall to a fettled government; and will ftruCted minds ; and a people whofe climate offered no
grobably then become a great commercial people. beauties to contemplate but thofe of the firmament,
would naturally look thither for the _objeCts of their
SECT. II. Ecclefiajlical Hiftory. worfhip. The form of idolatry in Greece was different
from that of the Syrians; which perhaps may be at-
The hiftory of religion, among all the different tributed to that fmiling and variegated feene of moun-
. nations that have exifted in the world, is a fubjed no tains, valleys, rivers, woods, groves, and fountains,
lefs important, and interefting than that of civil hi- which the tranfported imagination, in the midft of its
ftory. It is, .however, lefs fertile of great events, pleafing aftonifhment, fuppofed to be the feats of invi-
affords an account of fewer revolutions, and is much lible deities.”
more uniform, than civil hiftory. The reafon of this A difficulty, however, arifes on this fuppofition ;
is plain. Religion is converfant about things which for if idolatry is naturally produced in the mind of
cannot be feen; and which of confequence cannot fud- uninftru&ed and favage man from a view of the cre-
derily and ftrongly affeCI the fenfes of mankind, as ation, why hath not idolatry of feme kind or other
taken.
Sea. II
HISTORY.
579
ja '
General ac¬
count of
the Hea
then fuper-
ftitions.
. 53
| Iltate of re-
>; ligion at
|| the appear-
>l ance of
I Chrift.
taken place among all tlie different nations of the ho fervice to the advancement or reformation of reli- Ecclefia-
world ? This certainly hath not been the cafe; of gion. Nay, fome, among whom were the Epicureans J^1
which the moft ftriking examples are the Perfians of and Academics, declared openly againft every kind 1
old, and the Moguls in more modern times. Both of religion whatever.
thefe nations were {tri6t deifts : fo that we muft al- Two religions at this time flourifhed in Paleftine*
low fome other caufes to concur in producing idolatry viz. The Jewifh and Samaritan ; between whofe re-
befides thefe already mentioned ; and of thefe caufes fpe&ive followers reigned the moft violent hatred and
an imperfeft and obfcure notion of the true religion contempt. The difference between them feems to
feems to be the moft probable. have been chiefly about the place of worfhip ; which
Though idolatry, therefore, Was formerly very the Jews would have to be in Jerufalem, and the Sa»
prevalent, it neither extended over the whole earth, maritans on mount Gerizzim. But though the Jews
nor were the fuperftitions of the idolaters all of one were certainly right as to this point, they had greatly
kind. Every nation had its refpedtive gods, over corrupted their religion in other refpe&s. They ex*
which one more excellent than the reft was faid to pe&ed a Saviour indeed, but they miftook his charac-
prefide; yet in fuch a manner, that this fupreme deity ter ; imagining that he was to be a powerful and war*
himfelf was controuled by the rigid empire of the like prince, who fhould fet them free from the Roman
fates, or by what philofophers called eternal neceflity. yoke, which they bore with the utmoft impatience.
The gods of the eaft were different from thofe of the They alfo imagined that the whole of religion confift.
Gauls, the Germans, and the other northern nations, ed in obferving the rites of Mofes, and fome others
The Grecian divinities differed widely from thofe of which they had added to them, without the leaft re-
the Egyptians, who deified plants, animals, and a great gard to what is commonly called morality or •virtue;
variety of the produftions both of nature and art. as is evident from the many charges our Saviour bring*
Each people alfo had their own particular manner of againft the Pharifees, who had the greateft reputa-
worftiipping and appeafing their refpedtive deities, tion for fanftity among the whole nation. To theft
entirely different from the facred rites of other coun- corrupt and vicious principles they added feveral ab-
tries. All this variety of religions, however, produ- furd and fuperftitious notions concerning the divinfc v
ced neither wars nor diffenfions among the different nature, invifible powers, magic, &c. which they had
nations; each nation fuffered its neighbours to follow partly imbibed during the Babylonian captivity, and
their own method of worfhip, wuthout difcovering partly derived from their neighbours in Arabia, Sy-
any difpleafure on that account. There is nothing ria, and Egypt. The principal feds among them
furprifing in this mutual toleration, when we confider, were the Essenes or Effenians, Pharisees, and Sad-
that they all looked upon the world as one great em- ducees. The Samaritans, according to the moft ge-
pire, divided into various provinces, over each of which neral opinion, had corrupted their religion ftill more
a certain order of divinities prefided; for which reafon than the Jews.
they imagined that none could behold with contempt When the true religion was preached by the Savi-
the gods of other nations, or force ftrangers to pay our of mankind, it is not to be wondered at if he be-
homage to theirs.—The Romans exercifed this talera- came on that account obnoxious to a people fo deeply
tion in the moft ample manner ; for though they funk in corruption and ignorance as the Jews then
would not allow any change to be made in the reli- w-ere. It is not here requifite to enter into the par-
gions that were publicly profeffed in the empire, nor ticulars of the dodtrine advanced by him, or of the
any new form of worfhip to be openly introduced, yet oppofition he met with from the Jews ; as a full
they granted to their citizens a full liberty of obfer- account of thefe things, and likewife of the preach-
ving in private the facred rites of other nations, and of ing of the gofpel by the Apoftles, may be found in the
honouring foreign deities as they thought proper. New Teftament.—The rapid progrefs of the Chriftian
The heathen deities were honoured with rites and religion, under thefe faithful and infpired minifters,
facrifices of various kinds, according to their refpec- foon alarmed the Jews, and raifed various perfecutions
tive natures and offices. Their rites were abfurd and againft its followers. The Jews, indeed, feem at firft
ridiculous; while the priefts, appointed to prefide over to have been every where the chief promoters of perfe-
this ftrange worfhip, abufed their authority, by de- cution ; for we find that they officioufly went from
ceiving. and impofing upon the people in the groffeft place to place, wherever they heard of the increafe of
manner. the gofpel, and by their calumnies and falfe fuggeftions
From the time of the flood to the coming of endeavoured to excite the people againft the Apoftles.
Chrift, idolatry prevailed among almoft all the nations The Heathens, however, though at firft they fhowed
of the world, the Jews alone excepted ; and even no very violent fpirit of perfecution againft the Chri-
they were on all occafions ready to run into it, as is ftians, foon came to hate them as much as the Jews
evident from their hiftory in the Old Teftament. At themfelves. Tacitus acquaints us with the caufes of
the time of Chrift’s appearance, the religion of the this hatred, when fpeaking of the firft general perfecu-
Romans, as well as their empire, extended over a tion under Nero. That inhuman emperor having, as
great part of the world. Some people there were was fuppofed, fet fire to the city of Rome, to avoid the
among the heathens who perceived the abfurdities of imputation of this wickednefs, transferred it on the Chri-
thatfy ftem; but being deftitute of means, as well as ftians. Our author informs us that they were already Tacitus’s
of abilities, to effeft a reformation, matters went on abhorred on account of their many and enormous crimes, account o£
in their old way. Though there were at that time “ The author of this name fays he, “ was the
various fefts of philofophers, yet all of them proceed- Christ, who, in the reign of Tiberius, was execu-Per^cut*0B
€d upon falfe principles, and confequently could be of ted under Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judaea. Theby Ner°'
4 C 3 peftilent
580 HIST
Ecclefia- peftilent foperiliiion was for a while fuppreffed : but
*ical it revived again, and fpread, not only over Judaea,
. 1 ory' where this evil was firft broached, but reached Rome,
whither from every quarter of the earth is conftantly
flowing whatever is hideous and abominable amongft
men, and is there readily embraced and prattiied.
Firft, therefore, were apprehended fuch as openly
avowed themfelves to be of that fe£l; then by them
were difcovered an immenfe multitude ; and all were
convi&ed, not of the crime of burning Rome, but
of hatred and enmity to mankind. Their death and
tortures were aggravated by cruel derilion and fport ;
for they were either covered with the fkins of wild
beafts and torn in pieces by devouring dogs, or faften-
ed to croffes, or wrapped up in combuftible garments,
that, when the day-light failed, they might, like
torches, ferve to difpel the darknefs of the night.
Hence, towards the miferable fufferers, however guil¬
ty and deferving the moll exemplary punifhment, com¬
panion arofe ; feeing they were doomed to perifti, not
with a view to the public good, but to gtatify the
cruelty of one man.”
That this account of Tacitus is downright mifre-
prefentation and calumny, mull be evident to every
one who reads it. It is impoffible that any perfon
can be convidled of hatred and enmity to mankind,
without fpecifying a number of fa&s by which this
hatred Ihewed itfelf. The burning of Rome would
indeed have been a very plain indication of enmity to
mankind ; but of this Tacitus himfelf clears them,
and mentions no other crime of which they were guil¬
ty. It is probable, therefore, that the only reafon
of this charge againft the Chriftians, was their abfo-
lute refufal to have any (hare in the Roman worlhip,
or to countenance the abfurd fuperftitions of Paganifm
in any degree.
Second per- perfecution under Nero was fucceeded by ano-
fscution. ther under Domitian ; during which the Apoftle John
was banilhed to Patmos, where he faw the vifions, and
wrote the book called his Revelations, which completes
the canon of Scripture. This perfecution commenced
in the 95th year of the Chriftian era ; and John is
fuppofed to have written his Revelation the year after, or
in the following one.
During the firft century, the Chriftian religion
fpread over a great number of different countries; but
as we have now no authentic records concerning the
travels of the Apoftles, or the fuccefs which attended
them in their miniftry, it was impoffible to determine
how far the gofpel was carried during this period. We
are, however, affured, that even during this early pe¬
riod many corruptions were creeping in, the progrefs
of which was with difficulty prevented even by the
apoftles themfelves. Some corrupted their profeffion
by a mixture of Judaifm, others by mixing it with the
oriental philofophy ; while others were already at¬
tempting to deprive their brethren of liberty, fetting
themfelves up as eminent pallors, in oppofition even to
the apoftles, as we learn from the epiftles of St Paul, and
the third epiftle of St John. Hence arofe the fefts of
the Gnollics, Cerinthians, Nicolaitans, Nazarenes,
Ebionites, &c. with which the church was troubled
during this century.
Concerning the ceremonies and method of worfhip
tiled by the Chriftians of the full century, it is impof-
o R y. Sea. in
fible to fay any thing with certainty. Neither is the Ecclefia. | a
church order, government, and difcipline, during this ftical f J
period, afcertained with any degree of exa&nefs. Each , Hlltory-J ^
of thofe parties, therefore, which exill at this day, v"' ' "
contends with the greateft earneftnefs for that particu¬
lar mode of worlhip which they themfelves have adopt¬
ed ; and fome of the moll bigoted would willingly
monopolize the word church in fuch a manner as to ex¬
clude from all hope of falvation every one who is not
attached to their particular party. It doth not how¬
ever appear that, excepting baptifm, the Lord’s fup-
per, and anointing the tick with oil, any external ce¬
remonies or fymbols were properly of divine appoint¬
ment. According to Dr Molheim, “ there are feve-
ral circumftances which incline us to think, that the
fiiends and apoftles of our blefled Lord either tolerated
through neceffity, or appointed for wife reafons, many
other external rites in various places. At the fame
time, we are not to imagine, that they ever conferred
upon any perfon a perpetual, indelible, pontifical au¬
thority, or that they enjoined the fame rites in all
churches. We learn, on the contrary, from authentic
records, that the Chrillian worlhip was from the be¬
ginning celebrated in a different manner in different
places; and that, no doubt, by the orders, or at lead
with the approbation, of the apoftles and their difci-
ples. In thofe early times, it was both wife and ne-
ceffary to Ihew, in the ellablilhment of outward forms
of worlhip, fome indulgence to the ancient opinions,
manners, and laws, of the refpe&ive nations to whom
the gofpel was preached.” •
The fecond century commences with the third year Hifti ry ol vi
of the emperor Trajan. The Chriftians were Hill per-the feconc m
fecuted ; but as the Roman emperors were for the moll century- j >T
part of this century princes of 2 mild and moderate
turn, they perfecuted lefs violently than formerly.
Marcus Aurelius, notwithftanding the clemency and
philofophy for which he is fo much celebrated, treated
the Chriftians worfe than Trajan, Adrian, or even
Severus himfelf did, who was noted for his cruelty.
This refpite from rigorous perfecution proved a very
favourable circumftance for the fpreading of theChriftian
religion ; yet it is by no means eafy to point out the
particular countries through which it was diffufed. We
are, however, affured, that in the fecond century, Chrift
was worlhipped as God almoil through the whole call ;
as alfo among the Germans, Spaniards, Celtes, and
many other nations : but which of them received the
gofpel in the firll century, and which in the fecond, is
a queftion unanfwerable at this diitance of time. The
writers of this century attribute the rapid progrefs of
Chiftianity chiefly to the extraordinary gifts that
were imparted to the firll Chrillians, and the miracles-
which were wrought at their command ; without fup-
pofiug that any part of the fuccefs ought to beafcribed
to the intervention of human means, or fecondary cau-
fes. Many of the moderns, however, are fo far from
being of this opinion, that they are willing either to
deny the authenticity of all miracles faid to have beeu
wrought fince the days of the apoftles, or to afcribe
them to the power of the devil. To enter into the
particulars of this controverfy is foreign to our prefent
purpofe; for which reafon we mull refer to the writers
of polemic divinity, who have largely treated of this
and other points of a. fimilar nature.
The
] Sea. II. HIST
; Eedffia- The corruptions which had been introduced in the
j ftical century, and which were almoft coeval with Chri-
j . Hlft°ry- Hianity itfelf, continued to gain ground in the fecond.
Ceremonies, in themftlves futile and ufclefs, but which
Cer/monie- be confidered as highly pernicious when joined
H multiplied, to a religion incapable of any other ornament than the
upright and virtuous conduA of its profeffors, were
multiplied for no other purpofe than to pleafe the ig¬
norant multitude. The immediate confequence of this
was, that the attention cf Chrillians was drawn afide
from the important duties of morality; and they were
led to imagine, that a careful obfervance of the cere¬
monies might make amends for the negledf of moral
duties. This was the mail pernicious opinion that
could poffibly be entertained ; and was indeed the
very foundation of that enormous fyftem of ecclefiaffi-
cal power which afterwards took place, and held the
whole world in flavery and barbarifm for many ages.
Myfterirs Another mifchief was the introdu&ion of myfleries,
introduced, as they were called, into the Chriftian religion; that is,
infinuating that fome parts of the worfhip in common
ufe had a hidden efficacy and power far fuperior to
the plain and obvious meaning affigned to them by the
vulgar: and by paying peculiar refpedl to thefe myfle-
ries, the pretended teachers of the religon of Jefus ac¬
commodated their do&rines to the tafte of their heathen
neighbours, whofe religion confided in a heap of my-
fteries, of which nobody knew the meaning.
, The teach- By thefe, and other means of a limilar kind, the
eis affume Chriftian pallors greatly abridged the liberty of their
overThe flock. Being mailers of the ceremonies and mylteries
people. of the Chriftian religion, they had it in their power to
make their followers worlhip and believe whatever they
thought proper ; and this they did not fail to make ufe
of for their own advantage. They perfuaded'the peo¬
ple, that the miniftersof the Chriftian church fucceed-
ed to the chara&er, rights, and privileges^ of the Jewifh
priefthood ; and accordingly the bilhops confidered
themfelves as invefted with a rank and character fimi-
lar to thofe of the high prieft among the Jews, while
the prtlbyters reprefer.ted the pritfts, and the deacons
the Lcvites. This notion, which was firft introduced
in the reign of Adrian, proved a fource of very conli-
go derable honour and profit to the clergy.
Form of The form of ecclefiaftical government was in this
church go-'centyry rendered permanent and uniform. One in-
verement. fpe£or or bj{h0p prefided over each Chriftian aflembly,
to which office he was elefted by the voices of the
whole people. To affilt him in his office, he formed
a council of prefbyters, which was not confined to any
ftated number. To the bilhops and prelbyters the
minifters or deacons were fubjedl; and the latter were
divided into a variety of clalfes, as the different exigen¬
cies of the church required. During a great part of
this century, the churches were independent of each
other; nor were they joined together by affociation,
confederacy, or any other bonds but thofe of charity.
Each affembly was a little Hate governed by its own
laws; which were either ena&ed, or at leaft approved
of, by the fociety. But in procefs of time all the
Chriftian churches of a province were formed into one
large ecclefiaftical body, which, like confederate Hates,
affembled at certain times, in order to deliberate about
the common inttfrefts of the whole. This inftitution
had its origin among the Greeks j but in a fljort time
O R Y. 581
it became univerfal, and fimilar affemblies were form- Eccltfn.
ed in all places where the gofpel had been planted.
Thefe affemblies, which confided of the deputies or ory* ^
commiffioners from feveral churches, were called fynods
by the Greeks, and councils by the Latins; and the
laws enabled in thefe general meetings were called ca¬
nons, i. e. rules. ^
Thefe councils, of which we find not the fmalleft changes
trace before the middle of this century, changed the produced
whole face of the church, and gave it a new form; forby th.e i:1*
by them the ancient privileges of the people were con-
fiderably diminifhed, and the power and authority of *
the bifhops greatly augmented. The humility, indeed,
and prudence, of thefe pious prelates hindered them
from affuming all at once the power with which they
were afterwards invefted. At their firft appearance in
thefe general councils, they acknowledged that they
were no more than the delegates of their refpe&ive
churches, and that they afted in the name and by the
appointment of their people. But they foon changed
this humble tone; imperceptibly extended the limits of
their authority; turned their influence into dominion,
their counfels into laws; and at length openly afferted,
that Chri'l had empowered them to preferibe to his
people authoritative rules of faith and manners. An¬
other effect of thefe councils was the gradual abolition
of that perfect equality which reigned among all bi¬
fhops in the primitive times : for the order and de¬
cency of thefe affemblies required, that fome one of
the provincial bishops met in council fhould be inveft¬
ed with a fuperior degree of power and authority; and.
hence the rights of Metropolitans derive their origin.,
in the mean time, the bounds of the church were en¬
larged ; the cuftom of holding councils was followed
wherever the found of the gofptl had reac'* d; and the
univerfal church had now the appearance of one vaft re¬
public formed by a combination of a great number of *
little Hates. This occafioned the creation of a new or¬
der of eeclefiaflics, who were appointed in different
parts of the world as heads of the church, and whofe
office it was to preferve the confiftence and union of
that immenfe body, whofe members were fo widely
difperfed throughout the nations. Such was the na¬
ture and office of the Patriarchs; among whom, at
length, ambition, being arrived at its moft infolent
period, formed a new dignity, invefting the biihop of
Rome with, the title, and authority of the Prince of the
Patriarchs. ^
During the fecond •century, all the fe£ts continued Account of
which had fprung up in the firft, with the addition ofAfce-
feveral othe'rs; the moft remarkable of which were the
Afcetics. Thefe owed their rife to an error propaga¬
ted by fbme dodtors of the church, who afferted that
Chrift had eftablifhed a double rule of fanaity and virtue
for two different orders of Chriftians. Of thefe rules,
one was ordinary, the other extraordinary ; the one
of a lower dignity, the other more fiibiime : the firil
for perfons in the adlive feenes of life; the other fbr
thofe who, in a facred retreat, afpired after the glory
of a celeftial ftate.. In confequence of this fyilem,.
they divided into two parts all thofe moral dodtrinea,
and inftrudlions which they had received either by
writing or tradition. One of thefe divifions they call¬
ed precepts, and the other counfels. They gave the name
of precepts to thofe laws that were univerfally obliga¬
tory
HISTORY.
Sea. ir.
«“lXh tl'add’to Ch,»ir,d ?“ 0f “ frral according to the Ecdef.,.
thole which related to Chnft ans of a more fubhme different difpofitions of mankind. h ft‘cal
rank, who propofed to themfelves great and glorious The Afcetic feft began firft In E^ypt, from whence H‘ftory-
ends, and breathed after an intimate communion with It paffed Into Syria and nelrrlth P ! whence
,h. Supreme Being Thus were produced all at once A,\„g,h l“ eSId Eu'ro^^Zf. a“e
a new fet of men, who made pretenfions to uncbmmoh that train of aiiftere and fupe^ftitious vows and rites
fandhty and vntue, and declared their refolution of which totally obfeured, or rather annihilated Chriftl*
obey,„g all the^ce^and of Chrift In order the /elibacy of’the clergy, and mtyo,Sab-
God here, furdities of the like kind. The errors of the Afce- ~
m tics, however, did not flop here : In compliance with
the dodlnnes of feme Pagan philofopbers, they af-
to their enjoyment of communion with vjou nere
and alfo that, after the diflblution of their mortal bo¬
dies, they might afeend to him with the greater fa-
i    ■ in an
tries, namely, that religion conliiis more in prayers,
meditations, and a kind of fecret intercourfe with
God, than in fulfilling the focial duties of-life in adts
... V. UUV greater ta- tne doctrines of iome Pagan philofopbers thev af
cihty, and find nothing to retard their approach to the firmed, that it was not only lawful, but even praife
centre of happmefs and perfedlion. They looked uP- worthy, to deceive, and to ufe the expedient ofTlk
I?.tJe.Iffelve,8 ar Prohibited from the ufe of things in order to advance the caufe of piety and truth- and
which it was lawful for other Chnitians to enjoy ; fuch hence the pious frauds for which the church of Rome
twill’ -ftb1’- ™Tr0fyK, atnd COmmerce- rhey hath been fo notorious, and with which die hath been
thought it their indifpenfable duty to extenuate their fo often and juftly reproached
body by watchings, abitinence, labour, and hunger. As Chriftians thus deviated more and more from
They looked for felicity in folitary retreats, and defart the true praftice of their religion, they became mo“
places ; where, by fevere and affidnous efforts of fob- zealous in the external profeffion of it! AnniveTary
lime meditation they raifed the foul above all external feilivals were celebrated in commemoration of the deSh
obJ.enas; fand a ,fenf^,ak Pjeafures- Thty were diftin- and reforredion of Chrift, and of the effufion of the
gmfoed from other Chriftians, not onjy by their title Holy Ghoft on the apoftles. Concerning the davL 6*
otAJcehcs, EKMy.ro,, and philofophcrs, but alfo on which thefe feftivals were to be kept gthere arofe C°nteft-
by their garb In this century indeed, thofe who violent contefts. The Afiatic churches in gener/dl
embraced fuch an auftere kind of hfe, fubmitted them- fered in this point from thofe of Europe; a^d towards
felves to all thefe mortifications in private, without the conclufion of the fecond century, Vidor bifhop of
breaking afonder their focial bands, or withdrawing Rometook it in his head to force the eaftern chu chesto '
themfelyes from mankind; but in procefs of time they follow the rules laid down by the weftern ones This
retired into defarts, and, after the example of the Ef- they abfolutely icfufed to comply with: upon which
fenes and Therapeutic, they formed themfelves into Vidor cut them off from communion with the church
certain companies _ 0f Rome . thoughj by m£ai)S of the
This auftere fed arofe from an opinion which has fome prudent people, the difference was made up for
been more or lefs prevalent in all ages and in all coun- the prefent. p
During moft of the third century, the Chriftians Thi/Aen
were allowed to enjoy their religion, fuch as it was.tutv
v,uu, enau u. luu.umg me ioc<ai auties of-ute in aCts without moleftation. The emperors Maximinus and
of benevolence and humanity to mankind. Nothing Decfos, indeed, made them fed all the rfoours of a
♦•h" °re Tfw -hf the S.cnPtu>’e reckons fevere perfecution ; but their reigns were foort, and
the fulfilling of thefe mhmtely fopenor to the obier- from the death of Deeius to the time of Dicelefian
yance of all the ceremonies that can be imagined : yet the church enjoyed tranquiUity. Thus vaft multitudes
it fomehow or other happens, that almoft every body were converted ; but at the fame time, the dodrine
is more inclined to obferve tne cetemonial part of de- grew daily more corrupt, and the lives of profelfed
votion than the moral; and hence, according to the Chriftians more wick^ and fcandalous. New ceremo
different humours or conftituf.ons of different perfons, foes Wert invented in great numbers, and an unaccount-
there have been numberlefs forms of Chnft.anity, and able paffion now prevailed for the oriental fuperftition.
the moft virulent contentions among thofe who pro- concerning demons; whence proceeded the whole train
/effed themfelves ffolowers of the Pnnce of Peace, of exorcifrns, fpells, and fears for the apparition of
It is obvious that if the moral condud of Chnftians evil fpirits, which to this day are nowhere^radicated.
was to be made the kandard of faith, mftead of fpe- Hence alfo the cuftom of avoiding all connedions
dilative opinions all thefe divifions muft ceafe m a with thofe who were not baptifed, or who lay under
moment; ait while Chnftiamty, or any part of it, is the penalty of excommunication, as perfons foppofed
made to confift in fpecnlation, or the obfervance df to be under the dominion of fome evil foirit And
ceremonies, it is impoflible there can be_ any end of hence the rigour and feverity of that difcipline and
feds or hen lies. No opinion whatever is fo abfurd, penance impefed upon thbfe who had incurred, by
but fome people have pretended to argue m its defence ; their immoralities, the eenfores of the church - Se-
and no ceremony fo mfign.ficant, but it hath been ex- veral alterations were now made in the manner'of ce-
plained and fandified by hot-headed enthufiafts: and lebrating the Lord’s fopper. The prayers ufed on
hence ceremonies, feds and abfurdrties, have been this occafion were lengthened, and the folemnity and
multiplied without number, to the prejudice of fo- pomp with which it was attended were confiderablv
Cfety of the Chr.ft,an religion. This ftiort rela- increafed. Gold and filver veffels were ufed in the ce!
tion of the n e of the Afcetic fed will alfo ferve to lebration; it was thought effential to falvation, and for
account for the rife of any other; fo that we appre-. that reafon adminiftered even to infants.-Baptifm was
Tend it is needlefs to enter into particulars concerning celebrated twice a-year to foch as, after a long- courfo
4he reft} as they all took their origin from the fame of trial and preparation, offered themfelves candidates.
The
Sea. IT. HIST
Ecdcfi3- The remifllon of fins was thought to be its immediate
Hiftory confequence ; while the bilhup, by prayer and impo-
l,— _ fition of hands, was fuppofed to confer thofe fandtify-
gift8 °f the Holy Ghoft that are neceffary to
a life of righteoufnefs and Tirtue. An evil demon was
fuppbfed naturally to refide in every perfon, who was
the author an.l fource of all the corrupt difpofitions
and unrighteous a&ions of that perfon. The driving
out of this demon was therefore an effential requiike
for baptifm; and, in confequence of this opinion, the
baptized perfons returned home clothed in white gar¬
ments, and adorned with crowns, as facred emblems,
the former of their inward purity and innocence, and
the latter of theirwidtory over fin and the world.—
Fading began now to be held in more efteem than for¬
merly. A high degree of fandfity was attributed to
this pradfice; it was even looked upon as indifpenfa-
biy necefiary, from a notion that the demons diredfed
their force chiefly againit thofe who pampered them-
felves with delicious fare, and were lefs troublefome
to the lean and hungry who lived under the feverities
of a rigorous abllinence—The fign of the crofs alfo
was fuppofed to adminilter a vidforious power over all
forts of trials and calamities ; and was more efpecially
confidered as the fureft defence againft the fnares and
flratagems of malignant fpirits : for which reafon, no
Chriftian undertook any thing of moment, without
arming himfelf, as he imagined, with the power of
this triumphant fign. The herefies which troubled
the church during this century, were the Gnostics,
(whofe dodfrines were new-modelled and improved by
Manes, from whom they were afterwards chiefly call¬
ed Manic,'jeans), the Hieracites, Noetians, Sabel-
lians, and Novatians; for a particular account of
65 which, fee thofe articles.
Fourth cen- The fourth century is remarkable for the eftablifli-
tury> ment of Chriftianity by law in the Roman empire ;
which, however, did not take place till the year 324.
In the beginning of the century, the empire was go¬
verned by four chiefs, viz. Dioclefian, Maximian,
Conftantius Chlorus, and Galerius, under whom the
church enjoyed a perfedl toleration. Dioclefian, tho’
much addidted to fuperftition, had no ill-will againft;
the Chriftians; and Conftantius Chlorus, having aban¬
doned polytheifm, treated them with condefcenfion
and benevolence. This alarmed the Pagan priefts,
whofe interefts were fo clofely conneded with the
continuance of the ancient fuperilitions; and who
apprehended, not without reafon, that the Chriftian
religion would at length prevail throughout the em¬
pire. To prevent the downfal of the Pagan fuperfti¬
tion, therefore, they applied to Dioclefian and Gale¬
rius Cffifar; by whom a moft bloody perfecution was
commenced in the year 303, and continued till 3it.
An afylum, however, was opened for the Chriftians in
the year 304. Galerius having dethroned Dioclefian
and Maximian, declared himfelf emperor in the. eaft ;
leaving all the weftern provinces, to which great num¬
bers of Chriftians reforted to avoid the cruelty of the
former, to Conftantius Chlorus. At length Galerius,
being overtaken with an incurable and dreadful dif-
eafe, publifhed an edid ordering the perfecution to
ceafe, and reftoring freedom to the Chriftians, whom
he had moft inhumanly opprefled for eight years.
Giderius died the fame year : and in a fhort time af-
° R Y. i8;!
ter, when Conftantine the Great afeended the throne, Heeler.*,
the Chriftians were freed from any farther uneafinefs, ftical
by his abrogating all the penal laws againft them; and Hiftory>.
afterwards iffuing edids, by which no other religion
than the Chriftian was tolerated throughout the em-ChriftL
. nity efta-
This event, however, fo favourable to the outward
peace of the church, was far from promoting its inter-,<?°nftan*
nal harmony, or the reformation of its leaders. The 67
clergy, who had all this time been augmenting their Increafe of,
power at the. expence of the liberty of the people, nowlts cori l'P*
fet no bounds to their ambition. The bifhop of Rome110"8'
was the firft in rank, and diftinguilhed by a fort of
pre-eminency above the reft of the prelates. He fur-
pafled all his brethren in the magnificence and fplen-
dor of the church over which he prefided, in the
riches of his revenues and poffeffions, in the number
and variety of his minifters, in his credit with the
people, and in his fumptuous and fplendid manner of
living. Hence it happened, that when a new pontiff
was to be chofen by the prefbyters and people, the
city of Rome was generally agitated with diflenfions
tumults, and cabals, which often produced fatal confe-
quences. The intrigues and difturbances which pre¬
vailed in that city in the year 366, when, upon the
death of Libenus, another pontiff was to be chofen in
his place, are a fufficient proof of what we have ad¬
vanced. Upon this occafion, one faftion elefted Da-
mafus to that high dignity; while the oppofite party
chole Urhcmus, a deacon of the vacant church, to
fucceed Liberius. This double ele&ion gave rife to
a dangerous fchifm, and to a fort of civil war within
the city of Rome ; which was carried on with the ut-
moft barbarity and fury, and produced the moft cruel
maffacres and defolatious. The inhuman conteft end¬
ed in the viftory of Damafus; but whether his caufe
was more juft than that of Uriicinus, is not fo eafily
determined. *
Notwithftanding the pomp and fplendor which fur-
rounded the Roman fee, it is certain that the bifhops
of Rome had not yet acquired that pre-eminence of
power and junfdiaion which they afterwards enjoyed.
In the ecclefialtical commonwealth, indeed, they were
the moft eminent order of citizens; but ftill they were
citizens as well as their brethren, and fubje&, like
them, to the laws and edidts of the emperors/ All
religious caufes of extraordinary importance were ex
amined and determined, either by judges appointed by
the emperors, or. in councils affembled for that pur-
pofe ; while thofe of inferior moment were decided in
each diltna by its refpedfive bifhop. The ecclefiaiti
cal laws were enaaed either by the emperor or coun¬
cils. None of the bifhops acknowledged that they de
rived their authority from the permiffion and appoint-
ment of the bifhop of Rome, or that they were c/eated
bifhops by the favour of the apojlolic fee. On the con¬
trary, they all maintained that they were the ambaffa.-.
dors and. mimfters of Jefus Chrift, and that th-ir au^
thorny was derived from above. It muft, however,
be obferved that even in this century feveral of thofe
fteps were laid by which the bifhops of Rome mounted
afterwards to the fummit of ecclefiaftical power and
defpotifm. This happened partly by the imprudence
of the emperors, partly by the dexterity of the Ro¬
man prelates themfelves, and partly by the inconfide-
4' ratec
584 H I $ 1
Ecelefia- rate zeal and precipitate judgment of certain bifliops.
^ftical rp{ie ;mprudence of the emperor, and precipitation of
. the bifliops, were remarkably difeovered in the foliow-
•- ing event, which favoured extremely the ambition of
the Roman pontiff. About the year 372, Valentinian
enafted a law, empowering the bifhop of Rome to ex¬
amine and judge other bifhops, that religious difputes
might not be decided by any profane or feeular judges.
The bifhops aflembled in council at Rome in 378, not
confidering the fatal confequences that muft arife from
this imprudent law both to themfelves and to the
church, declared their approbation in the flrongefl
terms, and recommended the execution of it in their
addrefs to the emperor Gratian. Some think, indeed,
that this law empowered the Roman bifhop to judge
only the bifhops within the limits of his jurifdi£tion ;
others, that his power was given only for a certain
time, and for a particular purpofe. This laft notion
feems the mold probable ; but ftill this privilege muft
have been an excellent inftrument in the hands of fa-
68 cerdotal ambition.
RomTand ^ t^ie remova^ t^ie ^eat °‘ empire t0 Conftanti-
Conftanti- nople, the emperor raifed up, in the biftiop of this
nople rival new metropolis, a formidable opponent to the bifhop
each other. 0f Rome, and a bulwark which threatened a vigorous
oppofition to his growing authority. For as the em¬
peror, in order to render Conftantinoplc a fecond
Rome, enriched it with all the rights and privileges,
honours and ornaments, of the ancient capital of the
world ; fo its bifhop, meafuring his own dignity and
rank by the magnificence of the new city, and its
eminence as the refidence of the emperor, affumed an
equal degr ee of dignity with the biflrop of Rome, and
claimed a fuperiority over the reft of the epifcopal or¬
der. Nor did the emperors difapprove of thefe high
pretenfions, fince they confidered their own dignity as
connefted in a certain meafurewith that of the bifhop
of their imperial city. Accordingly, in a council held
at Conflantinople in the year 381, by the authority
of Theodofins the Great, the biflrop of that city was,
during the abfence of the brflrop of Alexandria, and
againft the confent of the Roman prelate, placed by
the third canon of that council in the firft rank after
the bifhop of Rome, and confequently above thofe of
Alexandria and Antioch. Ne&arius was the firft bi¬
fhop who enjoyed thefe new honours accumulated up¬
on the fee of Conftantinople. His fucceffor, the cele¬
brated John Chryfoftom, extended ftill farther the
privileges of that fee, and fubmitted to its jurifdidion
all Thrace, Afia, and Pontus; nor were the fucceed-
ing bifhops of that imperial city deftitute of a fervent
zeal to augment their privileges and extend their do¬
minion. By this unexpe&ed promotion, the moft
difagreeable effefts were produced. The bifhops of
Alexandria were not only filled with the moft invete¬
rate hatred againft thofe of Conftantinople, but a con¬
tention was excited between the bifhops of Rome and
Conftantinople; which, after being carried on for
many ages, concluded at laft in the feparation of the
6o Greek and Latin churches.
Form of Conftantine the Great, in order to prevent civil com-
church go- motions, and to fix his authority on a ftable and folid
vernment foundation, made feveral changes not only in the laws
°f the empire, but alfo in the form of the Roman go-
fiLtine*. vernment. And as there were many important reafons
N"ijj.
r o r y. Seau.
which induced him to fuit the adminiftration of the Ecclefia-'
church to thefe changes in the civil conftitution, this
neceflarily introduced among the bifhops new degrees Hlfl:ory’
of eminence and rank. The four bifhops, of Rome,
Conftantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, were diftin-
guifhed by a certain degree of pre-eminence over the
reft. Thefe four prelates anfwered to the four prae¬
torian prefedls created by Conftantine; and it is pof-
fible, that even in this century they were diftinguifhed
by the Jewifh title of patriarchs. After thefe followed
the exarchs, who had the infpeftion of feveral pro¬
vinces, and anfwered to the appointment of certain ci¬
vil officers who bore the fame title. In a lower clafs
were the metropolitans, who had only the government of
one province; under whom were the archbijhops, whofe
infpeftion was confined to certain diftri&s. In this
gradation the lifhops -brought up the rear; but the
fphere of their authority was not in all places equally
extenfive ; being in fome confiderably ample, and in
others confined within narrow limits. To thefe va¬
rious ecclefiaftical orders we might add that of the;
chorepifcopi, or fuperintendents of the country-churches;
but this laft order was in moft places fuppreffed by
the bifhops, with a defign to extend their own autho¬
rity, and enlarge the fphere of their power and jurif-
diition. The adminiftration of the church itfelf was
divided by Conftantine into an external and inttrnal in-
fpe&ion. The latter, which was committed to bifhops
and councils, related to religious controverfies, the
forms of divine worfhip, the offices of priefts, the vices
of the ecckfiaftical orders, &c. The external admi¬
niftration of the church the emperor aflumed to him-
felf. This comprehended all thofe things which re¬
lated to the outward ftate and difeipline of the church;
it likewife extended to allcontefts that fhould arife be¬
tween the minifters of the church, fuperior as well as
inferior, concerning their poffeffions, their reputation,
their rights and privileges, their offences againft the
laws, &c. but no controverfies that related to matters
purely fpiritual were cognizable by this external in-
fpedtion. In confequence of this artful divifion of the
ecclefiaftical government, Conftantine and his fuccef-
fors called councils, prefided in them, appointed the
judges of religious controverfies, terminated the diffe¬
rences which arofe between the bifhops and the people,
fixed the limits of the ecclefiaftical provinces, took
cognizance of the civil caufes that fubfifted between
the minifters of the church, and punifhed the crimes
committed againft the laws'by the ordinary judges ap¬
pointed for that purpofe ; giving over all caufes pure¬
ly ecclefiaftical to the bifhops and councils. But this
famous divifion of the adminiftration of the church
was never explained w-ith fufficient accuracy; fo that
both in the fourth and fifth centuries, there are fre¬
quent inftances of the emperors determining matters
purely ecclefiaftical, and likewife of bifhops and coun¬
cils determining matters which related merely to the
external form and government of the church. 70
After the time of Conftantine many additions were Scandalous
made by the emperors and others to the wealth and lives of the
honours of the clergy; and thefe additions were fol-clergy*
lowed by a proportionable increafe of their vices and
luxury, particularly among thofe who lived in great and
opulent cities. The bifhops, on the one hand, con¬
tended with each other in the moft fcandalous manner
6 con-
Sea. II.
Ecclefia-
ftical
Hiftoiy.
71
Contefts
between
the bifliops
of Rome
and Con-
ilautinople.
HIST
concerning the extent of their refpeaive jurifdiaions 5
while, on the other, they trampled on the rights of the
people, violated the privileges of the inferior minifters,
and imitated in their condudl: and in their manner of
living the arrogance, voluptuoufnefs, and luxury of
magiftrates and princes. I his pernicious example was
foon followed by the feveral ecclefiailical orders. The
pit lb y ter s, in many places, affumed an equality with
the bilhops in point of rank and authority. Many
complaints are alfo made by the authors of this cen¬
tury about the vanity and effeminacy, of the deacons.
Thofe more particularly of the prefbyters and deacons
who filled the firft ftatiorts of thefe orders, earned their
pretenlions to an extravagant length, and were offend¬
ed at the notion of being placed on_an equality with
the colleagues. For this reafon they not only affu-
med the titles of arch-prcjbyters and arch-deacons, but
alfo claimed a degree of authority and power much fu-
perior to that which was vetted in the other members
of their refpeftive orders.
In the fifth century, the bifhops of Conftantinople
having already reduced under their junTdidion all the
Aliatic provinces, began to grafp at ftill further accef-
fions of power. By the 28th canon of the council held
at Chalcedon in 451, it was refolved, that the fame
rights and honours which had been conferred on the
bittiop of Rome were due to the bittiop of Conttanti-
nople, on account of the equal dignity and luttre of
the two titles in which thefe prelates exercifed their
authority. The fame council Confirmed alfo, by a fo-
kmn aft, the bittiop of Conftantinople in the fpiritual
government of thofe provinces over which he had
ufurped the jurifdiftion. Leo the Great, bittiop of
Rome, oppofed with vehemence the patting of thefe
laws ; and his oppofition was feconded by that of fc-
veral other prelates. But their efforts were vain, as
the emperors threw in their weight into the balance,
and thus fupported the decifions of the Grecian bi¬
lhops. In confequence, then, of the decifions of this
famous council, the bifhop of Conftantinople began to
contend obftinately for the fupremacy with the Ro¬
man pontiff, and to crulh the bilhops of Antioch and
Alexandria. About the fame time, Juvenal, bilhop
of Jerufalem, attempted to withdraw himfelf and his
church from the jurifdiftion cf the bilhop of Caffarea,
and afpired after a place among the firtt prelates of
the Chriftian world. The high degree of veneration
and elteem in which the church of Jerufalem was held
among all other Chriftian focieties (on account of its
rank among the apofiolical churches, and its title to the
appellation of mother-church, as having fucceeded the
fir ft Chriftian affembly formed by the Apoftles), was
extremely favourable to the ambition of Juvenal, and
rendered his projeft much more practicable than it
would otherwife have been. Encouraged by this, and
likewife by the proteftion of Theodofius the younger,
this afpiring prelate not only affumed the dignity of
patriarch of all Paleftine, a rank which rendered him
independent of all fpiritual authority; but alfo invaded
the rights of the bittiop of Antioch, and ufurped his
jurifdiftion over the provinces of Phoenicia and Arabia.
Hence arofe a warm conteft between Juvenal and Ma¬
ximus bilhop of Antioch ; which the council of Chal-
ctdon decided, by reftoring to the latter the provinces
of 1 hcenicia and Arabia, and confirming the former
'Vol.VIII. Part II.
o • R Y. 585
in the fpiritual poffefiion of all Paleftine and in the high Eeckfi 1.
rank which he had affumed in the church. ^'cal
In 588, John, bifhop of Conftantinople, furnamed “^or* I f
the Fajler, either by his own authoiity or that of the
emperor Mauritius, fummoned a council at Conftanti¬
nople to inquire into an accufation brought againft
Gregory, bifhop of Antioch ; and upon this occation
affumed the title of (ecumenical or univerfal bi/hop. This
title had been formerly enjoyed by the bifhops of Con •
flantinople without any offence; but now, Gregory
the Great, at that time bifhop of Rome, fufpefting
that John was aiming at the fupremacy over all the
churches, oppofed his claim with the greateft vigour.
For this purpofe he applied by letters to the emperor,
and others, whom'he thought capable of aflifting hint
in his oppofition: but all his efforts were without ef-
feft; and the bifhops of Conftantinople were allowed
to enjoy the difputed title, though not in the fenfe
which had alarmed the Roman pontiff.
Gregory, however, adhered tenacioufly to his pur¬
pofe, raifed new tumults and diffenfions among the
clergy, and aimed at nothing lefs than an unlimited fu¬
premacy over the Chriftian church. This ambitious
dtfign fucceeded in the weft ; while, in the eattern
provinces, his arrogant pretenfiops were fcarcely refpec-
ted by any but thofe who were at enmity with the bi¬
fhop of Conftantinople. How much the people were
at this time deluded by the Roman pontiffs, appears
from the expreflion of Ennodius, one of the flatterers
of Symmachus (who was a prelate of but ambiguous
fame), that the Roman pontiff was conftituted judge in
the place of God, which he filled as the vicegerent of
the Moft High. On the other hand, it is certain, from
a variety of the moft authentic records, that both the
emperors and the nations in general were far from be¬
ing difpofed to bear with patience the yoke of fervi-
tude which the fee of Rome was arrogantly impofing
on the whole church.
In the beginning of the feventh century, accordingQr]. •/J f
to the moft learned hiftotians, Boni face HI. engaged the fupre-
Phocas, emperor of Conftantinople, to take from themacyofthe
bittiop of that metropolis the title of (ecumenical orP0Fe-
univerfal bifhop, and to confer it upon the Roman pon¬
tiff; and thus was firft introduced the fupremacy of the
pope. The Roman pontiffs ufed all methods to main¬
tain and enlarge this authority and pre-eminence which
they had acquired from one of the moft odious tyrants
that ever difgraced the annals of hiftory.
In the eighth century, the power of the bilhop of
Rome, and of the clergy in general, increafed prodi-
gioully. The chief caufe of this, befides the fuperfti-
tion of the people, was the method at that time ufed
by the European princes to fecure themfelves on their
thrones. All thefe princes being then employed
either in ufurpation or in felf-defence, and the whole
continent being in the moft unfettled and barbarous
condition, they endeavoured to attach warmly to their
interefts thofe whom they confidered as their friends
and clients. For this purpofe they diftributed among
them extenfive territories, cities, and fortrefles, with
the various rights and privileges belonging to them ;
referving only to themfelves the fuprtme dominion, and
the military fei vice of theft powerful vaffals For this
reafon it was by the European princes reckoned a high
inftance of political prudence to diftribute among the
4 D " bittiops
586
Ecclefia- biflbops and other Chriftian do&ors the fame fort of
Hittor donations which had formerly been given to their ge*
i, 1 0 y' nerals and clients. By means of the clergy, they
hoped to check the feditious and turbulent fpirits of
their vaifals; and to maintain them in their obedience
by the influence and authority of their bifhops, whofe
commands were highly refpefted, and whofe fpiritual
thunderbolts, rendered formidable by ignorance, (truck
terror into the boldeft and mod refolute hearts.
This prodigious acceflion to the opulence and au¬
thority of the clergy in the weft, began at their head,
viz. the Roman pontiff; from whence it fpread gra¬
dually among the inferior facerdotal orders. The bar¬
barous nations who had-received the gofpel, looked up¬
on the bifliop of Rome as the fucceffor of their chief
druid or high prieft : and as this tremendous druid
had enjoyed, under the darknefs of Paganifm, a kind
of boundlefs authority; fo thefe barbarous nations
thought proper to confer upon the chief bifhop the
fame authority which had belonged to the chief druid.
The pope received thefc auguft privileges with great
pleafure; and left, upon any change of affairs, at¬
tempts (hould be made to deprive him of them, he
ftrengthened his title to thefe extraordinary honours
by a variety of paffages .drawn from ancient hiftory,
and,1 what is ftill more aftoniftiing, by arguments of a
religious nature. This fwelled the Roman druid to
an enormous fize ; and gave to the fee of Rome that
high pre-eminence and defpotic authority in civil and
political matters, that were unknown to former ages.
Hence, among other unhappy circumftances, arofe
that monftrous and pernicious opinion, that fuch per-
fons as were excluded from the communion of the
church by the pontiff himfelf, or any of the biihops,
forfeited thereby, not only their civil rights and ad¬
vantages as citizens, but even tHe common claims and
privileges of humanity. This horrid opinion, which
was a fatal fource of wars, maffacres, and rebellions,
without number, and which contributed more than
any thing elfe to confirm and augment the papal au¬
thority, was borrowed by the clergy from the Pagan
fuperftitions. Though excommunication, from the
time of Conftantine the Great, was in every part of
the Chrillian world attended with many difagreeable
effects; yet its higheft terrors were confined to Europe,
where its afpe£t was truly formidable and hideous. It
acquired alfo, in the eighth century, new acceffions
of terror ; fo that from that period the excommunica¬
tion pra&ifed in Europe differed entirely from that
which was in ufe in other parts of Chriftendom. Ex¬
communicated perfons were indeed confidered in all
places as obje&s of hatred both to God and man: but
they were not, on that account, robbed of the privi¬
leges of citizens, nor of the rights of humanity; much
lefs were thofe kings and princes, whom an infolent
biftiop had thought proper to exclude from the com¬
munion of the church, fuppofed to foifeit on that ac¬
count their crowns or their territories. But from this
century it was quite otherwife in Europe. Excom¬
munication received that infernal power which diffolved
all connexions ; fo that thofe whom the bifhops, or
their chief, excluded from church communion, were
degraded to a level with the beads. The origin of
this unnatural and horrid power was as follows. On
the converfico- of the barbarous nations to Chriftian-
Sea. IL
ity, thefe ignorant profelytes confounded the excom- Ecclefia-
munication in ufe among Chriftians with that which ftical
had been praXifed in the times of Paganifm, and Hll^“y‘ |.
which was attended with all the dreadful effeXs y
above mentioned. The Roman pontiffs, on the other
hand, were too artful not to encourage this error;
and therefore employed all forts of means to gain
credit to an opinion fo well calculated to gratify their
ambition, and to aggrandize in general the epifcopal
order.
The annals of the French nation furnifh us with the He becomes
following inftance of the enormous power which wasa temporal
at this time veiled in the Roman pontiff. Pepin, whoPnnce*
was mayor of the palace to Childeric III. king of
France, and who in the exercife of that high office
was poffeffed in reality of the royal power and autho¬
rity, afpired to the titles and honours of majefty alfo,
and formed a fcheme of dethroning his fovereign.
For this purpofe he affembled the dates in 75 t ; and
though they were devoted to the interefts of this am¬
bitious iffurper, they gave it as their opinion that the
bifliop of Rome was previoufly to be confulted whether
the execution of fuch a fchetne was lawful or not. In
confequence of this, ambaffadors were fent by Pepin
to Zachary, the reigning pontiff, with the follow¬
ing queilion, “ Whether the divine law did not per¬
mit a valiant and warlike people to dethrone a pu-
fillanimous and indolent prince who was incapable
of difeharging any of the funXions of royalty ; and to
fubftitute in his place ^nc more worthy to rule, and
who had already rendered moft important fervices to
the date?” The fituation of Zachary, who flood much
in need of the fuccours of Pepin againft the Greeks
and Lombards, rendered his anfwer fuch as the ufurper
defired : and when this favourable decifion of the Ro¬
man oracle was publiflied in France, the unhappy
Childeric was dripped of his royalty without the lead
oppofition ; and Pepin, without the fmalleft refiftance,
ftepped into the throne of his mailer and his fove¬
reign. This decifion was folemnly confirmed by Ste¬
phen II. the fucceffor of Zachkry ; who undertook a
journey into France in the year 754, in order to fo-
licit affillance againft the Lombards. The pontiff at
the fame time diffolved the obligation of the oath of
fidelity and allegiance which Pepin had fworn to Chil¬
deric, and violated by his ufurpation in the year 751 ;
and to render his title to the crown as facred as pof-
fible,.Stephen anointed and crowned him, with his wife
and two fons, for the fecond time. This complaifance
of the pope was rewarded with the exarchate of Ra¬
venna and all its dependencies, as we have already re¬
lated. See Civil Hijlory, n° 44. fupra ; and Hiftory
of Italy.
In (he fucceeding centuries, the Roman pontiffs con- His power?
tinned to increafe their power by every kind of artifice ftill increa,.
and fraud which can diffionour he heart of man ; and, i'2s*
by continually taking advantage of the civil diffentions
which prevailed throughout Italy, France, and Ger¬
many, their influence in civil affairs arofe to an enor¬
mous height. The increafe of their authority in reli¬
gious matters was not lefs rapid. The wifelt and moft
impartial among the Roman Catholic writers acknow¬
ledge, that from the time of Louis the Meet: the an¬
cient rules of ecclefiaftical government were gradually-
changed in Europe by the counfels aud inftigation of
the
HISTORY.
HISTORY.
Sea. IT.
Ecclefia- the church of Rome, and new laws fubftituted in their
Hft'cal place. The European princes fuffered themfelves to be
. ’ °ry' divefted of the fupreme authority in religious matters,
which they had derived from Charlemagne; the power
of the bilhops was greatly diminiflred, and even the
authority of both provincial and general councils began
to decline. The popes, elated with their overgrown
profperity, and become arrogant beyond meafure by
the daily acceffions that were made to their authority,
were eagerly bent upon eftablifhing the maxim, That
the biihop of Rome was conftituted and appointed by
Jefus Chrift fupreme legiflator and judge of the church
univerfal; and that therefore the biftiops derived all
their authority from him. This opinion, which they
inculcated with the utmoft zeal and ardour, was oppo-
fed in vain by fuch as were acquainted with the ancient
ecclefiaftical conflitutions, and the government of the
church in the earlier ages. In order to' gain credit'to
this new ecclefiaftical code, and to fupport the preten-
fions of the popes to fupremacy, it was neceflary to'pro-
duce the authority of ancient deeds, in order to ftop the
mouths of fuch as were difpofed to fet bounds to their
ufurpations. The biftiops of Rome were aware of this;
and as thofe means were looked upon as the moft law¬
ful that tended beft to the accompliftiment of their
purpofes, they employed fome of their moft ingenious
and zealous partifans in forging conventions, adls of
councils, epiftles, and fuch-like records, by which it
might appear, that in the firft ages of the church the
Roman pontiffs were clothed with the fame fpiritual
majefty and fupreme authority which they now affumed.
There were not, however, wanting among the bifliops
fome men of prudence and fagacity, who faw through
thefe impious frauds, and perceived the chains that
were forging both for them and the church. The
French biftiops diftinguiftied themfelves eminently in
this refpedt: but their oppofition was foon quaftied ;
and as all Europe was funk in the groffeft ignorance
and darknefs, none remained who were capable of de-
tefting thefe odious impoftures, or difpofed to fupport
the expiring liberty of the church.
Extreme may ^erve as a general fpecimen of the charac-
infolence ter and behaviour of the pretended vicegerents of Jefus
of the Chrift to the 16th century. In the i ith century, in-
popes. deed, their power feenis to have rifen to its utmoft
height. They now received the pompous titles of
Majlers of the World, and Popes, i. e. univerfal fathers.
They prefided every where in the councils by their le¬
gates, affumed the authority of fupreme arbiters in all
controverfies that arofe concerning religion or church-
difcipline, and maintained the pretended rights of the
church againft the encroachments and ufurpations of
kings and princes. Their authority, however, was
confined within certain limits: for, on the one hand, it
was reftrained by fovereign princes, that it might not
arrogantly aim at civil dominion ; and, on the other, it
was oppofed by the biftiops themfelves, that it might
not arife to a fpiritual defpotifm, and utterly deftroy
the privileges and liberty of fynods and councils. From
the time of Leo IX. the popes employed every me¬
thod which the moft artful ambition could fuggeft to
remove thofe limits, and to render their dominion both
defpotic and univerfal. They not only afpired to the
charafter of fupreme legiflators in the church, to an
unlimited jurifdhftion over all fynods and councils whe-
ther general or provincial, to the foie diftribution of Ecclefia-
all ecclefiaftical honours and benefices, as divinely au- fticaI
thorifed and appointed for that^purpofe; but they car-
ried their infolent preteniions fo far, as to give them- "”"~v
felves out for lords of the univerfe, arbiters of the fate
of kingdoms and empires, and fupreme rulers over the
kings and princes of the earth. Hence we find inftan-
ces of their giving away kingdoms, and loofing fub-
jefts from their allegiance to their fovereigns; among
which the hiftory of John king of England is very re¬
markable. At laft they plainly affumed the whole
earth as their property, as well where Chriftianity was
preached as where it was not; and therefore, on the
difcovery of America and the Eaft Indies, the pope,
by virtue of this fpiritual property, granted to the Por-
tuguefe a right to all the countries lying eaftward, and
to the Spaniards all thofe lying to the weft ward, of
Cape Non in Africa which they were able to conquer
by force of arms; and that nothing might be wanting
to complete their chara&er, they pretended to be lords
of the future world alfo, and to have a power of reftrain-
ing even the divine juftice itfelf, and remitting that
punilhment which the Deity hath denounced againft
the workers of iniquity.
All this time the powers of fuperftition reigned chrifthm-
tnumphant over thofe remains of Chriftianity which ity greatly
had efcaped the corruptions of the firft four centuries. corrui t?d*
In the fifth century began the invocation of the hap-
py fouls of departed faints. Their afliftance was in-relic.spur-
treated by many fervent prayers, while none flood upgatory, &c.
to oppofe this prepofterous kind of worlhip. The introduccd.
images of thofe who during their lives had acquired the
reputation of uncommon (andtity, were now honoured
with a particular worihip in feveral places ; and many
imagined that this drew into the images the propitious
prefence of the faints or celeftial beings which they
were fuppofed to reprefent. A Angular and irrefiltible
efficacy was attributed to the bones of martyrs, and to
the figure of the crofs, in defeating all the attempts of
Satan, removing all forts of calamities, and in healing
not only the difeafes of the body, but alfo thofe of the
mind. The famous Pagan do&rine concerning the/w-
rification of departed fouls by means of a certain kind
of fire, i.e. purgatory, was alfo confirmed and ex¬
plained more fully than it had formerly been; and
every one knows of how much confequence this abfurd
dodrine hath been to the wealth and power of the Ro-
mifti clergy.
In the fixth century, Gregory the Great advanced
an opinion, That all the words of the facred writings
were images of invifible and fpiritual things; for which
reafon he loaded the churches with a multitude of ce¬
remonies the moft infignificant and futile that can be
imagined; and hence arofe a new and moft difficult
fcience, namely, the explication of thefe ceremonies,
and the inveftigation of the caufes and circumftances
whence they derived their origin. A new method was
contrived of adminiftering the ford’s fupper, with a
magnificent affemblage of pompous ceremonies. This
was called the canon of the mafs. Baptifm, except in
cafes of neceffity, was adminiftered only on the great 77
feftivals. An incredible number of temples were tree- h troduc-
ted in honour of the faints. The places fet apart fortion of thc
public worlhip were alfo very numerous: but now theymafs*
were confidered as the means of purchafing the protec-
4 D 2 tion
588 HIST
Ecelefn- tion and favour of the faints ; and the ignorant and
barbarous multitude were perfuaded, that thefe de-
. ' L')ry' parted fpirits defended and guarded againft evils and
calamities of every kind, the provinces, lands, cities,
and villages in which they were honoured with temples.
The number of thefe temples was almoft equalled by
that of the feltivals, which feem to have been invented
in order to bring the Chriftian religion as near the mo¬
del of Paganifm as poffibie.
In the feventh century, religion feemed to be alto-
Superfli- gether buried under a heap of fuperftitious ceremonies;
tion ftill the worlhip of the true God and Saviour of the
increafes. World was exchanged for the worfhip of bones, bits of
wood (faid to be of the crofs), and the images of faints.
The eternal Hate of mifery threatened in Scripture to
the wicked was exchanged for the temporary puniih-
ment of purgatory ; and the expreflions of faith in
Chrift by an upright and virtuous condudt, for the aug¬
mentation of the riches of the clergy by donations to
the church, and the obfervance of a heap of idle cere¬
monies. New feftivals were flill added ; one in par¬
ticular was inftituted in honour of the true crofs on
which our Saviour fuffered : and churches were declared
to be fan&uaries to all fuch as fled to them, whatever
their crimes might have been.
Superftition, it would feem, had now attained its
higheft pitch ; nor is it eafy to conceive a degree of ig¬
norance and degeneracy beyond what we have already
mentioned, if any thing can pofiibly be imagined
more contrary to true religion, it is an opinion which
prevailed in the eighth century, namely, That Chri-
ftians might appeafe an offended Deity by voluntary
a&s of mortification, or by gifts and oblations lavifh-
ed on the church; and that people ought to place their
confidence in the works and merits of the faints. The
piety in this and fome fucceeding ages confifted in
building and embellifhing churches and chapels; in en
dowing monafteries and bafilics ; hunting after the re¬
lics of faints and martyrs, and treating them with an
abfurd and exceffive veneration ; in procuring the in-
terceflion of the faints by rich oblations, or fuper¬
ftitious rites ; in worfhipping images ; in pilgrimages
to thofe places which were efteemed holy, particu¬
larly to Paleftine, &c. The genuine religion of Je-
fus was now utterly unknown both to clergy and
people, if we except a few of its general dodfrines con¬
tained in the creed. In this century alfo, the fuper¬
ftitious cuftom offolitary maffes had its origin. Thefe
were celebrated by the prieft alone in behalf of fouls
detained in purgatory, as well as upon fome other oc-
cafions They were prohibited by the laws of the
church, but proved a fouice of immenfe wealth to the
clergy. Under Charlemagne they were condemned
by a fynod aflembled at Mentz, as criminal effedfs of
avarice and floth. A new fuperftition, however, ftill
fprung up in the tenth century. It was imagined, from
Rev. xx. i that Antichrift was to make his appearance
on the earth, and that foon after the world itfelf would
be deftroyed. An univcrfal panic enfued; vail num¬
bers of people, abandoning all their conne&ions in fo-
ciety, and giving over to the churches and monafteries
all their worldly effedts, repaired to Paleftine, where
they imagined hat Chrift would defcend from heaven
to judge the world. Others devoted themfelves by a
folemn and voluntary oath to the fervice of the churches,
o R Y. Sea. II.
convents, and priefthood, whofe flaves they became, Ecclefu-
in the moft rigorous fenfe of that word, performing
daily their heavy talks ; and all this from a notion that Hll|' ry' f
the fupreme judge would diminifti the feverity of their ' " "-1
fentence, and look upon them with a more favourable
and propitious eye, on account of their having made
themfelves the flaves of his minifters. When the eclipfe
of the fun or moon happened to be vifibk, the cities
were deferted, and their miferable inhabitants fled for
refuge to hollow caverns, and hid themfelves among
the craggy rocks, and under the bending fummits of
fteep mountains. The opulent attempted to bribe the
faints and the Deity himfelf by rich donations confer¬
red upon the facerdotal tribe, who were looked upon
as the immediate vicegerents of heaven. In many
places, temples, palaces, and noble edifices both pub¬
lic and private, were fuffered to decay, nay, were deli¬
berately pulled down, from a notion that they were no
longer of any ufe, as the final diffolution of all things
was at hand. In a word, no language is fufficient to
exprefs the confulion and defpair that tormented the
minds of miferable mortals upon this occafion. The
general delufion was indeed oppofed and combated by
the difcerning few, who endeavoured to difpel thefe
terrors, and to efface the notion from which they arofe
in the minds of the people. But their attempts were
ineffe&ual; nor could the dreadful apprehenfions of the
fuperftitious multitude be removed before the end of
the century, and this terror became one of the acci¬
dental caufes of the Croisades.
That nothing might now be wanting to complete
that antichriftian fyftem of religion which had over-
fpread all Europe, it was in the,nth century deter¬
mined that divine worftup ftiould be celebrated in the
Latin tongue, though now unknown throughout the
whole continent. During the whole of this century,
alfo, Chriftians were employed in the rebuilding and
ornamenting their churches, which they had deftroyed
through the fuperftitious fear already taken notice of.
In much the fame way with what is above related,
or worfe if pofiible, matters went on till the time of
the reformation. The clergy were immerfed in crimes
of the deepeft dye; and the laity, imagining them-
felves able to purchafe pardon of their fins for money,
followed the examples of their paftors without remorfe. 79
The abfurd principle formerly mentioned, namely, Sxtra)ya'
that religion con lifts in adds of aufterity, and an un-oUhV
known mental correfpondence with God, produced reputed
the moft extravagant and ridiculous behaviour in the faints,
devotees and reputed faints. They not only lived
among the wild beads, but alfo after the manner of
thefe favage animals : they ran naked through the
lonely defarts with a furious afpedft, and all the agita¬
tions of madnefs and frenzy; they prolonged their
wretched life by grafs and wild herbs, avoided the fight
and converfation of men, remained almoft motionlefs in
certain places for feveral years expofed to the rigour
and inclemency of the feafons, and towards the con-
clufion of their lives flint themfelves up in narrow and
miferable huts ; and all this was confidered as true
piety, the only acceptable method of worfhipping the
Deity and attaining a fliare in his favour.—But of
all the inftances of fuperftitious frenzy which difgraced
the times we now fpeak of, none was held in higher
veneration, or excited more the wonder of the multi¬
tude,.
Se&.ll. HISTORY.
Ecclefia tude, than that of a certain order of men who were
5S9
'.''cal called StiUtes by the Greeks, and San8i Columnares,
. * J>ry or Pilhr Saints, by the Latins. Thefe were perfons
of a moft Angular and extravagant turn of mind, who
flood motionlefs on the tops of pillars exprefsly raifed
for this exercife of their patience, and remained there
for feveral years amidll the admiration and applaufe
of the flupid populace. The inventor of this llrange
difeipline was one Simeon a Syrian, who began his
follies by changing the agreeable employment of a
fhepherd for the aufterities of a monkifh life. He be¬
gan his devotion on the top of a pillar fix cubits high ;
but as he increafed in fandlity, he alfo irtcreafed the
height of his pillar, till, towards the conclufion of his
life, he had got up on the top of a pillar 40 cubits
in height. Many of the inhabitants of Syria and Pa-
leftine, feduced by a falfe ambition and an utter igno¬
rance of true religion, followed the example of this fa¬
natic, though not with the fame degree of aufterity.
This fuperftitious pra&ice began in the fifth century,
and continued in the eaft for 600 years. The Latins,
however, had too much wifdom and prudence to imi¬
tate the Syrians and Orientals in this whimfical fuper-
ftition; and when a certain fanatic, or impoftor, na¬
med Wulfilaicus, ere&ed one of thefe pillars in the
country of Treves, and propofed to live on it after
the manner of Simeon, the neighbouring bifhops or¬
dered it to be pulled down.
The pra&ices of auftere worfhip and difeipline in
other refpefts, however, gained ground throughout
all parts of Chriftendom. Monks of various kinds
were to be found in every country in prodigious num¬
bers. But though their difeipline was at firft exceed¬
ingly fevere, it became gradually relaxed, and the
monks gave into all the prevailing vices of the times.
Other orders fucceeded, who pretended to ftill great¬
er degrees of fan&ity, and to reform the abufes of
the preceding ones ; but thefe in their turn became
corrupted, and fell into the fame vices they had bla¬
med in others. The moll violent animofities, difputes,
and hatred, alfo reigned among the different orders of
monks ; and, indeed, between the clergy of all ranks
and degrees, whether we confider them as claffed in
different bodies, or as individuals of the fame body.
To enter into a detail of their wranglings and dif¬
putes, the methods which each of them took to ag-
grandife themfelves at the expence of their neigh
hours, and to keep the reft of mankind in fubje£tion,
would require many volumes. We fhall only obferve,
therefore, that even the external profeflion of the au-
ftere and abfurd piety w'hich took place i.i the fourth
and fifth centuries, continued gradually to decline.
Some there were, indeed, who boldly oppofed the tor¬
rent of fuperflition and wickednefs which threatened
to overflow the whole world : but their oppofition
proved fruitlefs, and all of thefe towards the era of
the reformation had been either filenced or deftroyed :
fo that, at that time, the pope and clergy reigned over
mankind without controul, had made themfelves ma¬
ilers of almoft all the wealth in every country of Eu¬
rope, and may truly be laid to have been the only
Jb’uereigns ; the reft of the human race, even kings and
So princes, being only their vaffals and flaves.
fpread all the eaft. The rife of this impoftor is rela- Eecltfia-
ted under the article Arabia. His fucceffors con- ^ical
quered in order to eftablifh the religion of their apoftle ; .
and thus the very name of Chriflianity was extinguifh- ^
ed in many places where it had formerly flourifhtd.
The conquefts of the Tartars having intermingled
them with the Mahometans, they greedily embraced
the fuperftitions of that religion, which thus almoft
entirely overfpread the whole continents of Afia and
Africa; and, by the conqueft of Conftantinople by the
Turks in 1453, was likewife eftablilhed throughout a
confiderable part of Europe. 8r
About the beginning of the 16th century, the Ro- State °.fre‘
man pontiffs lived in the utmoft tranquillity ; nor had I'hj*-",,*-1,,.
they, according to the appearance of things at that mng of the-
time, any reafon to fear an oppofition to their autho- t6th cen-
rity in any refpedl, fince the commotions which had and
been raifed by the Waidenfes, Albigenfes, &c. were
now entirely fuppreffed. We muft not, however,
conclude, from this apparent tranquillity and fecurity
of the pontiffs and their adherents, that their meafures
were univerfally applauded. Not only private perfons,
but alfo the moft powerful princes and fovereign ftates,
exclaimed loudly againft the tyranny of the popes,
and the unbridled licentioufnefs of the clergy of all
denominations. They demanded, therefore, a refor¬
mation of the church in its head and members, and a
general council to accomplifh that neceffary purpofe.
But thefe complaints and demands v/ere not carried to
fuch a length as to produce any good effe£l; fince
they came from perfons who never entertained theleaft
doubt about the fupreme authority of the pope in re¬
ligious matters, and who of confequence, intlead of
attempting themfelves to bring about that reformation
which was fo ardently defired, remained entirely in-
aftive, or looked for redrefs to the court of Rome, or
to a general council. But while the fo much defired re¬
formation feemed to be at fuch a great diftance, it fud-
denly arofe from a quarter whence it was not at all'
expeded. A fingle perfon, Martin Luther, a monk of
the order of St Auguftine, ventured to oppofe hirnfelf
to the whole torrent of papal power and defpotifm.
This bold attempt was firft made public on the 3 _th of
September 1517 ; and, notwithftanding all the efforts
of the pope and his adherents, the dodrines of Luther
continued daily to gain ground. Others, encouraged
by his fuccefs, lent their afiiltance in the work of re¬
formation ; which at laft produced new churches,
founded upon principles quite different from that of
Rome, and which ftill continue. But for a particular
account of the tranfadions of the firft reformers, the
oppofition they met with, and the final fettiement of
the reformed churches in different nations in Europe,.,
fee the articles Luther and Reformation.
The ftate of religion in other parts of the world
feems as yet to be but little altered. Afia and Africa
are funk in the groffeft fuperftitions either of the Ma-
hommedan or Pagan kinds. The fouthern continent
of America, belonging to the Spaniards, continues
imnaerfed in the molt abfurd fuperllitions of Popery..
The northern continent, being mollly peopled with
colonies from Great Britain, profeffes the reformed re¬
ligion. At the fame time it mutt be owned, that fome.
kind of reformation hath taken place even in Popery
and Mahomrnedanifm. themfelves. The popes have no .
5 longer.
S9° HIST
Compofi- longer tliat authority over dates and princes, even thofe
m°d bigoted to Popery, which they formerly had.
l ' ” Neither are the lives either of the clergy or laity fo
corrupt as they were before. The xncreafe of learning
in all parts of the world has contributed to caufe men
open their eyes to the light of reafon, and this hath
been attended with a proportional decreafe of fuper-
ftition. Even in Mahommedan countries, that furious
enthufiafm which formerly emboldened the inhabitants
to face the greateft dangers, hath now almod vaniihed;
fo that the credit of Mahomet himfelf feems to have
funk much in the edimation of his followers. This is
to be underdood even of the mod ignorant and bigo¬
ted multitude ; and the fenfible part of the Turks are
faid to incline much towards deifm. With regard to
thofe nations which dill profefs Paganifm, the inter-
courfe of Europeans with them is fo fmall, that it is
impoffible to fay any thing concerning them. As
none of them are in a date of civilization, however, it
may be conjedtured, that their religion is of the fame
•unpolidied call with their manners; and that it confids
of a heap of barbarous fuperditions which have been
handed down among them from time immemorial, and
which they continue to obferve without knowing why
or wherefore.
Sect. III. Of the Compofition of Hi ft ory.
Cicero has given us the whole art of compofing
hidory, in a very fliort and comprehenfive manner.
We Ihall fird tranfcribe what he fays, and then con-
fider the feveral parts of it in their proper order.
Cicero’s “ No one is ignorant (fays he), that the fird law in
rules. writing hidory is, Not to dare to fay any thing that
is falfe*; and the next, Not to be afraid to fpeak the
truth : that on the one hand there be no fufpicion of
affeftion, nor of prejudice on the other. Thefe foun¬
dations are what all are acquainted with. But the
fuperdrufture confids partly in things, and ipartly in
the dyle or language. The former require an order
of times, and dcfcriptions of places. And becaufe
in great and memorable events, we are defirous to
know fird their caufes, then the aftions themfelves,
and ladly their confequences ; the hidorian fhould
take notice of the fprings or motives that occafioned
them ; and, in mentioning the fa&s themfelves, diould
not only relate what was done or faid, but likewife
in what manner ; and, in treating upon their confe¬
quences, fliew if they were the effedls of chance, wif-
De Orat. ^om> or imprudence. Nor (hould he only recite the
tLii.ii.c.'sj.a&ions of great and eminent pcrfons, but likewife de-
fcribe their charatters. The dyle ought to be fluent,
fmooth, and even, free from that hatihnefs and poig-
\ nancy which is ufual at the bar.” Thus far Cicero.
An hidory written in this manner, and furniflied with
all thefe properties, mud needs be very entertaining,
as well as indrudtive. And perhaps few have come
nearer this plan than Tacitus ; though his fubjedf is
attended with this unhappy circumflance, or at lead
unpleafant one, that it affords us examples rather of
what we ought to avoid than what to imitate. But
it is the bufinefs of the hidorian, as well as of the
philofopher, to reprefent both virtues and vices in
their proper colours ; the latter doing it by precepts,
and the former by examples. Their manner is dif¬
ferent ; but the end and defign of both is, or {hould
o R y. Sea. m.
be, the fame : And therefore hidory has not impro- Compofi-
perly been faid by fome to be moral philofophy ex- Jjf of
emplified in the lives and a&ions of mankind. 1 ory',
We fliall reduce thefe feveral things mentioned by
Cicero to three heads, Matter, Order, and Style ; and
treat upon each of them feparately. But as Truth is
the bafis and foundation of all hidory, it_,will be ne-
ceffary to confider that in the fird place.
Art. I. Of Truth in Hidory.
Truth is, as it were, the very life and foul of ,,.*•? .
hidory, by which it is didinguiflied from fable or ro- or ‘
mance. An hidorian therefore ought not only to be
a man of probity, but void of all paflion or bias. He
mud have the deadinefs of a philofopher, joined with
the vivacity of a poet or orator. Without the former,
he will be infenfibly fwayed by fome paffion to give
a falfe colouring to the actions or, chara&ers he de-
fcribes, as favour or diflike to parties or perfons affeft
his mind. Whereas he ought to be of no party, nor
to have either friend or foe while writing ; but to pre-
ferve himfelf in a date of the greated indifferency to
all, that he may judge of things as they really are in
their own nature, and not as conne&ed with this or
that perfon or party. And with this firm and fedate
temper, a lively imagination is requifite; without
which his defcriptions will be flat and cold, nor will
he be able to convey to his readers a jud and adequate
idea of great and generous a&ions. Nor is the aflid-
ance of a good judgment lefs neceffary than any of
the former qualities, to diredt him what is proper to
be faid and what to be omitted, and to treat every
thing in a manner fuitable to its importance. And
fince thefe are the qualifications neceffary for an hido¬
rian, it may perhaps feem the lefs drange that we
have fo few good hidories.
But hidorical truth confids of two parts; one is, Not
to fay any thing we know to be falfe : Though it is
not fufficient to excufe an hidorian in relating a falfe-
hood that he did not know it was fo when he wrote
it, unlefs he fird ufed all the means in his power to
inform himfelf of the truth ; for then, undoubtedly,
an invincible error is as unpardonable in hidory as in
morality. But the generality of writers in this kind
content themfelves with taking their accounts from
hearfays, or tranfcribing them from others; with¬
out duly weighing the evidence on which they are
founded, or giving themfelves the trouble of a drift
inquiry. Few will ufe the diligence neceffary to in¬
form themfelves of the certainty of what they under¬
take to relate. And as the want of this greatly abates
the pleafure of reading fuch writers, while perfons
read with diffidence; fo nothing more recommends an
hidorian than fuch indudry. Thus we are informed
of Thucydides, that when he wrote his hidory of the
Peloponnefian war, he did not fatisfy himfelf with the
bell accounts he could get from his countrymen the
Athenians, fearing they might be partial in their own
caufe ; but fpared no expence to inform himfelf how
the fame fadts were related by their enemies the Lace¬
demonians ; that, by comparing the relations of both
parties, he might better judge of the truth. And
Polybius took greater pains than he, in order to write
his hidory of the Roman affairs ; for he travelled into
Africa, Spain, Gaul, and other parts of the world,
Sea. HI. HISTORY. 591
Compofi- that by viewing the feveral fcenes of aft ion, and in-
tiou of forming himfelf from the inhabitants, he might come
. HlftolT' at a greater certainty of the fafts, and reprefent them
^ ~ " 11 in a jufter light. But as an hiftorian ought not to affert
what he knows to be falfe ; fo he fhould likewife be
cautious in relating things which are doubtful, and
acquaint his readers with the evidence he goes upon
in fuch fafts, from whence they may be able to judge
how far it is proper to credit them. So Herodotus
tells us what things he faw himfelf in his travels, and
what he heard from the information of the Egyptian
prieils and others with whom he converfed. And Cur-
tius, in the life of Alexander, fpeaking of the affairs
of India, ingenuoufly confeffes, that he wrote vkore
than he fully believed. “ For (fays he) I neither
dare to affirm pofitively what I doubt of, nor can I
think it proper to omit what I have been told.” By
fuch a conduft the author fecures his credit, whether
the things prove really true or falfe ; and gives room
for further inquiry, without inipofing on his readers.
The other branch of hiftorical truth is, Not to omit
any thing that is true, and neceffary to fet the matter
treated of in a clear and full light. In the aftions of
pafl ages or diftant countries, wherein the writer has
no perfonal concern, he can have no great induce¬
ment to break in upon this rule. But where intereft
or party is engaged, it requires no fmall candour, as
well as firmnefs of mind, conftantly to adhere to it.
Affeftion to feme, averfion too thers, fear of difob-
L’ging friends or thofe in power, will often inter-
pofe and try his integrity. Befides, an omiffion is
lefs obvious to cenfure, than a falfe affertion : for the
one, may be eafily afcribed to ignorance or forgetful-
nefs ; whereas the other will, if difcovered, be com¬
monly looked upon as defign. He therefore, who in
fuch circnmftances, from a generous love to truth, is
fuperior to all motives to betray or ftifle it, jullly de-
ferves the charafter of a brave as well as honeil man.
What Polybius fays upon this head is very well worth
remarking : “ A good man ought to love his friends
and his country, and to have a like difpofition with
them, both towards their friends and enemies. But
when he takes upon him the charafter of an hitlorian,
they muft all be forgot. He mull often fpeak well
of his enemies, and commend them when their aftions
deferve it; and fometimes blame, and even upbraid
his greateft friends, when their conduft makes it ne¬
ceffary. Nor muft he forbear fometimes to reprove, and
at other times to commend, the fame perfons; fxnce all
are liable to miftake in their management, and there
are fcatce any perfons who are always in the wrong.
Therefore, in hiftory, all perfonal confiderations fhould
belaid afidc, and regard had only to their aftions.”
What a different view of mankind and their aftions
fhould we have were thefe rules obferved by all hi-
ftorians ? Integrity is undoubtedly the principal qua¬
lification of an hiftorian ; when we can depend upon
this, other imperfeftions are more eafily paffed over.
Suetonius is faid to have written the lives of the firft
twelve Roman emperors with the fame freedom where¬
with they themfelves lived. What better charafter
can be given of a writer? The fame ingenuous tem¬
per appears in the two Grecian hiftorians above-men¬
tioned, Thucydides and Polybius: Thp former of
whom, though banifhed by his.countrymen the Athe¬
nians, yet expreffes no marks of refentment in his Cotnpofi-
hiftory, either againft them in general, or even a- J^,n
gainft the chief authors of it, when he has occaiion ;
to mention them ; and the latter does not forbear
cenfuring what he thought blameable in his nearelt
relations and friends. But it is often no eafy matter to-
know whether an hiftorian fpeaks truth or not, and
keeps up to the feveral charafters here mentioned ; tho’
it feems reafonable, upon the common principles of
juftice due to all mankind, to credit him where no
marks of partiality or prejudice appear in his writings.
Sometimes, indeed, a judgment may in a good mea-
fure be formed of the veracity of an author from his
manner of expreffing himfelf. A certain candour and.
franknefs, that is always uniform and confident with
itfelf, runs through their writings who have nothing
in view but truth, which may be juftly efteemed as a
very good evidence of their fincerity. Whereas thofe
who have partial defigns to anfwer are commonly
more clofe and covert ; and if at other times they af-
fume an air of opennefs and freedom, yet this is not
conftant and even, but foon followed again with the
appearance of fome bias and referve: for it is very
difficult to aft a part long together without lying
open to a difcovery. And therefore, though craft and
defign is exceeding various, and, Proteus-like, affumes-
very different ffiapes, there are certain charafters by
which it may often be perceived and detefted. Thus,
where things are uncertain by reafon of their being
reported various ways, it is partiality in an hiftorian
to give into the moft unfavourable account, where
others are as well known and equally credible. Again,,
it is a proof of the fame bad temper, when the fafts
themfelves are certain and evident, but the defigu and
motives of thofe concerned in them are unknown and
obfcure, to affign fome ill principle,, fuch as avarice,
ambition, malice, intereft, or any other vicious habit,
as the caufe of them. This conduft is not only un-
juft to the perfons whofe aftions they relate ; but
hurtful to mankind in general, by endeavouring to
deftroy the principal motive to virtue, which fprings
from example. Others, who affeft to be more covert,
content themfclves with fufpicious and fly infinuations;
and then endeavour to-come oft', by intimating, their
unwillingnefs to believe them, tho’ they would have
their readers do fo. And to mention, no more, there
are others, who, when they have loaded perfons with
unjuft calumnies and refleftions, will allow them fome
flight commendations, to make what they have faid
before look more credible, and themfelves lefs.partial.
But the honeft and faithful hiftorian contemns all fuch
low and mean arts; he confiders things as they are
in themfedves, and relates them as he finds-them, with¬
out prejudice or affeftion.
Art. II. The Subject or Argument of Hiftory.
The fuljeft in general is fafts, together with fuch Subject of :
things as are either connefted with them, or may athdlory,
leaft be requifite to fet them in a juft and proper light.
But although the principal defign of hiftory be to ac¬
quaint us with fafts, yet ail fafts do not merit the
regard ofan hiftorian ; but fuch only as may be thought
of ufe and fervice for the conduft of human life. Nor
is it allowable for him, like the poet, to form the plan
and fcheme of. his work as he pkafes. His bufinefs-
592
HISTORY
Sea. nr.
Hiftory.
Compofx- ;s to report things as he finds them, without any co- That would fuffice me ; for it is above my wifii to add Compofi-
tion of louring or difguife to make them more pleafing and with him, tion of
palatable to his reader, which would be to convert his  and wing my flight to fame. . Hiftory,^
hiftory into a novel. Indeed, fome hiftories afford But °h!
more pleafure and entertainment than others, from the However, this is enough, and what hillory alone feems L/i.v. ep. 8.
nature of the things of which they confiff ; and it may to promife.” This was Pliny’s opinion with regard
be efteemed the happinefs of an hiftorian to meet with to the ufe and advantage of hiftory ; the fubje&s of
fuch a fubjedl, but it is not his fault if it be otherwife. which are generally matters of weight and importance.
Thus Herodotus begins his hiftory with ftrowing, that And therefore, when a prudent hiftorian thinks it
the barbarians gave the firft occafion to the wars be* convenient to take notice of things in themfelves lefs
tween them and the Greeks, and ends it with an ac- confiderable, he either does it with brevity, or for
count of the punilhment which, after fome ages, they fome apparent reafon, or accounts for it by fome juft
fuffered from the Greeks on that account. Such arelation apology. So Dion Caffius, when he has mentioned
muft not only be very agreeable to his countrymen the fome things of lefs moment in the life of Commodus
Grecians, for whofe fakes it was written ; but likewife (as indeed that emperor’s life was chiefly filled up with
very inftrudtive, by informing them of the juftice of cruelty and folly), makes this excufe for himfelf: “ I
Providence in punifhing public injuries in this world, would not have it thought that I defcend below the
wherein focieties, as fuch, are only capable of punifti- gravity of hiftory in writing thefe things : For, as
ment. And therefore thofe examples might be of ufe they were the adlions of an emperor, and I was
to caution them againft the like practices. On the prefent and faw them all, and both heard and con-
contrary, Thucydides begins his hiftory with the un- verfed with him, I did not think it proper to omit
happy ftate of his countrymen the Athenians ; and in them.” He feems to think thofe aftions, when per-
the courfe of it plainly intimates, that they were the formed by an emperor, might be worth recording,
caufe of the calamitous war between them and the which, if done by a perfon of inferior rank, would
Lacedemonians. Whereas, had he been more inclined fcarce have defer ved notice. Nor does he appear to
to pleafe and gratify his countrymen than to write have judged amifs, if we confider what an influence
the truth, he might have fet things in fuch a light as the conduit and behaviour of princes, even in the
to have made their enemies appear the aggreffors. common circumftances of life, have upon all beneath
But he fcorned to court applaufe at the expence of them; which may fometimes render them not un¬
truth and juftice, and has fet a noble example of in- worthy the regard of an hiftorian, as examples either
tegrity to all future hiftorians. But as all aitions do for imitation or caution.
not merit a place in hiftory, it requires no fmall judge- But although fails in general are the proper fub-
ment in an hiftorian to feleft fuch only as are proper, jeit of hiftory, yet they may be differently confidered
Cicero obferves very juftly, that hiftory “ is conver- with regard to the extent of them, as they relate ei-
fant in great and memorable aftions.” For this rea- ther to particular perfons or communities of men.
fon, an hiftorian ftrould always keep pofterity in view ; And from this confideration hiftory has been diftin-
and relate nothing which may not, upon fome account guifhed into three forts, viz. biography, particular and hiftory.
or other, be worth the notice of after-ages. To de- general hiftory. The lives of Angle perfons is called
fcend to trivial and minute matters, fuch as frequently biography. By particular hijlory is meant that of par-
occur in the common affairs of life, is below the dig- ticular ftates, whether for a fhorter or longer fpace of
nity of hiftory. Such writers ought rather to be deemed time. A nd general hijlory contains an account of feveral
journalifts than hiftorians, who have no view or ex- ftates exifting together in the fame period of time,
peftation that their works flrould furvive them. But i. Thz of biography are the lives either of
the flcilful hiftorian is fired with a more noble ambi- public or private perfons ; for many ufeful obferva-
tion. His defign is to acquaint fucceeding ages with tions in the conduit of human life may be made from
what remarkable occurrences happened in the world juft accounts of thofe who have been eminent and be-
before them ; to do juftice to the memory of great neficial to the world in either ftation. Nay, the lives
and virtuous men ; and at the fame time to perpetuate of vicious perfons are not without their ufe, as warn-
his own. Pliny the younger has fome fine refle&ions ings to others, by oblerving the fatal confiquences
upon this head, in a letter to a friend. “ You advife which fooner or later generally follow fuch .praitices.
me (fays he) to write an hiftory ; and not you only. But, for thofe who expofed their lives, or otherwife
for many others have done the fame, and I am myfelf employed their time and labour, for the fervice of their
inclined to it. Not that I believe myfelf qualified for fellow-creatures, it feems but a juft debt that their
it, which would be ra(h-to think till I have tried it; memories ftrould be perpetuated after them, and po-
but becaufe I efteem it a generous a&ion not to fuffer fterity acquainted with their benefactors. The ex-
thofe to be forgotten, whofe memory ought to be peftation of this was no fmall incentive to virtue in
eternized ; and to perpetuate the names of others, to- the Pagan world. And perhaps every one, upon due
gether with one’s own. For there is nothing I am fo reflection, will be convinced how natural this paflion is
defirous or ambitious of, as to be remembered here- to mankind in general. And it was for this reafon,
after ; which is a thing worthy of a man, efpecially probably, that Virgil places not only his heioes, but
of one who, confcious of no guilt, has nothing to alfo the inventors of ufeful arts and fciences, and
fear from pofterity. Therefore I am thinking day other perfons of diftinguifhed merit, in the Llyfian
and night by what means, as Virgil fays. Fields, where he thus deferibes them :
 My name Here patriots live, who, for their cruntry’s good.
To raife aloft: ki fighting fields were prodigal of blood;
NP Ij:5# ' - Priefti
HISTORY.
PHefts of unblemifh’d lives here make abode,
And poets worthy their infpiring god;
And fearching wits of more mechanic, parts,
Who grac’d their age with new invented arts;
Thofe who to worth their bounty did extend.
And thofe who knew that bounty to commend :
The heads of thefe with holy fillets bound.
And all their temples were with garland’s crown’d.
./Eneid, 1. vi. v. 65.
593
efpecially for a perfon to talk or write of Lis own vir- Compofl.
tues, at a time when vice and a general corruption of *1<^1 o{
manners prevails, let what he fays be ever fo true, it , ‘
will be apt at leaft to be taken as a reflettion upon J
others. Anciently (fays Tacitus), many wrote
their own lives, rather as a teftimony of their conduft,
than from pride.” Upon which he mates this judi¬
cious remark : “ That the more virtue abounds, the
In the lives of public perfons, their public chara&ers fboner the reports of it are credited.” But the an-
are principally, but not folely, to be regarded. The cient writers had a way of taking off the reader’s at-
world is inquifitive to know the condwft of princes tention from themfelves in recording their own ac-
and other great men, as well in private as public, tions, and fo rendering what they faid lefs invidious:
And both, as has been faid, may be of fervice, confi- and that was, by fpeaking of themfelves in the third
dering the influence of their examples. But to be perfon, and not in the firft. Thus Cffifar never fays,
over-inquitkive in fearching into the weaknefles and “ I did,” or, “ I faid, this or thatbut always,
infirmities of the greateft or heft of men,, is, to fay “ Cafar did, or faid, fo and fo.” Why the moderns
no more of it, but a needlefs curiofity. In the wri- have not more chofen to follow them in this, we know
ters of this kind, Plutarch is jullly allowed to excel. not, fince it feems lefs exceptionable.
But it has been a matter of difpute among the 2. In a continued hiftory of particular ftates, fome
learned, whether any one ought to write his own account may be given of their original, and founders;
hiftory. It may be pleaded in favour of this, that the nature of their foil, and fituation ; what advan-
no one can be fo much mafter of the fubjeft as the tages they have for their fupport or improvement, ei-
perfon himfelf: and befides, there are many in- ther within themfelves, by foreign traffic, or con-
ftances, both ancient and modern, to juftify fuch a quefts ; with the form of their government. Then
conduft. But on the other hand it muft be owned, notice fliould be taken of the methods by which they
that there are many inconveniencies which attend it; increafed in wealth or power, till they gradually ad-
fome of which are mentioned by Cicero. “ If (fays vanced to their higheft pitch of grandeur ; whether
he) there is any thing commendable, perfons are by their virtue, the goodnefs of their conftitution,
obliged to fpeak of themfelves with greater modefty, trade, induftry, wars, or whatever caufe. After this
and to omit what is blameable in others. Befides, the reafons of their declenfions ffiould be (hown ; what
what is faid is not fo foon credited, and has lefs au- were the vices that principally occafioned it (for that
thority ; and after all, many will not ftick to cenfure is generally the cafe); whether avarice, ambition, lu-
it.” And Pliny fays very well to the fame purpofe, xury, difcord, cruelty, or feveral of thefe in conjunc-
“ Thofe who proclaim their own virtues, are thought tion. And laftly, where that has been their unhappy
not fo much to proclaim them becaufe they did them, fate, how they received their final ruin and fubver-
as to have done them that they might proclaim them. fion. Moll of thefe things Livy had in view when
So that which would have appeared great if told by he wrote his hiftory of the Roman ftate, as he ac-
another, is loft when related by the party himfelf. quaints his readers in the preface. “ The accounts
For when men cannot deny the fad, they refled upon (fays he) of what happened either before or while
the vanity of its author. Wherefore, if you do things the city was building, confifting rather of poetical
not worth mentioning, the adions themfclves are fables than any certain records of fads, I {hall nei-
blamed ; and if the things you do are commendable, ther aflert nor confute them. Let antiquity be allow-
you are blamed for mentioning them.” Thefe reflec- ed to make the origin of their cities more venerable,
tions will be generally allowed to be very juft; and by uniting things human and divine. But if any na-
yet confidering how natural it is for men to love them- tion may be fuffered to fetch their origin from the
felves, and to be inclined in their own favour, it feems gods, fuch is the military glory of the Romans, that
to be a very difficult talk for any one to write an im- when they reprefent Mars as the father of their found-
partial hiftory of his own adions. There is fcarce er, other nations may as eafily acquiefce in this as
any treatife of this kind that is more celebrated than they do in their government. But I lay no great
Csefar’s Commentaries. And yet Suetonius tells us, ftrefs upon thefe things, and others of the like nature,
that “ Afinius Pollio (who lived at that time) thought whatever may be thought of them. What I am defi-
they were neither written with due care nor integrity : rous every one fttould carefully attend to, are our lives
that Csefar was often too credulous in his accounts of and manners: by what men, and what arts, civil and
what was done by other perfons ; and mifreprefented military, the empire was both acquired and enlarged :
his own adions, either defignedly, or through forget- then let him obferve, how our manners gradually de-
fulnefs : and therefore he fuppofes he would have re- clined with our difeipline j afterwards grew worfe and
vifed and correded them.” However, at fome times worfe ; and at length fo far degenerated, that at pre-
it may doubtlefs be juftifiable for a perfon to be his fent we can neither bear with our vices nor fuffer them
own hiftorian. Plutarch mentions two cafes wherein to be remedied. This is the chief benefit and advan-
it is allowable for a man to commend himfelf, and be tage to be reaped from hiftory, to fetch inftrudion
the publijher of his own merits. Thefe are, when from eminent examples of both kinds ; in order to imi-
the doing of it may be of confiderable advantage ei- tate the one, which will be of ufe both to yourfelf .md
ther to himfelf or others. It is indeed lefs invidious your country, and avoid the other, which are equally
ibr other perfons to undertake the province. And bafe in their rife and event.” Thus far Livy. And
Vol. VIII. Part II. 4 E frow
594
Compofi-
non of
pillory.
8ft
<Df narra*
%ion»
H I S T
how well he has executed this defign muft be ac¬
knowledged by all who will be at the pains to perufe
his work.
3. But as a particular hiftory confids in a^ number
of fa&s relating to the fame date, fuitably connefted
and laid together in a proper feries; fo a general hi¬
ftory is made Up of feveral particular hiftories. whofe
Separate tranfaddions within the fame period of time,
or part of it, Ihould be fo diftinftly related as to caufe
no confufion. Such was the hittory of Diodorus Si¬
culus, which contained an account of moft of the emi¬
nent dates and kingdoms in the world, though far the
greateft part of it is now unhappily loft. Of the fame
nature is the hiftory of Herodotus, though not fo ex-
tenfive ; to whom we are efpecially indebted for the
jPerfian affairs. And to this kind may likewife be re¬
ferred Judin’s hiftory, though it be only the epitome
of a larger work written by another hand. The
rules proper for conducing fuch hiftories are much
the fame as thofe above mentioned concerning parti¬
cular hiftories ; excepting what relates to the ordert of
which we (hah have occafton to fpeak hereafter.
But the hiftories both of particular dates and
thofe which are more general frequently contain only
the affairs of fome (hort period of time. Thus the
hiftory of the Pelopohnefian war, written by Thucy¬
dides, comprifes only what was done in the 6rft twenty
years of that war, which lafted feven years longer
than his account reaches ; though indeed the reafon
of that might be, becaufe Thucydides died before the
war was finifhed, otherwife he would very probably
have continued his hiftory to the conclufion of it.
But the hiftory of the war between the Romans and
king Jugurtha in Africa, given us by Salluft, as alfo
Ctefar’s hiftories of the Gallic and civil wars, are all
confined within a much lefs number of years than that
©f Thucydides. Nay, fometimes one (ingle tranfa&ion
is thought fufifieient to furnifh out an hiftory. Such
was the confpiracy of Catiline to fubvert the Roman
ftate, written hkewife by Salluft. As to more gene¬
ral hiftories, Xenophon’s hiftory of Greece may be
efteemed as fuch; which in order of time fucceeds
that of Thucydides, and cohtains the affairs of forty-
eight years. And Polybius called his a general hiftory ;
which, though it principally contained the Roman af¬
fairs, yet took in the moft remarkable tranfadiions
©f feveral other dates, for the fpace of fifty-three
years : though it has met with the fame hard fate as
that of Diodorus Siculus, fo that only the firft five
books out of forty, of which it eonfifted at firft, now
remain entire. And to mention no more, the cele¬
brated hiftory of Thuanus is another inftance of this
fort, in which the principal tranfadtions of Europe
for about 60 years, chiefly in the 16th century, are
defcribed with that judgment and fidelity, and in a
manner fo accurate and beautiful, that he has been
thought fcarcely inferior to any of the ancient hifto-
rians. Now, in fuch hiftories as thefe, to go farther
back than is neceffary to fet the fubjedt in a juft light,
fcems as improper as it is unneceffary.
The general fubjedt or argument, of hiftory, in its
feveral branches, may be reduced to thefe four heads ;
narration, rejlellions, Jpeeches, and digrejfions.
1, By narration is meant, a defcription of fadts or
o R r. Seft.IIK
adtions, with fuch things as are neeeffarily connedted Compod-
with them ; namely, perfons, time, place, defign, and t10" <>f
event. Hutory.
As to aQions th'emfelves, it is the bufmefs of the y
hiftorian to acquaint his readers with the manner in
which they were performed ; what meafures were con¬
certed on all Tides, and how they were condudted,
whether with vigilance, courage, prudence, and cau¬
tion, or the contrary, according to the nature of the
adlion ; as likewife, if any unforefeen accidents fell'
out, by which the defigned meafures were eitiier pro¬
moted or broken. All adtions may be referred to
two forts, military and civil. And as war arifes from
injuftice and injuries received on one fide or the o-
ther, it is fit the reader (hould be informed who were
the aggreflbrs. For though war is never to be deft-
red, yet it is fometimes necefl'ary. In the defeription-
of battles, regard (hould be had equally to both par¬
ties ; the number of forces, conduit of the generals,
in what mannet they engaged, what turns and chan¬
ces happened in the engagement, either from accidents,
courage, or ftratagam, and how it iffued. The like
circumftances (hould all be obferved in (ieges and other
actions. But the moft agreeable feene of hiftory arifes
from a ftate of peace. Here the writer acquaints us
with the conftitution of ftates, the nature of their laws,
the manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants, the ad¬
vantages of concord and unanimity, with the difad-
vantages of contention and difeord; the invention of
arts and fciences, in what manner they were im¬
proved and cultivated, and by whom ; with many-
other things, both pleafant and profitable in the con-
duift of life.
As to perfons, the charatters of all thofe (hould be
defcribed who a& any confiderable part in an hiftory;
This excites the curiofity of the reader, and makes
him more attentive to what is faid of them ; as every¬
one is more inquifitive to hear what relates to others,
in proportion to his knowledge of them. And it will.
likewife be of ufe to obferve, how their adions agree
with their chara&ers, and what were the effe&s of
their different qualifications and abilities.
The circumftances of time and place are carefully to
be regarded by an hiftorian, without which his ac¬
counts of fads will be frequently very lame and im-
perfed. And therefore chronology and geography
feem not improperly to , have been called th two eyes
of hiflory. Befides, they very much affift the memoryr
for it is much eafier to remember any thing faid. to
be done at fuch a time, and in fuch a place, than if
only related in general; nay, the remembrance of
thefe often recalls thofe things to mind which other-
wife had been obliterated. By time is meant not
only the year of aay particular era or period ; but
likewife the feafon, as fummer or winter ; and the
age of particular perfons. For it is oftentimes from
hence that we are principally enabled to make a juft
eftimate of fads, Thus Cicero commends Pompey for
undertaking and finiftiing the Piratic war at a feafon of
the year, when other generals would hot have thought
it fafe, to venture out at fea. This double danger, as Pro
well from the weather as the enemy, confidering the
neceffity of the cafe, heightens the glory of the ac¬
tion ; fince to have done the fame thing in fummer
would not have been an equal proof of the courage
and
Seam. h i s
^Conrpofi -and intrepidity of tKe general. And there is nothing
JV.n" more furprifing in the cooquefts of Alexander than
. 1 that he (hould fubdue fo large a part of the world by
the time he was little more than ,30 years old ; an
■age at which few other generals have been much di-
■flinguiihed. Had we not known this, a confiderable
rpart of his character had been loft.
The like advantages arife from the other circum-
ftances of place. And therefore in marches, battles,
and other military actions, the hiftorian (hould take
■notice of the nature of the country, the paffes, rivers,
diftances of places, frtuation of the armies, and ftrength
of the towns either by nature or art ; from which
the reader may the better form a judgment of the dif
Acuities and greatnefs of any enterprife. Csefar is ge¬
nerally very particular in thefe things, am" feems to
have thought it highly requifite in order to give his
readers a juft idea of his adlions. The defcriptions of
countries, cities, and rivers, are likewife both ufeful
and pleafant; and help us to judge c*f the probability
■of what is related concerning the temper and genius
of the inhabitants, their arts, traffic, wealth, power,
or whatever elfe is remarkable among them.
But an accurate hiftorian goes yet further, and con-
-fiders the caufes of a&ions, and what were the dejigns
and views of thofe perfons who were principally con¬
cerned in them. Some, as Polybius has well obferved,
are apt to confound the beginnings of actions with
their fprings and caufes, which ought to be carefully
feparated. For the caufes are often very remote, and
-to be looked for at a coniiderable diftance from the ac¬
tions themfelves. Thus, as he tells us, fome have re-
-prefented Hannibal’s befieging Saguntum in Spain,
and paffing the Ebro, contrary to a fortner agreement
between the Romans and Carthaginians, as caufes of
•the fecond Punic war. But thefe' were only the begin-
tnings of it. The true caufes were the jealoufies and
fears of the Carthaginians from the growing power of
the Romans ; and Hannibal’s inveterate hatred to them,
with which he had been imprefled from his infancy.
For his father, whom he fucceeded in the commahd of
the Carthaginian army, had obliged him. when but nine
years old, to take a moft folemn oath upon an altar never
to be reconciled to the Romans : and therefore he was
no fooner at the head of the army, than he took the
Arft opportunity to break with them. Again, the true
fprings and caufes of aftions are to be dirtinguiihed
■from fuch as are only feigned and pretended. For gene¬
rally the worfe defigns men have in view, the more foli-
citous they a^e to cover them with fpecious pretences.
It is the hi ’orian’s bufinefs. therefore, to lay open
and expofe to view thefe arts of politicians. So, as
the fame judicious hiltorian remarks, we are not to
imagine Alexander’s carrying over his army into Afia
to have been the caufe of the war between him and the
Perfians. That had its being long before. The Gre¬
cians had formerly two armies in Afia, one under Xe¬
nophon and the other commanded by Agefilaus. Now
the Afiatics did not venture to oppofe or moleft either
nf thefe armies in their march. This made king Phi¬
lip, Alexander’s father, who was an ambitious prince,
and afpired after univerfal monarchy, think it might
be a practicable thing to make a conqueft of Afia , Ac¬
cordingly, he kept it in his view, and made prepara¬
tions for it; but did not live to execute it. That was
TORY. S95
left for his fon. But as king Philip could not have Compoft-
done this without firft bringing the other ftates of ‘'.°n °*
Greece into it, his pretence to them was only to avenge ‘«
the injuries they had all fuffered from the Perfians } J
though the real defign was an univerfal government,
both over them and the Perfians, as appeared after¬
wards by the event. But in order to our beii g well
afl'ured of a perfon’s real defigns, and to make the ac¬
counts of them more credible, it is proper we (hould
be acquainted with his difpofition, manners, way of
life, virtues, or vices; that by comparing his a&ions
■with thefe, we may fee how far they agree and fuit
each other. For this reafon Salluft is fo particular in-
his defcription of Catiline, and Livy of Hannibal; by
which it appears credible, that the one was capable of
entering into fuch a confpiracy againft hia country, and
the other of performing fuch great things as are re¬
lated concerning him. But if the caufes of a&ions lie
in the dark, and unknown, a prudent hiftorian will not
trouble himfelf or his readers with vain and trifling
conje&ures unlefs fomething very probable offers it-
felf.
Laftly. an hiftorian (hould relate the iflue and event
of the jftions he defcribes. This is undoubtedly the
moft ufeful part of hiftory ; fince the greateft advan¬
tage arifing from it is to teach us experience from
what has happened in the world before us. When we
learn from the examples of others the happy effects of
wifdom, prudence, integrity, and other virtues, it na¬
turally excites us to an imitation of them, and to pur*
fue the fame meafures in our own conduit. And, on
the contrary,, by perceiving the unhappy Confequences
which have followed from violence, deceit, raffinefs, or
the like vices, we are deterred from fuch practices.
But fince the wifeft and moft prudent meafures do not
always meet with the defired fuccefs, and many crofs
accidents may happen to fruilrate the bell concerted
defigns ; when we meet with inftances of this nature,
it prepares us for the like events, and keeps us from
too great a confidence in our own fchemes. However,
as this is not commonly the cafe, but in the ordinary
courfe of human affairs like caufes ufually produce like
effeits ; the numerous examples of the happy confe¬
quences of virtue and wifdom recorded in hiftory are
fufficient to determine us in the choice of our meafures,
and to encourage us to hope for an anfwerable fuccefs,
though we cannot be certain we (hall in no inttance
meet with a difappointment. And therefore Polybius
very juftly obferves, that “ he who takes from hi¬
ftory the caufes, manner, and end of aitions, and o-
mits to take notice whether the event was anfwerable
to the means made ufe of, leaves nothing in it but a
bare amufcment, without any benefit or inftruilion.”
Thefe, (hen, are the feveral things neceffary to be at¬
tended to in hiftorical narrations; but the proper dif- •
pofition of them muft be left to the (kill and prudence
of the writer.
II. Reflections made by the writers. Some have con- 0f rfflec
demned thefe, as having a tendency to bias the reader;
who (hould be left to draw fuch conclufions from the
accounts of fails as he fees proper. But fince all
readers are not capable of doing this for themfelves,
what difadvantage is it for the author to fugged to
them fuch oblervations as may affift them to make the
beft ufe of what they read ? And if the philofopher is
4 E 2 allowed
S96 HIST
^tion'cf' a^rtwe^ t0 ^raw fucfi inferences from his precepts as he
Hiftory. tl“n^sju^and proper, why has not the hiftorian an
U—equal right to make refleftions upon the fafts he re¬
lates ? The reader is equally at liberty to judge for
iimfelf in both cafes, without danger of being preju¬
diced. And therefore we find, that the beil hifto-
rians have allowed themfelves this liberty. It would
be eafy to prove this by a large number of inftan-
ces, but one or two here may fuffice. When Sal-
lull has given a very diftindl account of the de-
figns of Catiline, and of the whole fcheme of the
confpiracy, he concludes it with this refle&ion :
, “ All that time the empire of the Romans feems
to me to have been in a very unhappy Hate. For
when they had extended their conquefts through the
whole world from eaft to well, and enjoyed both peace
and plenty, which mankind efteem their greatell hap-
pinefs; fome perfons were obllinately bent upon their
own ruin, and that of their country. For notwith-
at‘' Handing two decrees were publilhed by the fenate, not
one out of fo great a multitude was prevailed with, by
the rewards that were offered, either to difcover the
confpiracy or to leave the army of Catiline. So defpe-
rate a difeafe, and as it were infedion, had feized the
minds of rnoft. people I” And it is a very handfome
obfervation that Livy makes upon the ill-condu£l of
Hannibal in quartering his artny in Capua after the
battle of Cannae ; by which means they loft their mar¬
tial vigour through luxury and eafe. “ Thofe (fays
he) who are Ikilled in military affairs reckon this a
*' '* greater fault in the general, than his not marching his
army immediately to Rome after his vi&ory at Can-
nre ; for fuch a delay might have feemed only to defer
the vi<£lory, but this ill Hep deprived him of the power
to gain it.” The mode ft y of the hiftorian in this paf-
fage is worth rerftarking, In that he does not reprefent
this as his own private opinion, and by that means un¬
dertake to cenfure the conduft of fo great a general as
Hannibal was, but as the fenfe of thofe who were
Ikilled in fuch affairs. However, an hiftorian fhould
be brief in .fuch remarks ; and confider, that although
he does not exceed his province by applauding virtue,
exprefiing a juft indignation againft vice, and interpo-
fing his judgment upon the nature and confequenccs of
the fadls he relates; yet there ought to be a diffe¬
rence between his reflections and the encomiums or
85 declamations of an orator.
(Offp^hes. III. Sketch's inferted by hiftorians. Thefe are of
two forts, oblique and direfk. The former are fuch
as the hiftorian recites in his own perfon, and not in
that of the fpeaker. Of this kind is that of Hannibal
in Juftin ; by which he endeavours to perfuade king
Antiochus to carry the feat of the war againft the
Romans into Italy. It runs thus: “ Having defired
• liberty to fpeak (he faid), none of the prefent coun-
fels and defigns pleafed him ; nor did he approve of
Greece for the feat of the war, which might be mana¬
ged in Italy to greater advantage : becaufe it was im-
pofiible to conquer the Romans but by their own arms,
or to fubdue Italy but by its own forces; fince both
the nature of thofe men, and of that war, was diffe-
*ent from all others. In other wars, it was of great im¬
portance to gain an advantage of place or time, to ra¬
vage the countries and plunder the towns; but though
you gain fome advantage over the Romans, or defeat
O R Y. Sefl. m
them, you mull fttll fight with them when beaten. Compofi-
Wherefore, fhould any one engage with them in Italy, tV.°”
it was poftible for him to conquer them by their own ‘ Qry’'
power, ftrength, and arms, as he himfelf had done;
but Ihould he attempt it out of Italy, the fource of
their power, he would be as much deceived, as if he
endeavoured to alter the courfe of a river, not at the
fountain-head, but where its ftreams were largell and
deepeft. This was his judgment in private, and what
he had offered as his advice, and now repeated in
the prefence of his friends; that all might know in
what manner a war ought to be carried on againft the
Romans, who were invincible abroad, but might be
conquered at home. For they might fooner be driven
out of their city than their empire, and from Italy than
their province ; having been taken by the Gauls, and
almoft fubdued by himfelf. That he was never defeat¬
ed till he withdrew out of their country; but upon
his return to Carthage, the fortune of the war was
changed with Hie place.” He feems to intimate by Lll>' X3n“'
this fpeech, that the Romans were like fome fierce C‘ S‘
and impetuous animals, which are no otherwife to be
fubdued than by wounding them in fome vital part.
In fpeeches related after this manner, we are not ne-
ceffarily to fuppofe the hiftorian gives us the very words
in which they were at firft delivered, but only the
fenff. But in direft fpeeches, the perfon himfelf is in¬
troduced as addreffing his audience; and therefore the
words as well as the fenfe are to be foiled to his
chara&er. Such is the fpeech of Eumenes, one of A-
lexander’s captains and focceffors, made to his foldiers
when they had traiteroufly bound him in chains, in
order to deliver him up to his enemy Antigonus, as we
have it in the fame writer. “ You fee, foldiers (fays
he), the habits and ornaments of your general, which
have not been puf upon me by mine enemies; that
would afford me fome comfort: it is by you, that of a
conqueror I am become conquered, and of a general a
captive; though you have fworn to be faithful to me
four times within the fpace of a year. But I omit
that, fince reflexions do not become perfons in calami¬
ty. One thing I intreat, that, if Antigonus muft have
my life, you would let me die among you. For it no
way concerns him how or where I foffer, and I (hall
efcape an ignominious death. If you grant me this,
I free you from your oath, with which you have been
fo often engaged to me. Or, if fhame reftrains you
from offering violence to me at my requeft, give me a
fword, and foffer your general to do that for you with¬
out the obligation of an oath which you have fworn
to do for your general.” c. 4.
But this likewife is a matter in which critics have
been divided in their fentiments; whether any, or
what kind, of fpeeches ought to be allowed in hiftory.
Some have thought all fpeeches ftiould be excluded: 1
and the reafon given for thst opinion is this; that it
breaks the thread of the difceurfe, and interrupts the
reader, when he is defirous to come to the end of an
aXion, and know how it iffued. This is true, indeed,
when fpeeches are either very long or too frequent;
but otherwife they are not only entertaining, but like¬
wife inftruXive. For it is of fervice to know the
fprings and reafons of aXions; and thefe are frequently
opened and explained in the fpeeches of thofe by whom
they were performed. Others therefore have not been
agajnft
Sea. III. HISTORY. 597
Compofi againft all fpeeches in general, but only direa ones. Curtius, thofe of Tiberius and Drufus in Tacitus, and Compofi-
tionof Ancl this was the opinion of Trogus Pompeius, as Ju- many others. Some letters are wholly fiaitious; and ':°n of
, Hiltory. jnforms us. though he did not think fit to follow in others perhaps the hiftorian reprtfents the fubftance u °ry‘ f
Lib that 0P*n*0n> w^ien ke abridged him, as we of what was really faid, but gives it his own drefs. Lib. iv.
# ,3.XXIVU1 have fe€n already by the fpeech of king Eumenes. Thus we find that Ihort letter of Lentulus to Cataline ^ i-
The reafon offered againft direft fpeeches is, becaufe at the time of his confpiracy differently related by Ci- AKn.J-tb, J‘
they are not true; and truth is the foundation of all cero and Salluft. The reafon of which feems to be^111 S
hillory, from which it never ought to depart. Such this : That as Cicero recited it publicly to the people ^
fpeeches, therefore, are faid to weaken the credit of of Rome in his third oration againft Catiline, it is
the writer; fince he who will tell us that another reafonable to imagine he did it in the very words of
perfon fpoke fuch things which he does not know the letter, which he had by him ; whereas Salluft, as
that he ever did fpeak, and in fuch language as he an hiftorian, might think it fufficient to give the fenfe
could not ufe, may take the fame liberty in reprefent- of it in his own words.
ing his aflions. Thus, for example, when Livy gives IV. Digrejfions. Thefe, if rightly managed, afford
us the fpeeches of Romulus, the Sabine women, Bru- the reader both delight and profit. Like fpeeches,
tus, and others, in the firft ages of the Roman ftate, they (hould neither be too long nor frequent; left
both the things themfelves are imaginary, and the they interrupt the courfe of the hiftory, and divert the
language wholly difagreeable to the times in which reader from the main defign of the work. But now
thofe perfons lived. Accordingly we find, that when and then to introduce a beautiful defeription, or fomg-
feveral hiftorians relate fome particular fpecch of the remarkable incident, which may give light to the fub-
fame perfon, they widely differ both in the fubjedt- jedt, is fo far from an interruption, that it is rather a
matter and expreffions. So the fpeech. of Veturia, relief to the reader, and excites him to go on with
by which fhe diffuaded her fon Coriolanus from be- greater pleafure and attention. See further on this
fieging Rome when he came againft it with an army head, Oratory, n° 37.
IA ii. of Volfcians to avenge the injuries he bul received, is Art> ul q[
r. .,0. very differently related by Livy, Dionykus of Halicar-
naffus, and Plutarch. Such fi&itious fpeeches there- Since moll hiftories confift of an introdudlion and of ontorv
fore are judged more fit for poets, who are allowed a the body of the work, in each of which fome order is
greater liberty to indulge their fancy than hiftorians. requilite, we fliall fpeak to them feparately.
And if any diredl fpeeches are to be inferted,. they 1. The defign of the introdudtion is the fame hefe
fhould be fuch only as were really fpoken by the per- as in orations. For the hiftorian propofes three things
fons to whom they are aferihed, where any fuch have by his introdudlion, which may be called its parts;
been preferved. Thefe have been the fentiments of to give his reader fome general view of the fubjedl, to
fome critics both ancient and modern. However, engage his attention, and to poffefs him with a candid
there is fcarce an ancient hiftorian now extant, either opinion of himfelf and his performance. Some have
Greek or Latin, who has not fome fpeeches, more or thought this laft unneceffary for an hiftorian. But if
lefs, in his works; and thofe not only oblique, but we confider how differently mankind are apt to judge
alfo diredl. They feem to have thought it a neefffary of the fame perfons and adlions, it feems as requiiite
ornament to their writings : and even where the'true for an hiftorian to be wellefteemed as an orator. And
fpeeches might be come at, have chofen rather to give therefore we find Come of the heft hiftorians have not
them in their own words; in order, probably, to pre- omitted this part. Livy’s introduction has been very
ferve an equality in the ftyle.- Since therefore the heft much applauded by the learned, as a mafter-piece in
and moft faithful hiftorians have generally taken this its kind. It begins with an account of his defign.
liberty, we are to diftinguifti between their accounts “ Whether (fays he) it may anfwer any .valuable end
iii. viii.
/4c
See Voff.
Hi/l.
of fadls and their fpeeches. In the former, where
nothing appears to the contrary, we are to fuppofe
they adhere to truth, according to the beil informa¬
tion they could get; but in the latter, that their ' '
for me to write the ’hiftory of the Roman affairs from,
the beginning of the city, I neither am certain, nor
if I was ffiould I venture to declare it.” Soon after
he endeavours to prepare the reader’s attention, by re-
s only to acquaint us with the caufes and fprings of prefenting die grandeur and ufefulnefs of the fubjedl
Billions, which they chofe to do in the form of fpeech- in the following words : “ Either I am prejudiced in
es, as a method moft ornamental to the work, and en- favour of my fubjedk, or there never was any ftate
tertaining to the reader : Though the beil hiftorians greater, more virtuous, and fruitful of good examples,
are cautious of inferring fpeeches, but where they are or in which avarice and luxury had a later admittance
very proper, and upon fome folemn and weighty oc- or poverty and thriftinefs were either.more highly or
cafions. Thucydides is faid to have been the firft who longer efleemed, they always coveting lefs the lefs they
brought complete and finiihed fpeeches into hiftory, enjoyed.” And then-he prefently proceeds to ingratiate
thofe of Herodotus being but ftiort and imperfect, himf'elf with his readers, and gain their favourable
And though Dionyfius of Halicar naffus, in his cenfure opinion : “ Although my name is obfeure in fo great
Upon Thucydides, feems then toftave difliked that part a number of writers, yet it is a comfort that they
of his condudl; yet he afterwards thought fit to imi- cloud it by their fame and eharafler. But I ftiall gain
tate it in his Antiquities of Rome, where we find many this advantage by my labour, that I (hall be diverted
not only oblique, but alfo direfk fpeeches. for a time from the profpedt of thofe evils which the
What has been faid of fpeeches, may likewife be age has feen for fo many years ; \yhile my mind is
underftood ef letters, which we fometimes meet with wholly intent upon former times, free from all that care.
In hiftories j as that of Alexander to Darius in which gives the writer an uneafinefs, though it cannot
i bias,
59 8
HISTORY.
Sea. III.
Com poll- bias him againft the tnith.” In this paffage we fee In a general hiftory, the order of time Canhot al- Compofi-
regard to truth. It may fcarce feem nectifary to ob- pal, they fhould all, as far as pofiible, be referred to ^
ferve, that thofe introdu<Stions are efteemed the beft the tranfaftions of that Hate. But even here the fe-
which are moft natural ; that is, fuch as are taken veral affairs of thofe different ftates ought to be rela-
from the fubjedl-matter of the hiftory itfelf, and clofe- ted feparately, which will neceflarily occafion the an-
ly connected with it. Such are thofe of Herodotus, ticipating fome things, and poftponing others, fo that
Thucydides, Livy, Tacitus, and others. And there- "they cannot all ftand in the order of time in which
'fore Salluft is greatly blamed by Quintilian on the ac- "they were performed. However, Velleius Pateiculus
■count of his introdu&ions, which are fo general, that fays very juftly with regard to this fubjedft, ‘‘ That
:they might fuit other hiftories as well as thofe tc every entire aftion, placed together in one view, is
which they are prefixed. Introdu&ions fhould like- -much better apprehended than if divided by different
■wife be proportioned to the length of the work. We' 'times.” In this cafe, therefore, for better preferving
• meet with fome few hiftories, in which the writers im- -the chronology, it is ufual with hiftorians, when they
mediately enter upon their fubje&, without any intro- -have finifhed any particular narrative, in palling to the
■duftion; as Xenophon in his Expedition of the younger next, to exprefs the time by fome fhort and plain
Cyrus, and Ctefar in his Commentaries of the Gallic tranfition; and fometimes to apologize for themfelves,
-and Civil Wars. But the latter does not profefs to by affigning the reafons of their conduft. So Poly¬
write ajuft hiftory; and therefore left himfelf more at bins, whofe hiftory is of this kind, fays concerning
liberty, as well in this refped as in fome others. himfelf: “ As in writing the addons of each year, in
2. But order is principally to be regarded in the the order of time, I endeavour to reprefent the affairs
*body of the work. And this may be managed two of the fame nation together in one fummary view, it
ways; either by attending t© -the time in a chronolo- is plain that inconvenience muft of courfe attend this
gical feries, or the different nature and circumftances way of writing ” Curtius profeffes only to write the
of the things contained in the hiftory. However, as adions of Alexander king of Macedou; but his hi-
thefe two methods do not equally fuit all fubjeds, we ftory contains in it the principal affairs of the greateft
fhall a little confider to what kind of hiftories each of ftates in the world during that period. Now although,
them feems more properly adapted. All hiftory then, in the courfe of thofe tranfadions, the war bet-veen
•as we have dbferved already, may be reduced to three Archelaus governor of Macedonia, and Agis king of
■•forts; biography, the hijlory of particular Jlates, and Sparta, happened before the battle of Alexauikr at
shz. general hijlory of feveral fates exifting at the fame Arbela ; yet the hiftorian not only relates that battle
’time. . firft, but carries on the account of Alexander’s affairs
In biography, or the lives of particular petfons, in Afia to the death of Darius without interruption;
imoft writers follow the order of time ; though fome for which he gives this reafon : “ If I fhould relate
reduce them to certain general heads, as their virtues the affairs of Alexander, which happened in the mean
and vices, or their public and private charader. Plu- time, either in Greece or Ulyrium and Thrace, each
•tarch and Cornelius Nepos have taken the former me- in their proper order and time, I muft interrupt the
.thod, and Suetonius the latter. affairs of Afia ; which it is much better to reprefent
As to the hiftory of particular ftates, the order of together in one continued feries as they felLout, to
time is generally beft, as being moft natural and eafy. the flight and death of Darius.” Such anachronifms,
And therefore it has ufually been obferved by the beft therefore, are nothing more than what neceffarily arife iniu
hiftorians, as Thucydides, Livy, and others. Taci- fometimes from the nature of the fubjed : As every
tus, indeed, wrote two diftind works ; one of which thing, the more complex it is, and contains under it a
ke called Annals, and the other Hiftories. And as in great number of parts, is more difficult to be digefted
•both he has kept to the order of time, critics have been in a regular order. But in an hiftory compofed of fe¬
at a lofs to affign any other reafon for thefe different veral ftates, whofe affairs are independent of one an¬
tities, unkfs that in the former work he confines him- other, the adions of each nation muft neceflarily be
felf more clofely to the fads themfelves, and does not feparated, in order to reprefent them in a juit view,
treat fo largely upon the caufes, manner, or event of and prevent confufion. This is the method which
-them, as he has done in the latter. And even in the Herodotus has taken, as likewife Diodorus Siculus
circumftances of fads, there is a certain order proper and Juitin. Now both the pleafure and benefit which
to be obferved, for rendering the account more plain fuch hiftories afford, arife from obferving the condud
and intelligible. Thus, for inftance, in the deferip- of each ftate feparately in the courfe of their affairs,
tion of a battle or fiege, the time ffiould firft be known, and then comparing one with the other. And as the
then the chief perfon or perfons who conduded it, order of time muft frequently be interrupted, it is not
then the number of forces, and other requifites, after- unufual to continue the chronology at proper diftan-
wards the nature of the place, then the adion itfelf, ces in relating the affairs of each nation ; which pre-
and laftly the event. But fometimes it is neceffary to ferves an unity in the whole, and conneds it in one
add the time in which feveral of the other circum- confident body.
fiances happened, efpecially in adions of any confider- The divifion of hiftories into books was defigned
able length. Where the order of thefe circumftances only for the better diflindion of the fubjed and cafe
is confufed, it perplexes the account, and renders it of the reader. And the dividing thefe books again
Both lefs entertaining to the reader, and more difficult into chapters, is rather a pradice of later editors
to remember.
Sea. nr.
history.
599
•4^,'
Offtyle.
CZVt i0m) thM C0UntenanCecl tbe.cxamPle of anc!ent niakc up the main bufinefs of hhlory. can be duly re- Compofu
m iiftory. wnter8' prefented : for even things in themfelves great and ol
Art. IV. Of Stylr. excellent, if related in a cold and lifelefs manner, of- •u:01T-
a i-n • i n i • r-j l r •,» do us in a degree fuitable to their dig-
An hiftoncal ftyle is faid to be of a m.ddle nature, mty and .mportance. And this feems particularly ne-
between that of a poet and an orator, differing from ceffary in fpeeches, in order to reprefent what every
both not only in the ornamental parts, but likewifc in one fays, according to his different country, age, tern-
the common idioms and forms of expreffion. per, and ftation of life, in the fame manner we may
• f-Aer° , r’ that “ npthinS more agreeable fuppofe he either really did, or would have fpoken
in hiltory than brevity of expreffion, joined with pu- himfelfon that occafion. Befides, there are fome fcenes
2>r Clar. n ^*“4 perfpicuity.” Purity indeed is not peculiar of adion which require very pathetic and moving lan-
Orat.cn. to h.ftory, but yet is abfolutely neceffary ; for no guage to reprefent them agreeably to their nature
one will everthink him fit to write an hiltory who is And in defcriptions, the moft beautiful tropes and
not mafter of the language m which he writes: and lively figures are often neceffary to fet the ideas of
therefore when Albums had written an hiftory of the things in a proper light. From whence it appears,
Roman affairs in Greek, and apologized for any flips that painting and imagery make up no fmall part of
or improprieties that might be found in the language the hiltorian’s province, though his colour are not fo
upon the account of h.s being a Roman, Cato called ftrong and glittering as thofe either of the poet or ora-
h.m a trifler, for choofing to do that which after he tor. He ought therefore to be well acquainted with
had done it, he was obliged to afk pardon for doing, the manners of men and the nature of the paflions.
<Qell lu 18 PerfPlfCU;tyr e f hiitorjcaI ftyle- Puce he is often obliged to deferibe both ; in the for-
The nature of the fubjea plainly direfts to this. For as mer of which Herodotus excels, and Thucidides in
hiffory confilts principally in narration, clearnefs and
perfpicuity is nowhere more neceffary than in a relation
of fads. But thefe two properties are to be accompa¬
nied with brevity, fince nothing is more difagreeable
the latter, as Dionyfius has obfcrved.
Now from thefe feveral properties laid down by an¬
cient writers, as requifite for an hiftorical ftyle, it
ermc. Up0n to agree with the middle
than a Jong and tedious narrative. And in this refped charader. And this will further appear, by'what
an hiftorical ftvle differs both from that of™.,™ ^ they fay relating to the ornamental parts of ftyle ;
"smely, compofition and dignity. As to the former
hefe, which refpeds the ft'rudure of fentences, and
the feveral parts of them, Demetrius remarks, that
“ An hiftorical period ought neither to rife very high,
nor fink very low, but to preferve a med.•um.,, This
fimplicity (he fays) “ becomes the gravity and cre¬
dit of hiftory ; and diilinguiflies it from oratory on the
one hand, and dialogue on the other.” His meaning
is, that hiftorical periods fhould neither be fo full and
fonorous as is frequent in orat iry; nor yet fo ftiort
and flat, as in dialogue: the former of which, as he
fays, require a ftrong voice to pronounce them ; and
the latter have fcarce the appearance of periods, So
that according to this judicious writer, the periods
belt luited for hiftory are thofe which, being of a mo¬
derate length, will admit of a juft rife and cadency,
and may be pronounced with eafe. And Dionyfius
tells us, that “ Hiftory ftiould flow fmooth and even,
every where confident with itfelf, without roughnefs
or chafms in the found.” This relates to the harmony
of periods, whjch arifes from fuch a pofition' of the
woids, as renders the found pleafant and agreeable,
and, as he thinks, ought to be attended to in hiftory.
And as to dignity, which refpeas the ufe of tropes
an hiftorical ftyle differs both from that of poetry and
oratory. For the poet frequently heightens and en¬
larges his defcriptions of fails, by dwelling upon eve¬
ry circumftance, placing it in different views, and em-
bellifhing it with the fineft ornaments of wit and lan¬
guage, to render his images more agreeable ; and the
orator often does the like, with a defign to ftrike the
pafiions. But fuch colouring is not the bufinefs of an
hjftorian, v/ho aims at nothing more than a juft and
faithful reprefentation of what he relates, in a way beft
fuited to its nature, and in fuch language as is moft
proper to fet it in a plain and eafy light.
Again, Cicero, treating of an hiftorical ftyle, fays:
“ It ought to be fluent, fmooth, and even, free from
that harfhnefs and poignancy which is ufual at the
bar.” The properties here mentioned diftinguifh this
ftyle from that of judicial difeourfes, in which the ora
tor often finds it neceffary to vary his manner of fpeak-
ing, in order to anfwer different views, either of pur-
Tuing an argument, preffing an adverfary, addrefflng
a judge, or recommending the merits of his caufe. This
•occafions an inequality in his ftyle, while he fpeaks
fometimes dire&ly, at other times by way of queftion,
and intermixes fliort and concife exprefiicns with round
and flewing periods. But the hiftorian has no necef-
fity for fuch variations in his ftyle. It is his province and figures, 1he 'fame author^ fays, that"“ ffiftorY
to efpoufe no party, to have neither friend nor foe, fhould be embellifhed with fuch figure as are neither
but to appear wholly difinterefted and indifferent to vehement nor carry in them the appearance of art.”
1 his js agreeable to what Cicero obferves, in compa-
all; and therefore his language fhould be fmooth and
equal in his relations of perfons and their aaions.
But further : Dionyfius makes “ decency a princi¬
pal virtue in an hiftorian;” which he explains by fay¬
ing, that “ he ought to preferve the charadera of the
ptrfons and dignity of the adions of which he treats/
ring Xenophon and Calitthenes, two Greek hiftorians.
“ Xenophon the Socratic (fays he) was the iirft phi-
lofopher, and after him Califthenes, the fchoiar of A-
riftotle, who wrote an hiftory: the lartcr almoft like
-A , , , r a rhetorician ; but the ftyle of the former is more mo-
fvle L° M K T neCfffary thJVn hlftr,cal has not the force of an orator, lefs vehe- D, 0,*
ft)le fhould be animated with a good degree of life ment perhaps, but in my opinion more f^veet and plea-/A ii<
and vigour ; without which neither the charadcrs of fant.” The difference between thefe two writers, with -
eminent perfons, nor their remarkable adions, which regard to their ftyle, conflfted chiefly in the choice of
their
6oo HIST
Compofi- their figures; which in Xenophon were more gentle
of and moderate, and therefore in the judgment of CU
« ^ i ciro more agreeable to hiftory.
But notwithftanding this general account of the fe-
veral properties which conftitute an hiftorical ftyle, it
admits of confiderable varieties from the different na¬
ture and dignity of the fubjeft. The lives of particu¬
lar perfons do not require that ftrength and majefty of
expreffion, nor all thofe ornaments of language, as an
hiltory of the Roman empire. And accordingly we find
the ftyle of Nepos and Suetonius very different from
that of Livy. The former is fmooth and eafy, fcarce
riling above the low charafter : but the latter often
approaches near to the fublime. And other hiftorians
again have kept a medium between thefe. Upon the
whole, therefore, we may conclude, that the middle
ftyle is the proper character for hiftory ; though hi¬
ftorians may fometimes fink into the low charafter,
and at other times rife to the grandeur and magnifi¬
cence of the fublime, from the different nature of their
fubjeft, or fomc particular parts of it. For that is to
be elleemed the proper character of any writing which
in the general beft fuits it.
EXPLANATION of the CHART.
Plate By this plan events may be referred to the year of the world;
JSCXXXVH. and, within the proper periods, to the aeias of the Olympiads,
of Nabonaflar, and of Rome ; but the principal reference is to
the birth of Chrift, marked by a deep black line.
The plan extends only to the Flood; the preceding period of
1656 years is therefore left blank in the chart.
There being 234S years from the Flood to the birth of Chrift,
the fpace between them is divided into 2.3 parts, each reprefenting
an hundred years or century, and a fraction reprefenting the
remaining 48 years.
As we are now in the 18th century, the fpace from the birth
o ft Y. Sea. TIT
of Chrift downwards is divided finto eighteen parts or centuries; Compofi-
and all thefe parts, together with fome centuries preceding the tion of
birth of Chrift, are fubdivided into tens. Hiflor-J
The vertical columns, titled at top, are geographical divi-
fions; and events are marked in their proper centuries and pro-
per columns. Thus the rife of any ftate, as that of Affyria, is r
marked in its proper geographical column, and in that place of
the 21ft century before Chrift at which the beginning of its hi¬
ftory is dated; from thence we trace its continuance to the end
of the 7th century before Chrift# when it became extimft. The
building of Rome is marked about the middle of the 8th century
before Chrift. Its territory extends by degrees to the conqueft
of all Italy; next to Spain, Macedonia, &c. until it comes to ex-
tendfrom Britain to Egypt. It continues of this greatnefs until
about the middle of the 5th century after Chrift, when it begins
to lofe thofe provinces out of which the modern kingdoms of
Europe have been formed in the order here fet down.—As the
order in which ftates have rifen or fallen, relatively to one ano¬
ther, appears on mere infpedtion, it will be more eafily remem¬
bered than when it.is conveyed in numl>ers alone.
The date* are taken chiefly from that comprehenfive andufe-
ful work, Blair’s Chronological Tables. Ufe has likewife been
made of the Chart of Univerfa! Hiftory, formed on a, delign like
this, but differently executed.—Compared to that chart, the pre-
fent may be thought incomplete. Nor would it have been dif¬
ficult for the gentleman who flcetched it, to have filled it up with
remarkable events, fucceflions of kings, and lives of men ; but
he preferred clearnefs and fimplicity, leaving to every perfon the
filling up of his own plan with fuch articles as are moft in the
way #f his curiofity and ftudy. He has contented himfelf with
a few fpecimens of this fort,' in the fucceffion of the Roman em¬
perors, of the kings of England and France; and in the lives of
one or two remarkable men, as in thofe of Tacitus the hiftorian,
and Attila. One perfon may choofe to fill his plan with the
names of ftatefmen and warrior*, another with fcholars and men
of letters. To attempt inferring all that defsrve being recorded,
would crowd and embarraf^the whole.
As fpace is here employed to reprefent time, it is material
that equal periods fliouid be reprefented by equal fpaces; and,
i( poflible, that the parts of the fame empire Ihould be placed to¬
gether. Both thefe circumftances are negletfted in the Chart of
Univerfal Hiftory.
HIT
Hiftory History of Nature. See Natural Hlftory.
|| HISTRIO, in the ancient drama, fignified an after
or comedian ; but more efpecially a pantomime, who
exhibited his part by geftures and dancing. Livy in¬
forms us, that the hittriones were brought to Rome
from Etruria, in the year of the city 391.
HISTRIX. See Hystrix.
HITCHING, a large and populous town of Hart-
fordlhire in England, fituated near a large wood called
Hltchwood. The manor was the ancient demefne of
the kings of England, as it continues at this day; and
it has been the dower of feveral of their queens. The
town is reckoned the fecond in the county for number
of ftreets, houfes, and inhabitants. It was formerly
famous for the ftaple commodities of the kingdom,
and divers merchants of the ffaple of Calais refided
here, fince which that trade is loft. The inhabitants
now make large quantities of malt ; and the market is
one of the greateft in England for wheat. W. Long.
«. 20. N. Lat. 51. 55.
HITHE, a town of Kent in England, 70 miles
from London. It is one of the cinque ports ; and
had formerly five paiifhes, but by the choaking up of
its harbour and other accidents is now reduced to one.
- It was firft incorporated by the name of barons of the
town and port of Hith ; but the government was after¬
wards changed. It was incorporated by Queen Eliza¬
beth with the name of the mayor, jurats, and common¬
alty of the town and port of Hub, who with the free-
H O A
men cleft the members of parliament. The mayor is
chofe yearly on Candlemas day. Here is a market on * ii' **
Saturdays, and fairs in July and December. There Heache.’
is a remarkable pile of dry bones, 28 feet long, 6 broad, Jt
and 8 high, kept in a vault under the church in as
good order as books in a library, confifting of feveral
thoufand heads, arms, legs, thigh-bones, &c. appear by
an infeription to be the remains of the Danes and Bri¬
tons killed in a battle near this place, before the Nor¬
man conqueft. From hence to Boulogne is reckoned
the Ihorteft cut to France.
HITT1TES, the defeendents of Heth. See Heth.
HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle
for bees. See Apis and Bee.
HIVITES, a people descended from Canaan. They
dwelt at firft in the country which was afterwards pof-
feffed by the Caphtorims, or Philiftines. There were
Hivites likewife at Shechem and Gibeon, and confe-
quently in the centre of the promifed land ; for the in¬
habitants of Shechem and the Gibeonites were Hi-
vites, (Jolh. xi. 19. Gen. xxxiv. 2 ) Laftly, there were
fome beyond Jordan, at the foot of mount Hermon
(Joftrua xi. 3.)
HOACHE, in natural hiftory, a kind of earth ap¬
proaching to the nature of chalk, but harder and feeling
like foap ; whence fome think that it is either the fame
with the foap-rock of Cornwall,or very like it. The Chi-
nefe diffolve it in water till the liquor is of the confift-
ecce ©f cream,and then vaxnilh their China ware with it
HOAPLE^
*
l
r
IN
4
:$
jf:
\
If
■H
H O A [ 601 ] HOB
r. HOADLEY (Benjamin), fucceffively bllhop of In liquor. To this calumny the bllhop made a full Hoadley
Bangor, Hereford, Salilbury, and Wmchefter, was and nervous anfwer; In which he expofed the man’s II 7
born In 1676. His firft preferment In the church was falfehood, and folemnly averred that he was never Hobbe»*
the reftory of St Peter le Poor, and the le<5turefhlp of drunk In his whole life. The world with becomine-' v  
St Mildred’s In the Poultry. In the year 1706, he ardour embraced his defence, and he had the hanoi
publiflied feme Remarks on the late bifliop Atterbury’s nefs to find himfelf perfe&ly acquitted even of an *
fermon at the funeral of Mr Bennet, In which Dr At- fufplcion of fuch a charge. As a writer, he pofleffed
terbury had, In the opinion of Mr Hoadley, laid uncommon abilities. His fermons (publilhed in \nx/L
down feme dangerous propofitions. Two years after, and 1755) are efteemed Inferior to few writings in the
Mr Hoadley again entered the lifts againft this for- Englilh language, for plainnefs and perfpiculty ener-
midable antagomft ; and in his exceptions againft a fer- gy and ftrength of reafonlng, and a free and mafterlv
mon publilhed by Dr Atterbury, intitled “ The Power manner. In private life, he was naturally facetious7
of Charity to cover Sin,” he attacked the doftor with eafy, and complying} fond of company, yet would’
his ufual ftrength of reafoning and difpaffionate in- frequently leave it for the purpofes of ftudy or devo-
quiry. In 1709, another difpute arofe between thefe tion. He was everywhere happy; and particularly
two learned combatants, concerning the doftrine of in his own family, where he took all opportunities of
non-refiftance, occafioned by fSoperformance of Mr inftru&ing by his influence and example. He died in
Hoadky’s, intkled “ The Meafures of Obedience 1761, aged 83. Belides the works already mentioned
feme pofitions in which Dr Atterbury endeavoured he wrote, 1. Terms of Acceptance, 8vo. 2. Reafon*
to confute in his elegant Latin fermon, preached that ablenefs of Conformity. 3. On the Sacrament His
year before the London clergy. In this debate Mr trafts and pamphlets are extremely numerous" • and
Hoadley fignalized himfelf in fo eminent a degree, the reader may fee a complete catalogue of them in
that the honourable houfe of commons gave him a his life inferted in the fupplement to the Biographia
particular mark of their regard, by reprefenting, Britannica. ° ^
in an addrefs to the queen, the fignal fervices he Hoadley (Benjamin, M. D.), fon of the former
had done to the caufe of civil and religious liberty— was born in 1706; and ftudied at Bennet colletre
The principles, however, which he efpoufed being re- Cambridge, under the tuition of Dr Herring after
pugnanttothe general temper of thofe times, drew wards archbilhop of Canterbury. He took his de-
on him the virulence of a party ; yet it was at this gree in phyfic; and particularly applying himfelf to
period (1710, when, as he himfelf expreffed it, fury mathematical and philofophical ftudies/was, when very
feemed to le let loofe upon him) that the late Mrs How- young, admitted a member of the royal fociety. He
land prefented him to the redlory of Streatham in Sur- was made regifter of Hereford while his father filled
ry, unalked, unapplied to, and without his either ha- that fee, and was early appointed phyfician to his ma
ving feen her or been feen by her. Soon after the ac- jefty’s houfehold, but died at his houfe in Chelfea in
ceffion of king George I. Mr Hoadley was confecrated 1757. He wrote, 1. Three Letters on the organs of
to the fee of Bangor; and, 1717, having broached refpiration, 4to. 2. The Sufpicious Hufband, a co-
fome opinions concerning the nature of Chrift’s king- medy. 3. Obfervations on a feries of ekarical experi
dom, &c. he again became the objeft of popular cla- ments ; and, 4. Oratio anniverfaria, in Theatro Col Med
mour. At this junfture he was diftinguifhed by an- Londln. ex Har-vei injlituto habita die Odob 1 742
other particular mark of the royal regard, by means HOAI-ngan-fou, a city of China, in the province
of which the convocation was fucceffively prorogued, of Hiang-nan. According to Grofier, it is fituated in
and it was not permitted to fit, nor do any bufinefs, a marfli, and is enclofed by a triple wall. As the ground
till that refentment was entirely fubfided. In 1721 on which it ftands is lower than the bed of the canal the
he was tranflated to Hereford; and from thence, in inhabitants live in continual dread of an inundation. The
J7?3> to Sahlbury. In 1734, he was tranflated to fuburbs extend to the diftance of a league on each fide
D7°-n t’?e demil5 of Dr Willis), and pub- of the canal, and form at their extremity a kind of
hlhed his Plain Account of the Sacrament: a perform- port on the river Hoang-ho. This place is very do
ance which ferved as a butt for his adverfaries to fhoot pulous, and every thing in it announces an a&ive and
at, yet impartially owns it to be clear, rational, and brifk trade. One of thofe great mandarins who have
manly, wrote with great candour and judgment, and the infpedion of the canals and navigation and who
funed to the capacity of every fenous and confiderate are alfo obliged to fupply the court with neceffarv nro
inquirer after truth.-His latter days were embittered vifions, refides here. This city has eleven other u^der
by a moft vile inftance of fraud and ingratitude. The its jurifdidion ; two of which are of the fecond and
bifliop took a French prieft, who pretended to abjure nine of the third clafs. ’ a
his religion, under his protedion, with no other re^ HOAR-hound, in botany. SccMarubium
commendation than that of his neceffities; in return for HOARSENESS, in medicine, a diminution ^f the
which att of humanity, the pneft found an opportunity voice, commonly attended with a preternatural afneritv
of getting the biffiop-’s name wntten by his own hand, and roughnefs thereof. The parts affeded are the a-
and, caufing a note of fome thoufand pounds to be placed fpera arteria and larynx. For its caufes and cure fee
before it, offered it in payment. But the biffiop deny- (the-/*<£* fubjoined to) Medicine
ing it to be his, it was brought before a court of juftice, HOBAL, in mythology, an idol of the aneieni-
and was there found to be a grofs impofition. The un- Arabs, the worfhi/of wS at Mecca wls decoyed
grateful villain had now recourfe to a pamphlet, in by Mahomet. ^ea
which he charged^the biffiop with being a drunkard ; HOBBES 'Thomas), a famous writer born at
8 VolTvIII Pm lTd th£ n0t£ °f him When ^ WaS Malmfbury *'n 1 J88> the fon of a clergyman! He
4 F com*
HOB [ 602
JHobbes. completed his ftudies at Oxford, and was afterwards
W’V—./ governor to the eldeft fon of William Cavendifh earl of
Devonihire. He travelled through France and Italy
with that young nobleman, and at length applied him-
felf entirely to the ftudy of polite literature. He tranf-
lated Thucydides into Englilh; and publiftied his
tranflation in 1628, in order to Ihow his countrymen,
from the Athenian hiftory, the diforders and confu-
fions of a democratical government. In 1626 his
patron the earl of Devonlhire died; and in 1628 his
fon died alfo : which lofs affe&ed Mr Hobbes to fuch
a degree, that he very willingly accepted an offer made
him of going abroad a fecond time with the fon of Sir
Gervafe Clifton ; whom he accordingly accompanied
into France, and {laid there fome time. Cut while
he continued there, he was folicited to return to Eng¬
land, and to refume his concern for the hopes of that
family to whom he had attached himfelf fo early, and
to which he owed fo many and fo great obligations.
In 1631, the countefs dowager of Devonfhire defired
to put the young earl under his care, who was then
about the age of 13. This was very fuitable to Mr
Hobbes’s inclinations, who difcharged that truft with
great fidelity and diligence. In 1634, he republifhed
his tranflation of Thucydides, and prefixed to it a de¬
dication to that young nobleman, in which he gives a
large charafter of his father, and reprefents in the
ftrongefl terms the obligations he was under to that il-
luftrious family. The fame year he accompanied his
noble pupil to Parisf where he applied his vacant hours
to the ftudy of natural philofophy, and more efpeci&lly
to the perfeft underftanding of mechanifm, and the
caufes of animal motion. He had frequent converfa-
tions upon thefe fubje&s with father Marin Merfenne;
a man defervedly famous, and who kept up a corre-
fpondence with almoft all the learned in Europe. From
Paris he attended his pupil into Italy, where at Pifa he
became known to that great aftronomer Galileo Gali¬
lei, who communicated to him his notions very freely;
and after having feen all that was remarkable in that
country, he returned with the earl of Devonfhire into
England. Afterwards, forefeeing the civil wars, he went
to feek a retreat at Paris; where, by the good offices
of his friend father Merfenne, he became known to the
famous Renatus des Cartes, and afterwards held a cor-
refpondence with him upon feveral mathematical fub-
jefts, as appears from the letters of Mr Hobbes pub-
lifhed in the works of Des Cartes. But when this
philofopher printed afterwards his Meditations, w'here-
in he attempted to eftablifh points of the higheft confe-
quence from innate ideas, Mr Hobbes took the liberty
of diflenting from him ; as did alfo the French king’s
mathematical profeflbr, the illuftrious Peter Gafiendi,
with whom Mr Hobbes contra&ed a very clofe friend-
fhip, which was not interrupted till the death of the
former. In 1642, Mr Hobbes printed a few copies
of his famous book De Give, which, in proportion as
it became known, raifed him many adverfaries, who
charged him with inftilling principles which had a dan¬
gerous tendency. Among many illuftrious perfons
who, upon fhipwreck of the royal caufe, retired to
France for fafety, was Sir Charles Cavendifh, brother
to the duke of Newcaftle : and this gentleman, being
prilled in every branch of the mathematics, proved a
6
]
HOB
conftant friend and patron to Mr Hobbes; who, by Hobbes,
embarking in 1645 a controverfy about fquaring the
circle, was grown fo famous for it, that in 1647 he
was recommended to inftrud Charles prince of Wales,
afterwards king Charles II. in that kind of learning.
His care in the difcharge of this office gained him the
efteem of that prince in a very high degree : and tho’
he afterwards withdrew his public favour to Mr Hob¬
bes on account of his writings, yet he always retained
a fenfe of the fervices he had done him; fhowed him
various marks of his favour after he was reflored to his
dominions; and, as fome fay, had his picture hanging
in his clofet. This year alfo was printed in Holland,
by the care of M. Sorbiere, a fecond and more com¬
plete edition of his book De Give; to which are pre
fixed two Latin letters to the editor, the one by Mr
GafTendi, the other by father Merfenne, in commen¬
dation of it: and in 1650 was publifhed at London a
fmall treatiie of Mr Hobbes’s, intitled. Human Naturef
and another, De corpore politico,, or “ Of the elements
of the law.”
All this time Mr Hobbes had been digefting with
great care and pains his religious, political, and moral
principles, into a complete fyftem, which he called the
Leviathan, and which was printed in Englifh at Lon¬
don in 1650 and 1651. After the publication of hia>
Leviathan he returned to England, and palled the fum-
mer commonly at his patron the earl of Devonfhire’a
feat in Derbyfhire, and fome of his winters in town,
where he had for his intimate friends fome of the greateft
men of the age. In 1660, upon the reftoration, he
quitted the country, and came up to London, where
he obtained from the king affurance of protection, and
had an annual penfion of L. 100 fettled upon him out
of the privy purfe. Yet this did not render him en¬
tirely fafe : for, in 1666, his Leviathan and his trea¬
tiie De Give were cenfured by parliament; which
alarmed him very much, as did alfo the bringing in of
a bill into the houfe of commons to punifh atheifm and
profanenefs. When this ftorm was a little blown over,
he began to think of procuring a beautiful edition of
his pieces that were in Latin ; but finding this im¬
practicable in England, he caufed it to be undertaken
abroad, where they were publifhed in quarto in 1668,
from the prefs of John Bleau. in 1669, he was vi-
fited by Cofmo de Medicis, then prince, afterwards
duke of Tufcany, who gave him ample marks of his
efteem and refpeCt; and having received his picture,
and a complete collection of his writings, caufed them
to be repolited, the former among his curiofities, the
latter in his noble library at Florence. The like vifits
he received from foreign ambaffadors and other ftrangers
of dillinCtion ; who were curious to fee a perfon whole
Angular opinions and numerous writings had made fa
much noife all over Europe. In 1672, he wrote his
own life in Latin verfe, when, as he obferves, he had
completed his 84th year ; and, in 1674, he publilhed
in Englifh verfe four books of Homer’s Odyffey; which
was fo well received, that it encouraged him to under¬
take the whole Iliad and Odyfiey, which he likewife
performed and publilhed in 1675. About this time
he took his leave of London, and went to fpend the
remainder of his days in Derbyfhire : where, however,
he did not renwn inactive, notwithftanding his ad-
■ vancsd
HOB L 603 1 HOB
Hobbes, vanced age ; but publiflied from time to time feveral
—-v~~' pieces, to be found in the colledtion of his works. He
died in 1679, aged 92.
As to his chara&er and manners, they are thus de-
fcribed by Dr White Kennet, in his Memoirs of the
Cavendiih family. “ The earl of Devonfhire (fays
he) for his whole life entertained Mr Hobbes in his
family, as his old tutor, rather than as his friend or
coniident. He let him live under his roof in eafe and
plenty, and in his own way, without making ufe of him
in any public, or fo much as domeftic affairs. He
would often exprefs an abhorrence of fome of his prin¬
ciples in policy and religion ; and both he and his lady
would frequently put off the mention of his name, and
fay, ‘ He was a humorift, and nobody could account
for him.’ There is a tradition in the family, of the
manners and cuftoms of Mr Hobbes, fdmewhat obfer-
vable. His profeffed rule of health was to dedicate
the morning to his exercife, and the afttrroon to his
ftudies. And therefore, at his firlt rifing, he walked
out, and climbed any hill within his reach; or if the
weather was not dry, he fatigued himfelf within doors
by fome exercife or other, to be in a fweat: recom¬
mending that pra&ice upon this opinion, that an old
man had move moifture than beat, and therefore by
fuch motion heat was to be acquired and moifture ex¬
pelled. After this, he took a comfortable breakfaff ;
and then went round the lodgings to wait upon the
carl, the countefs, and the children, and any confider-
able ffrangers, paying fome ftiort addreffes to all of
them. He kept thefe rounds till about 12 o’clock,
when he had a little dinner provided for him, which
he eat always by himfelf without ceremony. Soon af¬
ter dinner he retired to his ftudy, and had his candle
with 10 or 12 pipes of tobacco laid by him ; then (hut¬
ting his door, he fell to fmoking, thinking, and wri¬
ting, for feveral hours. He retained a friend or two at
court, and efpecially the lord Arlington, to proteft
him if occafion fhould require. He ufed to fay, that
it was lawful to make ufe of ill inftruments to do our-
felves good : ‘ If I were caff (fays he) into a deep pit,
and the devil Ihould put down his cloven foot, I would
take hold of it to be drawn out by it.’ After the re-
ftoration, he watched all opportunities to ingratiate him¬
felf with the king and his prime minifters; and looked
* upon his penfion to be more valuable, as an earneft of
favour and prote&ion, than upon any other account.
His future courfe of life was to be free from dan¬
ger. He could not endure to be left in an empty
houfe. Whenever the earl removed, he would go along
with him, even to his laft ftage, from Chatfworth to
Hardwick. When he was in a very weak condition,
he dared not to be left behind, but made his way upon a
feather-bed in a coach, though he furvived the journey
but a few days. He could not bear any difcourfe of
death, and feemed to caff off all thoughts of it : he
delighted to reckon upon longer life. The winter be¬
fore he died, he made a warm coat, which he faid mull
laft -him three years, and then he would have fuch an-
<other. In his lad ficknefs his frequent queltions were,
Whether his difeafe was curable? and when intimations
were given, that he might have eafe, But no remedy,
he ufed this expteflion, ‘ I IhallTre glad to find a hole
to creep out of the world at which are reported to
have been his lail fenfxble words j and his lying fome
days following in a filent ftupefa&ion, did feem owing Hobbes*
to his mind more than to his body.” II
The reverend Mr Granger obferves, that Hobbes’s "° aj
ftyle is incomparably better than that of any other wri¬
ter in the reign of Charles I. and was for its uncom¬
mon llrength and purity fcarcely equalled in the fuc-
ceeding reign. “ He has in tranflation (fays he)
done Thucydides as much juflice as he has done injury
to Homer; but he looked upon himfelf as born for
much greater things than treading in the fteps of his
predeceffors. He was for ftriking out new paths in
fcience, government, and religion; and for removing
the land-marks of former ages. His ethics have a
ttrong tendency to corrupt our morals, and his politics
to deftroy that liberty which is the birthright of every
human creature. He is commonly reprefented as a
fceptic in religion, and a dogmatift in philofophy ; but
he was a dogmatift. in both. The main principles of
his Leviathan are.as little founded in moral or evan¬
gelical truths, as the rules he has laid down for fqua-
ring the circle are in mathematical demonllration. His
book on human nature is efteeraed the bell of his
works.”
HOBBIMA (Minderhout), an eminent landfcape
painter, was born about the year 1611 at Antwerp;
but the mailer from whom he received his inftruclion
is not known. He Audit’d entirely after nature,
Iketching every feene that afforded him pleafure, and
his choice was exceedingly pi&urefque. His grounds
are always agreeably broken, and he was particularly
fond of deferibing (lopes diverfified with (hrubs, plants,
or trees, which conduced the eye to fome building,
ruin, grove, or piece of water, and frequently to a de¬
licate remote diftar.ee, every objeifl perfpedlively con¬
tributing to delude our obfervation to that point. The
figures which he himfelf defrgned are but indifferent,
which was a defe& imputable to Claude Lorraine and
Gafpar Pouffin as well as to Hobbrma ; but the lat¬
ter, confcious of his inability in that re(pe£l, admitted
but few figures into his dtfigns, and thofe he ufually
placed fomewhat removed from the immediate view at
a prudent diftance from the front line. However,
molt of his pi&ures were fupplied with figures by
Oftade, Teniers, and other very famous mailers, which
muff always give them a great additional value. They
are now exceedingly fcarce, and mduitrioufly fought
for.
HOBBY, the name of a hawk called by fome au¬
thors fubbuteo. See Falco.
It is a hawk of the lure, and not of the fill; and is
very like the faker, only much lefs. It makes excel¬
lent fport with net and fpaniels ; for when the birds
fee the hobby, they dare not commit thcmfelves to
the wing, but lie clofe to the ground, and fo are ta-i
ken in nets.
Hobby is alfo a name formerly given to ftrong ac¬
tive horfes of a middling (ize : they are reported to
have been originally natives of Ireland, and were much
liked and ufed. Nags anfwer the fame defeription as
to lize, qualities, and employments.
HOBGOBLIN is a name vulgarly applied to fai¬
ries or apparitions. Skinner calls the word robgoblms,
and derives it from Robin Goodfellow, Hob being the
nick name of Robin: but Wallis and Junius, with
greater probability, derive it from hobgoblins, etnbufa,
4 F * becaufe
HOD l 604 T HOE
becaufe they are fuppofed to hop without moving both
their feet.
HOBLERS, or Hobilers, Hebelarii, in our an¬
cient cuftoms, were men who, by their tenure, were
obliged to maintain a light horfe or hobby, for the cer¬
tifying any invafion towards the fea-fide.—The name
was alfo ufed for certain Irifh knights, who ufed to
ferve as light horfemen upon hobbies.
HOB-NAIL, a nail with a thick ftrong head, ufed
in fhoeing a hobby or little horfe.
HOB NOB, or Hab-nab, a cant word formed from
hap ne hap, and denoting an event which happens at
random or by mere chance.
HOBOO, a name given by the people of Otaheite,
and in the neighbouring iflands of the South Sea, to
their fuperfine cloth. It is the thinneft and molt fi-
„ nilhed preparation of the aouta.
HOBSHEE-coffrees, a kind of Abyffinian flaves
very frequent in the empire of Hindoftan. They
come moftly from a province fubje£t to the Negus of
Ethiopia, called Innariah, to the fouth of his other
dominions, and bordering upon Negroeland in Africa;
from whence they are fele&ed, and a great traffic
made of them over all Mogoliftan and Perfia ; but it is
chiefly from the ports of Arabia and the Red Sea that
they are brought. Nothing can be imagined more
fmooth or glofly, and perfectly black, than their fkin ;
in which they far furpafs the negroes on the coaft of
Guinea ; and, generally fpeaking, have not any thing
of their thick lips, though otherwife as woolly haired
as they. They are highly valued for their courage, fi¬
delity, and fhrewdnefs ; in which they'fo far excel, as
often to rife to polls of great honour, and are made
governors of places under the tilltz' Siddees.
HOBSON’s-choice, a vulgar proverbial expreffion,
applied to that kind of choice in which there is no al¬
ternative. It is faid to be derived from the name of a
carrier at Cambridge, who let out hackney horfes, and
obliged each cuftomer to take in his turn that horfe
which flood next the liable door.
HOCUS-POCUS, a cant expreffion with which
the exhibitors of legerdemain tricks generally preface
their feats. They are thought to be derived from that
arch legerdemain trick of the Romifh priefls convert¬
ing the facramental bread into Deity ; in which won¬
derful metamorphofis the words hoc efl corpus made a
confpicuous part of the ceremony, and which words
may be confidered as the probable root of our modern
hocus-pocus*
HOD, a fort of tray for carrying mortar, in ufe a-
mong bricklayers.
HODEGOS, a term purely Greek, fignify-
Jng guide. The word is chiefly ufed as the title ©f a
book compofed by Anaftafius the Sinate, towards the
clofe of the fifth century; being a method of depu¬
ting againft the heretics, particularly the Acephali.
Mr Toland has alfo publifhed a diflertation under the
fame title. Its fubjeft is the pillar of fire, &c. which
went before the Ifraelites as a guide in the defart.
HODGE-PODGE. See Hotch-pot.
HODMAN, a cant term formerly ufed fora young
fcholar admitted from Weftminfter-fchool to be fludent
in Chrift-church in Oxford.
HODY (Humphry), a learned Englifh divine, was
bom ia 1659. At 21 years of age, he publifhed his ce¬
lebrated Diffirtation againfl Ariflaeus’s hiflory of the 70
interpreters; which was received with great applaufe
by all the learned, Ifaac Voflius excepted, who could
not bear to have his opinions oppofed by fuch a youth.
Twenty years after, he treated the fubjed more fully"
in his De Bibliorum textlbus onginalilus, verfionibus
Grccis fs? Latina vulgata, libri IV. In 1689, he
wrote the Prologomena to John Melala’s Chronicle,
printed at Oxford ; and the year after was made chap¬
lain to Dr Stillingfleet bilhop of Worcefter. The
deprivation of the nonjuring bifhops engaged him in
a controverfy with Mr Dodwell; which recommended
him to archbiflrop Tillotfon, to whom, and his fuc-
cefibr Dr Tennifon, he was domeflic chaplain. In
1698 he was made regius profeflbr of the Greek
tongue at Oxford, and archdeacon of Oxford in 1704.
On occafion of the controverfy about the convocation,,
he, in 1701, publifhed A hiftory of Englifh councils
and convocations, and of the clergy’s fitting in parlia¬
ment, &c. He died in 1706, leaving in MS. An ac¬
count of thofe learned Grecians who retired to Italy
on the taking of Conflantinople, &c. which was pub¬
lifhed in 1742 by Dr Jebb.
HOE, or How, a hufbandman’s tool, made like a
cooper’s adz, to cut up weeds in gardens, fields, &c.
This inftrument is of great ufe, and ought to be much
more employed than it is in hacking and clearing the
feveral corners and patches of land in fpare times of
the year, which would be no fmall advantage to it.
Horfe-HoE a large kind of hoe drawn by horfes, and
ufed to ftir the intervals in the new hufbandry, and
clear the corn from weeds. See Agriculture.
HOEING, in the new hu/bandry, is the breaking or
dividing the foil by tillage while the corn or other
plants are growing thereon.— It differs from common
tillage (which is always performed before the corn
or plants are fown or planted) in the time of per¬
forming it; and it is much mpre beneficial to the
crops than any other tillage. This fort of tillage is per¬
formed various ways, and by means of different inflru-
ments, as defcribed under the article Agriculture.
HOEI-tcheou, the moft fouthern city of the pro¬
vince of Kiang-nan in China, and one of the richeft of
the empire. The people are economical and temperate,
but they are adlive and enterprifing in trade : they boail
of their tea, varnifh, and engravings, which are indeed
the moft efteemed in China. It has dependent upon
it fix cities of the third clafs ; the mountains which
furround this canton contain gold, filver, and copper
mines.
HOEMATOPUS, in ornithology ; a genus of
birds, of the order of grallae. It has a long eom-
preffed bill, with the end cuneated ; the noftrils are
linear, and the feet have only three toes. There is
but one fpecies, the oftralegus, fea-pie, or oyfler-
catcher. They' are very common on moft of our
coafts; feeding on marine infefts, oyfters, limpets, &c.
Their bills, which are compreffed fideways, and end
obtufely, are very fit inftruments to infinuate between
the limpet and the rock to which thefe fhells adhere ;
which they do with great dexterity to get at the fifh.
On the coaft of France, where the tides recede fo far
as to leave the beds of oyfters bare, thefe birds feed
on them, forcing the fhells open with their bills.
They keep in fummer-time in pairs, laying their eggs
4 on
HOG
Hoffman on the bare ground : they lay four ot a whitifh-brown
Hog. }iue) thinly fpotted and ftriped with black ; and when
any one approaches their young, they make a loud
and Ihrill noife. In winter they affemble in vaft flocks,
and are very wild. The head, neck, fcapulars, and
coverts of the wings of this bird, are of a fine black;
in fome the neck is marked with white ; the wings
dulky, with a broad tranfverfe band of white ; the
bill three inches long, and of a rich orange colour.
HOFFMAN, the name of feveral eminent phyfi-
cians ; of whom Maurice Hoffman, and John Maurice
Hoffman his fon, pra&ifed at Altorf. Maurice died
in 1698, leaving behind him many works; and was
fucceeded by his fon John Maurice, who wrote as well
as his father, and died in 1727, highly efteemed by
the faculty.—Frederic Hoffman, probably of the fame
family, was born at Magdeburg in 1660. The prin¬
cipal known circumftances of his life are, his journey
into Holland and England, where 'he became inti¬
mately acquainted with Paul Herman and Robert
Boyle ; never taking any fees, being fupported by his
annual flipend ; his curing the emperor Charles VI.
and Frederic L king of Pruffia of inveterate difeafes;
to which may be added, his accurate knowledge of the
nature and virtues of mineral waters. He furvived
his 80th year; and his w'orks, which are in great
efleem, were printed in fix volumes folio at Geneva,
in 1740.
HOFP’MANISTS, in ecclefiaflical hiftory, denote
thofe who efpoufed the fentiments of Daniel Hoffmann,
profeffor of the univerfity of Helmfladt, who, from the
year 1598, maintained, that philofophy was a mortal
enemy to religion ; and that what was true in philofo¬
phy was falfe in theology. Thefe abfurd and perni¬
cious tenets occafioned a warm and extenfive contro-
verfy : at length Hoffmann was compelled by Julius
duke of Brunfwick to retraft his inve&ives againft
philofophy, and to acknowledge, in the moft open
manner, the harmony and union of found philofophy
with true and genuine theology.
HOG, in zoology. See Strs.
Hog, on board of a fhip, is a fort of flat fcrubbing
broom, fonried by inclofing a number of fhort twigs
of birch or fuch wood between two pieces of plank
fattened together, and cutting off the ends of the
twigs, and ferving to fcrape the filth from a fhip’s
bottom under water, particularly in the act of boot¬
topping. For this purpofe they fit to this broom a
long ftaff with two ropes; one of which is ufed to
thruft the hog under the fhip’s bottom, and the other
to guide and pull it up again clofe to the planks. This
bufinefs is commonly performed in the fhip’s boat,
which is confined as clofe as poffible to the veffel’S fide
during the operation, and fhifted from one part of the
fide to another till the whole is completed.
Hog’s Hung is by Mortimer reckoned one of the
richeft manures we are acquainted with, and the next
in value to fheep’s dung; and is found to be equal in
virtue to twice the quantity of any other dung except
this. The ancients feem to have been difpleafed with
it on account of its breeding weeds ; but this is only
accufing it of being too rich, for any dung will do
this when laid too thick. It is an excellent manure
fprpafture-grounds, and excels all other kinds of dung
HOG
for trees. The farmers who ufe this dung for their Hog,
lands, generally take care to fave it, by well-paving Hogarth.^
the ftyes; and increafe the quantity by throwing in v '“<
bean-ftalks, Hubble, and many other things of a like
nature : and, by good management of this kind, many
farmers have procured 50 or 60 loads of excellent
manure a year out of a fmall ftye. The very belt way
of ufing this dung is by mixing it with horfe-dung;
and for this reafon it is beft to have the ftye near the
ftable, that the two cleanfings may be mixed in one
heap, and ufed together.
They have in many parts of Staffordfhire a poor,
light, fhallow land, bn which they fow a kind of white
pea : the land ‘is neither able to bear this nor any
thing elfe to advantage for their reaping ; but, when,
the peas are ripe, they turn in as many hogs as the
quantity of peafe will fatten, fuffering them to live at
large, and to remain there day and night: in confe-
quence of this, the land wull produce good crops of
hay for feveral years afterwards ; or, if too poor for
that, it will at worft raife grafs enough to make it
good pafture-ground.
Hog’s Lard. See AxungiA.
HOGARTH (William), a truly great and origi¬
nal genius, is faid by Dr Burn to have been the de-
fcendant of a family originally from Kirkby Thore, in
Weftmoreland. His father, who had been a fchoolmafter
in the fame county, went early to London, where he was
employed as a corre&or of the prefs ; and appears to
have been a man of fome learning, a diftionary in La¬
tin and Englilh, which he compofed for the ufe of.
fchools, being ftill exifting in MS. He married in
London ; and kept a fchool in Ship-Court, in the Old-
Bailey. Our hero was born in 1697 or 1698, in the
parifh of St Martin Ludgate. The outfet of his life,
however, was unpromifing. “ He was bound,” fays
Mr Walpole, “ to a mean engraver of arms on plate.”
Hogarth probably chofe this occupation, as it requi¬
red fome (kill in drawing; to which his genius was par¬
ticularly turned, and which he contrived afiiduoufly to
cultivate. His mafter, it fince appears, was Mr Ellis
Gamble, a filverfmith of eminence, who refided in Cran-
bourn-ftreet, Leicefter-fields. Id this profelfion it is
not unufual to bind apprentices to the Angle branch of
engraving arms and cyphers on every fpecies of metal ;
and in that particular department of the bufinefs young
Hogarth was placed ; “ but, before his time was ex-
“ pired, he felt the imjpulfe of genius, and that it di-
“ reded him to painting.” During his apprentice-
fliip, he fet out one Sunday, with two or three com¬
panions, on an excuriion to Highgate. The weather
being hot, they went into a public-houfe, where they
had not been long before a quarrel arofe between fome
perfons in the fame room. One of the difputants ftruck
the other on the head with a quart pot, and cut him
very much. The blood running down the man’s face,
together with the agony of the wound, which£ad dif-
torted his features into a mod hideous grin, prefented
Hogarth, who fhowed himfelf thus early “ apprifed
of the mode Nature had intended he fliould purfue,”'
with too laughable a fubjed to be overlooked. He
drew out his pencil, and produced on the fpot one of
the mod ludicrous figures that ever was feen. What.
rendered this piece the^ more valuable was, that it ex¬
hibited;
[ 605 1
HOG l 606 ] HOG
Hogarth, hibited an exaft likenefs of the man, with the portrait
of his antagonift, and the figures in caricature of the
principal perfons gathered round him.
How long he continued in obfcurity we cannot ex-
aftly learn ; but the firft piece in which he diftinguilhed
himfelf as a painter is fuppofed to have been a repre-
fcntation of Wanftead Affembly. The figures in it,
we are told, were drawn from the life, and without
any circumttances of burlefque. The faces were faid
to be extremely like, and the colouring rather better
than in fdme of his late and more highly finifhed per¬
formances. From the date of the earlieft plate that
can be afcertained to be the work of Hogarth, it may
be prefurmtd that he began bufinefs on his own ac¬
count at leaft as early as 1720.
His firft employment feems to have been the engra¬
ving of arms and ihop bills. The next was to defign
and furnifh plates for bookfellers. Mr Bowles, at the
Black Horfe in Cornhill, was one of his earlieft pa¬
trons, whofe prices were very low. His next friend
in that line was Mr Philip Overton, who paid him
fomewhat better for his labour and ingenuity.
There are ftill many family pictures by Hogarth
■exifting, in the ftyle of ferious converfation-pieces.
What the prices of his portraits were, Mr Nichols
ftrove in vain to difcover ; but he fufpects they were
■originally very low, as the people who are beft ac¬
quainted with them choofe to be filent on that fubjeft.
It happened, in the early part of Hogarth’s life, that
•a nobleman who was uncommonly ugly and deformed
•came to fit to him for his pidlure. It was executed
with a fkill that did honour to the artift’s abilities;
but the likenefs was rigidly obferved, without even the
-neceffary attention to compliment or flattery. The
peer, difgufted at this counterpart of his dear felf, ne¬
ver once thought of paying for a refleAor that would
only infult him with his deformities. Some time was
fuliered to elapfe before the artift applied for his mo¬
ney ; but afterwards many applications were made by
him (who had then no need of a banker) for payment,
without fuccefs. The painter, however, at laft hit
upon an expedient, which he knew muft alarm the
nobleman’s pride, and by that means anfwer his pur-
pofe. It was couched in the following card : “ Mr
Hogarth’s dutiful refpe&s to lord   ; finding that
he does not mean to have the picture which was drawn
for him, is informed again of Mr H.’s necefiity for the
money : if, therefore, his lordlhip does not fend for
it in three days, it will be difpofed of, with the addb
tion of a tail, and fome other little appendages, to
Mr Hare, the famous wild-beaft man ; Mr H. having
given that gentleman a conditional promife of it for an
exhibition-picture on his lordfhip’s refufal.” This
intimation had the defired effect. The pidture was
fent home, and committed to the flames.
Mr Walpole has remarked, that if our artift “ in¬
dulged his fpirit of ridicule in perfonalities, it never
proceeded beyond Iketches and drawings and won¬
ders “ that he never, without intention, delivered the
very features of any identical pcrfon.”J Mr Nichols af-
fures us, from unqueftionable authority, that almoft all
the perfonages who attend the levee of the Rake were
undoubted portraits ; and that in “ Southwark Fair,”
^nd the “ Modem Midnight Converfation,” as many
more were dlfcoverable. While Hogarth was painting Hogarth,
the “ Rake’s Progrefs,” he had a fummer refidence ' llJ
at Ifleworth; and never failed to queftion the compa¬
ny who came to fee thefe piftures, if they knew for
whom one or another figure was defigned. When they
guefied w’rong, he fet them right.
The Duke of Leeds has an original feene in the
“ Beggar’s Opera,” painted by Hogarth. It is that
in which Lucy and Polly are on their knees, before
their refpe&ive fathers, to intercede for the life of the
hero of the piece. All the figures are either known
or fuppofed to be portraits. If we are not mifinformed,
the late Sir Thomas Robinfon (perhaps better known
by the name of Long Sir Thomas) is ftanding in one
of the fide-boxes. Macheath, unlike his fpruce repre1-
fentative on our prefent ftage, is a flouching bully;
and Polly appears happily difencumbered of fuch a
hoop as the daughter of Peachtim within our younger
memories has worn. Mr Walpole has a pifture of a
feene in the fame piece, where Macheath is going to
execution. In this alfo the likeneffes of Walker and
Mifs Fenton, afterwards duchefs of Bolton (the firft
and original Macheath and Polly) are preferved. In
the year 1726, v/hen the affair of Mary Tofts, the
rabbit-breeder of Godaiming, engaged the public at¬
tention, a few of our principal furgeons fubferibed
their guinea a piece to Hogarth, for an engraving
from a ludicrous Iketch he had made on that very po¬
pular fubjtft. This plate, amongft other portraits,
contains that of the St Andre, then anatomift to the
royal houfehold, and in high credit as a furgeon. In
1727, Hogarth agreed with Morris, an upholfter-
er, to furnifh him with a defign on canvas, repre-
fenting the element of earth, as a pattern for tape-
ftry. The work not being performed to the fatisfac-
tion of Morris, he refufed to pay for it ; and our ar¬
tift, by a fuit at law, recovered the money.
In 1730, Mr Hogarth married the only daughter
of Sir James Thornhill, by whom he had no child.
This union, indeed, was a ftolen one, and confequent-
ly without the approbation of Sir James, who, confi-
dering the vouth of his daughter, then barely 18, and
the (lender "finances of her huiband, as yet an obfeure
artift, was not eafily reconciled to the match. Soon
after this period, however, he began his “ Harlot’s
Progrefs” (the coffin in the laft place is inferibed Sept.
2. *731); and was advifed by lady Thornhill to have
fome of the feenes in it placed in the way of his father-
in-law. Accordingly, one morning early, Mrs Ho¬
garth undertook to convey feveral of them into his
dining-room. When he arofe, he inquired from
whence they came ; and being told by whom they
were introduced, he cried out, “ Very well; the man
who can furniffi reprefentations like thefe can alfo
maintain a wife without a portion.” He defigned this
remark as an excufe for keeping his purfe-firings clofe ;
but, foon after, became both reconcilfid and generous
to the young people. An allegorical cieling by Sir
James Thornhill is at the houfe of the late Mr Hug¬
gins, at Headly Park, Hants. The fubjeft of it is
the ftory of Zephyrus and Flora ; and the figure of
a fatyr and fome others Were painted by Hogarth.
In 1732, Hogarth ventured to attack Mr Pope, in
a plate called “ The Man of Tafte containing a
view
HOG [ 607 ] HOG
Wogarth. view of the Gate of Burlington-houfc, with Pope
whitewafliing it and befpattering the duke of Chandos’s
coach. This plate was intended as a fatire on the
tranflator of Homer, Mr Kent the architeft, and the
earl of Burlington. It was fortunate for Hogarth that
he efcaped the lafh of the former. Either Hogarth’s
obfcurity at that time was his prote&ion, or the bard
was too prudent to exafperate a painter who had already
given fuch proof of his abilities for fatire.
Soon after his marriage, Hogarth had fummer lodg¬
ings at South-Lambeth ; and being intimate with Mr
Tyers, contributed to the improvement of the Spring
Gardens at Vauxhall, by the hint of embellilhing them
with paintings, forne* of which were the fuggeftions
of his own truly comic pencil. For his affiilance,
Mr Tyres gratefully prefented him with a gold ticket
of admiffion for himfelf and his friends.
In 1733, his genius became confpicuoufly known.
The third fcene of his “ Harlot’s Progrefs” introdu¬
ced him to the notice of the great. At a board of
treafury which was held a day or two after the ap¬
pearance of that print, a copy of it was ihown by one
of the lords, as containing, among other excellencies,
a ftriking likenefs of Sir John Gonfon. It gave uni-
verfal fatisfa&ion : from the treafury each lord repaired
to the print-fhop for a copy of it, and Hogarth rofe
completely into fame.
The ingenious Abbe Du Bos has often complained
that no hiftory-painter of his time went through a fe-
ries of a&ions, and thus, like an hiftorian, painted the
fucceffive fortune of an hero from the cradle to the
grave. What Du Bos wilhed to fee done, Hogarth
performed. He lanches out his young adventurer
a fimple girl upon the town, and conduits her through
all the viciffitudes of wretchednefs to a premature
death. This was painting to the underftanding and
to the heart; none had ever before made the pencil
fubfervient to the purpcfes of morality and intlruc-
tion : a book like this is fitted to every >foil and every
obferver ; and he that runs may read. Nor was the
fuccefs of Hogarth confined to his perfons. One of
his excellencies confifted in what may be termed the
furniture of his pieces; for as, in fublime and hillori-
cal reprefentations, the fewer trivial circumftances are
permitted to divide the fpe&ator’s attention from the
principal figures, the greater is their force; fo, in
fcenes copied from familiar life, a proper variety of
little domeftic images contributes to throw a degree of
verifimilitude on the whole. “ The Rake’s levee-
room,” fays Mr Walpole, “ the nobleman’s dining¬
room, the apartments of the hufband and wife in
Marriage a la Mode, the alderman’s parlour, the bed¬
chamber, and many others, are the hiftory of the man¬
ners of the age.”
In 1745, Hogarth fold about 20 of his capital pic¬
tures by audtion ; and in the fame year acquired addi¬
tional reputation by the fix prints of “ Marriage a la
Mode,” which may be regarded as the ground-work of
a novel called “ The Marriage A<ft,” by Dr Sheb-
beare, and of “ The Clandeftine Marriage.”
Soon after the peace of Aix la Chapelle, he went
over to France, and was taken into cuftody at Calais
while he was drawing the gate of that town; a cir-
cumftance which he has recorded in his picture, inti-
,tledf “ O the Roaft Beef of Old England 1” pub-
liftred March 26. 1749. He was actually carried be- Hogarth,
fore the governor as a fpy, and after a very ftricft exa- v ,J
mination committed a prifoner to Granfire, his land¬
lord, on his promifing that Hogarth ftrould not go out
of his houfe till he was to embark for England. *
In 1753, he appeared to the wwld in the charadter
of an author, and publifhed a quarto volume, intitled,
“ The Analyfis of Beauty, written with a view of
fixing the fluctuating ideas of tafte.” In this per¬
formance he (hows, by a variety of examples, that a
curve is the line of beauty, and that round fwelling
figures are moft: pleafing to the eye ; and the truth of
his opinion has been countenanced by fubfequent wri¬
ters on the fubjedt. In this work, the leading idea of
which was hieroglyphically thrown out in a frpntifpiece
to his works in 174J, he acknowledges hhnfelf indebt¬
ed to his friends for affiftance, and particularly to one
gentleman for his correftions and amendments of at
leaft a third part of the wording. This friend was Dr
Benjamin Hoadley the phyfician, who carried on the
work to about the third part, Chap. IX. and then,
through indifpofitiOn, declined the friendly oifice w>ith
regret. Mr Hogarth applied to his neighbour Mr
Ralph ; but it was impofiible for two fuch perfons to
agree, both alike vain and pofitive. He proceeded no
farther than about a (beet, and they then parted
friends, and feem to have continued..fuch. The kind
office of finiffiing the work, and fuperintending the
publication, was laftly taken up by Dr Morell, who
went through the remainder of the book. The pre¬
face was in like manner corre&ed by the Rev. Mr
Townley. The family of Hogarth rejoiced when the
laft Iheet of the “ Analyfis” was printed off; as the
frequent difputes he had with his coadjutors, in the
progrefs of the w'ork, did not much harmonize his
difpofition. This work was tranflated into German
by Mr Mylins, when in England, under the author’s,
infpection ; and the tranflation was printed in London,
price five dollars. A new and correft edition was in
1754 propofed for publication at Berlin, by Ch. Fr.
Vok, with an explanation of Mr Hogarth’s fatirical:
prints, tranflated from the French ; and an Italian,
tranflation was publiihed at Leghorn in 1761.
Hogarth had one failing in common with moft peo¬
ple who attain wealth and eminence without the aid of'
liberal education.—He affefted to defpife every kind
of knowledge which he did not poffefs. Having efta-
blifhed his fame with little or no obligation to litera¬
ture, he either conceived it to be needlefs, or decried
it becaufe it lay out of his reach. His fentiments, in
ffiort, refembled thofe of Jack Cade, who pronounced
fentence on the clerk of Chatham becaufe he could
write and read. Till, in evil hour, this celebrated ar-
tift commenced author, and was obliged to employ the
friends already mentioned to correct his “ Analyfis of
Beauty,” he did not feem to have difeovered that even
fpelling was a neceffary qualification ; and yet he had
ventured to ridicule the late Mr Rich’s deficiency as,
to this particular, in a note which lies before the Rake
whofe play is refufed while he remains in confinement
for debt. Previous to the time of which we are now
fpeaking, one of our artift’s common topics of decla¬
mation was the ufeleffncfs of books to a man of his
profeffion. In “ Beer-ftreet,” among other volumes,
configned by him to the paltry.cook, we find Turn-
hull;
HOG [ 608 ] HOG
Hogarth, bull «‘.0rt Ancient Painting ;,La treatife which Ho-
v garth fliould have been able to underftand before he
ventured to condemn. Garrick himfelf, however, was
not mote du&ile to flattery. A word in praife of
“ Sigifmunda,” his favourite work, might have com¬
manded a proof print, or forced an original (ketch out
of our artifl’s hands. The following authenticated
dory of our artill will alfo ferve to (how how much
more eafy it is to deleft ill placed or hyperbolical adu¬
lation refpefting others than when applied to our-
felves. Hogarth being at dinner with the great Che-
felden and fome other company, was told that Mr
John Freke, furgeon of St Bartholomew’s-hofpital, a
few evenings before, at Dick’s Coffee-houfe, had af-
ferted that Greene was as eminent in compofition as
Handel. “ That fellow Freke,” repliedHogarth, “ is
always (hooting his bolt abfurdly one way or another !
Handle is a giant in mufic ; Greene only a light Flo-
rimel kind of a compofer.”—“ Aye,” fays our artift’s
informant; “ but at the fame time Mr Freke declared
you were as good a portrait-painter as Vandyck.”—
“ There he was in the right,” adds Hogarth; “ and fo
by G— I am, give me my time, and let me choofe my
dubjeft !”
A fpecimen of Hogarth’s propenfity to merriment,
on the mod trivial occafions, is obfervable ia one of
his cards-requefting the company of Dr Arnold King
to dine with him at the Mitre. Within a circle, to
which a knife and fork are the fupporters, the written
part is contained. In the centre is drawn a pye, with
a mitre on the top of it; and the invitation of our
artift concludes with the following fport on the Greek
letters—to Eta Beta Pi, The reft of the infeription
is not very accurately fpelt. A quibble by Hogarth
is furely as refpeftable as a conundrum by Swift.
In one of the early exhibitions at Spring-Gardens,
a very pleafing fmall pifture by Hogarth made its firft
appearance. It was painted for the Earl of Charle-
mont, in whofe colleftion it remains, and was mti-
tled “ Picquet, or Virtue in Danger;” and (hows us a
young lady who during a tete-a-tete had juft loft all
her money to a handfome officer of her own age. He
is reprefented in the aft of returning her a handful of
Bank bills, w ith the hope of exchanging them for a
fofter acquilition and more delicate plunder. On the
chimney-piece a watch-cafe and a figure of Time over
it, with this motto—NUNC. Hogarth has caught
his heroine during this moment of hefitation, this
ftruggle with herfelf, and has marked her feelings with
uncommon fuccefs. ,
In the “ Mifer’s Feaft,” Mr Hogarth thought pro¬
per to pillory Sir Ifaac Shard, a gentleman proverbi¬
ally avaricious. Hearing this, the fon of Sir Ifaac,
the late Ifaac-Pacatus Shard, Efq; a young man of
fpirit, juft returned from his travels, called at the
painter’s to fee the pifture ; and, among the reft, a(k-
ing the Cicerone “ whether that odd figure w'as in¬
tended for any particular perfon ;” on his replying
<£ that it was thought to be very like one Sir Ifaac
Shard,” he immediately drew his fword and (laftied the
canvas. Hogarth appeared inftantly in great wrath :
to whom Mr Shard calmly juftified what he had done,
faying “ that this was a very unwarrantable licence ;
that he was the injured party’s fon, and that he was
ready to defend any fuit at law }” which, however, was.
never inftituted.
N° 156.
About 175:7, his bro Ler-in-'aw, Mr Thornhill, re- Hogarth,
figned the place of king’s ferjeant-painter in favour of
Mr Hogarth.
The laft remarkable circumftance of his life was his
conteft with Mr Churchill. It is faid that both met
at Weftminfter-hall; Hogarth to take by his eye a ri¬
diculous likenefs of the poet, and Churchill to furnifli
a defeription of the painter. But Hogarth’s print of
the poet was not much efteemed, and the poet’s letter
to him was but little admired. Some pretend, indeed,
to fay that it broke the painter’s heart; but this we
can from good authority fay is not true. Indeed the
report falls of itfelf; for we may as well fay, that
Hogarth’s pencil was as efficacious as the poet’s pen,
fince neither long furvived the conteft.
It may be truly obferved of Hogarth, that all his
powers of delighting were reftrained to his pencil.
Having rarely been admitted into polite circles, none
of his (harp corners had been rubbed off, fo that he
continued to the laft a grofs uncultivated man. The
(lighted contradiftion tranfported him into rage. To
fome confidence in himfelf he was certainly intitled :
for, as a comic painter, he could have claimed no ho¬
nour that would not moft readily have been allowed
him ; but he was at once unprincipled and variable in
his political conduft and attachments. He is alfo faid
to have beheld the rifing eminence and popularity of
Sir Jolhua Reynolds with a degree of envy ; and, if
we are not mifinformed, frequently fpoke with- afperi-
ty both of him and his performances. Juftice, how¬
ever, obliges us to add, that our artift was liberal,
hofpitable, and the moft punftual of paymafters ; fo
that, in fpite of the emoluments his works had procu¬
red to him, he left but an inconfiderable fortune to his
widow. His plates indeed are fuch refources to her as
may not fpeedily be exhaufted. Someof his domeftics had
lived many years in his fervice ; a circumftance that al¬
ways reflefts credit on a mafter. Of moft of thefe he
painted ftrong likenefles on a canvas dill in Mrs Ho¬
garth’s poflefiion.
Of Hogarth’s lefler plates many were deftroyed.
When he wanted a piece of copper on a fudden, he
would take any from which he had already worked off
fuch a number of impreflions as he fuppofed he (hould
fell. He then fent it to be effaced, beat out, or other-
wife altered to his prefent purpofe. The plates which
remained in his pofleflion were fecured to Mrs Hogarth
by his will dated, Aug. 12. 1764, chargeable with
an annuity,of L 80 to his After Anne, who furvived
him. When, on the death of his other filler, (he left
off the bufinefs in which (he was engaged, he kindly
took her home, and generoufly fupported her, making
her at the fame time, ufeful in the difpofal of his
prints. Want of tendernefs and liberality to his rela¬
tions was not among the failings of Hogarth.
The following charafter of Hogarth as an artift is
given by Mr Gilpin in his EJfay on Prints. “ The
works of this mafter abound in true humour ; and fa-
tire, which is generally well direfted : they are admi¬
rable moral lefibns, and a fund of entertainment fuited
to every tafte ; a circumftance which (hows them to
be juft copies of nature. We may confider them too
as valuable repofitories of the manners, cuftoms, and
drefles of the prefent age. What a fund of entertain¬
ment would a colleftion of this kind afford, drawn
from every period of the hiftory of Britain l—How
HOG [ 609 1 HOG
Hogarth, far the works of Hogarth will bear a critical examina-
1 " tion, may be the fubjeft of a little more enquiry.
“In dcfign, Hogarth was feldom at a lofs. His
invention was fertile, and his judgment accurate. An
improper incident is rarely introduced, a proper one
rarely omitted. No one could tell a ftory better, or
make it in all its circumftances more intelligible. His
genius, however, it mull be owned, was fuited only to
low or familiar fubjeCts ; it never foared above common
life : to fubje&s naturally fublime, or which from an¬
tiquity or other accidents borrowed dignity, he could
not rife. In compofition we fde little in him to admire.
In many of his prints the deficiency is fo great as plainly
to imply a want of all principle; which makes us ready
to believe, that when we do meet with a beautiful
group, it is the effe& of chance. In one of his minor
works, the Idle Prentice, we feldora fee a crowd more
beautifully managed than in the laft print. If the
IherifPs officers had not been placed in a line, and had
been brought a little lower in the piflure, fo as to
have formed a pyramid with the cart, the compofition
had been unexceptionable; and yet the firft print of
this work is fuch a ftriking inftance of difagreeable
compofition, that it is amazing how an artift who had
any idea of beautiful forms could fuffer fo unmafterly
a performance to leave his hands. Of the diftribution of
light Hogarth had as little knowledge as of compofition.
In fome of his pieces we fee a good effect, as in the
isxwa&oB juft mentioned"5 in which, if the figures at
the right and left corners had been kept down a little,
the light would have been beautifully diftributed on
the fore-ground, and a fine fecondary light fpread over
part of the crowd. But at the fame time there is fo
obvious a deficiency in point of effeft in moft of his
prints, that it is very evident he had no principles.
Neither was Hogarth a mafter in drawing. Of the
mufcles and anatomy of the head and hands he had
perfect knowledge ; but his trunks are often badly
moulded, and his limbs ill fct on : yet his figures, up¬
on the Whole, are infpired with fo much life and mean¬
ing, that the eye is kept in good-humour in fpite of
its inclination to find fault. The author of the Ana-
lyfis of Beauty, it might be fuppofed, would have
given us more inftances of grace than we find in the
works of Hogarth ; which ftiows ftrongly that theory
and praftice are not always united. Many opportuni¬
ties his fubjedts naturally afford of introducing graceful
attitudes, and yet we have very few examples of them.
With inftances of pi&urefque grace his works abound.
Of his exprefion, in which the force of his genius lay, we
cannot fpeak in terms too high. In every mode of it
he was truly excellent. The paffions he thoroughly
underftood, and all the effe&s which they produce in
every part of the human frame. He had the happy
art al.fo of conveying his ideas with the fame p'recifion
with which he conceived them. He was excellent too
in expreffing any humorous oddity which we often
fee ftamped upon the human face. All his heads are
call in the very mould of nature. Hence that endlefs
variety which is difplayed thro’ his works ; and hence
it is that the difference arifes between his heads and the
affefted caricaturas of thofe mailers who have fometime*
amufed themfelves with patching together an affemblage
of features from their own ideas. Such are SpanioleL’s;
which, though admirably executed, appear plainly to
Von. VIII. Part II.
haye no archetypes in nature. Hogarth’s, on the other Hogihead
hand, are colleftions of natural curiofities. The Oxford- ^
heads, the Phyficiari’s-arms, and fome of his other pie- ° ^ 3 .
ces, are exprefsly of this humorous kind. They are
truly comic, though ill-natured effufions of mirth;
more entertaining than Spaniolet’s, as they are pure
nature ; but lefs innocent, as they contain ill-dire£ted
ridicule.—But the fpecies of expreffion in which this
mafter perhaps moft excels, is that happy art of catching
thofe peculiarities of art and gefture which the ridicu¬
lous part of every profeffion contrail, and which for
that reafon become chara&etiftic of the whole. His
counfellors, his undertakers, his lawyers, his ufurers,
are all confpicuous at fight. In a word, almoft every
profeffion may fee in his works that particular fpecies
of affeilation which they fhould moft endeavour to
avoid. Tht execution ol this, mafter is well fuited to
his fubje&s and manner of treating them. He etches
with great fpirit, and never gives one unneceffary
ftroke.”
HOGSHEAD, in commerce, a meafure of capa¬
city containing 63 gallons.
HOGUE, a town and cape on the north-weft point
of Normandy in France ; near which admiral Rook
burnt the French admiral’s (hip called the R’fmg Sun,
with 12 more large men of war, the day after the vidlory
obtained by admiral Ruffell nearCherburg in May 1692.
W. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 49. 50.
HOIST, in fea-language, denotes the perpendicu¬
lar height of a flag or enfign, as oppofed to the fly,
which fignifies its breadth from the itaff to the outer
edge.
HOISTING fignifies the operation of drawing up
any body by the affiftance of one or more tackles.
Hoifting is never applied to the aft of pulling up any
body by the help of a fingle block, except in the ex-
ercife of extending the fails by drawing them upwards
along the mafts or ftays, to which it is invariably ap¬
plied.
HOKE-dav, Hock Day, or Hock Tuefday, in our
ancient cuftoms (dies Martis, quem quindenam pafcha va¬
cant), the fecond Tuefday after Eafter week; a folemn
feftival celebrated for many ages in England in memory
of the great flaughter of the Danes in the time of king
Ethelred, they having been in that reign almoft all de-
ftroyed in one day in different parts of the kingdom,
and that principally by W’omen. This is ftill kept up
in fome counties ; and the women bear the principal
fway in it, flopping all paffengers with ropes and chains,
and exafting fome fmall matter from them to make
merry with. This day was very remarkable in former
times, infomuch as to be ufed on the fame footing with
Michaelmas for a general term or time of account. We
find leafes without date referving fo much rent payable
ad duos anni lerminos, fed. ad le hoke-day, fsf ad fefum
fancli Michaelis. In the accounts of Magdalen-college,
Oxford, there is yearly an allowance pro mulieribus
hockantibus of fome manors of theirs in Hampihire ;
where the men hock the women on Mondays, and the
women hock them on Tuefdays. The meaning of it
is, that on that day the women in merriment (topped
the way with ropes, and pulled paffengers to them,
defiring fomething to be laid out for pious ufes.
Hoke-Day Money, or Hoke 'Tuefday Money, a tribute
anciently paid the landlord, for giving his tenants and
4 G bondmen
H O L [ 61
Ho ki«n, bendmen leave to celebrate hock-day, or hoke-day, in
, Holbein. memory 0f the expullion of the domineering Danes.
~rv~ HO-KIEN-fou, a city of China, and one of the
principal in the province of Pe-tcheli. It has two ci¬
ties of the fecond, and fifteen of the third, clafs in its
diftrift, but is remarkable for nothing but the neatnefs
ef its ftreets.
HOLBEIN (Hans), a celebrated painter, born at
Bafil in Switzerland in t498, learned the rudiments
of his art from his father, who was a painter ; but
foon fhowed his fuperior genius. In the town-houfe
of Bafil he painted our Saviour’s Pafiion ; and in the
fiih-market of the fame city Death’s Dance, and a
Dance of Peafants, which were extremely admired ;
and Erafmus was fo pleafed with them, that he dcfired
him to draw his pi&ure, and was ever after his friend.
He ftaid fome years longer at Bafil, till his neceffities,
occafioned by his own extravagance and an increafing
family, made him comply with Erafmus’s perfuafions
to go to England. In his journey he ftaid fome days
at Strafburg, where it is faid he applied to a very great
painter for work, who took him in, and ordered him
to give a fpecimen of his {kill. On which Holbein fi-
nilhed a piece with great care, and painted a fly on the
moft eminent part of it ; after which he privately with¬
drew in the abfence of his mafter, and purfued his jour¬
ney, without faying any thing to any body. When
the painter returned home, he was aftonifhed at the
beauty and elegance of the, drawing ; and efpecially at
the fly, which he at firft took for a real one, and en¬
deavoured to remove it with his hand. Pie now fent all
over the city for his journeyman ; but after many in¬
quiries, difcovered that he had been thus deceived by
the famous Holbein.— Holbein having in a manner
begged his way to England, prefented a letter of re¬
commendation from Erafmus to Sir Thomas More, and
alfo fliowed him Eiafmus’s pidure. Sir Thomas, who
was then lord chancellor, received him with all the joy
imaginable,, and kept him in his houfe between two
• and three years ; in which time he drew Sir Thomas’s
picture, and thofe of many of his relations and friends.
Holbein one day happening to mention a nobleman
, who had fome years before invited him to P*ngland,
Sir Thomas was very folicitous to know who it was.
Holbein faid that he had forgot his title, but remem¬
bered his face fo well, that be believed he could draw
his likenefs; which he did fo perfedly, that the noble¬
man it is faid -was immediately known by it. The
chancellor having now adorned his apartments with the
produdions of this great painter, refolved to introduce
him to Henry VIII. For this purpofe, he invited
that prince to an entertainment; having, before he
came, hung up all Holbein’s pieces in the great hall,
in the heft order, and placed in the heft light. The
king, on bis firft entrance into this room, was fir
charmed with the fight, that he alked whether fuch an
artift was now alive, and to be had for money ? Upon
this, Sir Thomas prefented Holbein to his majefty ;
who immediately-took him into his fervice, and brought
him into great efteem with the nobility and gentry, by
which means he drew a vaft number of portraits. But
while he was here, there happened an affair which^
might have proved fatal to him, had he not been pro-
teded by the king. On the report of this painter’s
fiharader, a lord of the firft quality came to fee him
o ] H O L
when he was drawing a figure after the life. Holbein Holbein
fent to defire his lordfliip to defer the honour of his II
vHit to another day; which the nobleman taking for Holc*' .
an affront, broke open the door, and very ruddy went v
up flairs. Holbein hearing a noife, came out of his
chamber; and meeting the lord at his door, fell into a
violent pafiion, and pulhed him backwards from the
top of the flairs to the bottom. However, immediate¬
ly refleding on what he had done, he efcaped from the
tumult he had raifed, and made the heft of his way to
the king. The nobleman, much hurt, though not fo
much as he pretended, was there foon after him ; and
upon opening his grievance, the king ordered Holbein
to alk his pardon. But this only irritated the noble¬
man the more, who would not be fatisfied with lefs
than his life ; upon which the king ftetnly replied,
“ My lord, you have not now to do with Holbein,
but with me : whatever punifhment you may contrive
by way of revenge againft him, {hall certainly be in-
flided on yourfelf. Remember, pray, my lord, that
I can whenever I pleafe make feven lords of feven
ploughmen, but I cannot make one Holbein of even
feven lords.” Holbein died of the plague ‘at his lodge-
ings at Whitehall in 1554. “ It is amazing (fays De
Piles), that a man born in Switzerland, and who had
never been in Italy, {honld have fo good a gujio, and fo
fine a genius for painting.” He painted alike in every
manner; in frefco, in water-colours, in oil, and in
miniature. His genius was fufficiently ftiown in the
hiftorical ftyle, by two celebrated compofltions which
he painted in the hall of the Stillyard company. He
was alfo eminent for a rich vein of invention, wh;ch he
{bowed in a multitude of defigns which he drew for
engravers, ftatuaries, jewellers, &c. and he had this
fingularity, that he painted with his left hand.
HOLCUS, Indian millet or corn : A genus of
the monoecia order, belonging to the polygamia clafs
of plants ; and in the natural method ranking under the
4th order, Gramma. The calyx of the hermaphrodite
is an uniflorous or biflorous glume ; the corolla is a
glume with an awn; there are three ftamina, two
ftyles, and one feed. The male calyx is a bivalved
glume ; there is no corolla, but three ftamina.
Species. Of this genus there are 13 fpecies, two of
which are natives of Britain. The moft remarkable oP
thefe is the lanatus, or creeping foft-grafsof Hudfon; for
the defeription and properties of which fee Agricul¬
ture, n° 59. The moft remarkable of the foreign
fpecies is the forghum, or Guinea-corn. The ftalks
are large, compaft, and fu l eight feet high. In Se¬
negal the fields are entirely covered with it. The ne- Pfate
groes, who call it guiarnot, cover the ears when ripe CCXXX.V*
with its own leaves to (belter it from the fparrows,
which are very mifehievous in that' country. The
grain made into bread, or otherwife ufed, is etleemed
very wholtfome. With this the flaves in the Weft
Indies are generally fed, each being allowed from a
pint to a quart every day. The juice of the (talks is
fo agreeably lufeious, that, if prepared as the fugar-
canes, they would afford an excellent fugar. The ne¬
groes on the coaft of Guinea make of two kinds of
millet a thick-grained pap caWcAcoufeous, which is their
common food.
HOLD, the whole interior cavity or belly of a
(hip, or all that part of her infide which is comprd-
H O L [ <
Holder hended between the floor and the lower-deck through-
^ out her whole length.—This capacious apartment ufu-
worth' all7 contains the ballaft, proviflons, and ftores of a fhip
— of war, and the principal part of the cargo in a mer¬
chantman. The difpofition of thefe articles with re¬
gard to each other, naturally falls under confideration
in the article Stowage ; it fuffices in this place to fay,
that the places where the ballad:, water, provifions,
and liquors are flowed, are known by the general
name of the hold. The feveral ftore-rooms are fepa-
rated from each other by bulk-heads^ and are deno¬
minated according to the articles which they contain,
the fail room, the bread-room, the JiJh-room, the fpirit-
room, &c.
HOLDER (William), a learned and philofophi-
cal Englifliman, was born in Nottinghamlhire, edu¬
cated in Pembroke-hall Cambridge, and in 1642 be¬
came reftor of Blechingdon of Oxford. In 1660 he
proceeded D. D. was afterwards canon of Ely, fellow
of the Royal Society, canon of St Paul’s, fub-dean of
the royal chapel, and fub-almoner to his majefty. He
was a very accomplifhed perfon, and withal a great vir-
tuofo : and he wonderfully diflinguifhed himfelf, by
making a young gentleman of diflinftion who was
born deaf and dumb to fpeak. This gentleman’s name
was Alexander Popham, fon of colonel Edward Pop-
ham, who was fome time an admiral in the fervice of
the long parliament. The cure was performed by him
in his houfe at Blechingdon in 1659 ; but Popham lo-
fing what he had been taught by Holder after he was
called home to his friends, was fent to Dr Wallis, who
brought him to his fpeech again. Holder publifhed a
book, intitled “ the Elements of Speech; an effay of
inquiry into the natural Produ&ion of Letters: with
an appendix concerning perfons that are deaf and
dumb, 1669,” 8vo. In the appendix he relates how
foon, and by what methods, he brought Popham to
fpeak. In 1678, he publifhed in 410 “ a Supplement
to the Philofophical Tranfa&ions of July 1670, with
fome reflexions on Dr Wallis’s letter there inferted.”
This was written to claim the glory of having taught
Popham to fpeak, which Wallis in the faid letter had
claimed to himfelf; upon which the Doftor foon af¬
ter publilhed “ a Defence of the Royal Society, and
the Philofophical TranfaXions, particularly thofe of
July 1670, in anfwer to the Cavils of Dr William
Holder, 1678,” 410. Holder was fltiiled in the theo¬
ry and praXice of mufic, and wrote “ a Treadle of the
natural Grounds and Principles of Harmony, 1694,”
8vo. He wrote alfo “ a Difcourfe concerning Time,
with Application of the natural Day, lunar Month,
and folar Year, &c. 1694,” 8vo. He died at Amen
Corner in London, January 24. 1696-7, and was bu¬
ried in St Paul’s.
HOLDERNESS, a peninfula in the eaft-riding
of Yorklhire, having the German fea on the eaft, and
the Humber on the fouth. It had the title of an earl¬
dom, now extinX.
HOLDSWORTH (Edward), a very polite and
elegant fcholar, was born about 1688, and trained at
Winchefter fchool. He was thence eleXed demy of
Magdalen college, Oxford, in July 1705; tookthe degree
of M. A. in April 1711 ; became a college-tutor, and
Lad many pupils. In 1715, when he was to be chofen
5n ] H O L
into a fellowfhip, he refigned his demylhip and left the Holeracat,
college, becaufe unwilling to fvvear allegiance to the fjohnefs.
new government. The remainder of his life was fpent .
in travelling with young noblemen and gentlemen as
tutor: in 1741 and 1744 he was at Rome in this ca¬
pacity. He died of a fever at Lord Digby’s houfe
at Coleftiill in Warwickshire, December 30. 1747.
He was the author of the “ Mufcipula,” a poem, e-
fteemed a mafter-piece in its kind, and of which there
is a good Engliih tranflation by Dr John Hoadly, in
vol. 5. of Dodfley’s Mifcellanies. He was the au¬
thor alfo of a diflertation* intituled “ Pharfalia and
Philippi; or the two Philippi in Virgil’s Georgies at¬
tempted to be explained and reconciled to Hiftory,
1741,” 410 : and of “ Remarks and Diflertations on
Virgil; with fome other claflical Obfervations, pub-
lilhed with feveral notes and additional remarks by
Mr Spence, 1768,” 410. Mr Spence fpeaks of him
in Polymetis, as one who underftood Virgil in a more
mafterly manner than any perfon he ever knew.
HOLERACEiE, (from bolus, “ pot herbs)”; the
name of the 12th order in Linnasus’s fragments of a
natural method, confrfting of plants which are ufed for
the table, and enter into the economy of domeftic
affairs. See Botany, p. 459.
HOLIBUT, in ichthyology. See Pleuronectes.
HOLIDAY (Dr Barten), a learned divine and
poet, was the fon of a taylor in Oxford, and born
there about the year 1593. ^udied at Chrift-
church college, and in 1615 took orders. He was be¬
fore admired for his Ikill in poetry and orator y; and
now diftinguifhing himfelf by his eloquence and popu¬
larity as a preacher, he had two benefices conferred on
him in the diocefe of Oxford. In 1618, he went as
chaplain to Sir Francis Stewart, when he accompa¬
nied (Jount Gondamore to Spain. Afterwards he be¬
came chaplain to the king, and before the year 1626
was promoted to the archdeaconry of Oxford. In T642
he was made doXor of divinity at Oxford ; near which
place he flickered himfelf during the time of the rebel¬
lion ; but after the reftoration returned to his arch¬
deaconry, where he died in 1661 His works are,
1. Twenty fermons, publiflied at different times.
2. Philofophi/t polito-barbara fpecimen, quarto. 3. Sur¬
vey of the world, a poem in ten books, oXavo. 4. A
tranflation of the fatires of Juvenal and Perlius.
5. Technogamia, or the marriage of the arts, a co¬
medy.
HOLINESS, or sanctity ; a quality which con-
ftitutes or denominates a perfon or thing holy ; i. e.
pure, or exempt from fin. The word is alio ufed
in refpeX of perfons and things that are facred,
t. e. fet apart to the fervice of God, and the ufes of
religion.
Holiness, is alfo a title or quality attributed to the
pope ; as that of majejly is to kings. Even kings, when
writing to the pope, addrefs him under the venerable
appellation of Tour Holinefs, or Holy Father; in La¬
tin, Sanaipjime or Beat'iffime Pater. Anciently the
fame title was given to all biftiops. The Greek em¬
perors alfo were addreffed under the title of Holinefs,
in regard of their being anointed with holy oil at
their coronation. De Cange adds, that fome of the
kings of England have had the fame attribute ; and
4 G 2 -that
H O L [ 61
-Holinflietl tkat the orientals have frequently refufed it to the
H if a P°Pe-
. ‘an •_ HOLINSHED (Raphael), an Englifh hiftorian fa¬
mous for the Chronicles under his name, was defcended
from a family that lived at Bofely in Chelhire ; but
neither the time of his birth, nor fcarcely any circum-
ftances of his life, are known. However, he appears
to have been a man of confiderable learning, and to
have had a genius particularly adapted for hitlory.
His Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland, were
firft publilhed at London in 1570, in 2 vols folio ; and
then in 1587, in 3 vols. In this fecond edition feve-
ral fheets in the 2d and 3d vols were cadrated for con¬
taining fome paffages difagreeable to queen Elizabeth
and her minifters ; but the caftrations have fmce been
printed apart. Holinfhed was not the foie compiler
of this work, being afiilted in it by feveral other
hands. The time of his death is unknown ; but from
his will, which is prefixed to Hearnc’s edition of
Cambden’s Annals, it appears to have happened between
1578 and 1582.
HOLLAND (Philemond), M. D. commonly call¬
ed the Tranflator general of his age, was educated in
the univerfity of Cambridge. He was for m^ny years
a fchoolmafter at Coventry, where he alfo praftifed
phyfic. He tranflated Livy, Pliny’s Natural Hillory,
Plutarch’s Morals, Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus,
Xenophon’s Cyropasdia, and Cambden’s Britannia, in¬
to Englilh; and the geographical part of Speed’s
Theatre of Great Britain into Latin. The Britan¬
nia, to which he made many ufeful additions, was the
molt valuable of his works. It is furprifing, that a
man of two profeffions could find time to tranflate fo
much ; but it appears from the date of the Cyropse-
dia, that he qontinued to tranflate till he was 80 years
of age. He died in 1636, aged 85. He made the
following.epigram upon writing a large folio with a
Angle pen :
With one foie pen 1 wrote this book,
Made of a grey goofe quill;
A pen it was when it I took.
And a pen 1 leave it Hill.
HOLLAND, the largeft of the feven United Pro¬
vinces, divided into. South and North Holland, the
latter of which is alfo called Wejl Friejland, is bound¬
ed on the welt by the German ocean, or north fea; to
the call by the Zuyder-fee, the province of Utrecht,
and part of Gelderland ; to the fouth by Dutch Bra¬
bant.and Zealand ; and to the north by the Zuyder-
fee. Its greateft extent from north to fouth, including
the ifland of Texel, is about 90 Englifh miles; but
from eaft to weft its extent varies from 40 to 25. To
defend it againft the fea, dykes have been ere&ed at an
immenfe expence, and innumerable canals cut to drain
it, as being naturally very low and marfhy. Some
parts of the province are very fruitful in corn ; but the
greater parts confift of rich paftures, wherein are kept
large herds of kine, which fupply them with incredible
quantities of butter and cheefe. Of the latter, that of
Edam, in North Holland, is highly efteemed. The
many rivers and canals that interfect the province are
of great advantage to its commerce, but contribute to
render the air foggy and unwholefome. There is a
communication by water betwixt almoft every town and
2 ] H O L
village. Towards the middle alfo of the province are Holland,
great numbers of turf pits. It is fo populous, that
the number of the inhabitants is computedat 1,200,000. " J
In point of cleanlinefs no country furpaffes, and few
come up to it, efpecially in North Holland, and that
even in the villages. From the counts of Holland this
province devolved, in 1436, to the dukes of Burgun¬
dy, and from them to the houfe of Auftria, along with
the other provinces. The States of Holland and Weft
Friefland are compofed of the nobility and deputies of
the towns; of the latter there are 18 that fend depu¬
ties to the afiembly of the Hates, which is held at the
Hague. The grand penfionary is a perfon of great
dignity and weight in this aflembly, and his office re¬
quires extraordinary abilities. There are alfo two
councils compofed of deputies, one Bor South, and ano¬
ther for North Holland, who have the cognizance of
the revenue and military affairs. The whole province
fends one deputy from among the nobleffe to the ftates-
general, who takes precedence of all others, together
with three or four more. There are two fupreme
courts of judicature for Holland and Zealand ; viz. the
great council of Holland and Zealand, and the hof
or court of Holland. To thefe appeals lie from the
towns; but the caufes of noblemen come before them
in the firft inftance. With refpeft to the ecclefiaftical
government, there is a fynod held annually both in
South and North Holland, of which the former con¬
tains eleven claffes, and the latter fix ; and the mini¬
fters of both together amount to 331. In the whole
province are 37 towns, 8 boroughs, and 400 vil¬
lages.—For the hiftory, fee United Provinces.
Holland, one of the divilions of Lincolnffiire in
England. It fo much refembles the province of that
name upon the continent, in moft refpetts, being low
and marftiy, with the fea on one fide, and canals run¬
ning through it, that it muft either have had its name
from thence, or on the fame account. On the eaft it
has what the ancient geographers call JEJluarium Me-
taris, now the Wallies, which are overflowed at high
water, and part of Cambridgefliire on the fouth. The
lower part of it is full of bogs and marflies, and has
huge banks to defend it againft the fea and land floods.
The ground is fo foft, that horfes are worked unffiod;
and it produces plenty of grafs, but little corn.
The whole traft feems to have been gained from the
fea ; and is divided into Upper and Lower, the latter
of which was unpaflable ; but fince the fens have been
drained, the lands-are grown more folid, and the inha¬
bitants fow cole-feed upon them to their great profit.
Though there are no itones to be found in or upon
the ground, yet moft of the churches are of ftone.
They have no freffi water but from the clouds, which
is preferved in pits : but if thefe are deep, it foon turns
brackilh ; and if they are ffiallow, they foon become dry.
New Holland, the largeft ifland in the world,
reaching from 10 to 44 deg. S. Lat. and between no
and 154 of E. long, from London. It received
its name from having been chiefly explored by Dutch
navigators. The land firft difeovered in thofe parts ■
was called Eendraght (Concord) Land, from the name
of the ftiip on board which the difeovery was made,
in 1616 ; 24 deg. and 25 deg. fouth. In 1618, anor
ther part of this coaft, nearly in J 5 deg. fouth, was
difeovered.
H O L C 613 ] H O L
New Hoi difcovered by Zeachen, who gave it the name of Am-
^land. l}e\m an(i Diemen; though a different part from what
1"' * "afterwards received the name of Diemen’s Land from
Tafman, which is the fouihern extremity, in latitude
43 deg. In 1619, Jan Van Edels gave his name to
a fouthern part of New Holland. Another part, fi-
tuated between 30 and 33 deg. received the name of
Leuiven. Peter Van Nuitz gave his name, in 1627,
to a coaft which Communicates to Leuwen’s Land
towards the weft ward; and a part of the weftern
coaft, near the tropic of Capricorn, bore the name
of De Wits. In 1628, Peter Carpenter, a Dutch¬
man, difcovered the great gulph of Carpentaria, be¬
tween 10 and 20 deg. fouth. In 1687, Dampier, an
Englifhman, failed from Timor, and coafted the weft¬
ern parts of New-Holland. In 1699, he left Eng¬
land, with a defign to explore this country, as the
• Dutch fuppreffed whatever difcoveries had been made
by them. He failed along the weftern coaft of it,
from 28 to 15 deg. He faw the land of Endraght
and of De Wit. He then returned to Timor : from
whence he went out again ; examined the ifles of Pa¬
pua ; coafted New-Guinea ; difcovered the paffage that
bears his name ; called a great iftand which forms this
paffage or ftrait on the eaft fide, New Britain ; and
failed back to Timor along New-Guinea." This is the
fame Dampier who, between 1683 and 1691, failed
round the world by changing his fhips. Notwith-
flanding the attempts of all thefe navigators, however,
the eaftern part of this vaft trad, was totally unknown
till Captain Cook made his late voyages ; and by fully
exploring that part of the coaft, gave his country an
undoubted title to the poffeffion of it; which accord¬
ingly has fince been taken poffeffion of under the name
T of New South Wales 1
Whether borne have difputed whether the title of [[land can
the be properly applied to a country of fuch vaft extent,
helongsTo or whet^er it ought not rather to be denominated a
New Hoi- continent; while others have replied, that though the
laud*
word ifland, and others fimilar to it, do indeed fignify New Hol-
a trad of land furrounded by fea, yet in the ufual ac- land-
ceptation it means only a land of moderate extent
furrounded in this manner. Were it otherwife, we
might call the whole world an ifland, as it is every
where furrounded by the fea ; and in fad, Dionytius
Perigetes applies this term to it, with the addhiun of
the word immenfe, to diftinguifh it from other iflsnds.
The beft rule, according to Mr JStockdale, for deter¬
mining when a country ought to lofe the name of i/land
and begin to be called a continent, is when it begins to
lofe the advantages of an infular iituation. The firft
and principal of thefe, is the being capable of an union
under one government, and thence deriving a fecurity
from all external attacks excepting thofe by fea ; but
in countries of great extent, this is not only difficult,
but impoffible. If we conlider, therefore. New Hol¬
land as extending about a thoufand miles every way,
we (hall find that its claim to be called a continent is
undoubted ; its length from eaft to weft being about
2400 Englifh miles, and 2300 from north to fouth. ^
This coaft was firft explored by Captain Cook in Captain
the year 1770 ; but his ftay was too ftrort to examine Cook’s ac*-
the nature of the country with the accuracy which he
would otherwife have done had he continued longer try<
in it. In general, it was found rather barren than
otherwife. Many brooks and fprings were found along
the eaftern coaft, but no river of any confequence.
They found only two kinds of trees ufeful as timber,
the pine, and another which produces a fort of gum..
They found three kinds of palm-trees ; but few efculent
plants, though there are abundance of fuch as might
gratify the curiofity of the botanift. A great variety
of birds were met with, which have fince been particu¬
larly defcribed ; but the number of quadrupeds bears
but a very fmall proportion to that of the other ani¬
mals. The moft remarkable infefls feen at this time
were the green ants (a), who build their nefts upon
trees in a very lingular manner.
This.
(a) Thefe little animals form their habitations, by bending down the leaves of trees, and gluing the ends of
them together fo as to form a purfe.' Though thefe leaves are as broad as a man’s hand, they perform this feat
by main ftrength, thoufands of them being employed in holding dbwn the leaves, while multitudes of others
apply the glutinous matter. Captain Cook’s people afcertained themfelves that this was the cafe, by fome-
times difturbing them at their work; in which cafe the leaf always fprung up with an elafticity which they
could not have fuppofed that fuch minute infects were capable of overcoming. For this curiofity, however,,
they fmarted pretty feverely ; for thoufands of thefe little enemies inftantly threw themfelves upon the ag-
greffors, and revenged themfelves by their bites or flings for the interruption they had met with. Thefe were
little lefs painful at firft than the fling of a bee ; but the pain did not laft above a minute. Another fpecies
of ants burrow themfelves in the root of a plant which grows on the bark of trees like the mifletoe, and which,
is commonly as big as a large turnip. When this is cut, it appears interfe&ed with innumerable winding
paffages all filltd with thefe animals; notwithftanding which, the vegetation of the plant fuffers no injury. Thefe
do not give pain by their (tings, but produce an intolerable itching by crawling about on the (kin. They
are about the fize of the fmall red ant in this country. Another fort, which do not moleft in any manner, re¬
ferable the white ants (fee Termes) of the Eaft Indies. They conftrudt nefts three or four times as big as a-
man’s head on the branches of trees ; the outfides being compofed of fome vegetable matter along with a gluti¬
nous fubftance. On breaking the outer crufts of thefe hives, innumerable cells appear fwarming with inhabitants,
in a great variety of winding diredions, all communicating with each other, and with fevertd other nefts ufron
the fame tree. They have alfo another houfe built on the ground, generally at the root of a tree ; formed like
an irregularly fided cone ; fometimes more than fix feet high, and nearly as much in diameter. The outfide of.
thefe is of well tempered clay about two inches thick ; and within are the cells, which have no opening out¬
ward. One of thtfe is their fummer and the other their winter dwelling, communicating with each other
by a large avenue leading to the ground, and by a fubterraneous paffage. The ground ftruftures are proof
againft. wet, which thofe. on the branches are not..
H O L [ 614 ] H O L
:N«w Hal- This country has now become an objeA of more
. conftquence than formerly, by reafon of the ellabliih-
' " ment of a Britifh colony in it; where the criminals
St ttiement co,'demne(l to be tranfported are fent to pafs their time
of a Bri' ith of fervitude. Before this plan was refolved on by govern*
colonj'in ment, another had been difcufled, vi%. that ofemploy-
New Hoi- ing thefe criminals in workhoufes; and Judge Black-
an * ilone, with Mr Eden and Mr Howard, had con-
fidered of the bell method of putting it in execution :
but though this plan had been approved by parliament
as early as 1779, fome difficulties always occurred,
which prevented its going forward; and at length, on
the 6th of December 1786, orders were iffued by his
majefty in council for making a fettlement on New
Holland, eftablilhing a court of judicature in the
colony, and other regulations neceffary on the oc-
cafion. The whole received the complete fanftion of
legiflature in the beginning of the year 1787. The
fquadron appointed for putting the defign in execution
began to afl'emble at the Mother Bank, the place of
rendezvous, in the Ifle of Wight, on the 16th of
March 1787. It confilted of the Sirius frigate Cap¬
tain John Hunter, the Supply armed tender Lieute¬
nant H. L. Ball; three ftore-lhips, the Golden-grove,
Filh'burn, and Borrowdale, for carrying provifions and
Itores for two years; and laftly, fix tranfports, the Scarbo¬
rough and Lady Penrhyn from Portfmouth, the Friend-
ffiip and Charlotte from Plymouth, and the Prince of
Wales and Alexander from Woolwich. Thefe were
to carry the convidts, with a detachment of marines in
each proportioned to the nature of the fervice ; the
largeft where refiftance was moft expe&ed, •wW. in
thofe which carried the greateft number of male con-
vifts. On the arrival of Governor Phillip at the fta-
tion, he hoifted his flag on board the Sirius as commo-
dord'of the fquadron ; and the embarkation being com¬
pleted, he gave the fignal to weigh anchor on the 13th
of May at day-break. The number of convidts was
778, of whom 558 were men. They touched at the
ifland of Teneriffe on the 3d of June, without meeting
with any bad accident. Here they ftaid a week, in
order to procure fuch refrelhments as were neceflary for
preventing the diforders moflly to be dreaded in fuch a
long and perilous voyage. In this they fucceeded to
their wiflr ; and were about to depart on the 9th of
June, when it was difcovered that one of the convicts
had made his efcape, having found means to cut away
a boat and make off with it. He offered himfelf as a
failor aboard a Dutch vefiel at that time in the har¬
bour, but was refufed ; on which he attempted to con¬
ceal himfelf in a cove. In this,he would probably have
fucceeded, had it not been for the boat which he could
not conceal; fo that he was foon difcovered and brought
back to the (hip, where, however, he obtained his par¬
don from the governor.
On the 10th of June the fleet fet fail from Santa
Cruz in the ifland of Teneriffe, and on the 18th came
in fight of the Cape Verd iflands, where they fleered
for St Jago : but the want of a favourable wind and
other circumftances prevented their getting in ; fo that
as Governor Phillip did not chufe to wafle time, they
did not touch land till they came to Rio Janeiro on the
coaft of Brafil. It may feem furprifing, that a voyage
to the eaflward, which of itfelf may be accounted of
fufficient length, (hould thus be wilfully made fo much
longer, by failing twice acrofs the Atlantic. The New HoL :
calms, however, fo frequent on the coaff of Africa, land- ’
feem of chemfelves to be a fufficient inducement for na- v~' J |
vigators to preferve a wefierly courfe ; and even the
iflands at which it is fo neceflary to touch, are not far
diftant from the American coafl. The returning tracks
of Captain Cook’s three voyages are all within a little
fpace of the 45th degree of weft longitude, which is
even 10 degrees farther weft than Cape St Roque;
and that courfe appears to have been taken voluntarily,
without any extraordinary inducement.
During the time of their ftay at Santa Cruz the
weather had been very moderate; the barometer about
30 inches, and the thermometer never above 72 ; as
they approached the Cape Verd iflands it rofe to 82,
and did not exceed 82° 51' all the way from thence to
Rio Janeiro. Here they met with a very favourable
reception, contrary to that which Captain Cook expe¬
rienced on a fimilar occafion. f rovifions were fo cheap,
that though the allowance of meat was fixed by the go¬
vernor at 20 ounces per day, the men were vidfualled
completely at 3jd each, including rice, vegetables, and
every other neceffary. Wine was not at this time to
be had except at an advanced price : but rum was laid
in, and fuchijeeds and plants procured as were thought
moft likely to flourifli in New South Wales; particularly
coffee, indigo, cotton, and the cochineal lig. An hun¬
dred facks of caflada were likewife purchafed as a fub-
ftitute for bread, if it Ihould happpen to be fcarce. By
the kindnefs of the viceroy alfo, fome deficiencies in the
military ftores were made up from the royal arfenal,
and every affiftance given which the place could afford.
They arrived here on the 5th of Auguft 1787, and fet
fail on the 4th of September, receiving as the laft com¬
pliment from the governor a falute of 21 guns. »
From Rio de Janeiro the fleet had a fine run to Table
Bay, in the fouthern extremity of Africa, which they
accompliflied in 39 days ; where they took in the re-
frefhments meant to fupply them during the remainder
of the voyage. Here they arrived on the 13 th of O6I0-
ber; and having fupplied themfelves with a great num¬
ber of live flock, they fet fail on the 12th of Novem¬
ber, but were long impeded by contrary winds from
the foutheaft. On the 25 th they were only 80 leagues
diftant from the Cape, when Governor Phillip left the
Sirius and went aboard the Supply tender; in hopes,
by leaving the convoy, to gain fufficient time for exa¬
mining the country round Botany Bay, that the moft
proper fituation for the new colony might be chofen
before the tranfports ftiould arrive. They now met
with favourable winds, blowing generally in very ftrong
gales from the northweft, weft, and fouthweft. The
wind flu’fted only once to the eaft, but did not continue ^
in that direction above a few hours. On the 3d of Ja-They ar- *
nuary x 788 the Supply came within fight of New South rive at |
Wales but the winds then became variable, and a cur- Hol‘ |
rent, which at times fet very ftrongly to the fouth vard,
impeded her courfe fo much, that it was not till the
18 th of the month that fhe arrived at "Botany Bay.
Governor Phillip no fooner landed than he had an interview f
opportunity of converfing with the natives, who were with the '
affembled on Ihore. As it was the intention of this natives. j
gentleman to conciliate if poffible their friendlhip, he
ufed every method at this firft interview to infpire them
with a favourable idea of the Europeans. For this pur-
pofe
H O L I 615 ] H O L
6
ence ol Bo-
tan) Bay
for a fettle-
New Hoi- pofe he prefented them with beads and other trifling
land ornaments, which they Teemed pleafed to wear, though
Captain Cook found them very indifferent about any
kind of finery he could furnlfh them with. They
feemed, according to the account of that celebrated na¬
vigator, to be fo attached to their own ornaments, that
they made no account of any thing clfe. They recei¬
ved indeed fuch things as were given them, but made
no offer to return any thing in exchange ; nor could
they be made to comprehend that arfy thing of the kind
was wanted. Many of the prefents which they had
received were found afterwards thrown away in the
woods.
Governor Phillip having parted with his new ac¬
quaintance in a friendlyrmanner, next fet about an exa¬
mination of the country about Botany Bay, which had
been ftrongly recommended by Captain Cook as the
moft eligible place for a fettlement. He found, how¬
ever, that the bay itfelf was very inconvenient for (hip¬
ping ; being expofed to the eailerly w-inds, and fo fhal-
low that fliips even of a moderate burden could not
get far enough within land to be fheltered from the fury
of the ocean. Neither did the land about any part of
this bay appear an eligible fituation for a colony; being
in fome places entirely fvyampy, in others quite defli-
tute of water. Point Sutherland feemed to afford the
fituation moft free from obje&ions, but the fhips could
not approach it ; and even here the ground feemed to
be univerfally damp and fpungy : fo that, on the whole,
finding no place within the compafs of the bay proper
for the new fettlement, they found themfclves obliged
to remove fomewhere elfe,
The reft of the fleet arrived in two days after the
Supply ; and that no time might be loft, Governor
Phillip ordered the ground about Point Sutherland to
be cleared, and preparations to be made for landing,
while he went with feveral officers in three boats to exa¬
mine Port Jackfon, which was only three leagues di-
ftant. Here they had the fatisfa£lion to find one of
the fineft harbours in the world, where 1000 fail of the
line might ride in perfedt fafety. On examining the
different coves, one was preferred which had a fine run
of fpting water, and where fhips could anchor fo clofe
to the fhore, that at a very fmall expence quays might
be conftru&ed for loading and unloading the largeft
veffels. This was named by the governor Sydney Cove,
in honour of Lord Sydney, and the country around it
deftined for the place of fettlement. It is about half
a mile long, and a quarter of a mile broad at the en¬
trance. On the governors return to Botany Bay, the
reports made to him concerning the adjacent country
were fo exceedingly unfavourable, that orders were
7. immediately given for the removal of the fleet to
A fettle- Port Jackfon. On the morning of the 25 th, therefore,
ment form- ^ governor failed from Botany Bay, and was foon fol-
Tackfon°rt ^owet^ ^7 the whole fleet, in the mean time, they
were furprifed by the appearance of two other Euro-
8 pean veffels, which had been firft feen off Botany Bay
Vifired by on the 24th. Thefe were found to be two French
two^French named the JJlrolale and Boujfola, which had left
1 ’ France on a voyage of difeovery under the com¬
mand of M. la Peyroufe, in the year xySj'. They had
touched at the ifiand of Santa Catharina on the coaft
of Brafil, and from thence gone by the extremity of
South America into the Pacific Ocean, where they had
run along by the coafts of Chili and California ; after New Hi!-
which they had vifited Eafter Ifland, Nootka Sound, land- t
Cook’s river, Kamtfchatka, Manilla, the Ifles des Na- '" v _
vigaleure, Sandwich, and the Friendly Ifles. They
had alfo attempted to land on Norfolk Ifland, but
found it impoflible on account of the furf. Du¬
ring the whole voyage none wete loft by ficknefs ; but
two boats crews had unfortunately periftied in a furf
on the northweft coaft of America ; and at Mafuna,
one of the IJles des Navigateurs, M. L’Angle, captain
of the Aftrolabe, with 12 of his people, officers and
men, were murdered by the favages. This was the
more furprifing, as there had been an uninterrupted
friendfhip with them from the time the French touched
at the ifland, till that unfortunate moment M. L’Angle
had gone afhore with two long boats for the purpoi'e of
filling fome water-calks. His party amounted to 40
men ; and the natives, from whom the French had al¬
ready received abundance of refrefhments, did not fhow
any figns of an hoftile difpofition : But from whatever
motive their refentment was excited, the men had no
fooner begun to get out the boats, than the favages
made a moft furious and unexpe&ed aflault with ilones.
In this encounter M. L’Angle himfelf, with the people
above mentioned, fell a facrifice to the treachery of thefe
barbarians. The remainder of the party efcaped with
great difficulty ; the Ihips having at that time paffed a
point of land which intercepted their view of the affray.
The convifts and others deftined to remain in New
South Wales being landed, no time was loft in begin¬
ning to clear ground for an encampment, flore-houfen,
&c. The work, however, went on but flowly, partly
owing to the natural difficulties they had to encounter,
and partly owing to the habitual indolence of the con-
vifts, which indeed was naturally to be expedled con-
fidering their former way of life. Neverthelefs, by the
end of the firft week of February, the plan of an encamp¬
ment was formed, and places were marked out for dif¬
ferent purpofes, fo that the colony already began to af-
fume fome appearance of order and regularity. The
materials and frame-work of a flight temporary habita¬
tion for the governor had been brought-out from Eng¬
land ready formed, which were landed and put together
with as much expedition as eircnmftances would allow.
Hofpital tents were alfo erefted; and the ficknefs wlpch
foon took place (bowed the propriety of fo doing. In
the paffage from the Cape there had been but little fick-
nefs, and few of the convifts had died ; but a little time
after they landed a dyfentery began to prevail, which
proved fatal in feveral inftancts, and the feurvy began
to rage with great violence, fo that the hofpital-tents
were foon filled with patients. The diforder proved
the more virulent as frelh provifions could but rarely
be obtained ; nor were efculent vegetables often obtain¬
ed in fuch plenty as could produce any material allevia¬
tion of the complaint : the only remedy for the dyfen¬
tery was found to be a kind of red gum, produced in
plenty by the trees growing upon this coaft. The
yellow gum has the fame properties, though in an infe¬
rior degree.
In the beginning of February, a moft violent ftorm
of thunder and lightning deftroyed five of the fheep
which had a fhed eredfed for them under a tree, which
proved a prelude to other misfortunes among the cattle.
The encampment, however, was carried on with great
I alacrity-;.;
9
Regular
form of
govern-
merit efta-
fblilked.
Norfolk
f fland fet¬
tled.
f See Nor-
/oik JJland.
Broken
Bay exa¬
mined.
H O L t 61
alacrity ; the foundations of the ftore-houfes were laid,
and every thing began to wear a promifing appearance.
On the yth of the month a regular form of govern¬
ment was eftabliihed in the colony, with all the folcm-
nity which could poffibly be given : the governor made
a proper fpcech to the convifts, reminding them of the
fituation in which they flood ; and that now, if they
continued their former praftices, it was impoffible they
could hope for mercy if detedled ; neither could they
expetl to efcajje detection in fo fmall a fociety. Of¬
fenders, therefore, he faid, would certainly be punifhed
with the utmofl rigour; though fuch as behaved them-
felvts in a proper manner, might always depend upon
encouragement. He particularly noticed the illegal in-
tercourfe betwixt the fexes, as a pradtice which encou¬
raged profligacy in every refpedt; for which reafon he
recommended marriage : and this exhortation feemed
mot to be altogether in vain, as 14 marriages were cele¬
brated that very week in confequence.
Heavy rains took place during the remainder of this
month, which fhowed the neceffity of going on with
the work as foon as poffible. The want of carpenters,
however, prevented this from being done fo expediti-
oufly as could have been vvifhed. Only 16 of thefe
could be hired from all the (hips ; and no more than
1 a of the convicts were of this profefiion, of whom fe-
veral were lick; fo that the party were by far too few
for the work they had to perform. An hundred con-
vidts were added as labourers ; but with every effort it
was found impoffible to complete either the barracks
or the huts for the officers as foon as could be wifhed.
On the 14th of February a fmall party was fent out
to fettle on Norfolk 1 fland, who have fince eftablifhed
a colony there which promifes to be of confiderable uti-
lityf. It was foon found, however, abfolutely neceffary
to make examples of fome of the convidls at Port Jack-
fon. Towards the end of February it was found necef¬
fary to convene a criminal court, in which fix of the
convidls received fentence of death. One who was the
head of the gang was executed the fame day; one of
the reft was pardoned ; the other four were reprieved,
and afterwards exiled to a fmall ifland within the bay,
where they were kept on bread and water. They had
frequently robbed both the flores and other convi&s.
The fellow who was executed, and two others, had been
detedled in dealing the very day on which they recei¬
ved a week’s provifion ; and at the fame time that their
allowance was the fame as that of the foldiers, fpiritu-
ous liquors only excepted.
In the beginning of March the governor went out
with a fmall party to examine Broken Bay, lying about
eight,miles to the northw'ard of Port Jackfon. This
was found very extenfive, with many openings. One
of the latter ended in feveral fmall branches, and a large
lagoon, which they could not at that time examine.
Mod of the land about the upper part of this branch
was low and full of fwamps, with great numbers of pe¬
licans, and other aquatic birds. Among the reft they
met with an uncommon bird called at that time the
Hooded Gull, but afterwards found to be the fpecies na¬
med by Mr Latham the Cafp'ian Tern.
From this northweft branch they proceeded acrofs
the bay to the fouthweft branch, which is alfo very
extenfive, with a fecond opening to the weftward ca¬
pable of affording flicker to almoft any number of
N°J5<5. 5
6 1 H O L
fhips, with depth of water for veffels of almoft any New Hal-
burden. The land was found much higher here than iand-
at Port Jackfon, more rocky, and equally covered with ''^
timber. Large trees were feen growing even on the
fummits of the mountains, which appeared totally in-
accelfible to the human fpecies. Round the headland
which forms the fouthern entrance into the bay is a
third branch, which governor Phillip thought the fineft
piece of water he had ever feen ; which for that rea¬
fon he honoured with the name of Pit-nvater. This
branch, as well as the former, is fufficient to contain
all the navy of Great Britain ; but the latter has a
bar at the entrance of only 18 feet at low water.
Within are from 7 to 15 fathoms. The land here is
more level than on the fouthweft branch, and fome .fi-
tuations are proper for cultivation. The governor de¬
termined to have returned by land, in order to explore
the country betwixt Port Jackfon and Broken Bay,
but the continual rains prevented him. ia
On the 10th of March the French ffiips departed. Death ofls
little intercourfe having paffed between them and the R-eeeve'*r»
Englifti during the time of their ftay. While the for¬
mer remained in Botany Bay, Father la Receveur. who
had come out in the Aftrolabe as a naturalift, died of
the wounds he had received in the battle with the in¬
habitants of Mafuna. A kind of monument was erect¬
ed to his memory, with the following infeription :
HicjacetLE Receveur
E. F. F. minimis Galliae facerdos,
Phyficus in circumnavigatione
Mundi
Duce De la Peyrouse,
Ob. 17th, Feb. 178S.
This monument, however, was foon after deftroyed
by the natives; on which Governor Phillip caufed the
iafeription to be engraved on copper and nailed to a
neighbouring tree. M. de la Peyroufe had paid a fi-
milar tribute to the memory of Captain Clerke at
Kamtfchatka. n
On the 15th of April, the governor, attended byExcurfion*
feveral officers and a fmall party of marines, fet out on i
Their firft landing was at the head of a fmall cove
named Shell-cove, near the entrance of the harbour on
the north fide. Proceeding in this diretlion, they ar¬
rived with great labour at a large lake furrounded on
all fides with bog and marfhy ground to a confiderable
extent, and in which they frequently plunged up to
the waift. Here they obferved that bird fo rare in
other parts of the world, vvz. a black fwan. On be¬
ing fired at, it rofe, and (bowed that its wings were
edged with white, the bill being tinged red. They
fpent three days in a very laborious manner in palling
the marfhes and fwamps which lie in the neighbour¬
hood of the harbour : and here they had an opportu¬
nity of obferving, that all the fmall ftreams which de-
feend into Port Jackfon proceed from fwamps, occa-
fioned by the ftagnation of the water in the low grounds
as it rifes from the fprings. On 'caving thefe low
grounds, they found them fucceeded by a rocky and
barren country ; the hills covered with various flower¬
ing ftuubs, though frequently inacceffihh by reafon of
various natural obftacles. At about 1 ; miles diftance
from the fea, the governor had a fine view of the in¬
ternal parts of the country, which were mountainous.
T@
H O L [ (ji7 1 H O L
>Icw Ho!- To tlie jr.oft northerly chafn of thcfe he gave the name
^H'1- of Carmarthen, and to the moll foutherly that of Lanf-
^ down. Hills} and to one which lay between thefe he
gave the name of Richmond Hill. It was conjectured,
that a large river mull rife from thefe mountains; but
there was now a nectflity for returning. On the 22d,
however, another expedition was undertaken. Gover¬
nor Phillip with his party landed near the head of
the harbour. Here they found a good country ; but
in a Ihort time arrived at a clofe thicket through which
they found it impoflible to make their way, fo that
they were obliged to return. Next day, by keeping
clofe to the banks of a fmall creek, they made a Ihift
to pafs that obftacle, and continued their courfe for
three days to the weftward. The country was now'
extremely fine, either entirely level or riling in fmall
hills, the foil excellent, but ftony in a few places.
The trees grew at the diflance of from 20 to 40 feet
from each other, in general totally dellitute of under-
wood, which was confined to the barren and llony
fpots. On the 5th day they faw for the fivll time in
this fecond expedition Carmarthen and Lanfdown hills;
but the country all round was fo beautiful, that Go¬
vernor Phillip gave it the name of Belle vue. They
were Hill apparently 30 miles from the mountains
which they had intended to reach ; but not having
been able to carry more than fix days provifions along
with them, they found it neceffary to return; and
even with this fmall flock the officers as w’ell as men
were obliged to carry heavy leads. During all this
time they bad not proceeded farther in a direft line
than 30 miles, fo great were the obliruClions theyr had
met w'ith from deep ravines, &c. Their return, how¬
ever, w as effeCted w’ith much greater eafe, having
cleared a track, and marked trees all the way as they
went along to direCt them in their journey back. The
country explored at this time appeared fo fine, that
Governor Phillip determined to form a fettlement there
as foon as a fufficient number -could be fpared from
thofe works which were immediately necefiary. On
his return he had the mortification to find, that five
•ewes and a lamb had been killed very near the camp,
and in the middle of the day. This mifehief was
fuppofed to have been done by fome dogs belonging
to the natives.
All this time the feurvy had continued to rage with
great violence ; fo that by the beginning of May near
200 people were incapable of work. - For this reafon,
and on account of the great difficulty of clearing the
ground, no more than tighter ten acres of wheat and
Trarley had been fown, befides what private individuals
had tow n for thendelves; and it was even feared that this
fmall crop would fuffer from the depredationsof ants and
'field-mice. To procure as much relief as poffible there¬
fore in the prefent exigence, the Supply was fent in the
beginning of May to Lord Howe Ifland in hopes of pro¬
curing fome turtle and other provifions; but unfortu¬
nately the veffel returned without any turtle, having
met with fqually weather, and being obliged to cut
Murders away her bell bow'er anchor. The natives now began
committed to fhow an hoftile difpofition which they had not
by the na- hitherto done. One of the convidts, who had wander¬
ed away from the red in quell of vegetables, teturned
with a very dangerous wound in the back ; giving in¬
formation alfo, that another who had gone out for the
Vol. VIII. Part II.
fame purpofe had been carried off in his fight by the bTew WoW
natives, after being wounded in the head. _ A fbirt 4t) ’ .
and hat were afterwards found in fome of the huts of
the natives, but no intelligence of the man could be
gained. This wras follower! by other misfortunes of
the fame nature. On the 30th of the month, two meu
who had been employed in cutting rufhes for. thatch at
fome diftance from the camp were found dead. One
of them had four fpears in his body, one of which had
pierced quite through it; but the other had no marks
of violence upon him. In this cate, however, it was
proved, that thofe who fuffered had been the aggref-
fors ; as they had been feen with one of the canoes of
the natives which they had taken from one of the
fifhing places. All poffible inquiry was made after the
natives who had been guilty of the murder, but to no
purpofe. In the courfe of this inquiry, it was found
that one of the natives had been murdered, and feveral
wounded, previous to the attack upon the ruih-cutters.
The governor promifed liberty to any convidk who
fhoulc! difeover the aggreffors; but no information was
procured, though it is probable that it may prevent
accidents of that kind for the future. About this
time the two bulls and four cows belonging to govern¬
ment and to the governor, having been left for fome
time by the man who had the charge of them,
Itrayed into the woods and could not be recovered,
though they were afterwards traced to fome diftance.
The 4th of June being his majefty’s birth day. was
celebrated with as much feftivity as circumflances
would allow; and on this occafion it was firit made
public that the governor had given the name of Cum-
Lerland County to this part of the territory. The ap¬
pointed boundaries were Carmarthen and Lanfdown
hills on the weft, the northern parts or Broken: Bay
on the north, and liie fouthern parts of Botany Bay
on the fouth ; thus including thefe three principal
bays, with Sydney Cove nearly in the centre. jj
The misfortunes which attended thoie convidts vvho A convSdfc
flrayed to too great a diftance from the fettlement,executed*
were not fufficient to prevent fome of them from ram>-
bling into the woods, in hopes of fubfifting themfelves
there and regaining their liberty. One of thefe, who
had been guilty of a robbery, fled into the woods on
the 5th of June, but was obliged to return half flarved
on the 24th. He had found it impoffible to fuhfift in
the woods, and had met with very little relief from
the natives. One of them gave him a fifh, but made
figns for him to go away. According to his account,
they themfelves were in a very miferable fituation ;
and he pretended to have feen four of them apparently
dying of hunger, who made figns to him for fomeihing
to eat. He pretended alfo to have fallen in with a
party who would have burnt him, and that he made
his efcape from them with difficulty. He faid alfo,
that he had feen the remains of a human body lying on
a fire ; and endeavoured to inculcate the idea of thefe
favages eating human fiefh when other provifions were
fcarce. This poor wretch was tried and executed for
the theft he had committed before his departure, along
with another criminal.
By this time the colony was fo far advanced, that R *far
the plan of a regular town had been marked out. The plan of a
principal flreet, when finifhed, is to be 200 feet wide, town laid,
terminated by the governor’s houfe, the main guard!
4 H and
H O L [6]
New Hoi- and Criminal court. The plans of other ftreets are
, land likewife marked out; and it is the governor’s inten-
^ ' tion, that when houfes are built here, the grants of
land fhall be made with fuch claufes as will prevent
the building of more than one houfe on one allotment,
which is to confill of 60 feet in front and 150 in
depth. Thus a kind of uniformity will be preferved
in the building, narrow ftreets prevented, and many
inconveniences avoided, which a rapid increafe of in¬
habitants might otherwife occafion. It has likewife
been an objeft of the governor’s attention to place the
public buildings in fuch fituations as will be eligible at
all times, and particularly to give the ftorehoufes and
hofpital fufficient fpace for future enlargement, ftiould
it be found neceftary The firft huts ereCled in this
place were compofed only of the foft wood of the
cabbage palm, in order to give immediate ftielter, and
which had the further inconvenience of being ufed
quite green. The huts of the convifts were conftruift-
ed only of upright polls wattled with flight twigs, and
plaftered up with clay. Buildings of ftone might ta-
iily have been raifed, had there been any means of pro¬
curing lime for mortar. There were three kinds of
ftone met with about Sydney Cove, one equal in
goodnefs to Portland ftone, an indifferent kind of
fand ftone or fireftone, and a fort which feems to con¬
tain iron j but neither chalk nor any fpecies of lime-
ftone have yet been difcovered. Lime was indeed
procured from oyfter-lhells collected in the neighbour¬
ing coves to conftruCt a fmall houfe for the governor;
but it cannot be expeCled that a fufficient quantity
can thus be procured for many or very extenfive build¬
ings. Good clay for bricks has been found near Syd¬
ney Cove, and very good bricks have been made of it;
the wood alfo, notwithftanding the many reports to
the contrary, is found abundantly lit for various pur-
pofes after being thoroughly feafoned. Such fpeci-
mens as have been fent to England were line-grained
and free of knots, but heavy.
On the point of land that forms the weft fide of the
Cove a fmall obfervatory has been eredted, the longi¬
tude of which has been afcertained to be 1590 19'30"
call from Greenwich, and the latitude 320 52' 30'Touth.
Inftead of thatch they now make ufe of ftiingles made
from a certain tree, which has the appearance of a fir,
I’j but produces wood like Englilh oak.
different With regard to the ftate of this colony there have
thecoior)0^ keen various and difcordant accounts. Some of thefe
co ony. jlaye rcpj-gfented the country in fuch a light, that it
would feem impoffible to fubfift on it; and it has been
faid, that the people who have had the misfortune to
go there already were in the utmoft danger of ftarving
before any affiftance could be fent from Britain. Thefe
reports, however, appear not to be well-founded. Dif¬
ficulties mull undoubtedly be felt at the firft fettlement
of every uninhabited country ; and we are not to ex-
pedl that a colony, moll of whom are wretches ex¬
iled for their crimes from their own country, can
thrive in an extraordinary manner for fome time. It
appears, indeed, that fo far from the tranfportation to
this place having had any good effedl in reforming
them, the governor has been obliged to execute the
utmoft rigour of the law by hanging feveral of them.
A good number of others have unaccountably difap-
peared, and are fuppofed to have been murdered by
3 T H O L
the natives, or perilhed with hunger in the woods; fo NewHot-
that, unlefs the numbers be recruited by more refpec ,and-
table inhabitants, it is not likely that much can be  
expected from the Port Jackfon fettlement for a long
time to come. Of this, however, there feems to be
little doubt: the general fpirit of emigration which
prevails through moll, indeed we may fay all the coun¬
tries of Europe, will undoubtedly foon fupply a fuffi¬
cient number; and even fome of the Americans, not¬
withftanding the extent and fertility of their own
country, and the liberty they enjoy in it, are faid to
be willing to exchange thefe bleffings for the precari¬
ous hopes of what may be obtained in New Holland
among Britilh convi<fts and flaves. This rambling
difpoiition may perhaps be accounted for from an ob-
fervation which has been made, viz. that “ it may
admit of a doubt whether many of the accommoda¬
tions of a civilized life be not more than counterba¬
lanced by the artificial wants to which they give birth.
That thefe accommodations do not give a fatisfa&ion
equivalent to the trouble with which they are procu¬
red, is certain ; and it is no wonder, then, to find num¬
bers of people in every country who are willing to ex¬
change them for independent eafe and tranquillity,
which belong, comparatively fpeaking, to few indivi¬
duals in thofe countries which are called civilized.” rjS
With regard to the geography of this extenfive General ao
country, which may perhaps be reckoned a fifth ge_co,intofthe
neral divifion of the world, Captains Cook and Furneaux C0Untry*
fo fully explored its coafts, that fucceeding navigators
have added nothing to their labours. The only part
which Hill remains unknown is that between the lati¬
tudes of 370 58' and 39° fouth ; and as none of the
fleet which lately failed from Britain could be fuppo¬
fed to undertake any voyage of difeovery, it is un¬
known whether or not a ttrait interfefts the continent
in this place or not. Captain Tench, however, in¬
forms us, on the authority of a naval friend, “ that
when the fleet was off this part of the coaft, a ftrong
fet-off ftiore was plainly felt.”
A vaft chain of lofty mountains run nearly in a
north and fouth direction farther than the eye can
trace, about 60 miles inland. The general face of the
country is pleafing, diverfified with gentle rifings and
fmall winding valleys, covered for the moll part with
large fpreading trees, affording a fucceffion of leaves
in all feafons. A variety of flowering Ihrubs, almoft:
all entirely new to an European, and of exquifite fra¬
grance, abound in thofe places which are free from
trees; and among thefe, a tall fhrub, bearing an ele¬
gant flov/er, [which fmells like Englifti may, is pecu¬
liarly delightful, and perfumes the air to a great di-
ftance. There are but few trees; and, as Captain Tench
and others relate, of fo bad a grain, that they canfcarce-
ly be ufed for any purpofe: This, however, Mr Stock-
dale aferibes to their being ufed in an unfeafoned ftate, T
as has been already mentioned. In return for thefe Red and 1
bad qualities, however, the trees yield vaft quantities )e;1°w
of the gum already mentioned as a cure for the dyfen-Sum** j!
tery. It is of an acrid quality, and therefore requires
to be given along with opiates. The tree which
yields it is of very confiderable fize, and grows to a
great height before it puts out any branches. The
gum itfelf is ufually compared to fanguis draconis, but:
differs from it in being perfedlly foluble in water,.
which.
H O L l 6i0 1 H O L
Now Hoi- which the fanguis dracqnis does not. It may be ex-
land. tradled from the wood by tapping, or taken out of the
veins when dry. The leaves are narrow, and not un¬
like thofe of a willow; the wood fine grained and
heavy, but warps to fuch a degree, when not properly
feafoned, as foon to become entirely ufelefs.
The yellow gum is properly a refin, being entirely
infoluble in water. It greatly refembles gamboge,
but has not the property of ftaining. It is produced
by a low fmall plant with long grafly leaves ; but the
fru&ification (hor.ts out in a furprifing manner from
the centre of the leaves on a fingle llraight Hem to the
height of 12 or 14 feet This ftem is ftrong and
light, and is ufed by the natives for making their
fpears. The refm is generally dug up from the foil
under the tree, not collefted from it, aad may perhaps
be the fame which Tafman calls gum lac of the ground.
It has been tried by Dr Blanc phyfician to St Tho¬
mas's hofpital, who found it very efficacious in the
cure of old fluxes, and that in many and obftinate cafes.
Many of the New Holland plants have been already
imported into Britain, and are now flourifhing in per-
fe&ion at the nurfery gardens of Mr Lee of Hammer-
fmith.
The foil imrhediately around Sydney Cove is fandy,
with here and there a ftratum of clay; but hitherto
the produce has not been remarkable. The principal
difficulty hitherto experienced in cleaning the ground
arifes from the fize of the trees, which is faid to be fo
enormous, that 12 men have been employed for five
days in grubbing up one. Captain Cook fpeaks of
fome fine meadows about Botany Bay, but none of
thefe have been feen by the prefent fettlers, and Go¬
vernor Phillip fuppofes them to have been fwamps
feen at a diftance Grafs grows in almoft every place,
but in the fwamps with the greateft vigour and luxu-
riaucy, though not of the fineft quality. It is found
to agree better with cows and horfes than fheep. A
few wild fruits are fometimes procured ; among which
is a kind of fmall purple apple mentioned by Captain
Cook ; and a fruit which has the appearance of a
grape, but tailing like a green goofeberry, and excef-
,0 fivtlyfour*
Scarcity of From the firft difcovery of this continent, the ex-
frefli wa- treme fcarcity of frclh water has been mentioned by
£er’ every navigator. None have been fortunate enough
to enter the mouth of any navigable river fuch as
might be expe&ed in a country of fuch extent.
The fettlers about Port Jackfon found enough for
common purpofes of life ; but Captain Tench in¬
forms us, that when he left the country, towards the
end of 1788, there had been no difcovery of a ftream
large enough to turn a mill. Since, that time, how¬
ever, Governor Phillip has been more fuccefsful; as
we are informed by a letter of his to Lord Sidney, of
yJH.Iven.dlf- date Feb. rj. 1790: In this letter he relates, that
vo covered by foon after the Ihips failed in November •. 788, he again
|pfP,^in made an excurfion to Botany Bay, where he ftaid five
u 1 Phillip. dayS. but the refearches he made th-re tended only
to confirm him in the opinion he already entertained
that the country round it was by no means an . ligible
fituation for a colony. After having vilrted Bro.»cn
Bay ftveral times with boats a river was found, which
has fince been traced, and all thofe bran h. explored
• which afforded any depth o£ water. This nvtr has
obtained the name of Hawkejbury, is from 300 to 800 New
feet wide and Lems navigable for the'large ft merchant
(hips as far up as Richmond hill, at which it becomes
very ftiallow, and divides into two branches; on which
account the governor calls Richmond Hill the head of
the river. As after very heavy rains, however, the
water fometimes rifes 30 feet above its level, it would
not be fate for fliips to go up fo far; but 15 or 20
miles below it they would lie in frefh water, and be
perfe&ly fafe.
The country about Broken Bay is at firft high and
rocky, but as we proceed up the river it becomes more
level, the banks being covered with timber, and the
foil a light rich mould, fuppofed to be very capable «f
cultivation. The other branches of this river are (hal¬
low, bqj: probably inn many miles up into the coun¬
try. Great numbers of black fwans and wild ducks
were feen on thefe rivers, and the natives had feveral
decoys for catching quails.
Richmond hill, near which a fall prevented the boats
from proceeding farther up, is the moft foutherly of a
large range of hills which run to the northward, and
probably join the mountains nearly parallel to the coaft
from 50 to 60 miles inland. The foil of this hill is
good, and it lies well for cultivation. There is a very
extenfive profpeA from the top, the whole country a-
round feeming a level covered with timber. There is
a flat of fix or feven miles between Richmond hill and
a break in the mountains which feparates Lanfdown
and Carmarthen hills ; in which flat the governor fup¬
pofes that the Hawkefbury continues its courfe; though
the river could not be feen on account of the timber
with which the ground is every where covered where
the foil is good. Six miles to the fouthward of Port
Jackfon is a fmall river ; and 20 to the weftward is one
more confiderable, which probably empties itfelf into
the Hawkefbury. As far as this river was at that time
explored, the breadth was computed at from 300 to
400 feet. It was named the Nepaan, and, like the
Hawkefbury, fometimes rifes 30 feet above its level.
A party who crofted the river attempted to reach the
mountains, but found it impoffible, probably for want
of provifions. After the firft day’s journey they met
with fuch a fucctffion of deep ravines, the Tides of
which were frequently fo inacceilible, that in five days
they could not proceed farther than 15 miles. At the
time they turned back, they fuppofed ihemfelves to be
1; miles from the foot of the mountains. With re¬
gard to the (late of the colony, it appears from this let¬
ter to be as flourifhing as could in any reafonable man¬
ner be expedted. .Another has been formed at a place
called Rofthill, at the head of the harbour of Sydney
Cove. At this place is a creek, which at half flood
has water for latge boats to go three miles up; and
one mile higher the water is frefh and the foil good.
S.-me ground having been cleared and cultivated- the
governor in the above letter writes, that 27 acres were
fown with corn, and that in December the crop was
got in : That the corn was exceedingly good; about
200 bufhcls of wheat and 60 of barley, with a fmall
quantity of flax, Indian corn, and oats; all which is
prefei ved for feed : That if fettlers are lent out, and
the couvidts divided amongft tnem. this fettlemeut will
very fhortly maintain ufelf; but without which this
country cannot be cultivated to any advantage. ‘ At
4 H 2 prefent
H O L [ 620 1 H O L
New Hoi- prefent (continues the governor) I have only one per-
land fon, who has about 100 convifts under his dire&ion,
who is employed in cultivating the ground for the pub¬
lic benefit, and he has returned the quantity of corn
above mentioned into the public ftore: the officers
have not raifed fufficient to fupport the little flock
they have: fome ground I hive had in cultivation will
return about 40 bufhels of wheat into ftore; fo that the
produce of the labour of the convi&s employed in cul¬
tivation has been very fhort of what might have been
expetled, and which I take the liberty of pointing out
to yourlordfhip in this place; to Ihow as fully as pof-
fible the ftate of this colony, and the neceffity of the
convi&s being employed by thofe who have an interdl
in their labour.” The country for 20 miles to the weft-
ward is very capable of cultivation; though the labour
of cutting down the trees is very great. A t SydneyCove
the ftoreshad been infefted by a fwarm of rats which de-
ftroyed no lefs than 12,coo lb. weight of flour and
rice. The gardens alfo had fuffered very confiderably ;
fo that, having met with fuch a confiderable lofs of
provifion, and a fufficient fupply not being procured
from the Cape, governor Phillip thought proper to
fend a further detachment to Norfolk Ifland, where
the fertility of the foil afforded great hopes of their
being able in a fhort time to fubfift themfelves indepen-
24 dent of any affiftance from the ftores.
Govern- With regard to the civil eftablifhment in this colony,
xnent of the g0vernor Phillip’s jurifdiiSlion extends from 430 49' to
colony. io0 fouth, being the northern and fouthern extremi¬
ties of the continent. It commences again in 1350 E.
Tong, from Greenwich ; and proceeding' in an eafterly
direftion, includes all the iflands within the above
mentioned latitudes in the Pacific ocean ; by which
partition it is fuppofed that every fource of litigation
will be cut off, * all thefe are indifputably the difco-
very of the Britifh navigators.
The powers of the governor are abfolutely unlimi¬
ted, no mention being made of a council to affift him
in any thing ; and as no ftated time is appointed for
affembling the courts fimilar to the affizes and gaol
deliveries in England, the duration of imprifonment
is altogether in his hands. He is likewife invefted
with a power of fummoning general courts martial;
but the infertion in the marine mutiny aft, of a fmal-
ler number of officers than 13 being able to compofe
fuch a tribunal, has been neglefted ; fo that a milita¬
ry court, fliould detachments be made from head quar¬
ters, or ficknefs prevail, may not always be found
prafticable to be obtained, unlefs the number of offi¬
cers in the fettlement at prefent be increafed. The
governor is allowed to grant pardons in all cafes, trea-
fon and wilful murder excepted ; and even in thefe he
has authority to flay the execution of the law until the
king’s pleafure fhall be fignified. In cafe of the go¬
vernor’s death, the lieutenant governor takes his place ;
and on his deceafe, the authority is lodged in the
hands of the. fenior officer.
It was not long after the convifts were landed that
there appeared a neceffity for affembling a criminal
court; and it was accordingly convened by v/arrant
from the governor. The members were the judge ad¬
vocate, who prefided, three naval, and three marine
officers. The number of members is limited by aft of
parliament to feven 5 who are exprefsly ordered to be
officers either of his majefty’s fea or land forces. The New Hof-
court being met, completely arrayed and armed as at ,
a military tribunal, the judge advocate proceeds to ad- * -•
minifter the ufual oaths taken by jurymen in England
to each member ; one of whom afterwards fwears him
in a like manner. This ceremony being over, the
crime is laid to the prifoner’s charge, and the queftion
“ guilty or not guilty” put to him. No law officer
being appointed on the part of the crown, the party
at whofe fuit he is tried is left to profecute the pri-
foner entirely by himfelf. All the w'itneffes are examined
on oath ; and the decifion mud be given according to
the laws of England, or “ as nearly as may be, allow¬
ing for the circumftances and fituation of the fettle¬
ment,” by a majority of votes, beginning with the
youngeft member, and ending with the prefident of
the court. No verdift, however, can he given in
cafes of a capital nature, unlefs at leaft five of the fe¬
ven members concur therein. The evidence on both
fides being finifhed, and the prifoner’s defence heard,
the court is cleared, and, on the judgment being fet¬
tled, is thrown open again, and fentence pronounced*
During the time of fitting, the place in which it is
affembled is direfted to be furrounded by a guard un¬
der arms, and admiffion granted to every one who
chufes to enter it. Of late, however, fays captain
Tench, our colonifts are fuppofed to be in fuch a train
of fubordination, as to make the prefence of fo large
a military force unneceffary; and two centinels in ad¬
dition to the provoft martial are confidered as fuffi-
cient. 43
The firft trials which came before this court were Trials oFr:
thofe of three convifts, one of whom was convifted convi&s,..
of having ftruck a marine with a cooper’s adze, and^c**
behaving otherwife in a moft fcandalous and riotous
manner. For this he was condemned to receive 150
lafties, being a fmaHer punifhment than a foldier would
have fuffered in a fimilar cafe. A fecond, for having
committed a petty theft, was fent to a fmall barren
ifland, and kept there on bread and water only for a
week. The third was fentenced to receive 50 lafties ;
but being recommended by the court to the governor*
had his fentence remitted. The fame lenity, however,
could not be obferved in all cafes. One fellow, who
had been condemned to be hanged, was pardoned
while the rope was about his neck, on condition that
he would become the common executioner ever after.
He accepted the horrid office, but not without a pau/et
Some examples of feverity were undoubtedly neceffary;
and among thefe it is impoffible to avoid feeling fome
regret for the fate of one who fuffered death for fteal-
ing a piece of foap of eight pence value : but by the
laft letter of governor Phillip, we are informed that
the convifts is general are now behaving much better;
more fo indeed than ever he expefted. The laft ftate-
ment was of-one woman who had fuffered for a rob¬
bery ; five children had died, and 28 been born. The
whole amount of the deaths 77, of the births 87.
The number of convifts already fent to New South
Wales amounts to 2000 and upwards—above 1800 are
fince embarked for that fettlement. The annua! ex¬
pence of the civil and military eftabliftunents at that
place is nearly L. 10,000.
Befides the criminal court, there is an inferior one
compoftd of the judge advocate, and one or more
jufticea
*6
Account of
the inhabi-
taitts.
H O L [ 621 ] H 0 L
juftices of the peace, for the trial of fmall mifde- are covered, prevents the true colour of them from ap-
meanors. This court is likewife empowered to decide pearing. At fome of their interviews with the colo-
all law-fuits ; and its verdift is final, except where the nifts, feveral droll inftances happened of their iniftaking
fum exceeds L. 300, in which cafe an appeal can the negroes among the colonilts for their own coun-
be made to England from its decree. In cafe of ne- trymen. Notwithftanding their difregard for European-
cefiity, an admiralty court, of which the lieutenant finery, they are fond of adorningj or rather deforming,
governor is judge, may alfo be fummoned for the trial their bodies with fears ; fo that fome of them cut the
of offences committed on the high feas. moft hideous figure that can be imagined. The fears
The quadrupeds on the continent of New Holland themfelves have an uncommon appearance. Sometimes
hitherto difeovered are principally of the Opoflum the flefh is railed feveral inches from the Ikin, and ap-
kind, of which the moft remarkable is the Kangaroo, pears as if filled with wind ; and all thefe feem to be
There is alfo a fpecies of dogs very different from thofe reckoned marks of honour among them. Some of
known in Europe. They are extremely fierce, and ne- them perforate the cartilage of the nofe and thruft a
ver can be brought to the fame degree of familiarity large bone through it, an hideous kind of ornament
with thofe we are acquainted with. Some of tl*em burnoroufly called by the failors their fprit-failyard.
have been brought to England, but ftrll retain their Their hair is generally fo much clotted with the red
ufual ferocity. There are a great many beautiful birds gum already mentioned, that they refemble a mop.
of various kinds ; among which the principal arc the They alfo paint themfelves with various colours like
black fwans already mentioned, and the oftrich or moft other favages: they will alfo fometimes ornament
caffowary; which laft arrives frequently at the height themfelves with beads and Ihells, but make no ufe of
of feven feet or more. Several kinds of ferpents, large the beautiful feathers procurable from the birds of the
fpiders, and fcolopondras, have alfo been met with, country. Moft of the men want one of the fore teeth
There are likewife many curious fifties; though the in the upper jaw; a circumftance mentioned by Dam-
finny tribe feem not to be fo plentiful on the coaft as pier and other navigators ; and this alfo appears to be
to give any confiderable afliftance in the way of provi- a badge of honour among them. It is very com-
fions for the colony. Some very large fharks have mon among the women to cut off the two lower joints
been feen in Port Jackfon, and two fmaller fpecies, of the little finger; which, confidering the clumfinefs
one named the Port Jackfon fhark, the other Watts’s of the amputating inftruments they poffefs,- muft cer-
ftiark. The latter, notwithftanding its diminutive fize, tainly be a very painful operation.^ This was at firft
the mouth fcarce exceeding an inch in breadth, is ex- fuppofed to be peculiar to the married women, or thofe
ceffively voracious. One of them having been taken who had borne children, but fome of the oldeft wo-
and flung down upon the deck, lay there quiet for men were found without this diftindlion, while it was
two hours’, after which Mr Watts’s dog happening obferved in others who were very young,
to pafs by, the fiflifprung upon it with all the ferocity The New Hollanders appear extremely deficient in
imaginable, and feized it by the leg in fuch a manner the ufeful arts. Of the cultivation of the ground they
that the animal could not difengage himfelf without have no notion ; nor can they even be prevailed upon
afliftance. to eat bread or dreffed meat. Hence they depend en-
The climate of this continent appears not to be dif- tirely for fubfiftcnce on the fruits and roots they can
agreeable, notwithftanding the violent complaints which gather, with the fifh they catch. Governor Phillip
fome have made about it. The heat has never been alfo mentions their frequent fetting fire to the grafs,
exceflive in fummer, nor is the cold intolerable in win- in order to drive out the opoffums and other animals
ter. Storms of thunder and lightning are frequent ; from their retreats ; and we have already taken notice
but thefe are common to all warm countries ; and it of their ufing decoys for quails. As all thefe refourcesj
has been fuppofed (though upon what foundation does however, muft be at beft precarious, it is no wonder
not well appear) that were the country cleared of wood, that they are frequently diftreffed for provifions. Thus,
and inhabited, thefe would in a great meafure ceafe. in the fummer-time they would eat neither the ftiark
A fhock of an earthquake has likewife been felt ; but nor fting-ray ; but in winter any thing was acceptable!
thefe naturah calamities are incident to fome of the A young whale being driven afhore, was quickly cut
fineft countries in the world. It is not known whether in pieces and carried off. They broiled it only long e-
there are any volcanoes or not. nough to fcorch the outfide ; and in this raw ftate they
The inhabitants of New Holland are by all accounts cat all their fifh. They broil alfo the fern root and an-
reprefented as the moft miferableand favagerace of mor- other whofe fpecies is unknown. Among the fruits
tals, perhaps, exifting on the face of the earth. They go ufed by them is a kind of wild fig ; and they eat alfo
entirely naked ; and though pleafed at firft with fome the kernels of a fruit refembling the pine apple. The
ornaments which were given them, they foon threw principal part of their fubfiftence, however, is fifh ;
them away as ufelefs. It does not appear, however, and when thefe happened to be fcarce, they were wont
that they are infenfible of the benefits of clothing, or to watch the opportunity when the colonifts hauled the
of fome of the conveniencies which their new neigh- feine, and often feized the whole, though a part had
hours are in poffefiion of. Some of them; whom the formerly been offered or given them. They fometimes
colonifts partly clothed, feemed to be pleafed with the ftrike the fifh from the canoes with their fpears, fome<-
comfortable warmth they derived from it; and they all times catch them with hooks, and alfo make ufe of
exprefs a great defire for the iron tools'which they fee nets, contrary to the affertion of Dr Hawkefworthj
their neighbours make ufe of. Their colour, in the who fays that none of thefe are to be met with among
opinion of captain Cook, is rather a deep chocolate them. Their nets are generally made of the fibres of
than a full blackj but the filth with which their flrin* the flax plant, with very little preparation, and.are
2 ftrong
H O L
■New H I- ftrong and heavy ; the lines of which they are com-
, iaivi pofed twifted like whip-cord. Some of them, how-
- ' ever, appear to be made of the fur of an animal, and
others of cotton. The mefhes of their nets are made
of very large loops artificially inferted into each other,
but without any knots. Their hooks are made of the
infide of a (hell very much refembling mother of-pearl.
The canoes in which they fiih are nothing more than
large pieces of bark tied up at both ends with vines ;
and confidering the flight texture of thefe vefiels, we
cannot but admire the dexterity with which they are
managed, and the boldnefs with which they venture
in them out to fea. They generally carry fire along with
them in thefe canoes, to drefs their fifli when caught.
When fifliing with the hook, if the fiih appears too
flrong to be drawn aihore by the line, the canoe is
paddled to the ihore ; and while one man gently draws
the fiih along, another Hands ready to itrike it with a
fpear, in which he generally fucceeds. There is no
good reafon for fuppofing them t« be canibals, and
they never eat animal fubftances but raw or next to it.
Some of their vegetables are poifonous when raw, but
deprived of this property when boiled. A convift
unhappily experienced this by eating them in an
ed Hate; in confequence of which he died in
hours. The diflike of the New Hollanders to the Eu¬
ropean provifions has already been mentioned : if bread
be given them, they chew and fpit it out again, feldom
choofing to fwallow it. They like fait beef and pork
rather better; but they could never be brought to tatle
fpirits a fecond time.
The huts of thefe favages are formed in the moft
rude and barbarous manner that can be imagined.
They confift only of pieces of bark laid together in
622 ] H O L
gorous, and llout, though generally lean. Damp!
aflerts that they have a dimnefs of fight; though later
navigators have determined this to be a miltake, afcri*
bing to them, on the contrary, a quick and piercing
fight. Their fenfe of fmelling is alfo very acute. One
of them having touched a piece of pork, held out hia
finger for his companion to fmell with ftrong marks
of difguft. The only kind of food they eagerly ac¬
cept of is fifli. Their behaviour with regard to the
women has been hitherto unaccountable to the colo-
nilts. Few of them, comparatively fpeaking, have
been feen ; and thefe have fometimes kept back with
the moft jealous fenfibility ; fometimes offered with
the greateft familiarity. Such of the females as have
been feen, have foft and pleafing voices; and notwith-
ftanding their barbarifm and exceffive rudenefs, feem,
not to be entirely deftitute of modelty.
The New Hollanders generally difplay great per-
fonal bravery on the appearance of any danger. An
old man, whom governor Phillip had treated with
fome familiarity, took occafion to fteal a fpade; but
being taken in the fad, the governor gave him a few
flight flaps on the ftioulder; on which the old man
.... . „ caught hold of a fpear, and, coming up to him, feem-
prepared ftate; in confequence of which he died in 24 ed for fome time determined to ftrike, though had he
t?.. gone fo it would have been impoffible for him to
efcape, being then furrounded by the officers and fol-
diers. No encounters between parties of the natives
themfelves have been obferved, though from fome cir-
cumftances it appears that wars are carried on among
them. They have more than once been feen affemble'd
as if bent on fome expedition. An officer one day
met 14 of them marching along in a regular Indian
file through the woods, each man having a fpear in
the form of an oven, open at one end, and very low, ■'one hand and a ftone in the other. A chief appeared
.1. l 1   1. rx.     i:“ -* f•-1, 1 il- at their head, who was diftinguiftied from the reft by
being painted. They paffed on peaceably, though
greatly fuperior in number to our people. On another
occafion they offered no hoftilities when affembled to the
numberof 200 or 3C0, and meeting the governor attend¬
ed only by a fmall party. With all their courage,
however, they are much afraid of a mufleet, and almoft
equally fo of a red coat, which they know to be the
martial drefs of the Europeans. The mifehief which
they have hitherto done has been exercifed only on
though long enough for a man to lie at full length.
There is reafon, however, to believe, that they depend
lefs on them for flrelter than on the caverns with
which the rocks abound. They go invariably naked,
as has already been obferved; though we muft not
imagine that the cuftom of going naked inures them fo
to the climate as to make them infenfible to the injuries
of the weather. The colonifts had repeated opportu¬
nities of obferving this, by feeing them {hivering with
cold in the winter time, or huddling together in heaps
in their huts or in caverns, till a fire could be kindled fome ftraggling convi&s, moft of whom probably have
to warm them. It is probable, however, not with- been the firft aggreffors.
Handing their extreme barbarity, that fome know¬
ledge of the arts will foon be introduced among them,
as fome have been feen attentively confidering the
tenfils and conveniencies of the Europeans, with a
Though thefe favages allow their beards to grow to
a confiderable length, it does not appear that they
look upon them to be any ornament, but rather the
contrary, as appears from the following inftance. .Some
view, feemingly, of making fimilar improvements of young gentlemen belonging to the Sirius, one day
their own It has alfo been obferved, that in fome met an old man in the woods with a beard of confi-
things they poffefs a very great power of imitation, derable length. This his new acquaintance let hint
They can imitate the fongs and language of the Eu- know that they would rid him of, ftroaking their
ropeans almoft inftantaneoufly, much, better than the chins, and ftiowing him the fmoothnefs of them at the
latter can imitate theirs by long pra&ice. Their ta- fame time. At length the old fellow conftnted; and
lent for imitation is alfo difcernible in their fcu’ptures
reprefenting men and other animals every where met
with on the rocks ; which, though rude, are very
furprifing for people who have not the knowledge even
of ’• ■nftru&in' habitations in the leaft comfortable for
themfelves, or
■Cold.
one of the younglters taking a penknife from his poc¬
ket, and making the beft fubftitute for lather he
could, performed the operation with fuch face ts that
the Indian feemed highly delighted. In a few y$
he paddled alongfide of the Sirius again po. g
clothes to preferve them from the to his beard; but could not by any means be prevailed
upon to enter the fhip. On this a bfber wa» lent
In their perfons, the New Hollanders are a&ive, vi- down to him, who again freed him from his beai d. at
which
New Hol¬
land.
H O L [ 623 ] H O L
'New Hoi- which he exprefled the utmofl; fatisfa&ian. It has,
t lani1' however, been found impofiible to form any kind of
v ’ ' permanent intercourfe with the natives, though many
attempts have been made for that purpofe ; but in his
letter above quoted, governor Phillip declares that he
has not the leaft apprehenfion of their doing any da¬
mage to the colony. At firft the colonifts imagined
the fpears of the New Hollanders to be very trivial
weapons ; but it now appears that they are capable of
inflicting very grievous and mortal wounds. They
are fometimes pointed with a (harp piece of the fame
reed of which the lhafts are made, but more frequently
with the Iharp bone of the fling-ray. They certainly
burn their dead ; which perhaps has given rife to the
report of their being canibals. Governor Phillip, ob-
fervingthe ground to be railed in feveral places, caufed
one of thefe tumuli to be opened, in which were found
a jaw-bone half confumed and fome aihes. From the
manner in which the allies are depofited, it appears
that the body has been laid at length, railed from the
ground a little fpace, and confumed in that pofture ^be¬
ing afterwards lightly Covered with mould.
The only domeftic animals they have are the dogs
already mentioned, which refemble the fox-dog of Eng¬
land. In their language thefe animals are c?\\e&dingo; but
all other quadrupeds without exception they name kan¬
garoo,—They feem very little given to thieving in com-
parifon with the inhabitants of moft of the South Sea
iflands ; and are very honeft among themfelves, leaving
their fpears and other implements open on the beach, in
full and perfeft fecurity of their remaining untouched.
They are very expert at throwing their javelins, and will
hit a mark with great certainty at a confiderable dii-
tance ; and it feems that fometimes they kill the kan¬
garoo with this weapon, as a long fplinter of one of the
fpears was taken out of the thigh of one of thefe ani¬
mals, the flefh having clofed over it completely. The
people are more numerous than was at firft imagined,
though ft ill the number of inhabitants muft be ac¬
counted few in comparifon to the extent of country; and
there is great reafon to believe that the interior parts
are uninhabited. -
The New Hollanders bake their provifions by the
help of hot ftones, like the inhabitants of the South-
fea iflands. They produce fire with great facility ac¬
cording to Captain Cook, but with difficulty accord¬
ing to later accounts, and fpread it in a wonderful man¬
ner. To produce it, they take two pieces of dry
foft wood ; one is a flick about eight or nine inches
long, the other piece is flat. The flick they fhape
into an obtufe point at one end ; and preffing it upon
the other, turn it nimbly, by holding it between both
their hands, as we do a chocolate-mill ; often fhifting
their hands up, and then moving them down upon it,
to increafe the preflure as much as polfible. By this
method they get fire in lefs than two minutes, and
from the fmalleft fpark they increafe it with great
fpeed and dexterity. “ We have often feen (fays cap¬
tain Cook) one of them run along the fhore, to all
appearance with nothing in his hand, who Hooping
down for a moment, at the diftance of every fifty or
an hundred yards left fire behind him, as we could
fee, firft by the fmoke, and then by the flame along
the drift of wood and other litter which was fcatter-
cd along the place. We had the _curicfity to examine
&
one of thefe planters of fire when he fet off, and we Hbllamf;,
faw him wrap up a fmall fpark in dry graft, which H,:>llar- ,
when he had run a little way, having been fanned by ~ ""v~~ -
the air that his motion produced, began to blaze ; he
then laid it down in a place convenient for his purpofe,
inclofing a fpark of it in another quantity of grafs,
and fo continued his courfe.”
Holland in commerce, a fine and clofe kind of
linen, fo called from its being firft manufa&ured in
Holland.
HOLLAR (Wenceflaus), a celebrated engraver,
born at Prague in 1607. His parents were in a gen¬
teel line of life ; and he was at firtt defigned for the
ftudy of the law. But the civil commotions, which
happened in his youth, ruining his family affairs, he
was obliged to fhift for himfelf; and by difcovering
fome genius for the arts, he was placed with Marian,
a very able defigner and engraver of views. Being
himfelf a man of great ingenuity, he profited hafiily
from the inftruftion of his tutor He principally ex¬
celled in drawing geometrical and perfpeftive views
and plans of buildings, ancient and modern cities and
towns ; alfo landfcapes, and every kind of natural and
artificial curiofities.; which he executed with a pen in a
very peculiar ftyle, excellently well adapted tothepurpofe.
He travelled through feveral of the great cities of Ger¬
many ; and, notwithftanding all his merit, met with
fo little encouragement, that he found it very difficult to
fupport himfelf. The earl of Arundel being in Germany
took him under his protedtion, brought him to Eng¬
land, and recommended him to the favour of Charles I.
He engraved a variety of plates from the Arundel col-
ledtion, and the portrait of the earl himfelf on horfe-
back. The civil wars, which happened foon after in
England, ruined his fortune. He was taken prifoner,
with fome of the royal party, and with difficulty efca-
ped ; when he returned to Antwerp, and joined his
old patron the earl of Arundel. He fettled in that
city for a time, and publiflied ,a confiderable number
of plates; but his patron going to Italy foon after for
the benefit of his health, Hollar fell again into dif-
trefs, and was obliged to work for the print and book-
fellers of Antwerp at very low prices. At the reftora-
tion he returned into England ; where, though he had
fufficient employment, the prices he received for his en¬
gravings were fo greatly inadequate to the labour necef-
farily required, that he could but barely fubfift; and the
plague, with the fucceeding fire of London, putting for
fome time an effe&ual flop to bufinefs, his affairs were fo
much embarraffed, that he was never afterwards able to
improve his fortune. It is faid that he ufed to work for
the bookfellers at the rate of four-pence an hour ; and
always had an hour glafs before him. He was fo very
fcrupuloufly exaft, that when obliged to attend the
calls of nature, or whilft talking, though with the per-
fons for whom he was working and about their own
bufineft, he conftantly laid down the glafs, to prevent
the fand from running. Neverthelefs, all his great in-
duftry, of which his numerous works bear fufficient
teftimony, could not procure him a fufficient mainte¬
nance. It is melancholy to add, that on the verge
of his 70th year, he was attached with an execution
at his lodgings in Gardener’s lane, Weftminifter; when
he defired. only the liberty of dying in his bed, and-
that he might not be removed to any other prifon than
the
H O L [ 624 1 H O 1
the Jews, who would notallow the Gentiles to offer Holoferne*,
on their altar any other facrifices peculiarly enjoined by ‘""" *
the law of Mofes, admitted them by the jewifh priefts
to offer holocaufts.; becaufe thefe were a fort of facri¬
fices prior to the law, and common to all nations. Du¬
ring their fubjeftion to the Romans, it was no uncom¬
mon thing for thofe Gentiles to offer facrifices to the
God of Ifrael at Jerufalem. Holocaufis were deemed
confider how highly he has by the Jews the moil excellent of all their facrifices.
His views of abbeys, churches, it is faid, that this kind of facrifice was in common
mins, &c. with his {hells, muffs, and every fpecies of ufe among the heathens, till Prometheus introduced
ftill life, are admirable ; his landfcapes frequently have the cuftom of burning only a part, and referving the re¬
mainder for his own ufe. See Sacrifice.
HOLOFERNES, lieutenant general of the armies
of -Nebuchadonofor king of Affyria, who having in a
remarkable encounter overcome Arphaxad king of the
-Hollar the grave : a favour which it is uncertain whether he
Uolocauft °htained or not. He died, however, in 1677.—His
f ^ works amount nearly to 24,000 prints, according to
Vertue’s Catalogue ; and the lovers of art are always
zealous to eolleft them. Generally fpeaking, they are
etchings performed almoft entirely with the point; and
their merits are thus charadterifed by Mr Strutt: “They
poffefs great fpirit, with altonilhing freedom and light-
nefs, efpecially when — —r '  ' ' ’1 ’ ’
finilhed fome of them.
great merit; and his dillant views of towns and cities
are not only executed in a very accurate, but a very
pleafing manner.” A fomewhat colder character is
given of them by Mr Gilpin in his Effay on Prints r
Hollar gives us views of particular places, which he Medes, fent to all the neighbouring nations with an
copies with great truth, unornamented as he found intention of obliging them this way to fubmit to
them. If we are fatisfied with exadt reprefentations, his empire, pretending that there could be po power
we have them no where better than in Plollar’s works,* capable of refilling him. At the fame time Plolofer-
but if -we expedt pidlures, we muff feek them elfe- nes, at the head of a powerful army, paffed the Eu-
where. Hollar was an antiquarian and a draughtf- phrates, entered Cilicia and Syria, and fubdued almoff
man ; but feems to have been little acquainted with all the people of thefe provinces.
the principles of painting. Stiffnefs is his charadter- Being refolved to make a conqueft of Egypt, he ad-
iftic, and a painful exadtnefs void of tafte. His vanced towards Judaea, little expedting to meet with
larger views are mere plans. In fome of his fmaller, any refiftance from the Jews. In the-mean time, he
at the expence.of infinite pains, fomething of an ef-
iedl is fometimes produced. .But in general, we con
iider him as a repofitory of curiofities, a record of anti¬
quated drefles, .abolifhed ceremonies, and edifices now
in ruins.”
HOLLOA, in the fea-Ianguage, an exclamation
informed that they were preparing to oppofe him;
and Achior the commander of the Ammonites, who
had already fubmitted to Holofernes, and was with
fome auxiliary troops in his army, reprefented to him
that the Hebrews were a people protedled in a parti¬
cular manner by God Almighty fo long as they were
of anfwer, to any perfon who calls to another to obedient to him ; and therefore he ffiould not flatter
aiflc fome queftion, or to give a particular order. Thus, himfelf with expedlations of overcoming them, unlefs
if the mailer intends to give any order to the people they had committed fome offence againft God, whereby
in the main-top, he prexioudy ca\\s, Main-toj>, hoay ! they might become unworthy of his protedlion. Holo-
,to which they anfwer, Holloa l to (how that they, hear femes, difregarding this difcourfe, commanded Achior
him, and are ready. It is alfo the firft anfwer in hail- to be conveyed within fight of the walls of Bethulia,
.ing a fhip at a diltance. See Hailing. and tied to a tree, and left there, whither the Jews
HOLLY, in botany. See Ilex. came and loofed him.
Sea-HoLLr. See Eryncium. Id the mean time Holofernes formed the fiege of
HOLM (Sax. hulmus, infula amnica), denotes an Bethulia; and having cut off the water which fupplied
ifle or fenny ground, according to Bede; or a river-
ifland. And where any place is called by that name,
.and this fyllable is joined with any other in the names
of places, it fignifies a place furrounded with water; as
the city, and fet guards at the only fountain which
the befieged had near the walls, the inhabitants were
foon reduced to extremity, and refolved to furrender,
if God did not fend them fuccours in five days. Ju-
,the Flatholmes and Stepholmes in the Severn near Brif- dith, being informed of their refolution, conceived the
tol: but if the fituation of the place is not near the defign of killing Holofernes in his camp. She took
■water, it may then fignify a hilly place; holm in Saxon, her fineft clothes, and went out of Bethulia with her
iignifying alfo “ a hill or cliff.” tnaid-fcrvant; and being brought to the general, fiie
HOLOCAUST (formed from <>xof “ whole,” and pretended that {he could no longer endure the fins
xaiu “ I confume with fire),” a kind of lacrifice, and -exceffes of the Jews, and that God had infpircd
wherein the whole offering is burnt or confumed by her with the defign of furrendering herfelf to him.—As
fire, as an acknowledgement that God, the creator, foon as Holofernes faw her, he was taken with her
preferver, and lord of all, was worthy of all honour beauty ; and fome days after invited her to a great
and worfhip, and as a token of mens giving themfelves feaft, which he prepared for the principal officers of
entirely up to him. It is called alfo in Scripture a his army. But he drank fo much wine, that fleep
burnt offering.—Sacrifices of this fort are often mention- and drunkennefs hindered him from fatisfying his paf-
.ed by the heathens as well as Jews; particularly
by Xenophon, Cyropad. lib. viii. p. 464. ed-Huichinf.
1738, who fpeaks of facrificing holocauils of oxen to
Jupiter, and of horfes to the fun : and they appear to
have been in ufe long before the inftitution of the other
Jewiffi facrifices by the law of Mofes; (fee Job i. 5.
xlii. 8. and Gen. xxii. 13. viii. 20). On this account,
^156.
fion. Judith, who in the night was left alone in his
tent, cutoff his head with his own fword; and de¬
parting with her fervant from the camp, ffie returned
to Bethulia with the head of Holofernes. As foon a$
it was day, the befieged made a fally upon the ene¬
mies, who going into their general’s tent, found his
headlefs carcafe wallowing in its own blood. They
thefi
’Holopra-
ph.m
H O L [62.
then difcerned that Judith had deceived them, and fled
with precipitation, leaving the camp abounding with
rich fpoils : the Jews purfued them, killed a great num¬
ber of them, and returned loaded with booty.
There is a great diverfity of opinions concerning the
time when this war between Holofernes and the Jews
happened. Some date it from the captivity of Baby¬
lon, in the reign of Manaffeh, and pontificate of Elia-
kim the high-prieft; others place it at fome time af¬
ter the captivity ; and fome doubt the truth of the
whole tranfaftion. See the article Judith.
HOLOGRAPHUM (compofed of “ all,”
and “ I write”), in the civil law, fomething
written wholly in the hand-writing of the perfon who
figns it. The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of a
teftament written wholly in the teftator’s own hand.
The Romans did not approve of holographic tef-
taments ; and, though Valentinian authorifed them by
a novel, they are not ufed where the civil law is in full
force.
HOLOSTEUM, in botany; A genus of the tri-
gynia order, belonging the triandria clafs of plants; and
in the natural method ranking under the 22d order,
Caryophyllei. The calyx is pentaphyllous; the petals
five, the capfule unilocular, and nearly cylindrical,
opening at top.
HOI.OTHURIA, in zoology, a genus belonging
to the order of vermes mollufca. The body detached,
naked, gibbous, terminated by the anus. Many ten-
tacula at the other extremity, furrounding the mouth.
There are nine fpecies, all inhabitants of the ocean.
The following defcriptions of three fpecies are given
by Mr Barbut.
‘ 1. The tremiila, or quivering holothuria, “ com¬
monly meafures eight inches in length when dead; but
alive it extends itfelf to more than a foot, or contrads
its body into a ball. Its figure is cylindric, .the dia¬
meter of which is #very way equal to an inch and a few
lines. The back of a dark brown proudly bears a va¬
riety of flefliy pyramid-like nipples, of 3 dark colour
likcwife at their bafis, but white at their apex. They
are obferved to be of two different fizes; the larger
occupy the length of the back, in number 14 on. each
fide, at the diftance of fix lines one from the other,
when the holothuria is contraded, but the intervening
fpace is full eight lines when the animal is extended.
Others like thefe are placed here and there promif-
cuoufly. The lefs are fcattered in like manner, with¬
out order, in every part of the back. Out of’ them
all exfudes a whitifh mucilage ferving to lubricate the
body. Hence all the forefaid nipples feem to be fo
many glands furnifhed with an excretory dud, the
aperture of which is fo minute as not to be difeo-
verable by the help of a common glafs. That they
are moreover provided with various mufcles follows
hence, that the holothuria can raife and obliterate them
at pleafure. While the larger papillae are quite ered,
their axis and the diameter of their bafe meafures three
lines. The belly or part oppofite to the back in the
holothuria is of a pale brown and fit all over with cy¬
lindric tentacula, in fuch numbers that the head of a
pin could fcarce find room between. Their diameter
is not much above a line, and their length is that
of four lines. They are of a fhining whitenefs,
except the extremity which is of a dark colour,
Vol.VIII. Part II.
; ] H O L
and fliaped like a focket. By the [help of thefe ten- Holotha-
tacula the holothuria fixes its body at the bottom of
the fea, fo as not to be eafily forced away by tempefts,. ° ^ ' *j
which would otherwife happen the more frequently,
as this zoophite dwells near the fhores where the wa¬
ter fcarce rifes to a fathom’s height. Now if it ad¬
heres to other bodies by means of its ventral tentacula,
their point muff neceffarily have the form of a focket,
as the cuttle-fifh, fea-urchins, and ftar-fifli have theirs
fhaped, by which they lay hold of any other body.
From this fituation of the holothuria at the bottom
of the fea, which it alfo retains when kept in a veffel
filled with fea-water, it mult be evident to any one,
that I have not groundlefsly determined which was its
back, and which its belly, which otherwife in a cy¬
lindric body would have been a difficult talk. But as
all animals uniformly walk or reft upon their bellies,
and the holothuria has likewife that part of its body
turned to the earth on which the cylindric tentacula
are to be feen, it is clear that part is the abdomen or
belly of this zoophite. However, both the abdominal
and dorfal tentacula are railed and obliterated at the
animal’s pleafure; from which it is no light conjedure
to conclude, that they are furnilhed with elevating
and deprelfing mufcles, and particularly becaufe all the
forefaid tentacula difappear after the animal’s death:
and hence it farther appears, that all naturalifts have
given the reprefentation of a dead holothuria, feeing
they have alfigned it no tentacula. I entertain fome
doubt whether the illuftrious Linnaeus himfelf did not
draw his generical charader of the holothuria from a
dead fubjed, as he makes no mention of thefe tenta¬
cula.”
2. The phyfalis, or bladder-fhaped holothuria. The
body of this fpecies is oval, approaching to triangular,
of a gloffy tranfparency; the back fliarp edged, of a
dark green colour, whence run out a number of finewss
anteriorly the body is of a reddifli hue. The trunk
fpiral, reddifli towards the thicker end. Many ten¬
tacula of unequal length under that thicker end ; the
fhorter ones are taper and thicker, the middle ones ca¬
pillary, the point clay colour and in fliape like a ball;
the reft which are longer are filiform, of which the
middlemoft is thicker and twice as long. Brown, in
his Jamaica, calls it a diaphanous bladder with nume¬
rous tentacula reprefenting a man’s belly ; above it is
furniflied with a comb full of cells; under the other ex¬
tremity hang a number of branchy tentacula. It in¬
habits the feas.
3. The Pentades, or five-rowed holothuria, has the
mouth encompaffed with tentacula, the body bearing ten¬
tacula five difierent ways. The animal is of a red colour,
nearly oval, or fomewhat cylindrical, affuming various
lhapes. The mouth is fit round with ten rays briltly at
the points. The body longitudinally doted in five places
with clay-coloured hollow warts, fituate two together.
It inhabits the fia of Norway, taking in and catting
out again the water, as it either fwims or dives to the
bottom.
HOLSTEIN, a duchy of Germany, bounded by
the German ocean on the weft ; the Baltic, or the
gulph of Lubeck, on the eaft; the duchy of Meck¬
lenburg on the fouth-eaft ; that of Bremen, with the
river Elbe, on the fouth-weft ; and Lauenburg, with
the territory of Hamburg, on the fouth. Its greateft
4 I length
H O L r 626 1 H O L
Holftein length is about 80 miles, and its breadth 60. The
diocefe of Emin, and the county of Ranzau, though
they make a part of the duchy of Holftein, yet being
lands belonging to the empire and circle, (hall be de-
fcribed feparately.
A great part of this country conlifts of rich marfh-
land, which being much expofed to inundations both
from the fea and rivers, dykes have been raifed at a
great expence to guard and defend them. The pa-
itures in the marlhes are fo rich, that cattle are bred
in vaft numbers and fattened in them, and great
quantities of excellent butter and cheefe made of their
milk. They are alfo very fruitful in wheat, barley,
peafe, beans, and rape feed. In the more barren,
fandy, and heathy parts of the country, large flocks
of ftreep are bred and fed : nor are orchards wanting,
or woods, efpecially of oak and beech; nor turf,
poultry, game, and wild-fowl. Here is a variety
both of fea and river fifh ; and the beef, veal, mut¬
ton, and lamb, are very fat and palatable. Holftein
is alfo noted for beautiful horfes. The gentry ufually
farm the cows upon their eftates to a Hollander, as
he is called, who for every cow pays from fix to ten
rix-dollars ; the owner providing pafture for them in
fummer, and ftraw and hay in winter. It is no un¬
common thing here to drain the ponds and lakes
once in three or four years, and fell the carp, lam¬
preys, pikes, and perch, found in them ; then fow
them for feveral years after with oats, or ufe them for
pafture ; and after that lay them under water again,
and breed fifh in them. There are hardly any hills in
the country ; but feveral rivers, of which the principal
are the Eyder, the Stor, and the Trave. The duchy
contains about 30 towns great and fmall: moft part
of the peafants are under villenage, being obliged to
work daily for their lords, and not even at liberty to
quit their eftates. The nobility and the proprietors
of manors are poflcffed of the civil and criminal jurif-
di&ion, with other privileges and exemptions. For¬
merly there were diets, but now they feem to be en¬
tirely laid afide : meetings, however, of the nobility
are ftill held at Kiel. The predominant religion here
is Lutheranifm, with fuperintendencies as in other
Lutheran countries. In feveral places the Jews are
allowed the exercife of their religion. At Gluck-
ftadt and Altena are both Calvinift and Popifh church¬
es ; and at Kiel a Greek Ruffian chapel. Befides
the Latin fchools in the towns, at Altena is a gymna-
fium, and at Kiel an univerfity. Notwithftanding this
country’s advantageous fituation for commerce, there
are few manufaftures and little trade in it. Hamburg
and Lubec fupply the inhabitants with what they
want from abroad ; from whence and Altena they ex¬
port feme grain, malt, grots, Hatch, buck-wheat, peafe,
beans, rapefeed, butter, cheefe, fheep, fwine, horned
cattle, horfes, and fifh. The manufaftures of the
duchy are chiefly carried on at Altena, Kiel, and
Gluckftadt. The duchy of Holftein confifts of the
ancient provinces of Holftein, Stormar, Ditmarfli, and
Wagria. It belongs partly to the king of Denmark
and partly to the dukes of Holftein Gottorf and Ploen.
Anciently the counts of Holftein were vaflals of the
dukes of Saxony ; but afterwards they received the in-
veftiture of their territories from the emperor, 01 the
bifhops of Lubec. ia the exngeror’s name, though now
the inveftiture is given by the emperor in perfon. The Holftein
king of Denmark appoints a regency over his part of |[ *
Holftein and the duchy of Slefvvick, which has its Wolt-
office at Gluckftadt. The feat of the great duke’s T ^
privy council and regency-court, together with the
chief confiftory, which is united to it, is at Kiel: there
are many inferior courts and confiftories, from which
an appeal lies to the higher. In the duchy of Holftein,
the government of the convents and nobility is alter¬
nately in the king and duke for a year, from Mi¬
chaelmas to Michaelmas. The perfon in whom the
government is lodged adminifters it by his regency.
In fome cafes an appeal lies from this court to the Au-
lic council or chamber at Wetzlar: the convents, the
nobility, and the proprietors of manors in the country,
have a civil and criminal jurifdiftion over their eftates.
The revenues of the fovereigns arife principally from
their demefnes and regalia ; befides which, there is a
land and feveral other taxes and impofts. The. duke’s
income, fetting afide his ducal patrimony, has been
eftimated at 70,000 or 80,000 pounds. The king
ufually keeps here fome regiments of foot and one of
horfe. With refpeft to the duke’s military force, it
amounts to about 800 men. The king, on account
of his (hare in this country, ftyles himfelf duke of HoU
Jiein, Stormar, and Ditmatfh. The dukes both of
the royal and princely houfe ftyle themfelves heirs of
Norway, dukes of Slefwick, Holjlein, Stormar, and
Ditmarjh, and counts of Oldenburg and Delmenhorjl.
On account of Holftein, both the kin^j of Denmark
and the grand duke have a feat and voice in the col¬
lege of the princes of the empire, and in that of the
circle. Together with Mecklenburg they alfo nomi¬
nate an affefibr for this circle in the Aulic chamber.
The matricular afTeffment of the whole duchy is 40
horfe and 80 foot, or 800 florins ; to the chamber of
Wetzlar both princes pay i8$f rix-dollars, 31 kruit^
zers. In 1735, duke Charles Frederic of Holdein
Gottorf founded an order of knighthood here, viz.
that of St Anne, the enfign of which is a red crols,
enamelled, and worn pendant at a red ribbon edged
with yellow.—The principal places of that part of the
duchy belonging to the king of Denmark and the.
duke of Ploen are Gluckftadt, Itzhoe, Rendffiurg,
and Ploen ; and that part belonging to the great
duke are Kiel, Oldenburg, Preetz, and Altena.
PIOLSTENIUS (Lucas), an ingenious and learn¬
ed German, born at Hamburg in 1596, was bred a
Lutheran ; but being converted to papery by father
Sirmond the Jefuit, he went to Rome, and attached.,
himfelf to cardinal Francis Barberini, who took him
under his proteftion. He was honoured by three
popes; Urban VIII. gave him acanonry ofSt Peter’s;
Innocent X. made him librarian of the Vatican ; and
Alexander VII. fent him in 1655 to queen Chriftina
of Sweden, whofe formal profeffion of the Cotholic
faith he received at Infpruck. He fpent his life in
ftudy, and was very learned both in facred and pro¬
fane antiquity. He died in 1661; and though he
was not the author of any. great works, his notes and
differtations on the works of others have been highly
efteemed for the judgment and precifion with which
they are drawn up.
HOLT (Sir John), knight, eldeft fon of Sir Tho¬
mas Holt, ferjeant at law, was born in 1642. He en,-
tsred.
H O L [ 627 ] H O L
Holt t«red himfelf of Gray’s Inn in 1658 ; and applied to
II tire common law with fo much induilry, that he foon
Holyhead. became a very eminent barrifter. In the reign of
’ James II. he was made recorder of London, which of¬
fice he difcharged with muchapplaufe for aboutayear
and a half; but loft his place for refufing to expound
the law fuitably to the king’s defigns. On the arrival
of the prince of Orange, he was chofen a member of
the convention parliament, which afforded him a good
opportunity of difplayinghis abilities; fo that, as foon
as the government was fettled, he was made lord chief
juftice of the court of king’s bench, and a privy coun-
fellor. He continued chief juftice for 22 years, with
great repute for fteadinefs, integrity, and thorough
knowledge in his profeflion. Upon great occafionshe
afferted the law with intrepidity, though he thereby
ventured to incur by turns the indignation of both the
houfes of parliament. He publiihed fome reports, and
died in 1709.
Holt (Sax.) ** a wood wherefore the names of
towns beginning or ending with holt^ as Buck-holt^
&c. denote that formerly there was great plenty of
wood in thofe places.
HOLY. See Holiness.
HOLY-GHOST, one of the perfons of the holy
Trinity. See Trinity.
Order of the Holy Ghost, the principal military
order in France, inftituted by Henry III. in 1569.
It confifts of 100 knights, who are to make proof of
their nobility for three defcents. The king is the
grand-mafter or fovereign; and asfuch takes an oath
on his coronation-day to maintain the dignity of the
order.
The knights wear a golden crofs, hung about their
necks by a blue filk ribbon or collar. But before
they receive the order of the Holy-Ghoft, that of St
Michael is conferred as a neceffary degree; and for this
reafon their arms are furrounded with a double collar.
HOLYHEAD, a town and cape of the ifle of An-
glefeain Wales, and in the Irifti channel, where people
ufually embark for Dublin, there being three packet-
boats that fail for that city every Monday, Wednef-
day, and Friday, wind and weather permitting. It is
276 miles from London, and has a very convenient
harbour for the northern trade, when taken ftiort by
contrary winds. It is fituated near the extremity of
the Ifle, and is joined to the north-weft part of it by
a ftone bridge of one arch. It has a fmall market on
Saturdays. The parilh is about five or fix miles long,
?.nd two or three broad, bounded nearly by the fea.
The church {lands above the harbour, within an old
ijuadrangular fortification, with a baftion at each cor¬
ner built about 450. On a mountain near it is ano¬
ther old fortification called Turn’s Munimentum,
which is an old ftone wall without mortarr and in its
centre is a fmall turret, and contains a well of water.
Holyhead was frequently formerly.vifited by Irifh ro¬
vers, and was defended as a place of confequence.
There are feveral remains pf old fortifications and
Druidical antiquities in its neighbourhood, as well as
chapels of religious worflu’p. The parifti church of
Holyhead was built in the reign of Edward III. and
is in the form of a crofs, with a porch and fteeple very
antique. There was an old. chapel near the church,
now converted, into a fchool-houfe. A falt-houfe was
erefled dn an ifland in the harbour in queen Anne’s Holyhead,
reign, but it is now in ruins. The town is little more 1
than a fifhing town, rendered confiderable by being the f
place of paffage to Ireland. It has three good inns.
The paflage hence to Ireland is in general about twelve
hours. There is no frefh water here except from rain,
nor any bread fold but what comes from Ireland.
A bath and affembly-room were creeled here in 1770.
Under the mountains that overhang the town is a large
cavern in the rock, fupported by natural pillars, called
the Parliament-houfe, accefiible only by boats, and the
tide runs into it. If this harbour was properly re¬
paired, and ware-houfes built, it would be very conve¬
nient for the Irifli to import fuch of their goods as pay
Englilh duty, it being but a few hours fail from Dublin.
Befides, theDublin merchants might comeover with the
packets to fee their goods landed. The commodities are,
butter, cheefe, bacon, wild-fowl, lobfters, crabs, oyfters,
razor-fiih,fhrimps,herrings, cod-fifli, whitings, whiting-
pollacks, cole-fifh, fea-tenches, turbots, foies, floun¬
ders, rays, and plenty of other fifh. On the rocks
the herb grows of which they make kelp, a fixed fait
ufed in making glafs, and in alum works. In the
neighbourhood there is a large vein of white fullers
earth and another of yellow, which might be ufeful
to fullers. On the ifle of Skerries, nine miles to the
north, is a light-houfe, which may be feen 24 miles
off. Large flocks of puffins are often feen here ; they
all come in one night, and depart in the fame manner.
HOLY-Island, a fmall ifland lying on the co^ftof
England, 10 miles fouth-eaft of Berwick, in Northum¬
berland. Bede calls it a femi-ijland, being, as he obferves,
twice an ifland and twice continent in one day : for
at the flowing of the tide, it is encompaffed by water ;
and at the ebb, there is an almoft dry paffage, both
for horfes and carriages, to and from the main land ;
from which, if meafured on a ftraight line, it is diftant
about two miles eaftward; but on account of fome
quickfands paffengers are obliged to make fo many de¬
tours, that the length of way is nearly doubled. The
water over thefe flats at fpring-tides is only feven feet
deep.—This ifland was by the Britons called Inis Me-
dicante; alfo Lindisfarne, from the fmall rivulet of
Lindi or Land!, which here runs into the fea, and the
Celtic word fahren or “ recefs and on account of
its being the habitation of fome of the firft monks in
this country, it afterwards obtained its prefent name
of Holy-ifland. It meafures from eaft to weft about
two miles and a quarter, and its breadth from north
to fouth is fcarcely a mile and a half. At the north-
weft part there runs out a fpit of land of about a mile in
length. The monaftery is fituated at the fouthermoft
extremity ; and at a fmall diftance north of it ftands the
village. On this ifland there is plenty of fifli and
fowl; but the air and foil are bad. There is not a
tree on the ifland. The village, which ftands on a
rifing ground, confifts but of a few fcattered houfes,
chiefly inhabited by filhermen ; and it has two inns.
The north and eaft coafts are formed of perpendicular
rocks, the other fides fink by gradual dopes to the
lands. There is a commodious harbour, defended by
a block-houfe,; .which laft was furprifed and taken in
,1715, but w’as foon invefted and retaken.
Holy-ifland, though really part of Northumberland,
belongs to Durham ; and all civil difputes muft bede-
4 I 2 termined
H O L [ 628 ] H O L
tepmined by the juftices of that county.—It was a
very ancient epifcopal feat. Ardan the firft bifhop,
after prefiding in it 14. years, died and was buried here
A. D. 651. Finan, his fucceffor, built a wooden
church, thatched with reeds, but before the end of the
century covered with lead by bifhop Eadbert. St
Cuthbert, who from a poor fhepherd became monk of
Melrofs 15 years, was prior here 12 more, when he
retired to one of the barren Earn rocks, from whence
he was called to this fee, which he held only two
years, and returned to his retirement, where he died,
and was buried at the eaft end of his oratory, where
his ftone coffin is ftill Ihown. His body was found
jreffi 11 years after his death. Lindisfarn was ruined
by the Danes, A. D. 793, when the monks carried
his body about for feven years, and at laft fettled at
Chefter-le-ftreet, whither the fee was tranflated, and
where it continued many years. On a fecond deftruc-
tion of the monaftery by the Danes they were remo¬
ving to Rippon, but flopped by a miracle at Durham,
where the faint continued till the reformation, when
his body was found entire, and privately buried in a
wooden coffin, as fome pretend, near the clock, but more
probably in the ground under where his Ihrine flood.
The entrochi found among the rocks at Landisfarn
are called St Cuthbert’s beads, and pretended to be
made by him in the night. Eighteen bilhops fat here
6
till the removal of the fee to Chefter, which had eightH >'y-Roo.i
more till the removal to Durham, A. D. 995. Lin- Hjiywdl.^
disfarn became a cell to that Benedidfioe monaflery,
valued at 48 1. per ana. The north and fouth walls of
the church are flanding, much inclined; part of the
weft end remains, but the eaft is down. The columns
of the nave are of four different forts, 12 feet high and
5 feet diameter, maffy and richer than thofe of Dur¬
ham ; the bafes and capitals plain, fupporting circular
arches. Over each arch are large windows in pairs,
feparated by a ftrort column, and over thefe are imall-
er Angle windows. In the north and fouth walls are
fome pointed arches. The length of the body is 138
feet, breadth 18 feet, and with the two ailes 36 feet;
but it may be doubted whether there ever was a tran-
fept. One arch of the centre tower remains adorned
as is its entrance from the nave with Saxon zigzag.
Somewhat to the eaft is the bale of a crofs, and to
the weft the prefent pariffi-church (a).
Hoir-Rood Day, a feftival obferved by the Roman
catholics, in memory of the exaltation of our Saviour’s
crofs. See Cross and Exautatiox.
Holywell, a town of North Wales, in the county
of Flint. It is a place of great note, for the well of
St Winnifred, who is reputed a virgin martyr ; and it
is much frequented by people that come to bathe in it,,
as well as by popiflt pilgrims out of devotion. The
fpring
(a) A reference was inadvertently made to this article for a defeription of B AMBOROUGH, as if it had
been lituated upon, or belonged to, HoIy-IJland. — Bamborougw lies feveral miles to the fouth, and is fituated on
the main land. The town is now an inconfiderable village ; but it once was a royal borough, and fent two
members : it even gave name to a large traft extending fouthward, which was called Bamboroughjbire. it had
alfo three religious foundations; a houfe of friars preachers founded by Henry III. a cell of canons regular of
St Auftin, and an hofpital. Its very ancient caftle ftands on an almoft perpendicular rock clofe to the fea,
and acceffible only on the fouth-eaft ftde, on a fpot where, according to the monkifh hiftorians, there flood the
caftle or palace of the kings of Northumberland ; built, as it is faid, by king Ida, who began his reign about
the year 539. Part of the prefent ruins are by fome fnppofed to be the remains of king Ida’s work. The
ancient name of this place was, it is faid, Belbanborough; whofe name Cambden, from the authority of Bede, ima¬
gines borrowed from Bebba, Ida’s queen : but the author of the additions to that writer is of a contrary opi¬
nion, as in the Saxon copy it is called Cynclicanberg, or the “ royal manfion.” According to Florilegus, king
Ida at firft fenced it only with a wooden inclofure, but afterwards furrounded it with a wall. It is thus de-
icribed by Roger Hoveden, who wrote in the year 1192: “ Bebba is a very ftrong city, but not exceeding
large ; containing not more than two or three acres of ground. It has but one hollow entrance into it,
which is admirably raifed by fteps. On the top of the hill ftands a fair church ; and in the weflern point is a
well curioufly adorned, and of fweet clean water.” This caftle was befieged anno 642 by Penda, the Pagan
king of the Mercians, who, as the ftory goes, attempted to burn it: for which purpofe he laid valt quantities
of wood under the walls, and fet fire to it as foon as the wind was favourable ; but no fooner was it kindled,
than by the prayers of St Adian, the wind changed and carried the flames into his camp, fo that he was obli¬
ged to raife the fiege. In 710, king Ofred, on the death of Alfred his father, took flicker in this caftle with
Brithric his tutor or guardian j one Edulph having feized the crown, by whom, with his partizans, they were un-
fuccefsfully befieged. Brithric made fo gallant a defence, that the fiege was turned into a blockade, which gave
the loyal fubjefts time to arm in defence of their young king. On their marching hither to his relief, Edulph
fled, but was followed, taken, and put to death by Brithric, who thereby fecurely feated Ofred^on the throne,
when this caftle became his palace. In the reign of Egbert, Kehulph biftiop of Lindisfarn was confined
here 30 years from 750 to 780. In 933, it was plundered and totally ruined by the Danes ; but being of
great importance in defending the northern parts againft the continual incurfions of the Scots, it was foon af¬
ter repaired, and made a place of confiderable ftrength. It is faid to have been in good repair at the time of
the conqueft, when it was probably put into the cuitody of fome trufty Norman, and had in all likelihood
fome additions made to its works; and this is the more probable, as the prefent area, contained within its
walls, meafures upwards of 80 acres, inftead of three, as when deferibed by Hovedem About the year JO95
it was in the poffeffion of Robert de Mowbray earl of Northumberland, who engaging in fome treafonable prac¬
tices againft William Rufus, that king laid fiege to it, and obliged it to furrender. In the next reign it was
entrufted by Henry I. to Euftace Fitz John; who was difpoffeffed of it and hi? other employments by king
Stephea
H O L [ 629 ] HO M
Holyoak, fpring gafhes forth withfuch impetuofity, thatat a fmall
Holy wood. djftance jt turns fCVeral mills. Over th^. fpring isa cha-
pel built upon pillars, and on the windows are painted
the hiftory of St Winnifred’s life. There is a mofs a-
bout the well, which fome fooliflrly imagine to be St
Winnifred’s hair. W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 54. 23.
HOLYOAK (Francis), author of the Latin dic¬
tionary, became redtor of South-ham in Warwicklhire
in 1604; and being greatly efteemed, was chofen mem¬
ber of the convocation in the firft year of Charles I.’s
reign. He fuffered much for the king; and died in
1653, aged 87. His fon Thomas made enlargements
to the faid Di&ionary.
HOLYWOOD (John), or Halifax, or Sacra-
bofco, was, according to Leland, Bale, and Pitts, born
at Halifax in Yorkfhire; according to Stainhurft, at
Holywood near Dublin ; and, according to Dempder
and Mackenzie, in Nithfdale in Scotland. The lad-
mentioned author informs us, that, having finilhed his
ttudies, he entered into orders, and was made a canon
regular of the order of St Auguftin in the famous mo-
naftery of Holywood in Nithldale. The Englilh bio¬
graphers, on the contrary, tell us, that he was edu¬
cated at Oxford. They all agree, however, in alfert-
ing that he fpent mod. of his life at Paris; where, fays H image,
Mackenzie, he was admitted a member of the univer-
fity on the fifth of June in the year 1221, under the ' -
fyndics of the Scotch nation ; and foon after eledled
profelfor of mathematics, which he taught for many
years with applaufe. We are told by the fame author,
that he died in 1256, as appears from the infcription
on his monument in the cloillers of the convent of St
Maturine at Paris. Holywood was certainly the firft
mathematician of his time. He was cotemporary with
Roger Bacon, but probably older by about 20 years.
He wrote, 1. Defphara mundi; often reprinted, and
illudrated by various commentators. 2. De anni ra-
tione,feu ds computo eccle/lajlico. 3. De algor if mo, printed
with Comm. Petri Cirvdli Hifp. Paris 1498.
HOMAGE, in law, is the fubmifiion, loyalty, and
fervice, which a tenant promifed to his lord when he
was firft admitted to the land which he held of the lord
in fee : alfo that owing to a king, or to any fuperior.
HOMBERG (William), a celebrated phyfician,
chemift, and philofopher, was the foh of a Saxon gen¬
tleman, and born in Batavia, in the Eaft Indies, in
1652. His father afterwards fettling at Amflerdam,
William there profecuted his ftudies; and from thence
removed
Stephen, that king being jealous of his attachment to Maud, daughter of Henry I. Irritated at this, Fitz
John delivered the caftle of Alnwick to David king of Scotland, and brought to his aid all the forces he could
raife ; he was, however, afterwards reconciled to king Stephen, and held the manors of Burg and Knareibo-
rough in Yorkfhire, but never recovered the government of this caftle.
In the 16th of Henry II. fome great repairs feem to have been done here, as in Madox’s hiftory of the ex¬
chequer, under the article of Amercements, it appears one William, fon of Waldef, was fined five marks for
refuiing his affiftance in the king’s works at Baenburg caftle. Its keep is fuppofed to have been the work of
this reign.
Edward I. fummoned Baliol to meet him here 12965 and on his refufal invaded Scotland, and took him
prifoner. Edward II. fheltered Gavefton here 1310. It was taken by the Yorkiits after the battle of Hexham..
In the reign of Elizabeth Sir John Forfter, warden of the marches, was governor of it, and made a knight
banneret after the battle of Muffelburgh ; and his grandfon John obtained a grant of both caftle and manor
from James I. His defeendant Thomas forfeited it in 1715 ; but his maternal uncle Nathaniel Crew bifhop
of Durham purchafed and bequeathed them to unconfined charitable ufes. The ruins are ftill confiderable
but many of them now filled with fand, caught up by the winds which rage here with great violence, and car¬
ried to very diftant places. The remains of a great hall are very Angular; it had been warmed by two fire
places of a valt fize, and from the top of every window ran a flue like that of a chimney, which reached the
fummits of the battlements. Thefe flues feem defigned as fo many fupernumerary chimnies to give vent to the
fmoke that the immenfe fires of thofe hofpitable times filled the rooms with ; for halls fmoky, but filled with
good cheer, were in thofe days thought no inconvenience. In the year 1757, the truftees for lord Crew’s cha¬
rity began the repairs of the keep or great tower ; the dire&ion and management being committed to Dr
Sharp archdeacon of Durham, one of their number ; who has made a moil judicious and humane application of
his lordlhip’s generous bequeft. The walls are from 9 to 12 feet thick. The upper parts of the building
have been formed into granaries ; whence, in times of fcarcity, corn is fold to the indigent without any dif-
tin&ion at four (hillings per bufhel. A hall and fome fmall apartments are referved by the Doffor, who fre¬
quently refides here to fee that his noble plan is properly executed—Among the variety of diftreffed who find
lelief from the judicious difpofition of this charity, are the mariners navigating this dangerous coaft, for whole
benefit a conftant watch is kept on the top of the tower ; from whence lign.ds are given to the filhermen of
Holy Ifland when any (hip is difeovered in diftrefs, thefe filhermen by their fituation being able to put off
their boats when none from the land can get over the breakers. The Yignals are fo regulated as to point out
the particular place where the diftreffed vdfel lies. Befides which, in every great ftorm, two men on horfe-
back patrole the adjacent coaft from fun-fet to fun-rife, who, in cafe of any Ihipwreck, are to give immediate
notice at the caftle. Premiums are likewife paid for the earlieft information of any fuch misfortune. By thefe
means the lives of many feamen have been, and will be, preferved, who would otherwife have perilhed for want
of timely afliftance. Nor does this benevolent arrangement ftop here. The fliipwrecked mariner finds an hofpi¬
table reception in this caftle ; and is here maintained fora week or longer, as citcumflances may requite. Here,
likewife, are ftore-houfes for depofiting the goods which may be faved; inftruments and tackle for weighing
and raifing the funken and ftranded veffels ; and, to complete the whole, at the expence of this fund, the laii
effices are decently performed to the bodies of fuch drowned failors as are caft on Ihore..
H O M [ 630 1 H O M
iTotnhei'jr, removed to Jena, and afterwards to Leipfic, where he confiderable parts and learning, who fpent many years He
' H m-.e ftudien the law. In 1642, he was made advocate at as preceptor or private tutor to Mr Home. ~—
^ v Magdeburg, and there applied himfelf to the ftudy of After ftudying, with acutenefs and diligence, at the
experimental philofophy. Some time after he travelled univerfity of Edinburgh, the civil law, and the muni-
into Italy ; and applied himfelf to the tludy of medi- cipal law of his own country, Mr Home early per-
cine, anatomy, and botany, at Padua. He afterwards ceived that a knowledge of thefe alone is not fufficient to
ftudied at Bologna ; and at Rome learned optics, make an accomplifhed lawyer. An acquaintance with
painting, fculpbure, and mufic. He at length travel* the forms and pradtical bufinefs of courts, and efpecially
led into France, England, and Holland ; obtained the of the frtpreme court, as a member of which he was to
degree of doftor of phyfic at Wittemberg ; travelled feek for fame and emolument, he confidered as elfentially
into Germany and the North; vifited the mines of neceffary to qualify him to be a complete barriller.
Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, and Sweden ; and re- He accordingly attended for fome time the chamber
turned to France, where he acquired the efteem of the of a writer to the fignet, where he had an opportunity
learned. He was on the point of returning into Ger- of learning the flyles of legal deeds, and the modes of
many, when M. Colbert being informed of his merit, condufting different fpecies of bufinefs. This wife
made him fuch advantageous offers, as induced him to flep, independently of his great genius and unwearied
fix his refidence at Paris. M. Homberg, who was al- application, procured him, after his admiffion to the
ready well known for his phofphorus, for a pneumatic bar, peculiar refpedi from the court, and proportional
machine of his own invention more perfedl than.that employment in his profeffion of an advocate. Who-
of Guericke, for his microfcopes, for his difeoveries in ever perufes the law-papers compofed by Mr Home
chemidry, and for the great number and variety of his when a young man, will perceive an uncommon ele-
curious obfervations, was received into the academy of ganee of ftyle, belides great ingenuity of reafoning,
fciences in 1691, and had the laboratory of that aca- and a thorough knowledge of the law and contlitu-
demy, of which he was one of its principal ornaments, tion of his country. Thefe qualifications, together
The duke of Orleans, afterwards regent of the king* with the ftrength and vivacity of his natural abilities,
dom, at length made him his chemift, fettled upon him foon raifed him to be an ornament to the Scottifli bar;
a ptnfion, gave him the moft fuperb laboratory that and, on the 2d day of February 1752, he was ad-
was ever in the poffeflion of a chemift, and in 1704 vanced to the bench as one of the judges of the court
made him his firrt phyfreian. He had abjured^ the of feffion, under the title of Lord Karnes.
Proteftant religion in 1682, and died in 1715. There Before this period, however, notwithftanding the un-
are a great number of learned and curious pieces of his avoidable labours of his profeffon, Mr Home had fa-
writing, in the memoirs of the academy of fciences, voured the world with feveral ufeful and ingenious
and in feveral journals. He had begun to give the works. In the year it 1%, ht yuhWfatA Remarkable De-
elements of chemiftry in the memoirs of the academy, cifions of the Court of Sejfion from 1716/0 1728, in one
and the reft were found among his papers fit for print- vol. folio.— In 1732 appeared Ejfays upon feveralfub-
Jng, jefts in law, vis. Jus tertii; Benefcium cedendarum actio-
Homberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of the num ; Vinco Vinccntem; and Prefcription ; in one volume
Upper Rhine, and landgravate of Heffe, feated ten 8vo. This firft produce of his original genius, and of
miles north of Francfoit, and gives title to one of the his extenfive views, excited not only the attention, but
branches of the houfe of Heffe, who is its fovereign. the admiration of the judges, and of all the other mem-
E. Long. 8. 24. N. Lat. 50. 20. bers of the college of juftice. This work was fucceed-
Hombbrg, a town of Germany, in the palatinate ed, in the year 1741, by Decifons of the Court of Sefion
of the Rhine, and duchy of Deuxponts. E. Long. 7. 6. from its frjl injlitution to the year 1740, abridged and di-
N. Lat. 49. 20. gfed under proper heads, in form of a Diilionary, in two
HOME (Henry), Lord Karnes, an eminent S<?ot- volumes folio : A very laborious work, and of the
tiftr lawyer, and author of many celebrated works on greateft utility to every praftical lawyer. In 1747
various fubjefts, was defeended of a .very honourable appeared Ejfays upon feveral ftbjeSs concerning Bri-
-and ancient family, and born in the year 1696. ttjh Antiquities, viz, 1. Introdu&ion of the feudal law
Lord Karnes’s grandfather, Henry Home, was a into Scotland. 2. Conftitution of parliament. 3. Ho-
vounger fon of Sir John Home of Renton, who held nour. Dignity. 4. Succeflion, or Defcent; with an
the high office of lord juftice-clerk, or chief crimi- appendix upon hereditary and indefeafible right, com-
nal judge of Scotland, in the year 1663. He re- pofed anno 17451 and publiffied 1747, in one volume
eeived the eftate of Karnes from his uncle George, 8vo. In a preface to this work, Lord Karnes informs
brother to the then lord juftice-clerk. The family of us, that in the years £745 and 1746, when the nation
Renton is defeended from that of the earls of Home, was in great fufpenfe and diftraftion, he retired to the
the reprefentatives of the ancient princes of Northum- country; and in order to banifti as much as poffibk
berland, as appears from the records of the Lion Office. the uneafmefs of his mind, he contrived the plan, and
The county of Berwick in Scotland has the ho- executed this ingenious performance,
nour of having given birth to this great and ufeful Though not in the order of time, we ffiall continue
member of focietv- In early youth he was lively, and the lift of all our author’s writings on law, before
-eager in the acquifition of knowledge. He never at- we proceed to his productions on other fubjefts, Ifi
tended a public fchool; but was inftruCted in the an- '757, he publifhed The Statute law of Scotland a-
cient and modern languages, as well as in feveral bridged, with hijlorical notes, in one volume 8vo; a moft
branches of mathematics, and the arts rieceffarily con- ufeful and laborious work. In the year 1759, he pre-
uefted with that Lienee, by Mr Wingate, a man of fented to the public a new work under the title of Hip-
H O M [ 63' j H O M
rical Lauu ¥rafts, in one vol. 8vo. It contains fourteen
interefting tra&s, viz. Hilloryof the Criminal Law :—
Hiftory of Promifes and Covenants :—Hiflory of Pro¬
perty:—Hiftory of Securities upon and for Payment of
Debt :--Hiftory of the Privilege which an Heir-apparent
in a feudal holding has to continue the Pofleffion of his
Anceftor:—Hiftory of Regalities, and of the Privilege
of repledging :—Hiftory of Courts : Hiftory of
Brieves : — Hiftory of Procefs in abfence : — Hiftory of
Execution againft Moveables and Land for Payment
of Debt:—Hiftory of Perfonal Execution for Payment
of DebtHiftory of Execution for obtaining Pay¬
ment after the Death of the D.btor:—Hiftory of the
limited and uuiverfal Reprefeutaiion of Heirs :—Old
and New Extent. In 1760, he publifhed, in one vo¬
lume folio. The principles of Equity; a work which ftiows
both the fertility of the author’s genius and his inde¬
fatigable application. , In 1766, he gave to the public
another volume in folio of Remarkable Decfions of the
Court of Seffion, from 1730 to 1752. In 1777, ap¬
peared his Elucidations refpefting the Common and Statute
Law of Scotland, in one volume 8vo. This book con¬
tains many curious and interefting remarks upon fome
intricate and dubious points which occur in the law
of Scotland. In 1780, he publilhed a volume in folio
of Select Deciftons of the Court of Sejfion from 1752
to 1768.'
From this fketch of Lord Karnes’s compofitions and
coileHions with a view to improve and elucidate the
laws of Scotland, -the reader may form fome idea of
his great induiiry, and of his anxious defire to promote
the honour and welfare of his country. It remains
to be remarked, that in the fupreme court there, the
law writings of Lord Karnes are held in equal eftima-
tion, and quoted with equal refpedt, as thofe of Coke
or Blackftone in the courts of England.
Lord Karnes’s mind was very much inclined to me-
taphyfical difquifitions. When a young man, in order
to improve himfelf in his favourite ftudy, he corre-
fponded with the famous Berkeley bilhop of Cloyne>
Dr Butler bilhop of Durham, Dr Samuel Clark, and
many other ingenious and learned men both in Bri¬
tain and Ireland. The letters of correfpondence, we
are happy to learn, have been carefully preierved by
his fon and heir George Home-Drummond, Efq; of
Blair-Drummond.
The year 1751 gave birth to the firft fruits of his
Lordfhips metaphyfical ftudies, under the title of Effays
on the Principles of Morality and natural Religion, in two
parts. Though a fmall volume, it was replete with in¬
genuity and acute reafoning, excited general attention,
and gave rife to much controverfy. It contained, in
more explicit terms than perhaps any other work of a
religious theift then known in Scotland, the do&rine
which has of late made fo much noife under the appel¬
lation ofphilofophical necejity. The fame thing had in¬
deed been taught by Hobbes, by Collins, and by the
celebrated David Hume, Efq; but as thofe authors either
were profeffed infidels, or were fuppofed to be fuch, it
excited, as coming from them, no wonder, and provo¬
ked for a time very little indignation. But when a wri¬
ter, who exhibited no fymptoms of extravagant feepti*
cifm, who infinuated nothing againft; the truth of reve¬
lation in general, and who inculcated with earneftnefs
the greatduties of morality and natural religion, advan¬
ced at the fame time fo uncommon a doArine as that of Home.
neceffity ; a number of pens were immediately drawn a- " 'r“
gainft him, and for a while the work and its author
were extremely obnoxious to a great part of the Scot-
lifti nation. On the other hand, there were fome, and
thofe not totally illiterate, who, confounding neceffity
with predeflination, complimented Mr Home on his ma-
fterly defence of the eftablifhed faith : and though be¬
tween thefe two fchemes there is no fort of refemblance,
except that the future happinefs or mifery of all men is,
according to both, certainly fore-known and appointed
by God ; yet we remember, that a profefler in a diffent-
ing academy fo far miftook the one for the other, that
he recommended to his pupils the EJfays on morality and
natural religion, as containing a complete vindication of
the doftrine of Calvin. For this miftake he was dif-
miffed from his office, and excluded from the commu-
nion-of the fe<£l to which he belonged. Lord Karnes,
like many other great and good men, continued a Ne-
ceflarian to the day of his death ; but in a fubfequeni
edition of the effays, he exhibited a remarkable proof
of his candor and liberality of fentiment, by altering-
the expreffions, which, contrary to his intention, had
given fuch general offence.
In 1761, he publifhed an Introduftiort to the Art of
Thinking, in one volume 12 mo. This fmall but va¬
luable book was originally intended for the inftruc-
tion of his own family. The plan of it is both curious,
amufing, and highly calculated to catch the attention
and to improve the minds of youth. It confifts of
maxims collt&ed from Rochefoucault and many other
authors. To illuftrate thefe maxims, and to rivet
their fpirit and meaning in the minds of young perfons,
his Lordflu'p has added to moft of them beautiful ftories,
fables, and hiftorical anecdotes.
In the department of belles lettres, his Elements of
Criticifm appeared in 1762, in three volumes 8vo.
This valuable work is the firft and a moft fuccefs-
ful attempt to fhow, that the art of criticifm is found-
ed on the principles of human nature. Such a plan;
it might be thought, fhould have produced a dry and
phlegmatic performance. Lord Karnes, on the con¬
trary, from the fprightlinefs of his manner of treating
every fubjedt he handled, has rendered the! Elements of
Criticifm not only highly inftru&ive, but one of the
moft entertaining books in our language. Before this
work was publifhed, Rollin’* Belles Lettres, a dull per¬
formance, from which a Undent could derive little ad¬
vantage, was univerfally recommended as a ftandard ;
but, after the Elements of Criticifm were prefented to-
the public,, Rolliri inftantly vanifhed, and gave place
to greater genius and greater utility. With regard to
teal inftrudion. and genuine tafle in compofuion of
every kind, a ftudent, a gentleman, or a fcholar, can
in no language find fuch a fertile field of information.
Lord Karnes, accordingly,, had the happinefs of feeing
the good effeds of his labours, and of enjoying for
twenty years a reputation which he fo juftly merited.
A ft ill farther proof of the genius and various pur-
fuits of this adive mind was given in the year 1772,,
when his Lordfhip publifhed a work in one vo¬
lume 8vo, under the title of The Gentleman Farmer,
being an attempt to improve Agriculture by fubjefting it to
the tejl-of rational principles. Our limits do not permit
us to give details,: but, with regard to this book, we
H O M [ 1 H O M
muft inforhi the public, that all the intelligent farmers
inj Scotland uniformly declare, that, after perufing
Young, Dickfon, and a hundred other writers on
agriculture, Lord Karnes’s Gentleman Farmer contains
the heft praflical and rational information on the va¬
rious articles of hufbandry which can any where be
obtained. As a pra&ical farmer. Lord Karnes has
given many obvious proofs of his Ikilh After he fuc-
ceeded, in right of his lady,.to the ample eftate of
Blair-Drummond in the county of Perth, he formed a
plan for turning a large mofs, confiding of at lead
15CO acres, into arable land. His Lordftiip had the
pleafure, before he died, to fee the plan fuccefsfully,
though only partially, executed. The fame plan is
now carrying on in a much more rapid manner by his
fon George Drummond, Efq. But as this is not a
proper place for details of this nature, we mud refer
the reader to the article Moss; where a particular ac¬
count of this extraordinary, but extenfively ufeful,
operation (hall be given.
In the year 1773, L°nl Karnes favoured the world
with SI etches of the Hijlory of Man, in 2 vols qto. This
work confids of a great variety of fafts and obfervations
-concerning the nature of man ; the produce of much
and profitable reading. Inthccourfe of his dudiesand
reafonings, he had amaffed a vad colledtion of mate¬
rials. Thefe, when confiderably advanced in years,
he digeded under proper heads, and fubmitted them
to the coniideration of the public. He intended that
this book ihould be equally intelligible to women as to
men ; and, to accomplilh this end, when he had occa-
fion to quote ancient or foreign books, he uniformly
tranflated the paflages. The Sketches contain much
uftful information; and, like all his Lordfhip’s other
.performances, are lively and entertaining.
We now come to Lord Karnes’s lad work, to which
he modedly gives the title of Loofe Hints upon Educa~
tion, chiefly concerning the Culture of the Heart. It was
publidied in the year 1781, in one vol. 8vo, when the
venerable and adonifhing author was in the 85th year
of his age. Though his Lorddiip chofe to call them
Loofe Hints, the intelligent reader will perceive in this
ccmpofition an uncommon a&ivity of mind at an age
fo far advanced beyond the ufual period of human life,
and an earned dtiire to form the minds of youth to
honour, to virtue, to indudry, and to a veneration of
the Deity.
Be fide the books we have enumerated, Lord Karnes
publilhed many temporary and fugitive pieces in diffe¬
rent periodical works. In the Effays Phyftcal and
Literary, publifhed by a fociety of gentlemen in Edin¬
burgh, we find compofitions of hisLordfhipOH the Laws
of Motion, On the Advantages of Shallow Ploughing,
and cn Evaporation; all of which exhibit evident
,marks of genius and originality of thinking.
How a man employed through life in public bufinefs,
Np 156.
and in bufinefs of the firft importance, could find leifure Home,
for fo many different purfuits, and excel in them (a), v™”'”
it is not eafy for a meaner mind to form even a concep¬
tion. Much, no doubt, is to be attributed to the fupe-
riority of his genius ; but much muff likewife have been
the refult of a proper diftribution of his time. He rofe
early ; when in the vigour of life at four o’clock, in
old age at fix ; and ftudied all morning. When the
court was fitting, the duties of his office employed him
from eight or nine till twelve or one ; after which, if
the weather permitted, he walked for two hours with
fome literary friends, and then went home to dinner.
Whilft he was on the bench, and we believe when he
was at the bar, he neither gave nor accepted invitations
to dinner during the term or feffion ; and if any friend
came uninvited to dine with him, hisLordfhip difplay-
ed his ufual cheerfulnefs and hofpitality, but always re¬
tired with his clerk as foon as he had drunk a very few
glaffes of wine, leaving his company to be entertained
by his lady. The afternoon was fpent as the morning
had been, in ftudy. In the evening he went to the
theatre -or the concert, from which he returned to the
fcciety of fome men of learning, with whom he fat late,
and difplayed fuch talents for converfation as arc not
often found. It is obferved by a late celebrated author,
that “ to read, write, and converfe, in due proportions,
is the bufinefs of a man of letters; and that he who
hopes to look back hereafter with fatisfa<ffion upon
paft years, muff learn to know the value of fingle mi¬
nutes, and endeavour to let no particle of time fall ufe-
lefs to the ground.” It w^as by pradlifing thefe leffons
that Lord Karnes rofe to literary eminence, in oppofi-
tion to all the obftacles which the tumult of public bu¬
finefs could place in his way.
To give a proper delineation of the public and pri¬
vate chara&er of Lord Karnes, would far exceed our
limits. The writer of this article, however, who had
the honour of an intimate acquaintance with this great
and good man for more than twenty years, muff be
indulged in adding a few fa&S which fell under his
own obfervation.
Lord Karnes was remarkable for public fpirit, to
which he conjoined a<ffivity and great exertion. He
for a long traft of time had the principal management
of all the focieties and boards for promoting the trade,
fiftieries, and manufactures, in Scotland. As condu¬
cive to thofe ends, he was a ffrenuous advocate for
making and repairing turnpike roads through every
part of the country. He had likewife a chief lead in
the diftribution and application of the funds arifing
from the eftates in Scotland which had unfortunately
been annexed to the crown. He was no lefs zealous
in fupporting, both with his writings and perfional in¬
fluence, literary affociations. He was in fome mea-
fure the parent of what was called the Phyfical and Li¬
terary Society. This fociety was afterwards incorpo¬
rated
(a) Upon reflecting on the ftudioufnefs of Lord Karnes’s difpofition, and his numerous literary productions,
the reader will naturally recal to his mind a ftriking fimilarity between his Lordfhip and the laborious Pliny the
Elder. In a letter from Pliny the Younger to Macer, the following paffage occurs, which is equally ap¬
plicable to both: Nonne videtur tibi, recordanti quantum legerit, quantum fcripfenl, nec in officiis ullis, nee in ami-
citia principum fui/fe? which is thus tranflated by Melmoth : “ When you refleCt on the books he has read
and the volumes he has written, are you not inclined to fufpeCt, that he never was engaged in the affairs of the
public, or the fervice of his prince
H O M t 633 1 H O M ,
rated into the Roy 1 Society of Edinburgh, which re- great regret of the public, died on the 27th day of De- Homar.
ceived a charter from th- crown, and which is daily cember 1782. As he had no marked difeafe but the de- ^ 'M * 'mmi
producing marks of genius, ’as well as works of real bility neceffarily refulting from extreme old age, a few
. days before his death he went to the Court of Seflion,
As a private and domeftic gentleman, Lord Karnes addreffed all the'judges feparately, told them he was
was admired by both fexes. The vivacity of his wit fpeedily to depart, and took a folemn and an affedion-
and of his animal fpirits, even when advanced in years, ate farewell.
rendered his company not only agreeable, but greatly HOMER, the prince of the Greek poets, flouriih-
folicited by the literati, and courted by ladies of the ed, according to Dr Blair, about 900 13. C. accord-
higheft rank and accomplifhments. He told very few ing to Dr Pridlley 850, according to the Arundelian
ftories ; and rarely, if ever, repeated the fame ftory to marbles 300, after the taking of Troy ; and agreeable
rh* -p   to them above 4QO years before p]ato and Ar._
ftotle. Seven cities difputed the glory of having gi*
ven him birth, viz. Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Sa-
lamis, Chios, Argos, and Athens ; which has been ex-
prefled by the following diftich :
the fame perfon. From the neceffity of retailing anec¬
dotes, the miferable refuge of thofe who, without ge¬
nius, attempt to (bine in converfation, the abundance
of his own mind fet him free ; for his wit or his learn¬
ing always fuggefted what the occafion required. He
could with equal eafe and readinefs combat the opinions
of a metaphyfician, unravel the intricacies of law, talk
with a farmer on improvements in agriculture, or efti-
mate with a lady the merits of the drefs in faihion. In-
ftead of being jealous of rivals, the charafteriftic of little
Smyrna, Rh^dea, Ctlopbtn, Salamu, Chios, Argos, Athena ;
Or hit de patria certat, Homere, tua.
We have nothing that is very certain in relation to the
particulars of his life. The moft regular account is
that which goes under the name of Herodotus, and is
minds.LordKamesfoftered and encouraged every fymp- ufually printed with his biftory : and though it is ge-
tom of merit that he could difeover in the fcholar, or in nerally fuppofed to be a fpurious piece, yet as it is an¬
cient, was made ufe of by Strabo, and exhibits that idea
which the later Greeks, and the Romans in the age of
Auguftus, entertained of Homer, we mult content our-
felves with giving an abftraft of it.
A man of Magnefia, whofe name Was Mcnalippus*
went to fettle at Cumae, where he mairied the daugh-
the lowed mechanic. Before he fucceeded to the eftate
of Blair-Drummond, his fortune was fmall. Notwith-
ftanding this circumftance, he, in conjunction with
Mrs Drummond, his refpeCtable and accomplilhed
fpoufe, did much more fervice to the indigent than
inoft families of greater opulence. If the prefent ne-  
ceffity was preffing, they gave money. They did more: ter of a citizen called’ Homy res, and had by her" a
When they difeovered fhat male or female petitioners daughter called Critheis. The father and mother dy-
were capable of performing any art or labour, both ing, the young woman was left under the tuition of
parties exerted themfelves in procuring that fpecies of Cleonax her father’s friend, and fuffering herfelf to be
work which the poor people could perform. In cafes deluded was got with child. The guardian, though
of this kind, which were very frequent, the lady took his care had not prevented the misfortune, was how-
dharge of the women and his Lordlhip of the men. ever willing to conceal it; and therefore lent Crithei*
From what has been faid concerning the various and to Smyrna, which was then building, 18 years after
numerous productions of his genius, it is obvious that the founding of Cumse, and about 168 after the taking
there could be few idle moments in his long protraa* of Troy. Critheis being near her time, went one day
ed life. His mind was inceffantly employed; either to a feftival, which the town of Smyrna was celebra-
teeming with new ideas, or purfuing aCtive and labo- ting on the banks of the river Meles ; where her pains
nous occupations. At the fame time, with all this coming upon her, Ihe was delivered of Homer, whom
intellectual ardour, one great feature in the character fhe called Melefigenes, becaufe he was born on the
.Kame8’ beflde h,ls llte,;ai7 ^l^ts and his banks of that river. Having nothing to maintain her
public fpirit, was a remarkable innocency of mind, fhe was forced to fpin : and a man of Smyrna called
He not only never indulged in detraction, but when Phemius, who taught literature and mufic, having of-
any ipecits ot icandal was exhibited In his company, —i l* it- ° .
he either remained filent, or endeavoured to give a dif¬
ferent turn to the converfation. As natural confe-
quences of this amiable difpofnion, he nevei meddled
with politics, even when parties ran to indecent lengths
in this country; and, what is ftill more remarkable, he
never wrote a fentence, notwithftanding his numerous
ten feen'Critheis, who lodged near him, and bein^ plea-
fed with her houfewifery, took her into his houfe to
fpin the wool he received from his fcholars for their
fchooling. Here fhe behaved herielf fo modeilly and
difcreetly, that Phemius married her; and adopted her
fon, in whom hi difeovered a wonderful genius, and
the belt natural difpofitiorl in the world. After the
. , ,. _ , ® ■   uuuuuiiuii in me wona. /ifter i
publications, without a d,red and a man.fdl intention death of Phemius and Critheis, Homer fucceeded
ln.hlSJtmPCr be Wj18 his father-in-law’s fortune and fchool; and was admi-
naturally warm, though kindly arfd affeaionate. In
the friendfhips he formed, he was ardent, zealous, and
fincere. So far from being inclined to irreligion, —
fome ignorant bigots infmuated, few men poffefied
red, not only by the inhabitants of Smyrna, but by
ftrangers, who reforted from all parts to that place of
trade. A fhipmaiter called Mentes, who was a man
r , . • r , , . „ *   of turning and a lover of poetry, was fo taken with
Deitv^In’T hablt i- thfU8hp ^ COnft".nt ,fenfe of Horner>,that he Perfuaded him to leave his fchool, and
I’nd d pVCnerau,0n/01' Pr0VKJencie’ dwelt uPon to ^avel with him. Homer, who had then begun his
h.s mmd. From this fource arofe that propenfuy poem of the Iliad, and thought it of great conference
H |n 3 I '18 vmingr °J c Ve,hgatlng final t0 fee the Places he have occafion to treat of,
cauLs, and ttacing the wtfaom of the Supreme Author embraced the opportunity. He embarked with Mentes
C. w!rP«\T"““<>P- L°r‘1 K^“th' »"d d«ri"S >WrPfCTeral’voy.ge, „CTer faXd CMefrfiy
4 K t«*
H O M [ 634 1 H O M
H@mer. to note down all that he thought worth dbferving. He
travelled into Egypt ; from whence he brought into
Greece the names of their gods, the chief ceremonies
of their worfhip, and a more improved knowledge in
the arts than what prevailed in his own country. He
vifited Africa and Spain ; in his return from whence
he touched at Ithaca, where he was much troubled
with a rheum falling upon his eyes. Mentes being in
hafte to take a turn to Leucadia his native country,
left Homer well recommended to Mentor, one of the
chief men of the ifland of Ithaca, who took all pof-
iible care of him. There Homer was informed of many
things relating to Ulyfles, which he afterwards made
ufe of in compofing his Odyfley. Mentes returning to
Ithaca, found Homer cured. They embarked toge¬
ther ; and after much time fpent in vifiting the coafts
of Peloponnefus and the iflands, they arrived at Colo¬
phon, where Homer was again troubled with the de-
fluxion upon his eyes, which proved fo violent, that he
is faid to have loft his fight. This misfortune made
him refolve to return to Smyrna, where he finilhed his
Iliad. Some time after, the ill pofture of his affairs
obliged him to go to Cumae, where he hoped to have
found fome relief. Here his poems were highly ap¬
plauded : but when he propofed to immortalize their
town, if they would allow him a falary, he was an-
fwered, that “ there would be no end of maintaining
all the 'Op.tzoi or “ blind men and hence got the
name of Homer. He afterwards wandered through feve-
ralplaces, and flopped at Chios, where he martied, and
compofed his Odyffey. Some time after, having add¬
ed many verfes to his poems in praife of the cities of
Greece, efpecially of Athens and Argos, he went to
Samos, where he fpent the winter, finging at the houfes
of the great men, with a train of boys after him. From
Samos he went to lo, one of the Sporades, with a de-
flgn to continue his voyage to Athens; but landing
by the way at Chios, he fell fick, died, and was bu¬
ried on the fea-ftiore.
The only inconteftable works which Homer has left
behind him are the Iliad and Odyssey. The Batra-
chomyomachia, or battle of the frogs and mice, has
been difputed. The hymns have been difputed alfo,
and attributed by the fcholiafts to Cynasthus the rhap-
fodift: but neither Thucydides, Lucian, nor Paufa-
nias, have fcrupled to cite them as genuine. Many
other pieces are afcribed to him : epigrams, the Ear-
tiges, the Cecropes, the deftru&ion of Oechalia, of
which only the names are remaining.
Nothing was ever comparable to the clearnefs and
tnajefty of Homer’s ftyle ; to the fublimity of his
thoughts ; to the ftrength and fweetnefs of his verfes.
All his images are ftriking ; his defcriptions juft and
exaft ; the paflions fo well expreffed, and nature fo juft
and finely painted, that he gives to every thing motion,
life, and aftion. But he more particularly excels in
invention, and in the different charafters of his heroes,
which are fo varied, that they affeft us in an inexpref-
fible manner. In a word, the more he is read by a
perfon of good tafte, the more he is admired. Nor
are his works to be efteemed merely as entertaining
poems, or as the monuments of a fublime and varied
genius. He was in general fo accurate with refpeft to
coftume, that he feldom mentioned perfons or things
$hat we may not conclude to have been known during
5
the times of which he writes; and it was Mr Pope** Hotner.
opinion, that his account of people, princes, and coun-
tries, was purely hiftorical, founded on the real tranf-
a&ions of thofe times, and by far the moft valuable
piece of hiftory and geography left us concerning the
ftate of Greece in that early period. His geographr.
cal divifions of that country were thought fo exa<ft,
that we are told of many controverfies concerning the
boundaries oL Grecian cities which have been decided
upon the authority of his poems.
Alcibiades gave a rhetorician a box on the ear for
not having Homer’s writings in his fchool. Alexander
was ravilhed with them, and commonly placed them
under his pillow with his fword : he inclofed the Iliad
in the precious calket that belonged to Darius ; “ in
order (faid he to his courtiers) that the moft'perfeft
prodmftion of the human mind might be inclofed in
the moft valuable calket in the world.” And one day
feeing the tomb of Achilles in Sigaea, “ Fortunate he¬
ro ! (cried he), thou haft had a Homer to fing thy vic¬
tories!” Lycurgus, Solon, and the kings and princes
of Greece, fet fuch a value on Homer’s works, that
they took the utmqft pains in procuring correft edi¬
tions of them, the moft efteemed of which is that of
Ariftarchus. Didymus was the firft who wrote notes
on Homer; and Euftathius, archbifhop of Theffalo-
nica, in the 12th century, is the moft celebrated of his
commentators. Mr Pope has given an elegant tranfla-
tion of the Iliad, adorned with the harmony of poetic
numbers ; and Mad. Dacier has tranllated both the
Iliad and Odyffey in profe.
Thofe who defire to know the feveral editions of Ho¬
mer, and the writers who have employed themfelves on
the works of that great poet, may confult Fabricius, in
the firft volume of his Bibliotheca Greeca.
A very lingular difcovery, however, which was made
a few years ago in Ruffia, deferves to be here mention¬
ed, together with the circumftances that attended it.
Chriftian Frederic Matthau, who had been educated by
the learned Ernefti, and did credit to the inftruftions
of that celebrated mailer by the great erudition that he
difplayed, being invited to fettle at Mofcow, and to af-
fift in a plan of literature for which his abilities and ac-
quifitions eminently qualified him ; on his arrival at that
city was informed, equally to his aftonilhment and fa-
tisfaclion, that a very copious treafure of Greek manu-
fcripts was depofited in the library of the Holy fynod,
which no perfon in that country had either the abilities
to make ufe of, or the curiofity to examine. Struck
with the relation of a circumftance fo unexpected, and
at the fame time fo peculiarly agreeable to his clafiical
tafte, he immediately feized the opportunity that was
fortunately offered him, to explore this repofitory of
hidden treafure. After having examined feveral curi¬
ous books, he difcovered a manufcript copy of the
works of Homer, written about the conclufion of the
14th century, but evidently a tranfcript from a very an¬
cient and moft;valuable copy, which, befides the Iliad and
the Odyffey, contains alfo 16 of the hymns, which
have been long publilhed under the name oi Homer. Nor
was this all. Twelve lines of a loft hymn to Bacchus,
and the hymn to Ceres, which was alfo loft, were pre-
ferved in this curious and long unnoticed manufcript.
The hymn to Ceres appears to be entire, excepting a
few lines towards the clofe : and it is furely remarkable,
that
H O M [ 635 ] H O M
Homer, that a Greek poem, attributed to Homer, which had
SI been loft for ages, (hould be at length difcovered in
Homicide. Mufcovy, the rudeft and moft unclaffical country in
Europe. M. Matthsei, exulting in an acquifition fo
unexpe&ed, and at the fame time fo valuable, commu¬
nicated it, with lingular difintereftednefs, to his learned
friend M. Ruhnkenius, with whofe talents and extra¬
ordinary erudition he was well acquainted, that this
gentleman might prefent it to the world without thofe
delays which would probably have retarded the publica¬
tion of it at Mofcow. He was rather induced to em¬
ploy M. Ruhnkenius in the publication of this curious
and beautiful remnant of antiquity, becaufe he knew
that this gentleman had been particularly engaged in
the ftudy of the hymns of Homer, in order to give the
public a complete edition of them. The hymn to Ce¬
res, and the fragment of the hymn to Bacchus, were
printed in 1780 at Leyden, under the care of M. Ruhn¬
kenius ; who has added fome very valuable notes and
obfervations on the hymn to Ceres, which tend to illu-
ftrate its beauties, and to throw a light on fome of its
©bfcurities. The learned editor obferves, that nothing
was more diftant from his expeftations than the difco-
very of this hymn to Ceres. He knew indeed that a
poem bearing that title, and afcribed to Homer, exifted
in the fecond century ; but as it had long been confi-
dered as irretrievably loft, he had formed no hopes of
ever feeing it refcued from the obfcurity to which it had
been conligned. He acknowledges, that he has many
doubts with refpeft to the high and illuftrious origin af¬
cribed to this hymn j but as no pofitive external evi¬
dence can be produced todetermine the point, he choofes
to reft his argument on what appears to him the more
certain ground of internal proof; and obferves, that
though the poem be exquifitely beautiful, yet that it is
evidently deficient in fome of Homer’s more ftriking
and predominant charadteriftics. It wants his energy
and fpirit; that vigour, that infpiration, which animate
and give an irrefiftible power, as well as an enchanting
beauty, to the poems of that fublime and inimitable
bard. This opinion, as we have already feen, hath been
given by other critics of all the hymns of Homer. But
though M. Ruhnkenius is not inclined to attribute the
hymn of Ceres to Homer, he yet acknowledges, that
the ilrutture of its language is founded on the model
of that great poet, and he hefitates not to give it the
honour of very high antiquity. He is of ©pinion, that
it was written immediately after Homer, or at leaft in
the age of Hefiod : and he congratulates the age on the
difeovery of fo curious a poem, refcued by mere acci¬
dent from the darkeft retreats of oblivion, and per¬
haps but at a flight diftance from inevitable perdition.
He deems it to be an acquifition, not only calculated
to gratify the curiofity of the connoiffeurs in clafiic
antiquity, or to entertain thofe lovers of Greek poetry
whofe ftudies are made fubfervient to a refined and ele¬
gant fpecies of amufement, but he alfo eftefims it to be
of particular ufe to the critic,, as it tends to illuftrate
fome obfeure paffages both in the Greek and Latin
poets.
HOMER, Omer, or Chomkr, a Jewifh meafure,
containing the tenth part of the epha. See Coausand
Measure.
HOMESOKEN. See Hameseckeh.
HOMICIDE, fignifies in general, the taking away
of any perfon’s life. It is of three kinds} jujlifiabk)
excufable, and felonious. The firft has no fit are of Homicide,
guilt at all; the fecond very little ; but the. third is the
higheft crime againft the law of nature that man is
capable of committing.
I. Juftifiable homicide is of divers kinds.
1. Such as is owing to fome unavoidable neceftty,
without any will, intention, or defire, and without any
inadvertence or negligence, in the party killing, and
therefore without any fhadow of blame; as, for in-
ftance, by virtue of fuch an office as obliges one, in the
execution of public juftice, to put a malefaftor to
death, who hath forfeited his life by the laws and ver-
di<ft of his country. This is an aft of neceffity, and
even of civil duty; and therefore not only juftifiable,
but commendable, where the law requires it. But the
law rrujib. require it, otherwife it is not juftifiable t
therefore wantonly to kill the greateft of malefadtors,
a felon, or a traitor, attainted or outlawed, deliberate¬
ly, uncompelled, and extrajudicially, is murder. And
farther, if judgment of death be given-by a judge not
authorized bylawful commiffion, and execution is done
accordingly, the judge is guilty of murder. Alfo fuch
judgment, when legal, mutt be executed by the proper
officer, or his appointed deputy; for no one elfe is re-
quired by law to do it, which requifition it is that ju-
ftifies the homicide. If another perfon doth it of his
own head, it is held to be murder : even though it be
the judge himfelf. It muft farther be executed, fer-
vato juris ordine ; it muft purfue the fentence of the
court. If an officer beheads one who is adjudged to
be hanged, or vice verfa, it is murder : for he is mere¬
ly minifterial, and therefore only juftified when he aifts
under the authority and compulfion of the law. But,
if a ffieriff changes one kind of puniftiment for ano¬
ther, he then afts by his own authority, which ex¬
tends not to the commiffion of homicide : and befides,
this licence might occafion a very grofs abufe of his
power. The king indeed may remit part of a fentence,
as in the cafe of treafon, all but the beheading : but
this is no change, no introduftion of a new punilh-
ment; and in the cafe of felony, where the judgment
is to be hanged, the king (it hath been laid) cannot le¬
gally order even a peer to be beheaded.
Again : In fome cafes homicide is juftifiable, rather
by the permijfion, than by the abfolute Command, of the
law : either for the advancement of public jujlice, which
without fuch indemnification would never be carried
on with proper vigour ; or, in fuch inftances where it
is committed for the prevention of fome atrocious crime,
which cannot otherwife be avoided.
2. Homicides, committed for the advancement of
publicare, 1. Where an officer, in the execu¬
tion of his office, either in a civil or criminal cafe,
kills a perfon that aflaults and refifts him. 2. If an
officer, or any private perfon, attempts to take a man
charged with felony, and is refilled ; and, in the en¬
deavour to take him, kills him. 3 In cafe of a riot,
or rebellious alfembly, the officers endeavouring to dif-
perfe the mob are juftifiable in killing them, both at
common law, and by the riot a6t, i Geo. I. c y.
4. Where the prifimers in a gaol, or going to gaol,
aflault the gaoler or officer, and he in his defence kills
any of them, it is juftifiable, for the fake of prevent¬
ing an efcape. 5. If trefpaffers in forefts, parks,
chafes, or warrens, will not furrender hemfelves to the
keepers, they may be flain ; by virtue of the Statute
4 K 3 31 Ed'
H O M [ 636 } H O M
Ji*m!ciiie. 2t Edward I. ft. 2. de mahfaQorlbus in parch, and land, like that of every other well-regulated commu-Hamicid*.
* 3 & 4 W. & M. c. 10. But, in all thefe cafe*, there nity, is too tender of the public peace, too careful of —'
muft be an apparent neceflity on the officer’s fide ; viz. the lives of the fubje&s, to adopt fo contentious a fy-
that the party could not be arrefted or apprehended, ftem ; nor will fuffer with impunity any crime t» be
the riot could not be fupprefled, the prifoners could prevented by death, unlefs the fame, if committed,
not be kept in hold, the deer-ftealers could not but would alfo be Qunifhed by death.
efcape, unlefs fuch homicide were committed : other- In thefe inftances of jujlifiable homicide, it may be
wife, without fuch abfolute neceflity, it is not jufti- obferved, that the flayer is in no kind of fault whatfo-
iable. 6. If the champions in a trial by battle killed ever, not even in the minucelt degree : and is there-
either of them the other, fuch homicide was juftifiable, fore to be totally acquitted and difcharged, with com-
and was imputed to the juft judgment of God, who mendation rather than blame. But that is not quite
was thereby prefum^d to have decided in favopr of the the cafe in eyyufable homicide, the very name where-
truth. of imports fome fault, fome error, or omiffion ; fo
3. In the next place, fuch homicide as is commit- - trivial, however, that the law excufes it from the guilt
ted for the prevention of any forcible and atrocious of felony, though in ftridtnefs it judges it deferving of
trime, is juftifiable by the law of nature ; and alfo by fome little degree of punifhment.
the law of England, as it flood fo early as the time of II. Excufable homicide is of two forts; either per
Bradlon, and as it is fince declared by flat. 24 H. VIII. infortunium, by mifadventure ; ox fe defendendo, uporu
c. 5. If any perfon attempts a robbery or murder of a principle of felf prefervation. We will firft fee where-
another, or attempts to break open a houfe in the night- in thefe two fptcies of homicide are diftintt, and then
time (which extends alfo to an attempt to burn it), wherein they agree.
and (hall be killed in fuch attempt, the flayer fiiall be 1. Homicide per infortunium, or mifadventure, is
acquitted and difcharged. This reaches not to any where a man, doing a lawful adt, without any inten-
crime unaccompanied with force, as picking of poc- tion of hurt, unfortunately kills another*: as where a
kets ; or to the breaking* open of any houfe in the day- man is at work with a hatchet, and the head thereof
time, unlefs it carries with it an attempt of robbery flies off and kills a ftander-by; or, where a perfon,
alfo. So the Jewifti law, which punilhed no theft qualified to keep a gun, is Ihooting at a mark, and
with death, makes homicide only juftifiable in cafe of undefignedly kills a man : for the a£t is lawful, and
Ixod.xxih nodurnal houfe-breaking : “ if a thief be found breaking the effedt is merely accidental. So where a parent is
3. up, and he be fmitten that he die, no blood fhall moderately corredting his child, a mafter his apprea-
be (bed for him : but if the fun be rifen upon him, tice or fcholar, or an officer punilhing a criminal, and
there {hall blood be Ihe.d for him ; for he fhouid have happens to occafion his death, it is only mifadventure;
made full reftitution.” At Athens, if any theft was for the adf of corredtion was lawful: but if he exceeds
committed by night, it was lawful to kill the crimi- the bounds of moderation, either in the manner, the
nal, if taken in the fadl: and, by the Roman law inftrument, or the quamity of punilhment, and death,
of the twelve tables, a thief might be flain by night enfues, it is manflaughter at lead, and in dome cafes
with impunity; or even by day, if he armed him- (according to the circumllances) murder; for the act
felf with any dangerous weapon : which amounts very of immoderate correction is unlawful. Thus by an
nearly to the fame as is permitted by our own confti- edidi of the emperor Conftantine, when the rigour of
tutions. the Roman law with regard to flaves began to relax
The Roman law alfo juftifies homicide, when com- and foften, a mafter was allowed to chaltiie his flave
mitted in defence of the chaftity either of one’s felf or with rods and imprifonment, and if death accidentally
relations: and fo alfo, according to Selden, flood the enfued, he was guilty of no crime: but if he llruck
bw in the Jewilh republic. The Engliih law likewife him with a club or a ftone, and thereby occafioned his
juftifies a woman killing one who attempts to ravifh death, or if in any other yet groffer manner “ imrnode-
her : and fo too the hulband or father may juftify kill- ratefuojure utatur, tunc reus homicidiift.*'
ing a man, who attempts a rape upon his wife or But to proceed. A tik or tournament, the mar-
daughter ; but not if he takes them in adultery by tial diverlion of our anceftors. was however an unlaw-
confent; for the one is forcible and felonious, but not ful adf ; and fo are boxing and fword-playing, the luc-
the other. And there is no doubt but the forcibly at- cceding amufement of their pofterity : and therefore,
tempting a crime, of a ftill more deteftable nature, if a knight in the former cafe, or a gladiator in the
may be equally refilled by the death of the unnatural latter, be killed, fuch killing is felony of manflaugh-
aggrefibr. For the one uniform principle that runs ter. But if the king command or permit fuch diver-
threugh our own, and all other laws, feems to be fion, it is faid to be only mifadventure ; for then the
this : That where a crime, in itfelf capital, is endea- aft is lawful: In like manner as, by the laws both
voured to be committed by force, it is lawful to repel of Athens and Rome, he who killed another in the
that force by the death of the party attempting. But pancratium, or public games, authorifed or permitted
we muft not carry this deftrine to the fame vifionary by the ftate, was not held to be guilty of homicide,
length that Mr Locke dots ; who holds, “ that all Ltkewife to whip another’s horfe, whereby he runs
manner of force without right upon a man’s perfon,' over a child and kills him, is held to be accidental in
puts him in a date of war with the aggreffor ; and, of the rider, for he has done nothing unlawful; but
confequence, that, being in fuch a (late of war, he manflaughter in the perfon who whipped him, ior the
may lawfully kill him that puts him under this unna- aft w’as a trefpafs, and at bell a piece of idltnefs, of
turai reftraint.” However juft this conclufion may be inevitably dangerous confequence. And in general,
is a ftate of uncivilized nature, yet the law of Eng- if death-enfues in conlequenge of an idle, dangerous,
and
H O M [ 637 ] H O M
Homicide, and unlawful fport, as (hooting or calling ftones in a
 town, or the barbarous diverfion of cock-throwing 5 in
thefe and fimilar cafes, the flayer is guilty of man-
flaughter, and not mifadventure only; for thefe are
unlawful a6ts.
2. Homicide in felf-defence, or fe defendendo, upon a
fudden affray, is alfo excufable rather than juftifiable,
by the Englifh law. This fpecies of felf-defence muff
be diftinguilhed from that juft now mentioned, as cal¬
culated to hinder the perpetration of a capital crime ;
which is not onlya matter of excufe, but @f jdftification.
But the felf-defence which we are now fpeaking of, is
that whereby a man may protect himfelf from an af-
fault, or the like, in the courfe of a fudden brawl or
quarrel, by killing him who affaults him. And this
is what the law expreffes by the word chance-medley,
or (as fome rather choofe to write it) chaud-medley ; the
former of which in its etymology iignifies a cafwl af¬
fray, the latter an affray in the heat of blood or paf-
fion ; both of them of pretty much the fame import 5
but the former is in common fpeech too often erro-
neoufly applied to any manner of homicide by mifad¬
venture ; whereas it appears by the ftatute 24 H. VIII.
c. 5. and our ancient books, that it is properly ap¬
plied to fuch killing as happens in felf-defence upon
a fudden rencounter. The right of natural defence
does not imply a right of attacking : for, inftead of
attacking one another for injuries paft or impending,
men need only have recourfe to the proper tribunals of
juftice. They cannot therefore legally exercife this
right of preventive defence, but in fudden and violent
cafes ; when certain and immediate fuffering would be
the confequence of waiting for the affiftance of the
law. Wherefore, to excufe homicide by the plea of
felf-defence, it muft appear that the flayer had no
other pofiible means of efcaping from his affailant.
In iome cafes this fpecies of homicide (upon chance-
medley in felf-defence) differs but little from manflaugh-
ter, which alfo happens frequently upon chance med¬
ley in the proper legal fenfe of the word. But the true
criterion between them feems to be this ; when both
parties are adtually combating at the time when the
mortal ftroke is given, the flayer is then guilty of mati-
flaughter ; but if the flayer hath not begun to fight,
or (having begun) endeavours to decline any farther
ftruggle, and afterwards, being clofely preffed by his
antagonift, kills him to avoid his own deitrudtion, this
is homicide excufable by felf-defence. For which rea-
fbn the law requires, that the perfon, who kills another
in his own defence, Ihould have retreated as far as he
conveniently or fafely can, to avoid the violence of the
affault, before he turns upon his affailant ; and that
not ficUtroufly, or in order to watch his opportunity,
but from a real tendernefs of (bedding his brother’s
blood. And though it may be cowardice, in time of
war between two independent nations, to flee from an
enemy * yet between two fellow-fubjefts, the law
countenances no fuch point of honour : becaufe the
king and his courts are the vindices injuriarum, and.will
give to the party wronged all the fatisfa&ion he de-
ferves. In this the civil law alfo agrees with ours, or
perhaps goes rather farther ; “ qui cum aider tueri fe.
non pojfunt, damni culpam dedetint, innoxii funt.” The
party affaulted muft therefore flee as far as he conve¬
niently can, either by reafon of. fome wall, ditch, or
other impediment; or as far as the fiercenefs of the Homicide,
aflault will permit him ; for it may be fo fierce as not “* T J
to allow him to yield a ftep, with manifeft danger
of his life, or enormous bodily harm ; and then in his
defence he may kill his affailant inftantly. And this is
the doftrine of univerfal juftice, as well as of the mu¬
nicipal law.
And, as the manner of the defence, fo is alfo the
time to be conlidered : for if the perfon affaulted does
not fall upon the aggreffor till the affray is over, or
when he is running away, this is revenge and not de¬
fence. Neither, under the colour of felf-defence, will
the law permit a man to fcreen himfelf from the guilt
of deliberate murder : for if two perfons, A and B,
agree to fight a duel, and A gives the firft onfet, and
B retreats as far as he fafely can, and then kills A,
this is murder; becaufe of the previous malice and
concerted defign. But if A upon a fudden quarrel af¬
faults B firft, and, upon B’s returning the affault, A
really and bona Jide flies ; and, being driven to the
wall, turns again upon B and kills him ; this may be
fe defendendo, according to fome of our writers ; though
others have thought this opinion too favourable : in-
afmuch as the neceflity, to which he is at laft reduced,
originally arofe from his own fault. Under this ex¬
cufe of felf-defence, the principal civil and natural re¬
lations are comprehended : therefore, mailer and fer-
vant, parent and child, hufband and wife, killing an
affailant in the neceffary defence of each other re-
fpedlively, are excufed; the a<ft of the relation afiift-
ing being conftrued the fame as the adt of the party
himfelf.
There is one fpecies of homicide fe defendendo, where
the party flain is equally innocent as he who occafions
his death : and yet .this homicide is alfo excufable from
the great univerfal principle of felfprefervation, which
prompts every man to fave his own life preferable to
that of another, where one of them muft inevitably
perifti. As, among others, in that cafe mentioned by
lord Bacon, where two perfons, being (hipwrecked,
and getting on the fame plank, but finding it not able
to fave them both, one of them thrulls the other from
it, whereby he is drowned. He who thus prfcferves his
own life at the expence of another man’s, is excufable
through unavoidable neceftity, and the principle of
felf-defence ; fince their both remaining on the fame
weak plank is a mutual, though innocent, attempt
upon, jind an endangering of,, each.other’s life.
Let us next take a view of thofe circumftances
wherein thofe two fpecies of homicide, by mifadven-
ture and felf-defence, agree ; and thofe are in their
blame and puniftiment. For the law fets fo high a
value upon the life of a man, that it always intends
fome milbehaviour in the perfon who takes it away, un-
lefs by the command or exprefs permiflion of the law..
In the cafe of mifadventure, it prefumes negligence, or
at leaft a want of fufficient caution in him who was fo
unfortunate as to commit it; who therefore is not al¬
together faultlefs. And as to the neceflity which ex-
cufes a man who kills another fe defendendo, lord Ba¬
con intitles it necejjitas cidpabilis, and thereby dillin-
guiflies it from the former neceflity of killing a thief
or a malefaiftor. For the law intends that the quarrel
©r affault arofe from fome unknown wrong, or fome
provocation, either in word or deed: and fince in
quarrels >
H O M [ 638 ] H O M
Homicide, quarrels both parties may be, and ufually are, in fome excufe. This may be done either by killing one’s felf, Homily
- ' fault; and it fcarce can be tried who was originally in or another man; for the confideration of which, fee the II
the wrong ; the law will not hold the furvivor entirely articles Self Murder, Murdkr, and Manslaughter. Homine
guiltlefs. But it is clear, in the other cafe, that HOMILY, in ecclefiattical writers, a lermon or
where I kill a thief who breaks into my houfe, the difcourfe upon fome point of religion, delivered in a
original default can never be upon my fide. The law plain manner, fo as to be eafily underltood by the
befides may have a farther view, to make the crime common people. The word is Greek, ; form¬
al homicide more odious, and to caution men how
they venture to kill another upon their own private
judgment 4 by ordaining, that he who flays his neigh¬
bour, without an exprefs warrant from the law fo to
do, fhall in no cafe be abfolutely free from guilt.
Nor is the law of England lingular in this refpedt.
Even the daughter of enemies required a folemn pur¬
gation among the Jews; which implies, that the death
of a man, however it happens, will leave fome Itain
behind it. And the Mofaical law appointed certain
cities of refuge for him “ who killed his neighbour un¬
awares ; as if a man goeth into the wood with his
neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a ilroke
with the ax to cut down a tree, and the head flippeth
from the helve, and lighteth upon his neighbour that
he die, he fhall flee into one of thofe cities anu live.”
But it feems he was not held wholly blamelefs, any
more than in the Englilh law ; fince the avenger of
blood might flay him before he reached his afylum, or
if he afterwards ftirred out of it till the death of the
high prieft. In the imperial law likewife cafual homi¬
cide was excufed, by the indulgence of the emperor
figned with his own fign manual, “ adnotatione princi-
pis otherwife, the death of a man, however commit¬
ted, was in fome degree punifhable. Among the
Greeks, homicide by misfortune was expiated by vo¬
luntary banifhment for a year. In Saxony, a tine is
paid to the kindred of the flain; which alfo, among the
weftern Goths, was little inferior to that of voluntary
homicide ; and in France, no perfon is ever abfolved
in cafes of this nature, without a largefs to the poor,
and the charge of certain maffes for the foul of the
party killed.
The penalty inflided by our laws is faid by Sir Ed¬
ward Coke to have been anciently no lefs than death ;
which, however, is with reafon denied by later and
more accurate writers. It feems rather to have confut¬
ed in a forfeiture, fome fay of all the goods and chat¬
tel, others of only a part of them, by way of tine or
weregild: wl^ich was probably difpofed of, as in
France, in pios ufus, according to the humane fuper-
ftition of the times, for the benefit of his foul who
was thus fuddenly fent to his account with all his im¬
perfections on his head. But that reafon having long
ceafed, and the penalty (efpecially if a total forfeit¬
ure) growing more fevere than was intended, in pro¬
portion as perfonal property has become more confide-
rable, the delinquent has now, and has had as early as
our records will reach, a pardon and writ of reiiitution
of his goods as a matter of courfe and right, only pay¬
ing for fuing out the fame. And, indeed, to prevent
this expenfe, in cafes where the death has notorioufly
happened by mifadventure or in felf-defence, the judges
will ufually permit (if not direct) a general verdict of
acquittal.
III. Felonious homicide is an aft of a very different
nature from the former, being the killing of a human
sreature, of any age or fex, without junification or
ed of castus, “ affembly or council.”
i'he Greek homily, fays M. Fleury, fignifies a fa¬
miliar difcourie, like the Latin fermo; and difeourfes
delivered in the church took thefe denominations, to
intimate, that they were not harangues or matters of
oftentation and flourifh, like thofe of profane orators,
but familiar and ufdful difeourfes, as of a mailer to his
difciples, or a father to his children.
All the homilies of the Greek and Latin fathers arc
compofed by bifhops. We have none , of Tertullian,
Clemens Altxandrinus, and many other learned per-
fons ; becaufe, in the firft ages, none but bifhops were
admitted to preadh. The privilege was not ordinarily
allowed to prieils till toward the fifth century. St
Chryfoltom was the firll prefbyter that preached lla-
tedly. Origen and St Augulline alfo preached; but
it was by a peculiar licence or privilege.
Photius dntinguilhes homily fromJermon; in that the
homily was performed in a more familiar manner, the
prelate interrogating and talking to the people, and
they in their turn anfwering and interrogating him,
fo that it was properly a eonverfation; whereas the
fermon was delivered with more form, and in the pul¬
pit, after the manner of the orators.
The praftice of compiling homilies, which were ta
be committed to memory, and recited by ignorant or
indolent prieits, commenced towards the clofe of the
8th cemury ; when Charlemagne ordered Paul Dea¬
con and Alcuin to form homilies or difeourfes upon
the Golpels and Epiltles, from the ancient doftors of
the church. This gave rife to that famous colleftion
intitied the Homiliarium of Charlemagne, and which be¬
ing followed as a model by many produftions of the
fame kind, compofed by private perfons, from a prin¬
ciple of pious zeal, contributed much (fays Mofheim)
to nourifh the indolence, and to perpetuate the igno¬
rance of a worthlefs clergy.
There are Hill extant ieveral fine homilies, compo¬
fed by the ancient fathers, particularly St Chryfoftora
and St Gregory.
Clementine Homilies, in ecclcfiaftical hiftory, are
nineteen homilies in Greek, publilhed by Cotelerius,
with two letters prefixed ; one of them written in the
name of Peter, the other in the name of Clement, to
James biihop of Jerulalem ; in which laft letter they
are intitied Clement’s Epitome of the Preaching and
Travels of Peter. According to Le Clerc, theie ho¬
milies were compofed by an Ebionite in the fecond
century; but Montfaucon fuppofes that they were
forged long alter the age of St Athanafius. Dr Lard-
ner apprehends, that the Clementine homilies were the
original or iirlt edition of the Recognitions; and that
they are the fame Vvith the worit cenfured by Eufe-
bius under the title of Dialogues of Peter and Ap-
pion.
HOMINE replegiando, a writ for the bailing of
a man out ol prilon when he is confined without com¬
mandment of the king or his judges, or for any caufe
that
. Hemmoe
HON [ 639 ] HON
that is repleviabk But this writ is now feldoin ufed;
a writ of habeas corpus being fued out on the neceffary
occafions.
HOMMOC, a name given by mariners to a hilloc
or fmall eminence of land, refembling the figure of a
cone, and appearing on the fea-coaft of any country.
HOMO, man, is ranked by Linnaeus under the or¬
der of primates; and charafterifed by having four pa¬
rallel foreteeth both in the upper and lower jaw, and
two mammae on the breaft. The fpecies, according
to this author, are two, viz. the homo fapiens, and
the homo troglodytes.
He fubdivides the homo fapiens into five varieties,
viz. the American, the European, the Afiatic, the A-
frican, and what he calls the monjlrous. See Man.
The troglodytes, or orang outang, is a native of
Ethiopia, Java, and Amboina. His body is white ;
he walks ereft; and is about one-half the ordinary hu¬
man fize. He generally lives about 25 years. He
conceals himfelf in caves during the day, and fearches
for his prey in the night. He is faid to be exceed¬
ingly fugacious, but is not endowed with the faculty
of fpeech. See Troglodytes, Simia, and Compara¬
tive Anatomy, p. 25c, col. 2..
HOMOGENEOUS, orHoMOGENEAL (compofed
of the Greek like, and kind), is a term applied
to various fubje&s, to denote, that they confiil of fi-
milar parts, or of parts of the fame nature and kind :
in contradiftinftion to heterogeneous, where the parts are
of different natures, &c.
HOMOLOGATION, in the civil law, the aft of
confirming or rendering a thing more valid and fo-
lemn, by publication, repetition, or recognition there¬
of.—The word comes from the Greek o^oxoyix “ Con-
fent, affent;” formed of Jimilis, “ like,” and
of itoyuv, dicere, “to fay;” q. d. to fay the fame thing,
to confent, agree.
HOMOLOGOUS, in geometry, an appellation
given to the correfponding fides and angles of fimilar
figures, as being proportional to each other.
HONAN, a province of China, bounded on the
north by that of Ptecheli and Chanfi, on the weft by
Chanfi, on the fouth by Houquang, and on the eaft
by Chantong. Every thing that can contribute to
render a country delightful is found united in this pro¬
vince ; the Chinefe therefore call it Tong-hoa or the
middleJloiocr: it is indeed fituated almoft in the centre
of China. The ancient emperors, invited by the mild-
nefs of the climate and the beauty of the country,
fixed their refidence here for fome time. The abun¬
dance of its fruits, paftures, and corn, the effeminacy of
its inhabitants (who are accounted extremely volup¬
tuous), and laftly, the cheapnefs of provifions, have no
doubt prevented trade from being fo flourifhing here
as in the other provinces of the empire. The whole
country is flat excepting towards the weft, where there
arifes a long chain of mountains, Covered with thick
forefts ; and the land is in fuch a high ftate of cultiva¬
tion, that thofe who travel through it imagine they
are walking in an immenfe garden,—Befides the river
Hoangho, which traverfes this province, it is watered
by a great number of fprings and fountains ; it has al-
fo a valuable lake, which invites to its banks a prodi¬
gious number of workmen, becaufe its water has the
property of communicating a luftre to filk, which can¬
not be imitated. Exclufive of forts, caftles, and places Honaa
of ftrength, this province contains eight fou or cities „ [1
of the firft clafs, and 102 of the fecond and third. In Qr‘^ura°«
one of thefe cities named Nanyang, is found a kind of J
ferpent, the flcin of which is marked with fmall white
fpots : the Chinefe phyficians fteep it in wine, and ufe
it afterwards as an excellent remedy againft the
palfy.
Honan-Fou, a city of the above province, fituated
amidft mountains and between three rivers. The Chi¬
nefe formerly believed this city to be the centre of the
earth, becaufe it was in the middle of their empire.
Its jurifdi&ion is very extenfive ; for it comprehends,
one city of the fecond clafs and thirteen of the third:
one of thefe cities named Teng-fong-hien, is famous on
account of the to wet erefted by the celebrated Tcheou-
kong for an obfervatory ; there is ftill to be feen in it
an inftrument which he made ufe of to find the ftra-
dow at noon, in order to determine the latitude. This
aftronomer lived above a thoufand years before the
Chriftian era, and the Chinefe pretend that he invent¬
ed the mariner’s compafs.
HONDEKOOTER (Melchior), a famous Dutch
painter born at Utrecht, excelled in painting animals,
and efpecially birds. His father and grandfather were
of the fame profeffion, and their fubjefts the fame. He
was trained up to the art by his father ; but furpafled
not only him, but even the beft of his cotemporaries in
a very high degree. Till he was feventeen years of
age, he continued under the direftion of his father,
and accuftomed himfelf to paint feveral forts of birds j
but particularly he was pleafed to reprefent cocks,
hens, ducks, chickens, and peacocks, which he de-
fcribed in an elegant variety of aftions and attitudes.
—After his father’s death, which happened in 1653,
he received fome inftruftions from his uncle John Bap-
tift Weeninx; but his principal and beft inftrmftor was
nature, which he ftudied with intenfe application.
His pencil was wonderfully neat and delicate; his
touch light; his colouring exceedingly natural, lively,
and remarkably tranfparent; and the feathers of his
fowls were exprefled with fuch a fuelling foftnefs, as
might readily and agreeably deceive the eye of any
fpe&ator. It is reported that he had trained up a
cock to Hand in any attitude he wanted to defcribe,
and that it was his cuftom to place that creature near
his eafel; fo that at the motion of his hand the bird
would fix itfelf in the proper pofture, and would con3
tinue in that particular pofition without the fmallell
perceptible alteration for feveral hours at a time. The
landfcapes which he introduces as the back grounds of
his pictures, are adapted with peculiar judgment dnd
fkill. and admirably finiflred ; they harmonize with his
fubje£t, and always increafe the force and the beauty
of his principal obje&s. His touch was very Angular,
in imitating the natural plumage of the fowls he paint¬
ed ; which not only produced a charming effeft, but
alfo may prove ferviceable to an intelligent obferver,
to afiift him in determiningwhich are the genuine works
of this mafter, and which are impofitions. His pic¬
tures fell at a high price, and are much fought after.
He died at Utrecht in 1695, aged 59.
HONDURAS, a province of North America in
New Spain, lying on the North.Sea, being about 370
miles in length, and 200 in breadth} it was difcover-
ed
HON [ 640 ] HON
Hone, ed by Chriftopher Columbus in the year l JO*. The
Hu“ey' Englilh have been poffeffed of the logwood country
”' * on the bay of Honduras a great while, and cut large
quantities every year. The Mofquito native Americans
live in the eafttrn parts; and being independent of the
Spaniards, have entered into treaties with the Engliih,
and ferve them in feveral capacities. This province is
watered by feveral rivers, which enrich the country by
their inundations; and it is very fertile in Indian corn.
It is faid there are forne mines of gold and filver in this
province. Valadolid is the capital town.
HONE, a fine kind of white ftone, ufed for fel¬
ting razors, pen-knives, and the like.
HONEY, a fweet vegetable juice, colle&ed by the
bees from the flowers of various plants, and depofited
in the cells of the comb; from which it is extracted
either by fpontaneous percolation through a fieve in a
Warm place, the comb being feparated and laid there¬
on, or by expreffion. That which runs fpontaneoufly
is purer than that which is exprefled, a quantity of
the wax and other matters being forced out along with
it by the preffure. 4 The bed fort of honey is of a thick
confiftence, a whitifli colour inclining to yellow, an
agreeable fmcll, and pleafant tafte : both the colour
and flavour art faid to differ in fome degree, accord¬
ing to the plants which the bees collect it from. It
is fuppofed that honeyis merely the yuice of the flower
perfpiring, and becoming infpiffated thereon; and that
the bee takes it up with its probofeis, and carries it
.to be depofited in its waxen cells, with which the
young bees are to be fed in fummer, and the old ones
in winter: but it is certain, that honey can be pro¬
cured by no other method of colle&ing this jhice than
by the bees. The honey wrought by the young
bees, and that which is permitted to run from the
comb without heat or preffure, is white and pure, and
called virgin's honey. The honey of old bees, and that
which is forced from the comb by heat or preffure, is
yellow, from the wax. Honey produced where the
air is clear and hot, is better than that where the air
is variable and cold.— The honey of Narbonne in
France, where rofemary abounds, is faid to have a
very manifett flavour of that plant, and to be imitable
by adding to other honey an infufion of rofemary
flowers.
Honey, confidered as a medicine, is a very ufeful
detergent and aperient, powerfully diffolving vifeid
juices, and promoting the expeftoration of tough
phlegm. In fome particular conftitutions it has an
inconvenience of griping, or of proving purgative ;
which is faid to be in fome meafure prevented by pre-
vioufly boiling the honey. This, however, with all
conftitutions, is by no means effe&ual; and the 'eir-
cumilance mentioned has had fo much weight with
the Edinburgh college, that they do not now employ
it in any preparation, and have entirely reje&ed the
mella medicata, fubftituting fyrups in their place : but
there can be no doubt that honey is very uftful in gi¬
ving form to different articles, although there be foine
individuals with whom it may difagree. In order,
however, to obtain the good effedls of the honey it-
ftlf, it muft be ufed to a confiderable extent, and as
an article of diet. The following remarkable inftances
of the good effedls of honey in fome afthmatic cafes,
givenffrv Dr Monro in his Medical and Pharmaceutical
N9 156.
Chemiflry, deferve to be here inferted. “ The late Honey.
Dr John Hume, one of the commiffioners of the fick —-v-*-*
and hurt of the royal navy, was for many years vio¬
lently affli&ed with the atlhma. Having taken many
medicines without receiving relief, he at latt relolved
jto try the effe&s of honey, having long haa a great
opinion of its virtues as a peftoral. For two or three
years he ate fome ounces of it daily, and got entirely
free of his afithma, and Likewife of a gravelly complaint
which he had long been affli&ed with. About two
years after he had recovered his health, when he was
fitting one day in the office for the fick and hurt, a
perfon labouring under a great difficulty of breathing,
win.looked as if he could not live many days, came to
him, and afked him by what means he had been cured
of his allhma ? Dr Hume told him the particulars of
his own cafe, and mentioned to him the means by
which he had found relief. For two years after he
heard nothing of this perfon, who was a ftranger to
him, and had feemed fo bad that he did not imagine
that he could have lived many days, and therefore had
not even aiked him who he was; but at the end of
that period, a man feemingly in good health, and de¬
cently dreffed, came to the fick and hurt office, and
returned him thanks for his cure, which he affured
him had been entirely brought about by the free ufe
of honey.”
HoNur-Dew, a fweet faccharine fubftance found
on the leaves of certain trees, of which bees are very
fond, by the huffiandmen fuppofed to fall from the
heavens like common dew. This opinion hath been
refuted, and the true origin of this and other faccha¬
rine dews fltown by the Abbe'Boiffier de Sauvages, in
a memoir read before the Society of Sciences at Mont¬
pelier. “ Chance (fays the Abbe) afforded me an op¬
portunity of feeing this juice in its primitive form on
the leaves of the holm oak: thefe leaves were covered
with thoufands of fmall round globules or drops, which,
without touching one another, feemed to point out
the pore from whence each of them had proceeded.
My tafte informed me that they were as fweet as ho¬
ney : the honey-dew on a neighbouring bramble did
not referable the former, the drops having run toge¬
ther ; owing either to the moifture of the air which
had diluted them, or to the heat which had expand- ‘
ed them. The dew was become more vifeous, and lay
in large drops, covering the leaves; in this form it is
ufually feen.
“ The oak had at this time two forts of leaves; the
old, which were ftrong and firm ; and the new, which
were tender, and newly come forth. The honey-dew
was found only on the old leaves ; though thefe were
covered by the new ones, and by that means fheltered
from any moiflure that could fall from above. I ob-
fei ved the fame on the old leaves of the bramble,
while the new leaves were quite free from it. An¬
other proof that this dew proceeds from the leaves is,
that other Neighbouring trees not furniftied with a
Juice of this kind had no moilture on them ; and par¬
ticularly the mulberry, which is a very particular cir-
cumftance, for this juice is a deadly poifon to filk-
worms. If this juice fell in the form of a dew, miff,
or fog, it would wet all the leaves without diftindtion,
and every part of the leaves, under as well as upper.
Heat may have fomc ffiare in its produ&ion: for
1 though
HON [ fi
though the common heat promotes only the tump,
ration of the more volatile and fluid juices, a iultry
heat, efpecially if refleded by clouds, may to far di¬
late the veffel as to produce a more vifcous juice, fuch
as the honey-dew.
“ The fecond kind of honey-dew, which is the chief
refource of bees after the fpring-flowers and dew by
tranfpiration on leaves are pad, owes its origin to a
fmall infed called a vine frctter; the excrement ejec¬
ted with fome force by this infed makes a part of the
mod delicate honey known in nature (fee Aphis).
Thefe vine-fretters reft during feveral months on the
barks of particular trees, and extrad their food by
piercing that bark, without hurting or deforming the
tree. Thefe infeds alfo caufe the leaves of fome trees
to curl up, and produce galls upon others. They
fettle on branches that are a year old. The juice, at
firft perhaps hard and crabbed, becomes, in the bowels
of this infed, equal in fweetnefs to the honey obtain¬
ed from the flowers and leaves of vegetables; except¬
ing that the flowers may communicate fome of their
effential oil to the honey, and this may give it a pe¬
culiar flavour, as happened to myfelf by planting a
hedge of rofemary near my bees at Sauvages: the ho¬
ney has tafted of it ever fince, that Ihrub continuing
long in flower. -
“ 1 have obferved two fpecies of vine-fretters, which
live unfheltered on the bark of young branches ; a
larger and a lefler. The lefler fpecies is of the colour of
the bark upon which it feeds, generally green. It is
chiefly diftinguilhed by two horns,or ftraight. immove¬
able, flefhy fubftances, which rife perpendicularly from
the lower hides of the belly, one on each fide. This
is the fpecies which live on the young branches of bram
ble and elder. The larger fpecies is double the fize of
the other ; is of a blackilh colour ; and inftead of the
horns which diftinguilh the other, have in the fame
part of the fldn a fmall button, black and (hining like jet.
“ The buzzing of bees in a tuft of holm-oak, made
me fufped that fomething very interefting brought fo
many of them thither. I knew that it was not the
feafon for expeding honey-dew, nor was it the place
where it is ufually found ; and was furprifed to find
the tuft of leaves and branches covered with drops
which the bees colleded with a humming noife. The
form of the drops drew my attention, and led me to
the following difeovery. Inftead of being round like
drops which had fallen, each formed a fmall longifli
oval. I foon perceived from whence they proceeded.
The leaves covered with thefe drops of honey were
fituated beneath a fwarm of the larger black vine-
fretters ; and on obferving thefe infeds, I perceived
them from time to time raife their bellies, at the ex¬
tremity of which there then appeared a fmall drop of
an amber colour, which they inftantly ejeded frona
them to the diftance of fome inches. I found by ta¬
iling fome of thefe drops which i had catched on my
hand, that it had the fame flavour with what had be¬
fore fallen on the leaves. I afterwards faw the fmaller
fpecies of vine-fretters ejed their drops in the fame
manner. This ejedion is fo far from being a matter
of indifference to thefe infeds themfelves, that it feems
to have been wifely inftituted to procure cleanlinefs in
each individual, as well as to preferve the whole fwarm
Vot. VIII. Part II.
ti 1 HON
'iiom dtftrudion} for prdliog as they do one upon
another, they would otherwife foon be glued together, ‘
and rendered incapable of ftirring. The drops thus
fpurted out fall upon the ground, if not intercepted
b\ leaves or branches; and the fpots they make on
Hones remain fomt time, unlefs waihed off by rain.
This is the only honcy-dew that falls; and this never
falls from a greater height than a branch where thefe
infeds can clufter.
“ It is now eafy to account for a phsenomenou
which formerly puzzled me greatly. Walking under
a lime-tree in the king’s garden at Paris, I felt my
hand wetted with little drops, which I at firll took for
fmall rain. The tree indeed fhould have ftieltered me
from the rain, but 1 efcaped it by going from under
the tree. A feat placed near the tree ftione with thefe
drops. And being then unacquainted with any thing
of this kind, except the honey-dew found on the leaves
of fome. particular trees, I was at a lofs to conceive
how fo glutinous a fubftance could fall from the leaves
in fuch fmall drops : for I knew that rain could not
overcome its natural attradion to the leaves till it be¬
came pretty large drops; but I have fince found,
that the lime-tree is very fubjed to thefe vine-fretters.
“ Bees are not the only infeds that feaft upon this ho¬
ney ; ants are equally fond of it. Led into this opi¬
nion by what naturalifts have faid, I at firft believed
that the horns in the leffer fpecies of thefe vine-fret¬
ters had in their extremity a liquor which the ants
went in fearch of: but I foon difeovered that what
drew the ants after them came from elfewhere, both
in the larger and leffer fpecies, and that no liquor is
difeharged by the horns. There are two fpecies of
ants which fearch for thefe infeds. The large black
ants follow thofe which live on the oaks and chefnut 5
the leffer ants attend thofe on the elder. But as the
ants are not, like the bees, provided with the means
of fucking up fluids ; they place themfelves near the
vine fretters, in order to feize the drop the moment
they fee it appear upon the anus; and as the drop
remains fome time on the fmall vine fretters before they
can call it off, the ants have leifure to catch it, and
thereby prevent the bees from having any lhare : but
the vine-fretters of the oak and chefnut being ftronger,
and perhaps more plentifully fupplied with juice, dart
the drop inftantly, fo that the larger ants get very little
of it.
“ The vine-fretters finding the greateft plenty of
juice in trees about the middle of fummer, afford alfo
at that time the greateft quantity of honey ; and this
leffens as the feafon advances, fo that in the autumn
the bees prefer it to the flowers then in feafon. Though
theie infeds pierce the tree to the fap in a thoufand
places, yet the trees do not feem to fuffVr at all from
them, nor do the leaves lofe the lead of -their verdure.
The hulbandman therefore ads injudicioufly when he
deftroys them.”
Honet Guide, a curious fpecies of cuckow. See
Cucuitrs.
Honey-LochJ}, or Three-thornedAcacia. See Gle-
DITS-IA.
Honey-Suckle. See Lonicera.
HONFLEUR, a confiderable fea-port town of
France, in Upper Normandy, with a good harbour,,
4 L
HON f 642 ] HON
and trade in bone-lace. It is feated on tbe river Seine, efcape to a place of greater fafety. The Moor then H&nouri
in E. Long. o. 8. N. Lat. 17. 49. went into his houfe, where he had but jull feated himfelf,  
HONI soit out mal y pense, q. d. “ Evil to him when a great crowd, with loud lamentations, came to
that thinks evilthe motto of the moll noble order his gate, bringing the corpfe of his fon, who had juft
of the knights of the Garter. See Garter. been killed by a Spaniard. When the firft (hock of
HONITON, a very pkafant market and borough furprife was a little over, he learnt from the defcrip-
town in Devonflrire, fituated 156 miles W. of London, tion given, that the fatal deed was done by the very
and 16 eaft of Exeter. It confids of about 400 houfes; per fon then in his power. He mentioned this to no
and has one church on a hill full half a mile from the one ; but as foon as it was dark retired to his garden,
town, and a chapel and free grammar-fchool in the as if to grieve alone, giving orders that none (hould*
town. It is well paved and lighted, and lakes of water follow him. Then accolling the Spaniard, he faid^
run through it. This place has fuffered by tires great- £-‘ Chriftian, the perfon you have killed is my fon, his
ly in 1747 and 1765. The market is on Saturday, body is how in my houfe. You ought to i'uffer ; but
and one fair in July : its manufa&ures are ferge, and you have eaten with me, and I have given you my
rich bone lace, and edgings. It was a chartered cor- faich, which muft not be broken.” He then led the
poration by James II. but reverted to its old con- altonilhed Spaniard to his {tables, mounted him oa
Ilitution on the revolution, and is now governed by a one of his fleeted horfes, and faid, “ Fly far while
portreeve who is chofen annually. It firft returned the night can cover you ; you will be fafe in the mor-
members the 28th Edw. I. ning* You are indeed guilty of my Ton’s blood : but
HONORIACI, in antiquity, arr order of foldiery God is juft and good ; and I thank him I am innocent,
under the eaftern empire, who introduced the Goths, of yours, and that my faith given is preferved.”
Vandals, Alaoi, Suevi, &c. into Spain. Didymus This point of honour is molt religioufly obferved by.
and Verinianus, two brothers, had, with great vigi- the Arabs and Saracens, from whom it was adopted
Lnce and valour, defended the paflages of the Pyre- by the Moors of Africa, and by them was brought
neans againft the Barbarians for fome time, at their into Spain. The following inftance of Spanifh honouc
own expence ; but being at length killed, the emperor may ftill dwell in the memory of many living, and de*
Conftantius appointed t\\t honoriaci to defend thofe paf- ferves to be handed down to the lateft pofterity. In the
fages, who, not contented to lay them open to all the year 1746, when we were in hot war with Spain, tha
nations of the north then ravaging the Gauls, joined Elizabeth of London, captain William Edwards, co-«
themfelves to them- ming through the Gulph from Jamaica, richly laden,,
HONOUR, a teftimony of efteem or fubmiffion, met with a moft violent ftorm, in which the (hip fprung
exprefled by words, aftions, and an exterior behavi- a leak, that obliged them, for the faving of their livesr.
our, by which we make known the veneration and re- to run into the Havannah, a Spanilh port. The cap-.-
fpeft we entertain for any one on account of his dig- tain went on (hore, and direftly waited on the govei-
nity or merit. The word honour is alfo ufed in gene- nor, told the occafion of his putting in, and that he,
ral for the efteem due to virtue, glory, and reputation, furrendered the (hip as a prize, and himfelf and hia.
It is alfo ufed for virtue and probity themfelves, and for men as prifoners of war, only requefting good quarter,
an exaitnefs in performing whatever we have promifed ; “ No, Sir,” replied the Spanifli governor, “ if wa
and in this laft fenfe we ufe the term, a man of honour, had taken you in fair war at fea, or approaching our
But honour is more particularly applied to two diffe- coaft with hoftile intentions, your, (hip would then hava
rent kinds of virtue ; bravery in men, and chaftity in been a prize, and your people prifoners; but when,
women.—Virtue and Honour were deified among the diftrefled by a temped, you come into our ports for
ancient Greeks and Romans, and had a joint temple the fafety of your lives, , we, the enemies, being men, |
confecrated to them at Rome: but afterwards each of are bound as fuch by the laws of humanity to afford
them had feparate temples, which were fo placed, that relief to diftreffed men who afle it of us. We cannofr
no one could enter the temple of Honour without even againft our enemies take advantage of an a6t of
pafiing through that of Virtue ; by which the Romans God. You have leave therefore to unload your (hip,
were continually put in mind, that virtue is the only if that be neceffary, to ftop the leak; you may refit
diredd path to true glory. Plutarch tells us, that the her here, and traffic fo far as (hall be neceffary to pap
Romans, contrary t,o their ufual cuftom, facrificed to the charges ; you may then depart, and I will give
Honour uncovered ; perhaps to denote, that where- you a pafs to be in force till you are beyond Bermuda :
ever honour is, it wants no covering, but (hows itfelf if after that you are taken, you will then be a lawful
openly to the world. prize; but now you are only a ftranger, and have a
The Spaniflv hiltorians relate a memorable inftance ftranger’s right to fafety and prote&ion.” The (hip
of honour and regard to truth. A Spaniffi cavalier accordingly departed, and arrived fafe in London,
in a fudden quarrel flew a Moorifli gentleman, and fled. A remarkable inftance of the like honour is record-
His purfuers foon loft fight of him, for he had unper- ed of a poor unenlightened African negro, in Captain,
eeived thrown himfelf over a garden wall. The owner, Snelgrave’s account of his voyage to Guinea. A New
a Moor, happening to be in his garden, was addreffed England (loop, trading there in 1752, left a fecond
by the Spaniard on his knees, who acquainted him mate, William Murray, fick on (hore, and failed with-
with his cafe, and implored concealment. “ Eat this,” out him. Murray was at the houfe of a black named
faid the Moor (giving him half a peach), “ you now Cudjoe, with whom he had contra&ed an acquaintance
n know that you may confide in my proteftion.” He during their trade. He recovered ; and the (loop be-
then locked him up in his garden apartment, telling ing gone, he continued with his black friend till fome
Wpi as foon as it was night he would provide for his other opportunity (hould offer of his getting home.,
Itt.
Fwntttfr.
HON t 643 ] HON
fn the mean time a Dutch fhip came into the road, efcutcheons : and thofe of the laft are baronet*, Honour,
and fome of the blacks coming on board her, wele knights, efquires, and gentlemen. There are fome v
treacheroufly feized and carried off as their flaves. The authors who will have baronets to be the laft under the
relations and friends, tranfported w'ith fudden rage, firft rank ; and their reafon is, becaufe their honour is
ran into the houfe of Cudjoe, to take revenge by kill- hereditary, and by patent, as that of the nobility. See
rng Murray. Gudjoe ftopt them at the door, and de- Commonalty and Nobility.
manded what they wanted. “ The white men,” faid Hokqvrs of IVar, in a fiege, is, when a governor,
they, “ have carried away our brothers and fons, and having made a long and vigorous defence, is at laft
we will kill all white men. Give us the white man obliged to furrender the place to the enemy for want
you have in your houfe, for we will kiU him.” “ Nay,” of men and provifions, and makes it one of his prin-
faid Cudjoe, “ the white men that carried away your cipal articles to march out with the honours of war ;
relations are bad men, kill them when you can take that is, with (houldered arms, drums beating, colours
them ; but this white man is a good man, and you flying, and all their baggage, &c.
muft not kill him.”--“ But he is a white man,” they Military Honours. All armies falute crowned heads
cried ; “ and the white men are all bad men, we will in the mo ft refpe&ful manner, drums beating a march, ^
kill them all.” Nay,” fays he, “ you muft not colours and flandards dropping, and officers faluting.
kill a man that has done no harm, only for being white. Their guards pay no compliment, except to the princes
This man is my friend, my houfe is his polt, I am his of the blood ; and even that by courtefy, in the abfence
fcldier, and muft fight for him ; you muft kill me be- of the crowned head.
fore you can kill him. What good man will ever come To the commander in chief the whole line turns out
again under my roof, if I let my floor be ftained with without arms, and the camp-guards beat a march, and
a good man’s blood ?” The negroes feeing his refolu- falute. To generals of horfe and foot, they beat a
tion, and being convinced by his difcourfe that they march, and falute. Lieutenant-generals of ditto, three
were wrong, went away afhamed. In a few days Mur- ruffs, and falute. Major-generals of ditto, two ruffs,
ray ventured abroad again with his friend Cudjoe, and falute. Brigadiers of ditto, refted arms, one
when feveral of them took him by the hand, and told ruff, and falute. Colonels of ditto, refted arms, and
him, “ They were glad they had not killed him ; for no beating. Centinels reft their arms to all field-offi-
as he was a good (meaning innocent) man, their God cers, and ftmulder to every officer. All governors,
"would have been very angry, and would have fpoiled that are not general officers, (hall, in all places where
their fiftiing.” they are governors, have one ruff, with refted arms ;
Honour, in the beau monde, has a meaning materi- but for thofe who have no commiffion as governors, no
ally different from the above, and which it is eafier to drum Ihall beat. Lieutenant-governors (hall have the
illuftrate than define. It is, however, fubjedt to a fy- main-guard turned out to them with Ihouldered arms,
ftem of rules, called the law of honour, conftru&ed by Prujftan Honours of IVar, chiefly imitated by moft
people of faftiion, calculated to facilitate their inter- powers in Europe, are,
courfe with one ahother, and for no other purpofe. To the king, all guards beat the march, and all of-
Confequently, nothing is confidered as inconfiftent with ficers falute. Field-marfhals received with the march,
honour, but what tends to incommode this intercourfe. and faluted in the king’s abfence. General of horfe
Hence, as Archdeacon Paley ftates the matter, pro- or foot, four ruffs; but if he commands in chief, a
fenenefs, negleft of public worlhip or private devotion, march and falute. Lieutenant-generals of horfe or Mil. DiSr,
cruelty to fervants, rigorous treatment of tenants or foot, commanding or not, guards beat three Vuffs.
other ^dependants, want of charity to the poor, inju- Major-generals of horfe and foot, two ruffs. Officers,
ries done to tradefmen by infolvency or delay of pay- when their guards are under arms, and a general makes
ment, with numberlefs examples of the fame kind, are a fignal, muft reft to him, but not beat; when not got
accounted no breaches of honour ; becaufe a man is under arms, and a fignal made, only Hand by their
not a Ids agreeable companion for tbefe vices, nor arms. Village-guards go under arms only to the king,
the worfe to deal with in thofe concerns which are field-marlhals, generals of horfe and foot, and to the
ufually tranfa&ed between one gentleman and another, general of the day. Generals guards go under arms
—Again, the law of honour being conftituted by only to the king, field-marlhals, and the general over
men occupied in the purfuit of pleafure, and for whom they mount. Commanding officers of regiments
the mutual conveniency of fuch men, will be found, and battalions, their own quarter and rear guards to
as might be expefted from the charadter and de- turn out; but not to other field-officers, unlefs they
lign of the law-makers, to be, in moft inftances, fa- are of the day. Generals in foreign fervice, the fame,
vourable to the licentious indulgence of the natural Honours paid by Gentinels. \ two cen-
paffions. Thus it allows of fornication, adultery, tinels with ordered fire-locks, at their tent or quarters,
drunkennefs, prodigality, duelling, and revenge in the Generals of horfe or foot ; two centinels, one, with
extreme; and lays no Itrefs upon the virtues oppofite his firelock Ihouldered, the other ordered. Lieute-
to thefe. nant-generals; one, with firelock ordered. Major-
Honour or Rank.—The degrees of honour which generals ; one, with firelock fhouldered.
are obferved in Britain may be comprehended under The firft battalion of guards go under arms to the
thefe two heads, viz. nobiles majores, and nobiles minores. king only; not to ftand by, nor draw up in the rear
Thofeincludedunderthefirftrankare,archbiftiops,dukes, of their arms to any other ; nor to give centinels to
marquifes, earls, vifcounts, biftiops, and barons ; which foreigners. Second and third battalions draw up be-
arc all diftinguifhed by the refpeftive ornaments of their hind their arms to the princes, and to field-marftials;
4 L z but
HON [ 644 1 H O O
Konouf. |,ut w}ien on grenadier guards or out-pods, they turn
-J'" out, as other guards do, to the officers of the day.
They give one centinel with fhouldered arms to the
princes of the blood, and to field-marffials when they
lie alone in garrifon.
Court of Honour. See Court of Chivalry.
Fountain of Honour. The king is fo ftyled, as be¬
ing the fource of honours, dignities, &c. See Pre¬
rogative.
It is impoffible that government can be maintained
without a due fubordination of rank ; that the people
may know and diftinguiih fuch as are fet over them,
in order to yield them their due refpedt and obedience;
and alfo that the officers themfelves, being encouraged
by emulation and the hopes of fuperiority, may the
better difcharge their funftions : and the law fuppofes,
that no one can be fo good a judge of their feveral
merits and fervices as the king himfelf who employs
them. It has therefore entruiled him with the foie
power of conferring dignities and honours, in confi¬
dence that he will beftow them upon none but fuch
as deferve them. And therefore all degrees of nobi¬
lity, of knighthood, and other titles, are received by
immediate grant from the crown : either expreffed in
writing, by writs or letters patent, as in the crea¬
tion of peers and baronets; or by corporeal invefti-
ture, as in the creation of a Ample knight.
From the fame principle alfo arifes the prerogative
of eredting and difpofing of offices : for honours and
offices are in their nature convertible and fynonymous.
All offices under the crown carry in the eye of the
law an honour along with them ; becaufe they imply
a fuperiority of parts and abilities, being fuppofed to
be always filled with thofe that are moil able to exe¬
cute them. And, on the other hand, all honours in
their original had duties or offices annexed to them :
an earl, comes, was the confervator or governor of a
county; and a knight, miles, was bound to attend
the king in his wars. For the fame reafon therefore
that honours are in the difpofal of the king, offices
ought to be fo likewife ; and as the king may create
new titles, fo may he create new offices : but with this
reilridlion, that he cannot create new offices with
new fees annexed to them, nor annex new fees to
old offices ; for this would be a tax upon the fub-
jedt, which cannot be impofed but by adt of parlia¬
ment. Wherefore, in 13 Hen. IV. a new office be¬
ing created by the king’s letters patent for meafuring
cloths, with a new fee for the fame, the letters pa¬
tent were, on account of the new fee, revoked and
declared void in parliament.
Upon the fame or a like reafon, the king has alfo
the prerogative of conferring privileges upon private
perfons. Such as granting place or precedence to
any of his fubjedts, as ffiall. feem good to his royal
wifdom : or fuch as converting aliens, or perfons born
out of the king’s dominions, into denizens ; whereby
fome very eoufiderable privileges of natural-born fub¬
jedts are conferred upon them. Such alfo is the pre¬
rogative of erediing corporations ; whereby a number
of private perfons are united and knit together, and
enjoy many liberties, powers, and immunities in their
politic capacity, which they were utterly incapable
of in their natural.
Maids of Honour, are young ladies in the queen’s
houfehold, whofe office is to attend the queen when
fire goes abroad, &c. In England they are fix in
number, and their falary 3001. per annum each.
- Honour is particularly applied in our cuftoms to
the more noble kind of feignories or lordfhips, where¬
of other inferior lordffiips or manors hold or depend.
As a manor confifts of feveral tenements, fervices,
cuftoms, &c. fo an honour contains divers manors,
knights-fees, &c. It was alfo formerly called beneficium
or royal fee, being always held of the king in capite.
HoNovR-Point, in heraldry, is that next above the:
centre of the efcutcheon, dividing the upper part into
two equal portions.
Honourable, a title conferred on the younger
fans of earls, the fons of vifeounts and barons; as alfo
on fuch perfons as have the king’s commiffion, and
upon thofe who enjoy places of truft and honour.
HONOURARY, fomething done or conferred
upon any one, to do him honour. See the article
Honour.
Honourary is fometimes underftood of a perfon
who bears or poffeftes fome poll or title, only for the
name’s fake, without doing any thing of the fun&ions
belonging to it, or receiving any advantage from it:
thus we fay honourary counfellors, honourary fellows,
&c.
Honourary is alfo ufed for a lawyer’s fee, or a fa¬
lary given to public profeifors in any art or fcience.
HOOD (Robin), a famous outlaw and deer-ftealer,
who chiefly harboured in Sherwood foreft in Notting-
hamftiire. He was a man of family, which by hii.
pedigree appears to have had fome title to the earl¬
dom of Huntingdom ; and played his pranks about
the latter end of the 12th century. He was famous
for archery, and for his treatment of all travellers who
came in his way ; levying contributions on the rich,
and relieving the poor. Falling fick at laft, and re¬
quiring to be blooded, he isfaid to have been betrayed
and bled to death. He died in 1247 ; and was bu¬
ried at Kirklees in Yovkfhire, then a Benedidline mo-
naftery, where FIs graveftone is ftill fhown.
Hood. See Chaperon and Cowl.
Hood, in falconry, is a piece of leather, wherewith
the head of a hawk, falcon, or the like, is covered.
Hood Ifland, one of the Marquesas IJlands, in
the South Sea. It was difeovered in April 1774 by
captain Cook, who gave it that name from the perfon
who firft faw the land. It is the mo ft northerly of
the clufter, and lies in S. Eat. 9. 26. W. Long.
139- 'S- '
HOOF, the horny fubftance that covers the feet
of divers animals, as oxen, hoifes, &c.
Hoor-bomd, in farriery. See there, $ xlii.
HOOFT (Peter Cornelius Van), an eminent hi-
ftorian and poet, born at Amfterdam in 1581. He
was lord of Muyden, judge of Goyland, and knight
of the order of St Michael. He died at the Hague
in 1647. He wrote, 1. An excellent hiftory of the
Netherlands, from the abdication of Charles V. to
the year 1588. 2. Several Comedies, and other
works. By thefe he acquired fuch reputation, that
the Flemings confidered him as the Homer and Ta¬
citus of the Netherlands.
HQOGUES,
H O O r 645 1 H O O
Hooguef- HOOGUESTRATTEN, a town of the Nether-
tratcen lands, in Dutch Brabant, and capital of a county of
iJ the fame name. E. Long. 4. 41. N. Lat. 51. 25.
1 °n e' HOOK, in angling, &c. See FismNG-hook.
— Hooks, in building, &c. are of various forts;
fome of iron and others of brafs, viz. 1. Armour-
hooks, which are generally of brafs, and are to lay up
arms upon, as guns, muikets, half-pikes, pikes, jave¬
lins, &c. 2. Cafement-hooks. 3. Chimney-heoks, which
are madeboth of brafs and iron, and of different faflrions:
their ufe is to fet the tongs and fire-ihovel againft. 4.
Curtain-hooks. 5. Hooks for doors, gates, &c. 6.
Double line-hooks, large and fmall. 7. Single line-hooks,
large and fmall. 8. Tenter-hooks of various forts.
See Tenter.
Hooks of a Jhip, are all thofe forked timbers which
are placed directly upon the keel, as well in her run as
in her rake.
Can-HooKS, thofe which being made fall to the end
of a rope with a noofe (like that which brewers ufe
to fling or carry their barrels on), are made ufe of for
flings.
FooI-Hooks, in a fliip, the fame with futtocks.
Loof-HooKS, a tackle with two hooks; one to hitch
into a cringle of the main or fore-fail, in the bolt-rope
at the leech of the fail by the clew ; and the other is
to hitch into a ftrap, which is fpliced to the chefs-tree.
Their ufe is to pull down the fail, and fuccour the
tackles in a large fail and ftiff gale, that all the ftrefs
may not bear upon the tack. It is alfo ufed when the
tack is to be feized more fecure, and to take off or put
on a bonnet or drabler.
Hook Pins, in architefture,'are taper iron pins, only
with a hook-head, to pin the frame of a roof or floor
together.
HOOKAH, among the Arabs and other nations
of the Eaft, is a pipe of a Angular and complicated
conrtrudion, through which tobacco is fmoked : out
of a fmall veffel of a globular form, and nearly full of
water, iffue two tubes, one perpendicularly, on which
is placed the tobacco 4 the other obliquely from the
fide of the veffel, and to that the perfon who fmokes
applies his mouth ; the fmoke by this means being
drawn through water, is cooled in its paffage and ren¬
dered more grateful: one takes a whiff, draws up a
large quantity of fmoke, puffs it out of his nofe and
mouth in an immenfe cloud, and paffes the hookah to
his neighbour ; and thus it goes round the whole
circle.—The hookah is known and ufed throughout
the eaft ; but in thofe parts of it where the refine¬
ments of life prevail greatly, every one has his hookah
facred to himfelf; and it is frequently an implement
of a very coftly nature, being of filver, and fet with
precious ftones: in the better kind, that tube which
is applied to the mouth is very long and pliant ; and
for that reafon is termed the fnake : people who ufe it
in a luxurious manner, fill the veffel through which the
fmoke is drawn with rofe water, and it thereby re¬
ceives fome of the fragrant quality of that fluid.
HOOKE (Robert), a very eminent Englilh mathe¬
matician and philofopher, was the fon of Mr John
Hooke minifter of Freftiwater in the Ifle of Wight,
where he was born in 1635. He very early difcovered
a genius for mechanics, by making curious toys with
great ait and dexterity. He was educated under Dr
Bulbby in Weftminfter fchool; where he not only ac- Hooke,
quired a competent fhare of Greek and Latin, toge-’ v-
ther with an infight into Hebrew and fome other
Oriental languages, but alfo made himfelf mafter of a
good part of Euclid’s elements. About the year 1655
he went to Chrift-church in Oxford, and in 1655 was
introduced to the Philofophical Society there ; where,
difeovering his mechanic genius, he was firft employed
to alfift Dr Willis in his operations in chemiftry, and"
afterwards recommended to the honourable Robert
Boyle, Efq; whom he ferved fevetal years in the fame
capacity. He was alfo inftruited in aftronomy about
this time by Dr Seth Ward, Savilian profeffor of
that fcience; and from henceforward diftinguifhed
himfelf by many noble inventions and improvements
of the mechanic kind. He invented feveral aftrono-
mical inftruments, for making obfervations both at
fea and land ; and was particularly ferviceable to Mr
Boyle in completing the invention of the air-pump.
Sir John Cutler having founded a mechanic fchool in
1664, he fettled an annual ftipend on Mr Hooke for
life, intrufting the prefident, council, and fellows, o£
the Royal Society to direft him with refpeft to the
number and fubjeft of his le&ures; and on the nth
of January 1664-5, he was ele&ed by that fociety
curator of experiments for life, with an additional fa-
lary. In 1666 he produced to the Royal Society a
model for rebuilding the city of London deftroyed by
fire, with which the fociety was well pleafed; and
the lord mayor and aldermen preferred it to that of-
the city furveyor, though it happened not to be car¬
ried into execution. It is faid, by one part of this mo¬
del of Mr Hooke’s, it was defigned to have all the
chief flreets, as from Leaden-hall to Newgate, and
the like, to lie in exatt ftraight lines, and all the
other crofs-ftreets turning out of them at right angles,
with all the churches, public buildings, markets,.
&c. in proper and convenient places. The rebuild¬
ing of the city according to the aft of parliament
requiring an able peifon to fet out the ground to the
proprietors, Mr Hooke was appointed one of the
furveyors; in which employment he got moft part
of his eftate, as appeared pretty evident from a large
iron cheft of money found after his death, locked
down with a key in it, and a date of the time, which
fhowed it to have been fo (hut up above 30 years.—
Mr Oldenburgh, fecretary to the Royal Society, dying
in 1677, Mr Hooke was appointed to fupply his
place, and began to take minutes at the meeting in
Qftober, but did not publifli the Tranfaftions. In
the beginning of the year 1687, his brother’s daugh¬
ter, Mrs Grace Hooke, who had lived with him fe-
vcral years, died ; and he was fo affefted with grief
at her death, that he hardly ever recovered it, but
was obferved from that time-to become lefs adtive,
more melancholy, and, if that could be, more cynical
than ever. At the fame time, a chancery fuit in which
he was concerned with Sir John Cutler, on account
of his falary for reading the Cutlerian lectures, made
him very uneafy, and increafed his diforder. In 1691,
he was employed in forming the plan of the hofpitai
near Hoxton, founded by Robert Aflc alderman of
London, who appointed archbilhop Tillotfon one of
his executors ; and in December the fame year, Hooke
was created doctor of phyfic, by a warrant from that:
Bre?-
K O O [ 646 I HOG
n nice, prelate. In July 1696, the chancery fuit with Sir John I endeavoured to be rich, imagined for a while that I
Cutler was determined in his favour, to his inexpref- was, and am in fome meafure happy to find myfelf at
fible fatisfaftion. His joy on that occafion was found this inftant but jull worth nothing. If your lordfhip,
in his diary thus exprefied ; domshlgissa: that or any of your numerous friends, have need of a fer-
is, Deo, Optimo, Maximo, Jit honor, hus, gloria, in vant, with the bare qualifications of being able to read
feecuia fteculorum, Amen. “ I was born on this day and write, end to be hone it, I lhall gladly undertake
of July 1635, and God hath given me a new birth : any employments your lordihip ftiall not think me
may I never forget his mercies to me ! while he gives unworthy of. I have been taught, my lord, that nci-
me breath may I praife him !”—>In the fame year tber a man’s natural pride, nor his felf-love, is an equal
1696, an order was granted to him for repeating molt judge of what is fit for him ; and I /hall endeavour to
of his experiments at the expence of the Royal So- remember, that it is not the firort part we aft, but the
ciety, upon a promife of his finifiring. the accounts, manner of our performance, which gains or lofes us the
obfervations, and deduftions from them, and of per- applaufe of Him who is finally to decide of all human
fefting the defcription of all the inftruments contrived aftions. My lord, I am juft now employed in tranf-
by him; but his inereafing illnefs and general decay lating from the French, a Hiftory of the Life of the
rendered him unable to perform it. He continued late archbiftiop of Cambray ; and I was thinking to
fome years in this wafting condition ; and thus lan- beg the honour of your lordftiip’s name to prottft a
guifhing till he was quite emaciated, he died March work which will have fo much need of it. The ori-
3d, 1702, at his lodgings in Gre/ham college, and ginal is not yet publi/hed. ’Tis written by the author
was buried in St Flelen’s church, Bifhopfgate ftreet; his of the ‘ Difcourfe upon Epic Poetry,’ in the new edi-
corpfe being attended by all the members of the Royal tion of Telemaque. As there are fome palfages in the
. Society then in London.—As to Mr Hooke’s charac- book of a particular nature, I dare not folicit your
ter, it is not in all refpefts one of the moft amiable. He lord/hip to grant me the favour I have mentioned, till
made but a defpicable figure as to his perfon, being/hort you firft have perufed it. The whole is ftrort, and
, of ftature, very crooked, pale, lean, and of a meagre pretty fairly tranfcribed. If your lord/hip could find
afpeft, with dark brown hair, very long, and hanging a fpare hour to look it over, I would wait upon your
over his face uncut and lank. Suitable-to his perfon, his lord/hip with it, as it may poffibly be no unpleafing
temper was penurious, melancholy, miftruftful: and, entertainment. I /hould humbly a/k your lord/hip’s,
though poflefied of great philofophical knowledge, he pardon for fo long an addrefs in a feafon of fo much
had fo much ambition, that he would be thought the bufinefs. But when /hould I be able to find a time in
only man who could invent or difcover ; and thus fre- which your lord/hip’s goodnefs is not employed? I am,
quently laid claim to the inventions and difcoveries of with perfeft refpeft and duty, my lord, your lord/hip’s
others, while he boafted of many of his own which moft obliged, moft faithful, and moft obedient humble
he never communicated. In the religious part of his fervant, FIathaniel Hooke.” The tranfiation here
charafter he was fo far exemplary, that he always ex- fpoken of was afterwards printed in izmo, 1723. From
preffed a great veneration for the Deity ; and feldom this period till his death, Mr Hooke enjoyed the con-
received any remarkable benefit in life, or made any fidence and patronage of men not lefs diftingui filed by
confiderable difcovery in nature, or invented any ufe- virtue than by titles. In 17.. he publi/hed a tranf-
ful contrivance, or found out any difficult problem, lation of Ramfay’s Travels of Cyrus, in 410; in 1733
without fetting down his acknowledgment to God, as be revifed a tranfiation of “ The Hiftory of the Con-
many places in his diary plainly ftiow\ He frequently queft of Mexico by the Spaniards, by Thomas Town-
iludied the facred writings in the original; for he fend, Efq;” printed in 2 vols 8vo; and in the fame
W'as acquainted with the ancient languages, as well as year he publiftied, in 410, the firft volume of “ The
with all parts of the mathematics.—He wrote, 1". Let- Roman Hiftory, from the building of Rome to the
tiones Cutleriance, 2. Micrographia, or Defcriptions ruin of the Commonwealth; illuftrated with maps and
of minute bodies made by magnifying glafles. 3. A other plates.” In the dedication to this volume, Mr
defcription of heliofcopes. 4. A defcription of fome Hooke took the opportunity of “ publicly teilifying
mechanical improvements of lamps and water-poifes, his juft efteem for a worthy friend, to whom he had
quarto. 5. Philofophical colleftions. After his death been long and much obliged,” by telling Mr Pope,
w^ere publilhed, 6. Pofthumous work collefted from his that the difplaying of his name at the head of thofe
papersby Richard Waller fecretary to the Royal Society, /heets was “like the hanging out a fplendid fign, to
HOOKE (Nathaniel), author of an efteemed Ro- catch the traveller’s eye, and entice him to make trial
man hiftory and other performances. Of this learned of the entertainment the place affords. But,” he pro¬
gentleman the earlieft particulars to be met with are ceeds, “ when I can write under my fign, that Mr
furni/hed by himfelf, in the following modeft but Pope has been here, and was content, who will que-
manly addrefs to the Earl of Oxford, dated' Oft. 7. ftion the goodnefs of the houfe ?” The volume is in-
iJhlols't 1722 : “ My Lord, the firft time I had the honour to troduced by “ Remarks on the Hiftory of the Seven
Jln'Xtfs of wait upon your lord/hip fince your coming to Lon- Roman Kings, occafioned by Sir Ifaac Newton’s ob-
PSotvyer, don, your lordftiip had the goodnefs to aik me, what jeftions to the fuppofed 244 years duration of the
way of life I was then engaged in ; a certain man- royal ftate of Rome.” His nervous pen was next em-
yaife honte hindered me at that time from giving a di- ployed in digerting “ An Account of the conduft of
reft anfwer. The truth is, my lord, I cannot be faid the Dowager-duchefs of Marlborough, from her firft
at prefent to be in any form of life, but rather to live coming to Court to the year 1710, in a Letter from
extempore. The late epidemical diftemper feized me, .herfelf to Lord ——. in I742<” ^vo* ^‘3 reward on
2 thi*
H O O [ 647 1 H O O
Hooker, tiiiy occafion w'as confiderable ; and the reputation he
  acquired by the performance much greater. The cir-
cumftances of this tranfa&ion are thus related by Dr
Maty, in his Memoires of Lord Chefterfield, vol. i.
p. 116. “ The relift of the great duke of Marlbo¬
rough, being defirous of fubmitting to pofterity her
political conduft, as well as her lord’s, applied to the
earl of Chefterfield for a proper perfon to receive her
information, and put the memoirs of her life-into a
proper drefs. Mr Hooke was recommended by him
for that purpofe. He accordingly waited upon the
duehefs, while die was dill in bed, oppreffed by the
infirmities of age. But, knowing who he was, file
immediately got herfelf lifted up, and continued fpeak-
ing during fix hours. She delivered to him, without
any notes, her account, in the mod lively as well as
the mod connefted manner. As die was not tired her¬
felf, die would have ccyntinued longer the bufinefe of
this fird fitting, had not die perceived that Mr Hooke
was quite exhauded, and wanted refrefhment as well as
red. So eager was die for the completion of the
work, that die infilled upon Mr Hooke’s not leaving
her.houfe till he had finidied it. This was done in a
fhort time ; and her Grace was fo well pleafed with
the performance, that die complimented the author
with a prefent of 5000I. a fum which far exceeded his
expeftations. As foon as he was free, and permitted
to quit the houfe of his benefaftrefs, he hadened to
the earl, to thank him for his favour, and communi¬
cated to him his good fortune. The perturbation of
mind he was under, occafioned by the drong fenfe of
his obligation, plainly appeared in his dammering out
his acknowledgments : and he, who had fucceeded fo
well as the interpreter of her Grace’s fentiments, could
fcarcely utter his own.” The fecond volume of his
Roman hidory appeared in 1745 ; when Mr Hooke
embraced the fair occafion of congratulating his wor¬
thy friend the earl of Marchmont, on “ that true
glory, the confenting praife of the honed and the
wife,” which his lordlhip had fo early acquired. To
the fecond volume Mr Hooke added “ The Capitoline
Marbles, or Confular Calendars,, an ancient Monument
accidentally difcovered at Rome in the year 1545, du¬
ring the Pontificate of Paul III.” In 1758 Mr Hooke
publilhed “ Obfervations on, I. The Anfwer of M.
1’Abbe de Vertot to the late earl of Stanhope’s In¬
quiry concerning the Senate of ancient Rome : da¬
ted December, 1719. II. A Differtation upon the
Gonditution of the Roman Senate, by a Gentleman :
publiihed in 1743. III. A Treatife on the Roman
Senate, by Dr Conyers Middleton : publidied in 1747.
IV. An Eflay on the Roman Senate, by Dr Thomas
Chapman: publilhed in 1750;” which he with great
propriety infcribed to Mr Speaker Onflow. The third
volume of Mr Hooke’s Roman Hidory, to the end
of the Gallic war, was printed under his infpeftion
before his lad illnefs ; but did not appear till after his
death, which happened in 1764. The fourth and laft
volume was publilhed in 1771. Mr Hooke left two
fons; of whom one is a divine of the church of Eng¬
land ; the other, a doftor of the Sorbonne, and pro-
fefibr of adronomy in that illudrious feminary.
HOOKER (John), alias Vowell, was bornin
Exeter, about the year 1524, the fecond fon of Ro¬
bert Hooker, who in 1529 was mayor of that city;.
He was inftrufted in.grammar learning by Dr More- Hooken
man, vicar of Menhinit in Cornwal, and thence re- -—Y'—"
moved to Oxford; but to what college is uncertain.
Having left the univerlity, he travelled to Germany,
and refided fome time at Cologne, where he kept ex-
ercifes in law, and probably graduated. Thence he
went to Stralbufg, where he iludied divinity under
the famous Peter Martyr. He now returned to Eng¬
land, and foon after vilited France, intending to pro¬
ceed to Spain and Italy ; but was prevented by a de¬
claration of war. Returning therefore again to Eng:
laud, he fixed his refidence in his native city, where,
having married, he was in 1554 eleftcd chamberlain,
being the firfl perfon who held that office, and in
1571 reprefented his fellow-citizens in parliament. Hs
died in the year 1601,. and was buried iu the cathe¬
dral church at Exeter. He wrote, among other
works, i. Order and ufage of keeping of parliaments
in Ireland. 2. The events of comets or blazing liars,
made upon the fight of the comet Pagonia, which
appeared in November and December 1577. 3. An
addition to the chronicles of Ireland from 1546 to
1568 ; in the fecond volume of Holinlhed’s chronicle.
4. A defeription of the city of Exeter, and of the
fondrie aflaults given to the fame ; Holinlh. chrom
vol. iii. 5. A book of enfigns. 6. Tranflation of
the hillory of the conqueft of Ireland from the Latin
of Giraldus Cambrenfis; in Holinlh. chron. vol. iL
7. Synopfis chorographica, or an hiftorical record of the
province of Devon; never printed.
Hooker (Richard), a learned divine, was born at
Heavy-tree, near Exeter, in the year 1553. Some
of bis anceftors were mayors of that city, and he was
nephew to John Hooker the hiftorian. By this uncle
he was firfl; iupported at the univerfity of Oxford, with
the addition of a fmall penfion from Dr Jewel, bilhop
of S lilbury, who in 1561 got him admitted one of the
clerks of Corpus-Chrilti college. In 1 573 he was eleft-
ed fcholar. In 1577 he took the degree of matter of arts, .
and was admitted fellow the fame year. In July 1579, he
was appointed deputy profeflbr of the Hebrew language.
In Oftober, in the fame year, he was for fome trivial
mifdemeanor expelled the college, but was immediately
reftored. In 1581 betook orders; and, being appointed
to preach at St Paul’s crofs, he came to London, where
he was unfortunately drawn into a marriage with
Joan Churchman, the termagant daughter of his hoC-
tefs. Having thus loft his fellowlhip, he continued in
the utmoft diftrefs till the year 1584, when he was
prefented by John Cheny, Efq; to the.reftory of Dray-
ton-Beaucham in Buckinghamlhire. In this retire¬
ment he was vifited by Mr Edwin Sandys, and Mr
George Cranmer, his former pupils. They found
him, with a Horace in his hand, tending fome Iheep
in the common field, his fervant having been ordered
home fey his fweet Xantippe. They attended him to
his houfe; but were foon deprived of his company by
an order from his wife Joan, for him to come and
rock the cradle. Mr Sandys’s reprefentation to hia
father, of his tutor’s fituation, procured him the maf-
terlhip of the. Temple; In this lituation he met
with confiderable moleftation from one Travers, lec¬
turer of the Temple, and a bigoted Puritan, who in
the afternoon endeavoured to confute the doftrine de¬
livered.in the morning. From this difagreeable fitua-
H O 0 • [ 648 ] H O O
’Hndker, fion he follclted archbithop Whitgift to remove him to
^ fome country retirement, where he might profecute
")0' cr‘ his ftudies in tranquillity. Accordingly, in 1591, he
obtained the rectory of Bofcomb in Wiltlhire, toge¬
ther with a prebend in the church of Salifbury, of
which he tfas alfo made fuh dean. In 1594 he was
prefented to the re&ory of BHhopfbourne in Kent,
where he died in the year 1600. He was buried in
his own parilh-church, where a monument was erect¬
ed to his memory by William Cooper, Efq. He was
a meek, pious, and learned divine. He wrote, 1. Ec-
clefiaftical politic, in eight books, fol. 2. A difcourfe
of judification, &c. with two other fermons, Oxford
1612,410. Alfo feveral other fermons printed with
the Ecclefiaftical Politic.
Hooker, in naval architecture, a veffel much ufed
by the Dutch, built like a pink, but rigged and mafted
like a hoy.—Hookers will lie nearer a winll than vef-
fels with crofs-fails can do. They are from 50 to 200
tons burden, and with a few hands will fail to the
Ealt Indies.
HOOP, a piece of pliant wood, or iron, bent in¬
to a circular form, commonly ufed for fecuring calks, &c.
Driving a Hoop, a boyilh exercife, of good effe&
in rendering the limbs pliable, and for ftrengthening
the nerves.
HOOPER (John), bilhop of Worcefter, and a
■martyr in the Proteftant caufe, was born in Somerfet-
thire, and educated at Oxford, probably in Merton-
college. In 1518 he took the degree of bachelor of
arts, and afterwards became a Ciftercian monk ; but
at length, difliking his fraternity, he returned to Ox¬
ford, and there became infefted with Lutheranifm. In
1539 he was made chaplain and houfe-fteward to Sir
John Arundel, who afterwards fuffered with the prb-
te£tor in the reign of Edward Vi. But that very ca¬
tholic knight, as Wood calls him, difcovering his chap¬
lain to be a heretic. Hooper was obliged to leave the
kingdom. After continuing fome time in France, he
teturned to England, and lived with a gentleman
called Seintlonu: but being again difcovered, he efca-
ped in the habit of a falior to Ireland; thence embark¬
ed for the continent, and fixed his abode in Switzerland.
—When king Edward came to the crown, Mr Hooper
returned once more to his native coumry. In 1550,
by his old patron Sir John Arundel’s intereft with
the earl of Warwick, he was confecrated bilhop of
Gloucefter; and in 1552 was nominated to the fee of
Worcefter, which he held in comnendam with the for¬
mer. But queen Mary had fcaree afcended the throne,
before his lordlhip was imprifoned, tried, and, not
cboofing to recant, condemned to the flames. He
fuffered this terrible death at Gloucefter, on the 9th
of February rjyq, being then near 60 years of age.
He was an avowed enemy to the church of Rome,
and not perfeftly reconciled to what he thought rem¬
nants of Popery in the church of England. In the
former reign he had been one of Bonner’s acculers,
which fufficiently accounts for his being one of queen
Mary’s firft facrifices to the holy fee. He was a per-
fon of good parts and learning, as may be found in
Fox’s Book of Martyrs.
Hooper (George) a very learned writer, bilhop of
Bath and Wells, was well ftilled in mathematics, and
N°i57.
in the eaftern learning and languages. He fat in thofe Hooping,
fees above 24 years, often refufed a feat in the privy II
council, and could not be prevailed upon to accept of ,
the bilhopric of London on the death of bilhop Comp-
ton. He wrote, x. The church of England free from
the imputation of Popery. 2. A difcourfe concerning
I^ent. 3. New danger of Prefbytery. 4. An inquiry
into the ftate of the ancient meafures. 3. De Valen-
tinianornm harefi conjedura. 6. Several fermons ; and
other works.
HOOPING-cough. See (the Index fubjoined to)
Medicine
HOOPOE. See Upupa.
HOOliNBECK (John), profelfor of divinity iit
the univerfities of Leyden and Utrecht, was born at
Haerlem in 1617. He underftood the Latin, He¬
brew, Chaldaic, Syriac, Rabbinical, Dutch, German,
Englilh, French, and Italian languages; and publilhed
many works, among which are, 1. A refutation of
Socinianifm, in t vols 410. 2. A treatife for the con-
vidtion of the Jews 3. Of the converfion of the
Heathens. 4. Theological inftitutions, &c. which
are written in Latin. Mr Bayle reprefents him as a
complete model of a good pallor and divinity profef-
for.
HO P, in botany. See Humulus.
Hops were firft brought into England from the Ne¬
therlands in 1 he year 1524. They are firft mentioned
in the Englilh ftatute-book in the year 1552, viz. in
the 5 and 6 of Edw. VI cap. 5. And by an aft of
parliament of the firft year of king James I. anno 1603,
cap 18. it appears, that hops were then produced in
abundance in England.
The hop being a plant of great importance in the
article of brewing, we lhall confider what relates to the
culture and management of it, under the following
heads:
Of Soil. As for the choice of their hop-grounds,
they efteem the richeft and ftrongeft grounds the moft;
proper; and if it be rocky within two or three feet of
the furface the hops will profper well; but they will
by no means thrive on a ftiff clay or fpongy wet land.
The Kentilh planters account new land bell for
hops ; they plant their hop gardens with apple trees at
a large diftance, and with cherry-trees between ; and
when the land hath done its bell for hops, which they
reckon it will in about 10 years, the trees may begin
to bear. The cherry trees laft about 30 years, and by
that time the apple-trees are large, they cut down the
cherry trees.
The Eflex planters account a moory land the moft;
proper for hops.
As to the fituation of a hop-ground, one that in¬
clines to the fouth or weft is the moft eligible ; but i£
it be expofed to the northeaft or fonthweft winds, there
Ihould be a ftrelter of fome trees at a diftance. becaufe
the northeaft winds are apt to nip the tender ftioots in
the fpring ; and the fouthweft winds frequently break
and blow down the poles at the latter end of the fum-
mer, and very much endanger the hops
In the winter-time provide your foil and manure for
the hop-ground againft the following fpring.
If the dung be rotten, mix it with two or three parts
of common earth, and let it incorporate together till
3 yo*
HOP
you have occafion to make ufe of it  o
hop hills ; but if it be new dung, then let it be mixed
as before till the fpring in the next year, for new dung
is very' injurious to hops.
Dung of all forts was formerly more commonly
made ufe of than it is now* efpecially when rotted and
turned to mould, and they who have no other manure
muft ufe it; which if they do, cows or hogs-dung, or
human ordure mixed with mud, may be a proper corn-
poll, becaufe hops delight moft in a manure that is
cool and moift.
Planting. Hops require to be planted in a fituation
fo open, as that the air may freely pafs round and be-
L 649 ] h o P
making your feme ground that is to be deftroyed ; and likewife there
"is fome danger that the fets may be rotted, if the win- "
ter prove very wet ; therefore the moft ufual time of
procuring them is in March, when the hops are cut
and dreffed.
As to the manner of planting the fets, there ftiould
be five good fets planted in every hill, one in the
middle, and the reft round about floping, the top*
meeting at the centre ; they muft Hand even with the
furface of the ground ; let them be prefled clofe with
the hand, and covered with fine earth, and a flick
ftiould be placed on each fide the hill to fecure it.
The ground being thus planted, all that is to be
tween them, to dry up and diflipate the moifture, done more during that fummer, is to keep the hills
whereby they will not be fo fubjeft to fire-blafts, which' clear from weeds, and to dig up the ground about the
often deftroy the middles of la”ge plantations, while the month of May, and to raife a fmall hill round about
tfides remain unhurt. . _ the plants. In June yoii muft twift the young bind
As for the preparation of the ground for planting, it or branches togethei into a bunch or knot ; for if they
(hould, in the preceding winter, be plowed and harrow- are tied up to fmall poles the firft year, in order to
have a few hops from them, it will not countervail the
weakening of the plants.
A mixture of compoft or dung being prepared for
your hop ground, the beft time for laying it on, if the
weather prove dry, is about Michaelmas, that the wheels
ed even ; and then lay upon it in heaps a good quan¬
tity of frelh rich earth, or well-rotted dung and earth
mixed together, fufficient to put half a bufliel in every
hole to plant the hops in, unlefs the natural ground be
very frefli and good.
The hills where the hops are to be planted fliould of the dung cart may not injure the hops, nor furrow
be eight or nine feet afunder, that the air may freely the ground : if this be not done then, you muft be
pafs between them; for in clofe plantations, they are obliged to wait till the froft has hardened the ground,
very fubjeft to what the hop-planters call thtjire blajl. fo as to bear the dung cart; and this is alfo the time
If the ground is intended to be ploughed with horfes '  ’ • • -
between the hills, it will be beft to plant them in
fquares checquerwife; but if the ground is fo fmall
that it be may done with the breaft-plough or fpade,
til#' linlpc fll rvnlr? Ko ~ •   f  * 1
to carry on your new poles, to recruit thofe that i.._
decayed, and to be caft out every year.
If you have good ftore of dung, the beft way will
be to fpread it in the alleys all over the ground, and
the holes ftiould be ranged in a quincunx form. Which to dig it in the winter following. The quantity’they
way foever you make ufe of, a ftake ftiould be ftuck  1-- - ' j J
down at all the places where the hills are to be made.
Perfons ought to be very curious in the choice of
the plants as to the kind of hop; for if thei hop-gar¬
den be planted with a mixture of feveral forts of hops
that ripen at feveral times, it will caufe a great deal of
trouble, and be a great detriment to the owner.
The two beft forts are the white and the grey bind;
the latter is a large fquare hop, more hardy, and is
the more plentiful bearer, and ripens later than the
former.
will require will be 40 loads to an acre, reckonimr
about 30 bufliels to the load.
If you have not dung enough to cover all the ground
in one year, you may lay it on one part one year, and
on the reft in another, or a third ; for there is no occa
fion to dung the ground after this manner oftener than
once in three years.
Thofe who have but a fmall quantity of dung, ufu-
ally content themfelves with laying on about twenty
loads upon an acre every year ; this they lay only
on the hills, either about November, or in the fprino-;
which laft fome account the beft time, when the hops
are drefled, to cover them after they are cut ; but if it
be done at this time, the compoft or dung ought to be
very well rotted and fine.
Drefing. As to the drefling of the hops, when the
hop'ground is dug in January or February, the earth
. . .   about the hills, and very near them, ought to be taken
fively as they become ripe. I he fets ftiould be five away with a fpade, that you may come the more Con¬
or fix inches long, with three or more joints or buds veniently at the flock to cut it.
There is alfo another fort of the white bind, which
ripens a wijek or ten days before the common ; but
this is tenderer, and a lefs plentiful bearer ; but it has
this advantage, that it comes firft to market.
But if three grounds, or three diftant parts of one
ground, be planted with thefe three forts, there will
be this conveniency, that they may be picked fuccef-
veniently
""YflT" . r . r i , , , . About the end of February, if the hops were plant-
If there be a fort of hop you value, and would in- ed the fpring before, or if the ground be w^eak, they
create plants and lets from, the fuperfluous binds may ought to be dretfed in dry weather ; but elfe if the
be laid down when the hops are tied, cutting off the ground be ftrong and in perfe&ion, the m’iddle of
tops, and burying them in the hill ; or when the hops
are dreffed, all the cuttings may be faved ; for almoft
March will be a good timeand the latter end of
March, if it be apt to prodfice over-rank binds, or the
every part will grow, and become a good fet the next beginning of April may be foon enough.
fpring.
As to the feafons of planting hops, the Kentifti
planters beft approve * the months of O&ober and
March, both which fometimes fucceed very well; but
the fets are not to be had in October, unlefs from
Von. VIII. Part II.
Then having with an iron picker cleared away all the
earth out of the hills, fo as to clear the flock to the
principal roots, with a ftiarp knife you muft cut off all
the ftroots which grew up with the binds the laft year;
and alfo all the young fuckers, that none be leffto run
4 M in
HOP [ 650 1 HOP
Hop*. Jn the alley, and weaken the hill. It will be proper
to cut one part of the ftock lower than the other, and
alfo to cut that part low that was left higheft the pre¬
ceding year. By purfuing this method you may expeft
to have ftronger buds, and alfo keep the hill in good
•order.
In dreffing thofe hops that have been planted the
year before, you ought to cut off both the dead tops
and the young fuckers which have fprung up from
the fets, and alfo to cover the Hocks with fine earth a
finger’s length in thicknefs.
The poling. About the middle of April the hops
are to be poled, when the (hoots begin to fprout up ;
the poles muft be fet to the hills deep into the ground,
with a fquare iron picker or crow, that they may the
better endure the winds; three poles are fufficient for
one hill. Thefe (hould be placed as near the hill as may
be, with their bending tops turned outwards from the
hill, to prevent the binds from entangling ; and a fpace
between two poles ought to be left open to the fouth
to admit the fun-beams.
The poles ought to be in length 16 or 20 feet,
more or lefs according as the ground is in llrength ;
and great care muft be taken not to overpole a young
or weak ground, for that will draw the ftock too much,
and weaken it. If a ground be overpoled, you are not
to expeft a good crop from it; for the branches which
bear the hops will grow very little till the binds have
over-reached the poles, which they cannot do when the
poles are too long. Two fmall poles are fufficient for
a ground that is young.
If you wait till the fproutsor young binds are grown
to the length of a foot, you will be able to make a bet¬
ter judgment where to place the largeft poles ; but if
you (lay till they are fo long as to fall into the alleys,
it will be injurious to them, becaufe they will entangle
one with another, and will not clafp about the pole
readily.
Maple or afpen poles are accounted the beft for
hops, on which they are thought to profper beft, be¬
caufe of their warmth ; or elfe, becaufe the climbing
of the hop is promoted by means of the roughnefs of the
bark. But for durability, affien or willow poles are pre¬
ferable ; but chefnut poles are the moft durable of all.
If after the hops are grown up you find any of
them have been under-poled, taller poles may be pla¬
ced near thofe that are too (hort to receive the binds
from them.
The tying. As to the tying of hops, the buds
that do not clafp of themfelves to the neareft pole
when they are grown to three or four feet high, muft
be guided to it by the hand, turning them to the fun,
whofe courfe they will always follow. They muft be
bound with withered rulhes, but not fo clofe as to hin¬
der them from climbing up the pole.
This you muft continue to do till all the poles are
furniffied with binds, of which two or three are enough
for a pole ; and all the fprouts and binds that you have
no occafion for, are to be plucked up ; but if the
ground be young, then none of thefe ufelefs binds
ftiould be plucked up, but (hould be wrapt up together
in the middle of the hill.
When the binds are grown beyond the reach of your
hands, if they forfake the poles, you (hould make ufe
of a ftand-ladder in tying them up.
Towards the latter end of May, when you have Hop*,
made an end of tying them, the ground muft have
the fummer dreffing: this is done by cafting'up with
the fpade fome fine earth into every hill; and a month
after this is done, you muft hoe the alleys with a
Dutch hoe, and make the hills up to a convenient
bignefs.
Gathering. About the middle of July hops begin
to blow, and will be ready to gather about Bartholo¬
mew Tide. A judgment may be made of their ripe*
nefs by their ftrong fcent, their hardnefs, and the
brownilh colour of their feed.
When by thefe tokens they appear to be ripe, they
muft be picked, with all the expedition poffible ; for if
at this time a ftorm of wind (hould come, it would do
them great damage by breaking the branches, and
bruifing and difcolouring the hops ; and it is very well
known that hops, being picked green and bright, will
fell for a third part more than thofe which are difco-
loured and brown.
The moft convenient way of picking them is into a
long fquare frame of wood, called a bin, with a cloth
hanging on tenter-hooks within it, to receive the hop*
as they are picked.
The frame is compofed of four pieces of wood join¬
ed together, fupported by four legs, with a prop at
each end to bear up another long piece of wood, pla¬
ced at a convenient height over the middle of the bin;
this ferves to lay the poles upon which are to be
picked.
This bin is commonly eight feet long, and three
feet broad; two poles may be laid on it at a time, and
fix or eight perfons may work at it, three or four on
each fide.
It will be beft to begin to pick the hops on the eaft
or north fide of your ground, if you can do it conve¬
niently ; this will prevent the fouth weft wind from
breaking into the garden.
Having made choice of a plot of the ground con¬
taining 11 hills fquare, place the bin upon the hill
which is in the centre, having five hills on each fide ;
and when thefe hills are picked, remove the bin into
another piece of ground of the fame extent, and fa
proceed till the whole hop-ground is finiffied.
When the poles are drawn up to be picked, yoit
muft take great care not to cut the binds tpo near the
hills, efpecially when the hops are green, becaufe it
will make the fap to flow exceffively.
The hops muft be picked very clean, i. e. free from
leaves and ftalks j and, as there (hall be occafion,
two or three times in a day the bin muft be emptied
into a hop-bag made of coarfe linen cloth, and carried
immediately to the oaft or kiln in order to be dried;
for if they (hould be long in the bin or bag, they will
be apt to heat and be difcokmred.
If the weather be hot, there fhould no more poles
be drawn than can be picked in an hour, and they
(hould be gathered in fair weather, if it can be, and
when the hops are dry ; this will fave fome expence ia
firing, and preferve, their colour better when they are
dried.
The crop of hops being thus bellowed, you are to.
take care of the poles againft another year, which are
beft to be laid up in a fhed, having firft dripped off the
haulm from them; but if you have not that conveni-
ency*
HOP [ 65l J HOP
Hops, ewcy, fet up three poles in the form of a triangle, or
■"> ■ fix poles (as you pleafe) wide at bottom ; and having
ftt them into the ground, with an iron picker, and
bound them together at the top, fet the reft of your
poles about them ; and being thus difpofed, none but
thofe on the outfide will be fubjeft to the injuries of
the weather, for all the inner poles will be kept dry,
unlefs at the top; whereas, if they were on the ground,
they would receive more damage in a fortnight than
fcy their Handing all the reft of the year.
Drying. The beft method of drying hops is with
charcoal on an oaft or kiln, covered with hair-cloth, of
the fame form and fafhion that is ufed for drying malt.
There is no need to give any particular direftions for
making thefe, fince every carpenter or bricklayer in
thofe countries where hops grow, or malt is made,
knows how to build them.
The kiln ought to be fquare, and may be of 10, 12,
14, or 16 feet over at the top, where the hops are
laid, as your plantation requires, and your room will
allow. There ought to be a due proportion between
the height and breadth of the kiln and the beguels of
the fteddle where the fire is kept, vm. if the kiln be
1 2 feet fquare on the top, it ought to be nine feet
high from the fire, and the fteddle ought to be fix feet
and a half fquare, and fo proportionable in other di-
menfions.
The hops muft be fpread even upon the oaft a foot
thick or more, if the depth of the curb will allow it;
but care is to be taken not to overload the oaft if the
hops be green or wet.
The oaft ought to be firft warmed with a fire before
the hops are laid on, and then an even fteady fire muft
be kept under them ; it muft not be too fierce at firft,
left it fcorch the hops, nor muft it be fuffered to fink
or flacken, but rather be increafed till the hops be
nearly dried, left the moirture or fweat which the fire
has raifed fall back or difcolour them. When they
have lain about nine hours they muft be turned, and in
two or three hours more they may be taken off the
oaft. It may be known when they are well dried by
the brittlenefs of the ftalks and the eafy falling off of
the hop leaves.
It is found by experience that the turning of hops,
though it be after the moft eafy and beft manner, is
not only an injury or watle to the hops, but alfo an ex¬
pence of fuel and time, becaufe they require as much
fuel and as long a time to dry a fmall quantity, by
turning them, as a large one. Now this may be pre¬
vented by having a cover (to be let down and raifed
at pleafure) to the upper bed whereon the hops lie.
This cover may alfo be tinned, by nailing Angle tin
plates over the face of it; fo that when the hops begin
to dry, and are ready to burn, i. e. when the greateft
part of their moifture is evaporated, then the cover may
be let down within a foot or lefs of the hops (like a
reverberatory), which will refleft the heat upon them,
fo that the top will foon be as dry as the lowermoft,
and every hop be equally dried.
Bagging. As foon as the hops are taken off the
kiln, lay them in a room for three weeks or a
month to cool, give, and toughen ; for if they are bag¬
ged immediately they will powder, but if they lie a
while (and the longer they lie the better, provided they
be covered clofe with blankets to fecure them from the
air) they may be bagged with more fafety, as not be- Hop*,
ing liable to be broken to powder in treading; and this ”■ * “
will make them bear treading the better, and the harder
they are trodden the better they will keep.
The common method of bagging is as follows : they
have a hole made in an upper floor, either round or
fquare, large enough to receive a hop-bag, which con-
fifts of four ells and a half of ell-wide cloth, and alfo
contains ordinarily two hundred and a half of hops; they
tie a handful of hops in each lower corner of the bag
to ferve as handles to it; and they fatten the mouth of
the bag, fo placed that the hoop may reft upon the
edges of the hole.
Then he that is to tread the hops down into the
bag, treads the hops on every fide, another perfon con*
tinually putting them in as he treads them till the bag
is full; which being well filled and trodden, they unrip
the faftening of the bag to the hoops, and let it down,
and clofe up the mouth of the bag, tying up a handful
of hops in each, corner of the mouth, as was done in
the lower part.
Hops being thus packed, if they have been well
dried, and laid up in a dry place, will keep good feve-
ral years ; but care muft be taken that they be neither
deftroyed nor fpoiled by the mice making their nefts
in them.
Produce. The charge of an acre of hop-ground in
moft parts of England where hops are cultivated, is
computed thus: three pounds for the hufrandry, four
pounds for the wear of the poles, five pounds for pick¬
ing and drying, one pound ten fliillings for dung, one
pound for rent, though in fome places they pay four or
five pounds an acre yeaily for the rent of the land, and
ten fliillings for tythe ; in all Liya year. The hop-
planters in England reckon that they have but a mo¬
derate return, when the produce of an acre of hops
does not fell for more than L.30. They frequently
have fifty, fixty, eighty, or a hundred pounds; and in
a time of general fcarcity confiderably more : fo that,
upon the whole, if the total charge of an acre of hops
is computed at fifteen pounds a year, and its average
produce at thirty pounds, the clear profit from an acre
will be fifteen pounds a year. But the plantation of
hops has lately fo much increafed, and the average
produce fo much exceeded the confumption, that hops
have been with many planters rather a lofing than a
very profitable article.
Ufet. In the fpting-time, while the bud is yet ten¬
der, the tops of the plant being cut off, and boiled, are
ate like afparagus, and found very wholefome, and ef-
feaual to loofen the body ; the heads and tendrils are
good to purify the blood in the feurvy, and moft cuta¬
neous difeafes ; deco&ions of the flowers, and fyrups
thereof, are of ufe againft peftilential fevers; juleps
and apozems are alfo prepared with hops for Irypo-
chondriacal and hyfterical affe&ions, and to promote
the menfes.
A pillow Huffed with hops and laid under the head,
is faid to procure fleep in fevers attended with a deli¬
rium. But the principal ufe of hops is in the brew¬
ery for the prefervation of malt liquors ; which by the
fuperaddition of this balfamic, aperient, and diuretic
bitter, become lefs vifeid, lefs apt to turn four, more
detergent, more difpofed'to pafs off by urine, and in
general more falubrious. They are faid to contain an
4 M 2 agreeable
HOP [ 65
Hops, agreeable odoriferous principle, which promotes the vi-
Hoie- nous fermentation. When flightly boiled or infufed
jn warm water, they increafe its fpirituofity.
Law relating to Hops. By 9 Anne, cap. I2f. an
additional duty of 3d a pound is laid on all hops im¬
ported, over and above all other duties ; and hops
landed before tntty and payment of duty, or without
warrant for landing, (hall be forfeited and burnt ; the
(hip alfo (hall be forfeited, and the perfon concerned in
importing or landing (hall forfeit 51. a hundred weight.
7 Geo. II. cap. 19. By 9 Anne, cap. 12. there (hall
be paid a duty of id. for every pound of hops grown
in G'eat Britain, and made fit for ufe, within fix
months after they are cured and bagged ; and hop-
grounds are required to be entered on pain of 40s. an
acre. Places of curing and keeping are alfo to be en¬
tered, on pain of 50I. which may be vifited by an offi¬
cer at any time without obittu&ion, under the penalty
of 20I. All hops (hall, within fix weeks after gather¬
ing, be brought to fuch places to be cured and bagg.ed,
on pain of 5 s. a pound. The re-bagging of foreign
hops in Britilh bagging for fale or exportation, incurs
a forfeiture of 10I. a hundred weight y and defrauding
the king of his duty by ufing twice or ofterier the fame
bag, with the officer’s mark upon it, is liable to a pe¬
nalty of 40I. The removal of hops before they have
been bagged and weighed, incurs a penally of 50I.
Concealment of hops fubjefts to the forfeiture of 20k
and the concealed hops; and any perfon who (hall pri¬
vately convey away any hops, with intent to defraud
the king and owner, (hall forfeit 5s. a pound. And
the duties are required to be paid within fix months
after curing, bagging, and weighing, on pain of double
duty, two-thirds to the king, and one-third to the in¬
former. No common brewer, &c. (hall ufe any bitter
ingredient fnfiead of hops, on pain of 20I. Hops
which have paid the duty may be exported to Ireland;
but by 6 Geo. II. cap. 11. there (hall be no drawback;
and by 7 Geo. II. cap. 19. no foreign hops (hall be
landed in Ireland. Notice of bagging and weighing
(hall be fent in writing to the officer, on pain of 50I.
G Geo. cap. 2 (. And by 14 Geo. III. cap. 68. the
officer (hall, on pain of 5I. weigh the bags or pockets,
and mark on them the true weight or tare, the planter’s
name, and place of abode, and the date of the year
in which fuch hops were grown ; and the altering or
forging, or obliterating fuch mark, incurs a forfeiture
of 10I.—The owners of hops (hall keep at their oafts,
&c. juft weights and fcales, and permit the officer to
ufe them on pain of 20I. 6 Geo. cap. 21.. And by
lo Geo. III. cap. 44. a penalty of icol. is infli&ed
for falfe fcales and weights. The owners are allowed
to ufe calks inftead of bags, under the fame regulations.
6 Geo. cap. 21. If any perfon (hall mix with hops
any drug to alter the colour or fcent, he (hall forfeit
51. a hundred weight. If any perfon (hall unlawfully
and malicioufly cut hop binds growing ©n poles in any
plantation, he (hall be guilty of felony without benefit
of clergy. 6 Geo. II. cap. 37. By a late adl, five
per cent, is added to the duties on hops.
HOPE (Dr John), profeffor of botany in the uni-
verfity of Edinburgh, was born at Edinburgh on the
10th of May 1725. Pie was the fon of Mr Robert
Hope a refpectable furgeon, whofe father, Lord Ran-
keilar, made a diftinguiffied figure as one of the fena-
2 ] HOP
tors of the college of juftice in the kingdom of Scot- t
land. By his mother he was defcended from the an- ”
cient family of Glafs of Sauchie in Stirlingihire. Af¬
ter fihifliing the ufual coqrfe of fchool education, he
entered to the univerfity of Edinburgh ; and having,
as it were, an hereditary predileftion for the healing-
art, his attention was foon particularly 'directed to that-
branch of fcience. Having finiffied his academical
education at Edinburgh, he vifited other medical-
fchools; and upon his return to his native country, he
obtained the degree of Doftor of Medicine from the
univerfity of Glafgow in the beginning of the year.
1750- A few months after that, he was admitted a
member of the royal college of phyficians in Edin¬
burgh, and entered upon the practice of medicine in
this city. After he had continued about ten years in
practice, difcharging the duties of his profeffion with
a degree of judgment^attention, and humanity, which
did him great honour; by the death of Dr Al¬
ikin the botanical chair in the univerfity became va¬
cant ; when Dr Hope, by a commilfion from his fove-
reign, dated the 13th of April 1761, was appointed
king’s botanift for Scotland and fuperintendant of the
royal garden at Edinburgh. A few weeks after this
he was ele&cd by the town-council of Edinburgh as
the fucceffor of Dr Alfton in the profeflbrffiips both of
botany and materia medica ; and thus he became one
of the members of the faculty of medicine in the uni¬
verfity. After he had continued for about fix years
to give regular courfes of lectures on thefe fubjefts,'
with no lefs credit to himfelf than benefit to his hear¬
ers, teaching the one branch during the fummer, and
the other during the winter months, he found that his
health was confiderably impaired ; which induced him
to form the refolution of refigning the materia medi¬
ca, and of afterwards folely confining his labours as a
teacher to his favourite fcience of botany. This refo¬
lution he carried into effect in the year 1768; and by
a new commiffion from his majefty, dated the 8th of
May, he was nominated regius profeffor ofmedicin;
and botany in the univerfity, and had the offices of
king’s botanift and fuperintendant of the royal garden
conferred upon him for life, which till that time had
been always granted during pleafure only.
Dr Hope’s predeceffor, although a learned and wor¬
thy man, could never obtain fufficient public funds for
the eftabliftiment of a proper botanical garden at Er
dinburgh ; and from the fituation as well as the ex¬
tent of the garden at that time, joined to the fmall-
nefs of its confervatories for plants, it could boaft of
no riches in the way of exotics. The only field for
Improvement, therefore, to the botanical ftudent, was
the environs of Edinburgh, to which it muft indeed be
allowed that nature has been uncommonly liberal, in
affording a very gteat variety of indegenous vegetables-
In this fituation, the eftabliftiment of a new garden na¬
turally fuggefted itfelf as a grand and important ob-
jedl; and it was accompliftied by the zeal and induftry
of Dr Hope, aided by the munificence of his prefent
majefty. The firft afiiftance given to the undertaking
was under the adminiftration of Lord Bute ; and af¬
terwards, under that of the duke of Portland, a per¬
manent fund for the fupport of the botanical garden at
this place was eftabliftied, which may render* it not in¬
ferior to any in Europe. Dr Hope’s unwearied ex-
4 ertions
.
HOP [ 653 ] HOP
Hope, ertions in procuring for the garden ■ the -vegetable pro-
—-v  dilutions of every climate, could not be exceeded. His
endeavoui s were cor^fiantly diredfed in adding not to
the fhow, but to the riches of the garden ; and they
were employed with'fuch fuccefs, that in a very flrort
time the intelligent botanift might gratify his curio-
fity, in contemplating the rareft plants of every coun¬
try which has yet been explored. Nor were his
induftiious exertions more afliduoufly bellowed in
forming and enriching the garden, than in cherilhing
and promoting a zeal for botanical lludies. From but
a very fmall number of le&ures, which were all that
his predeceffor ever gave, he gradually prolonged the
courfe till it became as complete as any one delivered
at this place; and during all this extended courfe, he
taught in fuch a manner, as clearly demonllrated a de¬
gree of ardour and enthuiiafm in himfelf, which could
hardly fail to infpire fimilar emotions in others. But
even fuch precept, and fuch example, were not the
only means he employed for diredting the attention of
the indullrious, ingenious, and laudably ambitious Un¬
dent, to this branch of fcience. By bellowing, entire¬
ly at his own expence, an annual gold medal, as a telli-
mony of fuperior merit, he gave a fpur to exertion,
from which the toils of Rudy were alleviated by the
love of fame, and the labours of induftry converted in¬
to the pleafures of emulation.
Dr Hope married the daughter of Dr Stevenfon
an eminent phyfician in Edinburgh; by whom he had
fo^r fons and one daughter. He died in November
L786. He was a member not only of the Royal So¬
ciety of London, but alfo of feveral foreign focieties ;
and at the time of his death he held the dillinguilhed
office of president of the royal college of phyficians.
Dr Hope, with whom it was a principal objedl to make
botany ft^fervient to the adls more immediately ufe-
ful to life, and particularly to medicine, was one of
the RrR who, in conjunftion with the late Sir Alex¬
ander Dick, turned his attention to the pradtical cul¬
tivation of rhubarb in Britain ; and he demonRrated
the facility with which it might be multiplied. He
lived to fee it cultivated in fuch abundance, that the
Britifh market was no longer under any neeeffity of
depending upon foreign climates for this valuable and
once expenfive medicine ; alfo he has ffiown, that the
ajafettda plant, by proper attention, not only bears the
viciffitudes of our climate, but grows in fuch a vigo¬
rous and healthful Rate as to be fully impregnated with
its adlive gum. There is therefore rtafon to hope,
that by the exertions of future induflry, the ffiop of the
apothecary may be fupplied with this article alfo from
his own garden. Befides being the author of fome
papers in the Philofophical Tranfadlions, particularly
two refpedling the ufeful plants juR mentioned, Dr
Hope had in contemplation a more extenfive botanical
work, on which he had beRowed much Rudy and re-
fledtion. It was his wiih to increafe thofe advantages
which refult from the very ingenious and ufeful arti¬
ficial arrangement of Linnaeus, by conjoining it with
a fyflem of vegetables diRributed according to their
great natural orders. For this purpofe, no inconfider-
able part of that time which he could fpare from other
unavoidable engagements was employed in attempts
to improve and perfedl natural method in the arrange¬
ment of vegetables. In this work he had made very
confiderable progrefs ;. and it muft be the fubjedl of Hope
fincere regret to every lover of botany, if from the II
event of his death the public ffiall be for ever deprived Hopper
of thofe fruits of his labours. ~t‘
Hope, in ethics, is the dtiire of fome good, attend¬
ed with a belief of the pofiibility, at kail, of obtaining
it, and enlivened with joy, greater orlefs, according to
the greater or lefs probability of our pofleffing the ob-
jedl of our hope. Alexander, preparing for his Allan
expedition, diRributed his hereditary dominions among
his friends; allotting to fome villages, to others bo¬
roughs,. to others cities; and being afeed what he
had referved for himfelf, replied, Hope.
Good-HoPE. See GooD-Hope.
HOPE A, in botany: A genus of the polyandria
order, belonging to the polydelpbia clafs of plants.
The calyx is quinquefid, fuperior; the corolla penta-
petalous; the Ramina are many and coalited int6 five
pencils; there is one Ryle ; the fruit is a plum with
a trilocular kernel. There is only one fpecies, the
tin&ora, a native of Carolina.
HOPKINS (Ezekiel), biffiop of Derry in Ireland,
was the fan of an obfeure clergyman in Devonffiire;
and was for fome time a chorilter of Magdalen coi-
lege, Oxford, and uffier of the adjoining fchool. He
was afterwards a Preffiyterian miniRer, and was ex¬
tolled as an excellent preacher. John, lord Roberts,
happening to hear him preach, was fo pleafed with
his perfon, his difeourfe, and his manner, that he re¬
tained him as his chaplain when he was fent in quali¬
ty of lord lieutenant into Ireland, and preferred him to
the deanery of Raphoe ; and on h;s being recalled, fo
Rrongly recommended him to his fucceflbr, that he was
foon preferred to the biffiopric at Raphoe, whence he
was tranflated to Derry. During the war under the
earl of Tyrconnel at the revolution, he withdrew in¬
to England; and was chofen miniRer of St Mary, Al-
dtrmanbury, in London, where he died in 1 690. His
fermons, his expofition of the ten commandments, and
that of the Lord’s prayer, are much eReemed. His
works were printed together in 17 lOy folio. He was
the father of Mr Charles Hopkins, feveral of whofc
poetical pieces are in Dryden’s Mifcellanies.
HOPLITES, Hopljt^e (formed of armour)t.
in antiquity, were fuch of the candidates at the Olym-
ptc and other facred games as ran races in armour.
One of the finefi pieces of the famous Parrhafius
was a painting which reprefented two hoplites ; the
one running, and feeming to fweat large drops ; the.
other laying his- arms down, as quite fpent and out
of breath.
HOPLITODROMOS (formed of armour,
and / ran), in the ancient gymnaftic fports, a
term applied to fuch perfons as went through thofe
toilfome and robufi exercifes in complete armour; by
which the exercife became much more violent, and the
wearing of armour in the time of battle much more
eafy.
HOPLOMACHI, (compofed of
armour, and IJight), in antiquity, were a fpe¬
cies of gladiators who fought in armour ; either com¬
pletely armed from head to foot, or only with a calk
and cuirafs.
HOPPER, a veflel wherein feed-corn is carried at
the time of fowing.
The
H O R [ 654 1 H O R
Hor The word is alfo ufed for that wooden trough in a lents foon made him known to Augudus and Meeae-
Horitius *nto t^ie corn *3 Put t0 t*6 ground. nas, who had a particular efteem for him, and loaded
111 _ \ HOR, a mountain, or mountainous traft of Arabia him with favours. Horace alfo contrafted a drift
Petraea, fituated in that circuit which the Ifraelites friendfhip with Agrippa, Pollio, Virgil, and all the
took to the fouth and fouth-eaft of Edom in their way other great men of his time. He lived without ambi-
to the borders of Moab: on this mountain Aaron tion, and led a tranquil and agreeable life with his
died. The inhabitants were called Horites. This traft friends ; but was fubjeft to a defluxion in his eyes,
was alfo called Seir, either from a native Horite, or He died at the age of 57. There are (till extant his
from Efau, by way of anticipation from his hairy Odes, Epiftles, Satires, and Art of Poetry; of which
habit of body ; whofe pofterity drove out the Ho- there have been a great number of editions. The
rites.
HORjE. See Hours.
HORJEA, in antiquity, folemn facrifices, confift-
ing of fruits, &c. offered in fpring, fummer, autumn,
bed are thofe of the Louvre, in 1642, folio; of Paris,
1691, quarto; of Cambridge, 1699; and that with
Bentley’s emendations, printed at Cambridge in 1711.
HORD, in geography, is ufed for a company of
and winter; that heaven might grant mild and wandering people, which have no fettled habitation,
temperate weather. Thefe, according to Meurfms, but ftroll about, dwelling in waggons or under tents,
were offered to the goddeffes called %«<> i. e. Hours, to be ready to fhift as foon as the herbage, fruit, and
who were three in number, attended upon the Sun, the prefent province, is eaten bare: fuch are feveral
prefided over the four feafons of the year, and had di- tribes of the Tartars, particulary thofe who inhabit
'vine worlhip paid them at Athens. beyond the Wolga, in the kingdom of Aftracan and
HORAPOLLO, or Horus Apollo, a gramma- Bulgaria,
rian of Panaplus in Egypt, according to Suidas, who A herd confifts of 50 or 60 tents, ranged in a cir-
iirft taught at Alexandria, and then at Conftantinople cle, and leaving an open place in the middle. The in-
under the reign of Theodofius. There are extant un- habitants in each hord ufually form a miliury company
der his name, two books on the hieroglyphics of the or troop, the eldeft whereof is commonly the captain,
Egyptians ; which Aldus firft publiflied in Greek in and depends on the general or prince of the whole na-
1505, in folio; and they have often been publifhed tion.
fmce, with a Latin verfion and notes. It is notcer- HORDEUM, barley, in botany: A genus of the
tain, however, that the grammarian of Alexandria digynia order, belonging to the triandria clafs of
was the author of thefe books; they being rather plants; and in the natural method ranking under the
thought to belong to another Horapollo of more an- 4th order, Gramina. The calyx is lateral, bivalved,
cient date: on which head, fee Fabrictus's Bibliotheca uniflorous, and triple. The involucrum confifts of fix
■Graca. leaves, and contains three flowers. There are eight
HORATII, three Roman brothers, who, under the fpecies; only one of which, viz. the murinum, or wall-
reign of Tullus Hoftilius, fought againft the three barley-grafs, is a native of Britain. The native place
Curiatii, who belonged to the Albanian army. Two of the vulgare, or common barley cultivated in our
of the Horatii were firft; killed ; but the third, by his fields, is not known. For the culture, &c. of common
addrefs, fucceffively flew the three Curiatii, and by barley, fee Agriculture, n° 139—146.
this viftory rendered the city of Alba fubjeft to the HORDICALIA, or Hordicidia, in antiquity, a
Romans. ."See Rome. religious feaft held among the Romans, wherein they
HORATIUS, furnamed Codes from his lofing an facrificed cattle big with young. This feaft fell on
eye in .combat, was nephew to the conful Horatius April 15. on which day they facrificed 30 cows with
Pulvillus, and defcended from one of the three bro* calf to the goddefs Tellus or the Earth ; part of them
thers who fought againft the Curiatii. Porfenna, were facrificed in the temple of Jupiter. The calves
laying fiege to Rome, drove the Romans from Janicu- taken out of their bellies were burnt to allies at firft by
Jum; and purfued them to the wooden bridge over the the pontifices, afterwards by the eldeft of the veftal
Tiber, which joined the city to Janiculum. Largius, virgins.
Herminius, and Horatius Codes, fuftained the fhock HOREB, or Oreb, a mountain of Arabia Petraea,
of the enemy on the bridge, and prevented their en- contiguous to and on the fouth fide of mount Sinai;
tering the city with the Romans ; but Largius and the fcene of many miraculous appearances.
Herminius having paffed the bridge, Horatius Codes HORESTI (Tacitus), a people of Britain, beyond
was left alone, and repulfed the enemy till the bridge Solway Frith. NowEJhlale (Camden),
was broken under him : he then threw himfelf armed HORITES, an ancient people, who at the begin-
i-nto the Tyber, fwam acrofs the river, and entered rung dwelt in the mountains of Seir beyond Jordan
Rome in triumph (Gen. xiv. 6.) They had princes, and were power-
Horatius (Quintus Flaccus), the moft excellent ful, even before Efau made a conqueft of their coun-
of the Latin poets of the lyric and fatirical kind, and try, (id. xxxvi. 20—3°‘). ^ Horites, the defcend-
the moft judicious critic in the reign of Auguftus, was ants of Seir, and the Edomites, feem afterwards to
the grandfon of a freedman, and was born at Venu- have been confounded, and to have compofed but one
fium 64 B. C. He had the beft mailers in Rome, people (Deut. ii. 2. xxxiii. 2. and Judg. v. 4.) They
after which he completed his education at Athens, dwelt in Arabia Petrsea, and Arabia Deferta, to the
Having taken up arms, he embraced the party of Bru- fouth-eaft of thepromifed land. We find the Hebrew
tus and Caflius, but left his ihield at the battle of Phi- word O'Tin Chorim, which in the book of Genefis is
lippi. Some time after, he gave himfelf up entirely tranflated Horites, to be ufed in an appellative fenfe in
to the fludy of polite literature and poetry. His ta- feveral other paffages of fcripture, and tofignify no¬
bles*
H O R C 655 1 H O R
Horchound bles, or great and powerful men (1 Kings xxi. 8, 11.
Ii and Neh. ii. 16. iv. 14. v. 7. vi. 17. vii. 5. xii. 17. Eccl.
Horizon x , Ifa.xxxiv. 12. Jer. xxvii. 20. xxxix. 6.) ; and it
ta1, J? ^ery probable that the Greeks derived from hence
W"”V their foms in like manner as they derived <dnax “ a
king,” from the fons of Anak, the famous giant in
Paleftine.
HOREHOUND, Ballota, in botany.
See Marrubium.
HORIZON, or Horison, in geography and aftro-
nomy, a great circle of the fphere, dividing the world
into two parts or hemifpheres; the on$ upper and
vitibie, the other lower and hid. The word is pure
Greek, which literally fignifies “ bounding or
terminating the fight j” being formed of Urm:-
no, definio, I bound, I limitwhence it Js alfo cal¬
led“ finilher.” See Astronomy and Geo-
craphy.
The horizon is either rational or fenfille.
Rational, true, or agronomical Horizon, which is al-
to called fimply and abfolutely the horixon, is a great
circle, whofe plane pafies through the centre of the
earth, and whofe poles are the zenith and nadir. It
divides the fphere into two equal parts or hemi¬
fpheres.
Senjille, ’vifille, or apparent Horizon, is a leffer cir¬
cle of the fphere, which divides the vifible part of the
fphere from the invifible. Its poles, too, are the ze¬
nith and nadir: and confequently the fenfible horizon is
parellel to the rational; and it is cut at right angles,
and into two equal parts, by the verticals.—The
ble horizon is divided into eajlern and wejlern. The
eajlern or ortive horizon, is that part of the horizon
wherein the heavenly bodies rife. The nvejlern or oc-
cidual horizon, is that wherein the ftars fet. The al¬
titude or elevation of any point of the fphere, is an
arch of a vertical circle intercepted between it and the
fenfible horizon.
By fenfible horixon is alfo frequently meant a circle ;
which determines the fegment of the furface of the
earth, over which the'eye can reach; called alfo the
phyftcal horizon. In- this fenfe we fay, a fpacious hori¬
zon, a narrow fcanty horixon.
HORIZONTAL, fomething that relates to the
horizon, is taken in the horizon, or on a level with
the horizon.—We fay, a horizontal plane, horizontal
line, &c.
Horizontal Dial, is that drawn on a parallel to the
horizon : having its gnomon, or ftyle, elevated accor¬
ding to the altitude of the pole of the place it is de-
figned for. Horizontal dials are, of all others, the
moft Ample and eafy. The manner of deferibing them,
£ee under the article Dial.
Horizontal Line, In perfpeftive, is a right line
drawn through the principal point, parallel to the ho¬
rizon : or, it is the interfe&ion of the horizontal and
perfpeftive planes. Sec Perspective.
Horizontal Plane, is that which is parallel to the
horizon of the place, or nothing inclined thereto.
The bufinefs of levelling is to find whether two
points be in the horizontal plane; or how much the
deviation is. See Levelling.
Horizontal Plane, ip perfpeftive, is a plane pa¬
rallel to the horizon, paffing through the eye, and cut¬
ting the perfpe&ive plane at right angles.
Horizontal Projection. See Geography, no 66, 69. Horlzon-
Horizontal Range, or Level Range, of a piece of .
ordnance, is the line it deferibes, when direfted paral-
lei to the horizon or horizontal line. See Gumnerv.
pajfun.
Horizontal Moon. See Astronomy, n’ 374.
Horizontal Speculum. See Speculum.
HORMINUM, clary, in botany : A genus of
the gymnofpermia order, belonging to the didynamia
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking^
under the 4 2d order, Verticillata. The calyx is cam-
panulated, with four fegments nearly equal, the fourth
larger, and emarginated ; the-upper lip of the corolla
concave. There are feveral fpecies; the moft remark¬
able of which is the verbenaceum, or common wild
clary. It grows naturally on fandy and gravelly ground
in many parts of Britain. It has fometimes been
called oculus Chrifli, from the fuppofed virtues of ita-
feeds in clearing the fight, which it does by its vifcou#
covering ; for when any thing happens to fall into the
eye, if one of the feeds is put in at one corner, and
the eyelid kept clofe over it, moving the feed gently
along the eye, whatever happens to be there will ftick
to it, and fo be brought out. The virtues of this are
fuppofed to be the fame as thofe of the garden clary,
but not quite fo powerful.
HORN, in phyfiology, a hard fubftance growing
on the heads of divers animals, particularly the cloven¬
footed quadrupeds; and ferving them both as weapons
of offence and defence.
The horn of animals is of the fame nature as their
gelatinous matter ; and is only that matter charged with
alefs quantity of water, and a larger quantity of earth,
and fufficiently condenfed to have a firm and folid con-
fiftence. By digefting horn with water in Papin’s di-
gefter, it may be entirely converted into jelly.
Horn is a perfe&Iy animalifed matter, and furnilhes
in diftillation the fame principles as all animal matters ;
that is, at firft a pure phlegm, with a degree of heat
not exceeding that of boiling water ; then a volatile
alkaline fpirit, which becomes more and more pene¬
trating and ftrong; a fetid, light, and thin oil; a con¬
crete volatile fait, which forms ramifications upon the
fides of the receiver ; much air; fetid oil, which be¬
comes more and more black and thick ; and laftly, it
leaves in the retort a confiderable quantity of aim oft
incombuftible coal, from which, after its incineration,
fcarcely any fixed alkali can be obtained.
Animal oil, and particularly that which is drawn firft
in the diftillation of Lorn, is fiifceptible of acquiring
great thinnefs and volatility by repeated diftiliationa,
and is then called the oil of dippel.
The horns of ftags, and of other animals of that
kind, are the moft proper to furnifh the animal oil to
be re&ified in the manner of dippel; hecaufe they yield
the largeft quantity. Thefe horns aifo differ from the
horns of other animals in this, that they contain a lar¬
ger quantity of the fame kind of earth which is in
bones; hence they feem to poffefs an intermediate nzr
ture betwixt hoins and bones.
Hart’s-HoRN. See Hart's-Horn.
Horns make a coniiderable article jn the arts and
manufactures. Bullocks horns, foftened by the fire,
ferve to make lanthorns, combs, knives, ink-horns, to¬
bacco-boxes, &c»
6
tlorii.
H O R [ 656 ] H O R
Dyewg bf Horn—Black is performed by fteepfng
brafs in aqua fortis till it be returned green : with this
the horn is to be waihed once or twice, and then put
into a warned decoftion of logwood and water. Green
is begun by boiling it, &c. in alum water ; then with
verdigrife, ammoniac, and white-wine vinegar ; keep¬
ing it hot therein till fufficiently green. Red is be^
gun by boiling it in alum-water, and finifhed by de-
co&ion in a liquor compounded of quick-lime ileeped
in rain water, drained, and to every pint an ounce of
Brazil-wood added. In this deco&ion the bone, &c.
is to be boiled till fufficiently red.
Dr Lewis informs us that horns receive a deep black
ilain from folution of filler. It ought to be diluted
to fuch a degree as not fenfibly to corrode the fubjedt ;
and applied two or three times, if necefiary, at confi-
derable intervals, the matter being expofed as much as
poffible to the fun, to haften the appearance and deep¬
ening of the colour.
Dyeing or Jlaining Horn to imitate Tortoife-Jbeil. ~^-
The horn to be dyed muft be firft preffed into proper
plates, fcales, or other flat form; and the following
mixture prepared. Take of quick-lime two parts, and
of litharge one part ; temper them together to the
confiftence of a foft pafte with foap-ley. Put this pafte
over all the parts of the horn, except fuch as arc pro¬
per to be left tranfparent, in order to give it a nearer
refemblance of the tortoife-fhell. The horn mwft re¬
main in this manner covered with the pafle till it be
thoroughly dry ; when, the pafte being brufhed off,
the horn wall be found partly opaque and partly tranf¬
parent, in the manner of tortoife-ftiell ; and w’hen put
over a foil, of the kind of latten called ajfidue, will be
fcarctly diftinguiffiable from it. It requires fome de¬
gree of fancy and judgment to difpofe of the pafte in
fuch a manner as to form a variety of tranfparent parts,
of different magnitudes and figures, to look like the
tffedl of nature : and it will be an improvement to add
femitranfparent parts ? which may be done by mixing
whiting with fome of the pafte to weaken its opera¬
tion in particular places; by which fpots of a reddifh
brown will be produced, which if properly interfper-
fed, efpecially on the edges of the dark parts, will
greatly increafe both the beauty of the work, audits
fimilitude with the real tortoife-fhell.
Horn is alfo a fort of mufical inftrument of the
wind kind ; chiefly ufed in hunting, to animate and
bring together the dogs and the hunters. The term
anciently was, wind a horn, all horns being in thofe
times compaffed ; but fince ftraight horns arc come in
■faihion, they fay blow a horn, and fometimes found a
There are various leffons on a horn ; as the re¬
cheat, double recheat, royal recheat, ruaning or fare¬
well recheat, &c. See Recheat.
The French horn is no other than a wreathed or
contorted trumpet. It labours under the fame defects
as the trumpet itfelf; but thefe have of late been fo
palliated, as to require no particular feledlion of keys
for this inftrument. In the beginning of the year
1773, a foreigner, named Spandau, played in a con¬
cert at the opera-houfe a concerto, part whereof was
in the key of C, with the minor-third ; in the perfor¬
mance of which all the intervals feemed to be as per-
fedl as in any' wind-inftrument. This improvement
was effe&ed by putting his right-hand into the bottom
N« 157.
or bell of the irfftrument', and attempering the founds
by the application of his fingers to different parts of
the tube.
The Hebrews made ufe of horns, formed of rams
horns, to proclaim the jubilee ; whence the name ju¬
bilee.
Cape- Horn. See Terra del Forgo.
HoRN-Beam, in botany. See Carpinus.
Horn-Bill, in ornithology. See Buceros.
Horn Blend, is a black or green indurated bole or
clay, confiding of fcaly particles, which are diftin-
gulfhable from thofe of mica, by being lefs fhinincq
thicker, and rectangular. It is generally found amongft
iron ores, and fometimes intermixed with mica, form¬
ing a compaft ftone.
Human-Horns. In Dr Charles Leigh’s" natural hi-
ftory of Lancaftiire, Cheffiire, and the Peak in Der-
byffiire, is the print of a woman with two horns on
her head. When (lie was 28 years of age an excre-
fcence grew upon her head like a wen, which conti
nued 30 years, and then grew into two horns. Aftei*
four years fhe caft them, and in their place grew' two
others. After four years fhe Caft thefe alfo ; and the
horns which were on her head in 1668 (the time when
the account was written) were then loofe. Her pic¬
ture and one of her horns are in Aftimole’s mufeum.
In the univerfity library at Edinburgh is preferved a
horn which was cut from the head of Elizabeth Love,
in the 50th year of her age. It grew three inches a-
bove the ear, and was growing feven years.
Horn Dijlemper, a difeafe incident to horned cattle,
affefting the internal fubftance of the horn commonly
called the pith, which it infenfibly waftes, and leaves
the horn hollow. The pith is a fpongy bone, the
cells of which are filled with an unftuous matter. It
is furnifhed with a great number of fmall blood veffels,
is ovctfpread with a thin membrane, and appears to be
united by futures with the bones of the head.—Ac¬
cording to an account of this diftemper, publifhed by
Dr Tofts in the Memoirs of the American Academy,
vol. i. the faid fpongy bone is fometimes partly, and
fometimes entirely, wafted. The Horn lofes its natural
heat, and a degree of coldnefs is felt upon handling
it. The diltemper, however, is feldom fafpe&ed with¬
out a particular acquaintance with the other fymp-
toms, which are a dulnefs in the countenance of the
bead, a fluggifhnefs in moving, a failure of appetite,
an inclination to lie down, and, when accompanied
with an inflammation of the brain, a giddinefs and
frequent toiling of the head. The limbs are fometimes
affe&ed with ftiffnefs, as in a rheumatifm j in cows
the milk often fails, the udder is hard, and in almoft
all cafes there is a fudden wafting of the fleih. As
foon as the diftemper is difcovered, an opening into
the difeafed horn fhould be immediately made •, which
may be done with a gimlet of a moderate fize, in fuch
a part of the horn as is moft favourable for the dif-
charge. It is recommended as moft prudent to bore
at firft two or three inches above the head. If it is
found hollow, and the gimlet paffes through to the
oppofite fide, and no blood difcharges from the aper¬
ture, it may be belt to bore ftill lower, and as near
the head as it ihall be judged that the hollowneis ex¬
tends. This opening is affirmed to be a neceffary
meafure, and often gives immediate relief. Care muft
bt
Horn.
H OP, L 657 1 H O R
6 Horn be taken to keep it clear, as it is apt'to be clogged by
II a thin fluid that gradually oozes out and fills up the
Horners pgflgge. Some have pra&ifed fawing off the horn ;
"" but, according to the belt obfervations, it does not
fucceed better than boring. From the cafes Dr Tufts
has feen, he is led to conclude that injections are in
general unnecefiary; that, when the dittemper is ea ly
difeovered, no more is required than a proper opening
into the horn, keeping it fufficiently clear for the ad-
miffion of frefh air, the removal of the compreflion,
and the difeharge of floating matter. But when the
diftemper has communicated its effeCts to the brain, fo
as to produce a high degree of inflammation, it is
much to be doubted whether any method of cure will
fucceed.
HoRN-Fifh, Gar-Ji/h, or Sea-Needle. See Esox.
Horn-Work, in fortification, an outwork compofed
of two demi-baftions joined by a curtain. See For-ti-
| FICATION.
HORNBY, a town of Lancafhire in England,
feated on a branch of the river Lune, and beautified
with a handfome parochial chapel. The ruins of a
decayed caftle are ttill to be feen here. W. Long. 2.
20. N. Lat. 54. 6.
HORN-castle, a town of Lincolnlhire in Eng¬
land. It had a caftle, as the name imports; from the
architecture of which, and the Roman coins that are
fometimes dug up here, it is thought to have been a
camp or ftation of the Romans. The town is well
built, and is almoft furrounded with water. It is a
figniory of 13 lordfhips. In thefe lordfhips there are
feveral chapels for the convenience of the inhabitants,
who are at too great a diftance from the mother-church,
and pretty numerous. It has a market on Saturdays,
and fairs in June and Auguft.
HORNDON, a town of EfTex, in En land. It
Hands near a rivulet, that at a fmall diftance from
hence falls into the Thames, which is there called the
Hope. E. Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 51. 20.
HORNECK (Dr Anthony), a learned and pious
divine, was born at Baccharach, in the Lower Pala-
| tinate, in 1641. He ftudied divinity under Dr Span-
feeim at Heidelberg ; and afterwards coming to Eng¬
land, completed his ftudies at Oxford, and became vi¬
car of Allhallows in that city. In 1665, he removed
into the family of the duke of Albemarle ; and was
tutor to his grace’s fon, then lord Torrington. The
duke prefented him to the reCIory of Doulton in De-
vonfhire, and procured for him a prebend in Exeter.
He was afterwards chofen preacher of the Savoy. In
1693, he was collated to a prebend in Weftminller,
and the fame year admitted to a prebend in the cathe¬
dral of Wells. He publiftied, 1. The great law of
confideration. 2. The happy afcetick. 3. Delight
and judgment. 4. The fire of the altar. 5. The ex-
ercife of prayer. 6. The crucified Jefus. 7. Several
fermons, and other works. He died in 1696, and
was interred in Weftminfter abbey, where a monument
is erefted to his memory.
HORNE KS, thofe people whofe bufinefs it is to
prepare various utenfils of the horns of cattle. The
horners were a very ancient and confiderable fraterni¬
ty in the city of London fome hundred years ago. In
the reign of Edward II. they complained to parlia¬
ment, that by foreigners buying up the horns in Eng-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
land, they were in danger of being ruined, and this Hornet
bufinefs loft to the nation. For this reafon was made II
the ftatute 6 Edw. IV. by which the fale of horns to Hornpipe,
foreigners (except fuch as the faid horners refufed)
was prohibited; and the wardens had power granted
them to fearch all the markets in London and 24 miles
round, and to infpeft Sturbridge and Ely fairs, to pre¬
vent fuch pra&ices, and to purchafe horns at ftated
prices. But on plaufible pretences this law was re¬
pealed in the reign of James I. and thereupon the old
evil revived. The horners again applied to parlia¬
ment, and king Edward’s ftatute was renewed (excep¬
ting as to the infpeftion of the fairs), and ftill remains
in force. The importation of unwrought horns into
this country is alfo prohibited. In 1750, there were
exported to Holland 514,500 lantern-leaves, beiides
powder flafks. There was formerly a duty of 20 (hil¬
lings a thoufand, under which in 1682 were exported
76,650 ; but in the reign of George I. this duty was
taken off, and thefe and all other manufa&ures made
of horns may be exported free. The prefent company
of horners were incorporated January 12. 1638; and
confift of a mafter, two wardens, and nine afliftants,
without livery or hall. They have a warehoufe in
Spitalfields, to which the horns are fent as brought
from town and country markets, and thence regularly
divided, the widows and orphans of deceafed members
having equal (hares.
HORNET, in zoology, a fpecies of wafp. See
Vespa.
HORNING, in Scots law, a writing iffuing from
the fignet, in his majefty’s name, at the inftance of a
creditor againft his debtor, commanding him to pay
or perform within a certain time, under pain of being
declared rebel, and by a caption put in prifon.
HORNIUS (George), profeffor of hiftory at Ley¬
den, was born in the Palatinate, and died at Leyden
in 1670. He was a little maniacal towards the end
of his life; which diforder was fuppofed to be occa-
fined by the lofs of 6coo florins he had entrufted with
an alchemift at the Hague. His works are, 1. Hiftona.
Ecclejiaflica ad an. 1666. This has been well efleemed.
2. l)e Originibus Jtmerlcanis, 1652, 8vo. 3. -Geogra-
phia Vit us is" Nova. 4. Or bis Politicus. He was a
man of vaft reading, rather than greet parts.
HORNSEY, a town in Yorkftiire, 188 miles from
London. It is almoft furrounded by a fmall arm of
the fea ; and the church having a high fteeple, is a noted
fea-mark. Not many years ago there was aftreet here
called Hornjey beck, which was waftied away by the fea
except a houfeor two. E. Long. o. 6. N. Lat 54. 0/
Hornsey, a town of Middlcfex, five miles north
of London. It is a long draggling place, fituated in
a low valley, but extremely pleafanr, having the new-
river winding through it. Its church, of which High-
gate is -a hamlet, is fuppofed to be built with the Hones
that came from Lodge-Hill, the' biflrop of London’s
hunting-feat in his park here ; it having been his ma¬
nor from the moft ancient times. About a mile nearer
this is a coppice of young trees, called Hornfey-wood,
at the entrance of which is a public houfe, to which
great numbers of perfons refort from the city. This
houfe being fituated on the top of a hill, affords a de¬
lightful profpeft of the neighbouring count!y.
HORNPIPE, a common inftrument of mufie in
4 N Wales,
H O R [65
H'jrolo Wales, confiding of a wooden pipe, with holes at fta-
ginm, te(j (];ftances> a!1d a horn at each end ; the one to col-
. orc'CQi'c left the wind blown into it by the mouth, and the
" ' other to carry off the founds as modulated by the per¬
former.
Hornpipe is alfo the name of an Engliih air, pro¬
bably derived from the above inftrument. The mea-
fure of this air is triple time, with fix crotchets in a
bar ; four of which are to be beat with the hand down
and two up.
, HOROLOGIUM, Ofo\oyi^ (compofed of upa hora,
“ time, hour,” and “ fpeech, difcourfe”), a
common name among ancTent writers for any inflrument
or machine for meafuring the hours ; (fee Chronome-
ter).— Such are our clocks, watches, fun-dials, 3ce.
See Clock, Watch, Dial, and Clepsydra.
Modern inventions, and gradual improvements, have
given birth to fome new terms that come properly urn
der this head, and annexed new meanings to others
totally different from what they had originally. All
chronometers that announced the hour by finking on
a bell, were called clods: thus, we read of pocket-
clocks, though nothing could feem more abfurd than
to fuppofe that a clock, according to the modern idea,
fhould be carried in the pocket. In like manner, all
clocks that did not ftrike the hour were called luatcbes
or time pieces; and the different parts of a ftriking clock
were diilinguifhed by t!)e watch part and the clock-
part ; the former meaning that part which meafures
the time, and the latter the part which proclaims the
the hours. In the report of Sir Ifaac Neivton to the
houfe of commons, anno 171?, relative to the longi
rude a&, he ftates the difficulties of afcertaining the
longitude by means of a watch: yet it is obvious, from
feveral circumftances, that his remarks were dire&ly
to be underftood of a time-piece regulated by a pen¬
dulum ; for his obje&ions are founded on the known
properties of the pendulum, fome of which differ ef-
fentially from the properties of the balance and fpring.
It is alfo to be remembered, that all the attempts of
Huygens for finding the longitude were by means of
pendulum clocks that did not ftrike the hour, and con-
fequently, according to the language of the times, were
called watfc-tar. At this timefuch machines for mea-
furing time as are fixed in their place are called clocks,
if they ftrike theliour : if they do not ftrike the hour,
they are called time-pieces ; and when conftrudled with
more care, for a more accurate meafure of time, they
are called regulators. Some artifts of late have affected
to call fuch watches as were conftru&ed for aftrono-
mical and nautical obfervations by the name of time¬
pieces, probably to intimate that they poffefs the ad¬
vantages of thofe conftrutled with a pendulum.
Mr John Harrifon firft gave the name of time-keeper
to his watch, for the performance of which he teceived
from parliament the furm of L. 20,000. See Longi-
tude.
For the account of the principles of this machine,
fee Time-keeper. And for the chief improvements
that have been made for the more accurate meafure of
time, fee Pallets, Pendulum, and Scapement.
HOROSCOPE, in aftrology, the degree or point
of the heavens rifing above the eaftern point of the ho¬
rizon at any given time when a prediction is to be
made of a future event; as, the fortune of a perfon
8 ] H O II
then born, the fuecefs of a defign then laid, the wes- fWfrop;
ther, &c. The word is compofed of "fa hdra, “ hour,” II
and the verb o-xorro^ai, fpedo, conjidcro, “ I coniider.” Horfie‘i
They were formerly fo infatuated with horofcopes, '
that Albert us Magnus, Cardan, and others, are fail
to have had the temerity to draw that of Jefus Chrift.
Horoscope is alfo ufed for a fcheme or figure of
the twelve houfes ; i. e. the twelve figns of the zodiac>
wherein is marked the difpofition of the heavens for
any given time. Thus we fay, to draw a horofcope,
conftruCI a hdrofcope, &c. We call it, more peculiar¬
ly, calculating a nativity, when the life ami fortune of
a perfon are the fubjcd of the prediction ; for they
draw horofcopes of cities, great enterprizes, &C. See
House.-
HOROSCOPY. See Donation, n° 2.
HORREA, in Roman antiquity, were public roa-
‘gazines of corn and fait meat, out of which the fol- <
diers were furnifhed on their march in the military-
roads of the empire. Horfea was alfo the name which
they gave to their granaries.
HORROX (Jeremiah), an eminent Engliffi aftro-
nomer in the 17th century, was born at Texteth near
Liverpool in Lancafhire in 1619. He died, to the
great lofs of that fcience and of the world, in the
23d year of his age, after he had juft finithed his Ve¬
nus in foie vifa ; which, with fome other works, were
publiffied by Dr Wallis, in quarto.
HORROR, ftriCtly fignifies fuch an excefs of fear
as makes a perfon tremble. See Fear, Fright, and
Terror. In medicine, it denotes a fhivering and
ffiakirtg of the whole body, coming by fits. It is com¬
mon at the beginning of all fevers, but is particularly
remarkable in thufe of the intermittent kind.
Horror of a Vacuum, was an imaginary principle
among the ancient philofophers, to which they aferibed
the afeent of water in pumps, and other fimilar phe¬
nomena, which are now known to be occafioned by
the weight of the air.
HORSE, in zoology. See the article Equus.
Horfes were very rare in Judaea till Solomon’s time.
Before him we find no horfemen mentioned in the ar¬
mies of Ifrael. David having won a great battle
againft Hadadezer king of Shobah (2 Sam. viii. 4, 5.),
took 1700 hoi fes, and lamed all belonging to the cha¬
riots of war, referving only too chariots. The judges
and princes of Ifrael ufed generally to ride on mules
or affes. After David’s time, horfes were more common
in the country of Judah, &c. Solomon is the firft king
of Judah who had a great number of horfes, and he
kept them rather for pomp than for war; for we da •
not read that he made any military expeditions. He
had, fays the feripture (1 Kings iv. 26.) 40,000 flails
of horfes for his chariots, and 12,000 horfemen diftri-
buted in his fortified places (t Kings x. 26.) He had his
horfes from Egypt [ibid. ver. 28, 29.) ; and there was
not a fet which did not coft him more than 600 ftie-
kels, which make of our money about 901. Moles
bad forbidden the king of the Hebrews to keep a
great number of horfes (Deut. xvii. 16 ), left at any¬
time he fhoutd be inclined to carry the people back
into Egypt.
We read in the fecond book of Kings (xxiii. 17.),
that Jofiah took away the horfes which the kings of
Judah his predeceflbrs had confecrated to the fun. We
know
H O R [ 659 j IT O R
: Horfe. knov^ the fun was worfhipped over all the eaft, and
  that the horfe, the fwifteft of tame beads, was confe-
| crated to this deity, who was reprefented as riding in
a chariot drawn by the moft beautiful and fwifteft
horfes in the world, and performing every day his
journey from ealt to weft, in order to communicate bis
light to mankind. Xenophon defcribes a folemn fa-
cnhce of horfes, which was made with ceremony to
the fun : they were all the flneft fteeds, and were led
with a white chariot, crowned, and confecrated to the
fame god. We may believe that the horfes which Jo*
liah removed out of the court of the temple. Were ap¬
pointed for the like facrifices. The rabbins inform
us, that thefe horfes were every morning put to the
chariots dedicated to the fun, whereof there is men¬
tion made in the fame book; and that the king, or
fome of his officers, got up and rode to meet the fun
in its riling, as far as from the eaftern gate of the
temple to the fuburbs of Jerufalem. Others are of
opinion, that the horfes mentioned in the book of
kings were of wood, ftone, or metal, ere&ed in the
temple in honour of the fun : Others, that they were
horfes which none were permitted to ride or fallen to
the yoke, but were free, and left to themfelves, like
thofe which Julius Csfar let loofe and fet at liberty af¬
ter his paffage of the Rubicon.
Horfes were ufed both amongft the Greeks and Ro¬
mans in war, but were not originally very numerous}
for as each horfeman provided his own horfe, few
would be able to bear the expence. Horfes for a con-
fiderable time were managed by the voice alone, or by
a fwitch, without bridle, faddle, or ftirrups. Their
liarnefs was fkins of beads, or fometimes cloth, Both
horfes and men amongft the Greeks underwent a fe-
vere probation before their admiflion into the cavalry,
—Horfe-racts were common amongft the Greeks and
Romans, and the place where they ran or breathed
their courfers was called hippodromus.
Management of a House upon and after a Journey. See
that his Ihoes be not too ftrait, or prefs his feet, but
be exactly ftiaped ; and let him be fhod fome days be¬
fore you begin a journey', that they may be fettled to
his feet.
'port'mans Obferve that he is furnifhed with a bitt proper for
'iUtionury him, and by no means too heavy, which may incline
him to carry low, or to reft upon the hand when he
grows weary, which horfemen call making ufe of hisfifth
leg.
The mouth of the bitt (hotild reft upoh his bats
albout half a fin'ger’s breadth from his twfhes, fo as not
to make him frumhle his hJ)S} the curb Ihould reft in
the hollow of his beard a little above the chin ; and if
it gall him, you muft defend the place with a piece of
buff or other foft leather.
Take notice that the faddle do hot reft upon his
withers, reins, or back-bone, and that one part of it
do not prefs his back more than another.
Some riders gall a horfe^s fides below the faddle with
their ftirrup-leathers, efpecially if he be lean; to hin¬
der it, you fhould fix a leather ftrap between the
points of the fore and hind-bows of the faddle, and
make the ftitrup-leather pafs over them.
Begin your journey with ihort marches, efpecially
if your horfe has not been exercifed for a long time :
(ofter him to ftale as often as you find him inclined ;
and not only fo, but invite him to it: but do not ex- Horfe,
cite your mares to dale, becaufe their vigour will be v—
thereby diminifhed.
It is advifable to ride very foftly, for a quarter or
half an hour before you arrive at the inn, that the
horfe not being too warm, nor out of breath, when
put into the liable, you may unbridle him : but if
your bufinefs obliges you to put on fharply, you muft
then (the weather being warm) let him be walked in
a man’s hand, that he may cool by degrees; other-
wife, if it be very cold, let him be covered with cloths,
and walked up and down in fome place free from wind;
but in cafe you have not the conveniency of a fheltered
walk, liable him forthwith, and let his whole body be
rubbed and dried with ftraw.
Although fome people will have their horfes legs
rubbed down with ftraw as foon as they are brought
into the liable, thinking to fupple them by that
means ; yet it is one of the greateft errors that can be
committed, and produces no other effefts than to draw
down into the legs thofe humours that are always ftir-
red up by the fatigue of the journey : not that the
rubbing of horfes legs is to be difallowed; on the con¬
trary, we highly approve of it, only would not have
it done at their firit arrival, bu*t when they are per-
fetlly cooled.
Being come to your inn, as foon as your horfe ia
partly dried, and ceafes to beat in the flanks, let him
be unbridled, his bit waflied, cleanfed, and wiped, and
let him eat his hay at pleafure.
If your horfe be very dry, and you have not given him
Water on the road, give him oats walhed in good mild
ale.
The dull and fand will fometimes fo dry the tongues
and mouths of horfes, that they lofe their appetites i
in fuch cafe, give them bran well moiftened with wa¬
ter to cool and refrelh their mouths 5 or wafh their
mouths and tongues with a wet fpuftge, to oblige them
to eat.
The foregoing directions are to be obferved after
moderate riding ; but if you have rode exceflively hard,
unfaddle your horfe, and ferape off the fweat with a
fweating-knife, or feraper, holding it with both
hands, and going always with the hair; then rub his
head and ears with a large hair-cloth, wipe him alfo
between the fore-legs and hind-legs; in the mean
while, his body fftould be rubbed all over with ftraw,
efpecially under his belly and beneath the faddle, till
he is thoroughly dry.
That done, fet on the fiiddle again, cover him; and
if you have a warm place, let him be gently led up and
down in it, for a quartet- of an hour ; but if not, let
him dry where he (lands.
Or you may unfaddle him immediately ; ferape off
the fwcat; let the oftler take a little vinegar in his
mouth, and fquirt it into the horfe’s; then rub his
head, between the fore and hind-legs, and his whole
body, till he is pretty dry: let him not drink till
thoroughly'cool and has eaten a few oats ; for many,
by drinking too foon, have been fpoiled. Set the
faddle in the fun or by a fire, in order to dry the.pan-
ftels.
When horfes are arrived in an inn, a man fhould,
before they are unbridled, lift Up their feet, to fee
whether they want any of their fhoes, or if thofe they
4 N 2 have
Horfe.
H O R 660 1 H
have do not refl upon their fidesj afterwards he (hould
pick and clear them of the earth and gravel, which may
be got betwixt their fhoes and foies.
If you water them abroad, upon their return from
the river caufe their feet to be flopped with cow-
dung, which will eafe the pain therein ; and if it be in
the evening, let the dung continue in their feet all
night, to keep them foft and in good condition : but
if your horfe have brittle feet, it will be requifite to
anoint the fore-feet, at the on-fetting of the hoofs,
with butter, oil, or hog’s-greafe, before you water
him in the morning, and in dry weather they fhould be
alfo greafed at noon.
Many horfes, as foon as unbridled, inftead of eat¬
ing, lay themfelves down to reft, by reafon of the
great pain they have in their feet, fo that a man is apt
to think them lick : but if he looks to their eyes, he
will fee they are lively and good; and if he offers them
meat as they are lying, they will eat it very willingly ;
yet if he handles their feet, he will find them extreme¬
ly hot, which difcovers their fuffering in that part.
You muft therefore fee if their fhoes do not reft upon
their foies, which is fomewhat difficult to be certainly
known without unfhoeing them ; but if you take off
their fhoes, then look to the infide of them, and you
may perceive that thofe parts which reft upon the
foies are more fmooth and fhining than the others :
in this cafe you are to pare their feet in thofe parts,
and fix on their fhoes again, anointing the hoofs, and
flopping the foies with fcalding hot black pitch or
tar.
After a long day’s journey, at night feel your
borfe’s back, if he be pinched, galled, or fwelled (if
you do not immediately difcover it, perhaps you may
after fupper), there is nothing better than to rub it
with good brandy and the white of an egg. If the
galls are between the legs, ufe the fame remedy ; but
if the oilier rubs him well between the legs, he will fel-
dom be galled in that part.
In order to preferve horfes after travel, take thefe
few ufeful inftruClions. When you are arrived from a
journey, immediately draw the two heel-nails of the
fore-feet; and, if it be a large fhoe, then four: two
or three days after, you may blood him in the neck,
and feed him for 10 or 12 days only with wet bran,
without giving him any oats; but keep him well lit¬
tered.
The reafon why you are to draw the heel-nails, is
becaufc the heels are apt to fwell, and if they are not
thus eafed, the fhoes would prefs and flraiten them
too much : it is alfo advifable to flop them with cow-
dung for a while ; but do not take the fhoes off, nor
pare the feet, becaufe the humours are drawn down by
that means.
The following bath will be very ferviceable for pre-
ferving your horfe’s legs. Take the dung of a cow
or ox and make it thin with vinegar, fo as to be of
the confiftence of thick broth; and having added a
handful of fmdl fait, rub his fore-legs from the knees,
and the hind-legs from the gambrels, chafing- them
well with and againft the hair, that the remedy may
fink in and flick to thofe parts, that they may be all
covered over with it. Thus leave the horfe till morn¬
ing, not wetting his legs, but giving him his water that
evening in a pail: next morning lead him to the ri¬
ver, or wafh his legs in well-water, which is very good,
and will keep them from fwelling.
Thofe perfons, who, to recover their horfes feet,
make a hole in them, which they fill with moiftened
cow dung, and keep it in their fore-feet during the
fpace of a month, do very ill; becaufe, though the
continual moiflure that iffues from the dung occafions
the growing of the hoof, yet it dries and ffirinks it fa
exceffively when out of that place, that it fplits and
breaks like glafs, and the foot immediately ftraitens.
For it is certain, that cow-dung (contrary to the opi¬
nion of many people) fpoils a horfe’s hoof: it does in¬
deed moiften the foie; but it dries up the hoof, which is
of a different nature from it. In order, therefore, tore-
cover a horfe’s feet, inftead of cow-dung, fill a hole
with blue wet clay, and make him keep his fore-feet
in it for a month.
Moll horfes that are fatigued, or over-rid, and made
lean by long journeys, have their flanks altered without
being purfy, efpectally vigorous horfes that have work¬
ed too violently.
There is no better method to recover them, than to
give each of them in the morning half a pound of ho¬
ney very Well mingled with fealded bran ; and when
they readily eat the half pound, give them the next
time a whole one, and afterwards two pounds, every
day continuing this courfe till your horfes are empty,
and purge kindly with it; but as foon as you perceive
that their purging ceafes, forbear to give them any
more honey.
You may adminifter powder of liquorice in the
fealded bran for a confiderable time ; and to cool their
blood, it will not be improper to let them have three
or four gliders. *
In cafe the horfe be very lean, it is expedient to
give him fome wet bran, over and above bis propor¬
tion of oats; and grafs is alfo extraordinary beneficial,
if he be not purfy.
If it_be a mare, put her to a horfe; and if (he never
had a foal before, it will enlarge her belly.
Sometimes exceffive feeding may do horfds more
harm than good, by rendering them fubje£t to the
farcy. You fiiould therefore be cautious in giving
them too great a quantity at a time, and take a little
blood from them now and then.
When a horfe begins to drink water heartily, it is a
certain fign that he will recover in a ftiort time. As to
the method of giving him water during a journey, ob-
ferve the following rules :
All the while you are upon a journey, let your horfe
drink of the firft good water you come to,, after feven
o’clock in the morning if it be in fummer-time, and
after nine or ten in winter.
That is accounted good water which is neither too
quick and piercing, nor too muddy and ftinking.
This is to be done, unlefs you would have him gallop
along time after drinking; for if fo, you muft forbear. .
Though it is the cuftom of England to run and
gallop horfes after drinking, which we call watering-
courfes, to bring them (as they fay) into wind; yet, fays
M. de Solleyfel, it is the moft pernicious pradlice that
can be imagined for horfes, by which many are ren¬
dered purfy.
While a horfe is drinking, draw up his head five or
fix times, making him move a little between every
draught ;
HOR [66il HOR
Hotfe. draught; and notwhhftanding he be warm, and fweat and in a fuitable place, proportioned to the number of Hcrfe.
L'-V”-' very much, yet if he is not quite out of breath, and mares and ftallions intended to be ufed. This fpot 'r~m
you have ftill four or five miles to ride, he will be bet- mult be divided into feveral parts, inclofed with rails
ter after drinking a little, than if he had drank none or ditches well fenced; in the part where the pafture
at all : it is true, indeed, that if the horfe is very is the richeft, the mares in fold, and thofe with colts
warm, you Ihould, at coming out of the water, redouble by their lides, are to be kept. Thofe which are not
your pace, to make him go at a gentle trot, to warm impregnated, or have not yet been covered, are to be
the water in his belly. feparated, and kept with the fillies in another clofe.
You ought to let him drink after this manner du- where the pafture is lefs rich, that they may not grow
ring the whole time of your journey; becaufe, if when too fat, which would obftrudt the progrefs of genera-
you happen to bait he be hot or fweaty, you muft tion. Lalily, the young Hone colts or geldings, are
not let him drink for a long time, as it would en* to be kept in the drieft part of the fields, and where
danger his life ; and when his bridle is taken of, his the ground is moft unequal; that by running over the
excelfive thirft will hinder him from eating, fo that he uneven furface, they may acquire a freedom in the mo-
will not offer to touch his meat for an hour or two, tion of their legs and fhouldeis. This clofe, where the
which perhaps your occafions will not allow you for ftone colts are kept, muft be very carefully feparated
a baiting time, and not to have any food will render from the others, left the young horfes break their
him unfit for travel. bounds, and enervate themfelves with the mares. If
If you meet with any ford before you come to your the traft be fo large as to allow of dividing each of
inn, ride the horfe through it two or three times, but thefe clofes into two parts, for putting oxen and horfes
not up to his belly: this will only cleanfe his legs ; into them alternately, the pafture will laft much lon-
but the coldnefs of the water will bind up the hu- ger than if continually eaten by horfes; the ox impro-
mours, and prevent them from defcending. ving the fertility, whereas the horfe leflens it. In each
If your horfe has been very warm, and you have of thefe clofes Ihould be a pond ; Handing water being
not had the conveniency of watering him upon the better than running, which often gripes them : and if
road, he will, when unbridled, eat but very little ; there are any trees in the ground, they ftiould be left
therefore he Ihould have his oats given him walked in Handing, their fliade being very agreeable to the horfes
ale or beer, or only fome of them, if you intend to feed in great heats; but all Items or ftumps Ihould be grub-
him again after he has drank. bed up, and all holes levelled, to prevent accidents. In=
Some are of opinion, that horfes are often fpoiled thefe paftures your horfes Ihould feed during the fum-
by giving them oats before their water; becaufe they mer ; but in the winter the mares fhould be kept iir
fay the water makes the oats pafs too foon, and out the liable and fed with hay. The colts alfo muft be
of the ftomaeh undigefted. But M. de Solleyfel af- houfed, and never fuffered to feed abroad in winter,
firms, that though it be the common cuflom not to do except in very fine weather. Stallions that Hand’ in the'
it till after, yet it is proper to feed with oats both liable Ihould be fed more with ftraw than hay ; and:
before and after, efpecially if the horfe be warm, and moderately exercifed till covering time, which gene-
has been hard rode; for they will be a great deal the rally lafts from the beginning of April to the end of
better for it, and in no danger of becoming fick. June. But during this feafon they Ihould have no-
BufTons Breeding of Horses. When the llallion is chofen, other exercife, and be plentifully fed, but with the fame
flat, Hijl. and all the mares intended for him are colledled toge- food as ufual. Before the ilallion is brought to the
ther, there muft be another Hone-horfe, to difeover mare, he Ihould be dreffed, as that will greatly in-
which of the mares are in heat; and, at the fame time, creafe his ardour. The mare mull alfo be curried, and-
contribute to inflame them. All the mares are to be have no fhoes on her hind feet, fome of them being
brought fuccefiively to this ftone-horfe ; which Ihould ticklilh, and will kick the ftallion. A perfon holds
alfo be inflamed, and fuffered frequently to neigh. As the mare by the halter, and two others lead the ftallion'
he is for leaping every one, fuch as are not in heat keep by long reins ^ when he is in a proper fituation, ano-
him off, whilft thofe which are fo fuffer him to ap- ther afliftant carefully direfts the yard, pulling afide
proach them. But inftead of being allowed to fatisfy the mare’s tail, as a Angle hair might hurt him dan-
his impulfe, he muft be led away, and the real ftallion geroufly. It fometimes happens that the llailion does'
fubftituted in his Head. This trial is neceffary for af- not complete the work of generation, coming from the
certaining the true time of the mare’s heat, efpecially mare without making any injedtion : it Ihould: there¬
of thofe which have not yet had a colt; for with re- fore be attentively obferved, whethef,. in the laft mo-
gard to fuch as have recently foaled, the heat ufually ments of the copulation, the dock of the llallions tail
begins nine days after their delivery; and on that very has a vibrating motion; for fuch a motion always ac-
day they maybe led to the ftallion to be covered ; and companies the emillion of the feminal lymph. If he
nine days after, by the experiment above mentioned, has performed the adl, he muft on no confideration be
it may be known whether they are ftill in heat. If fuffered to repeat it; but be lead away diredUy to the
they are, they muft be covered a fecond time ; and liable, and there kept two days. For, however able a
thus fuccefiively every ninth day while their heat con- good ilallion may be of covering every day daring the
tinues: for when they are impregnated, their heat three months, it is much better to let him be led to a-
abates, and in a few days ceafes entirely. mare only every other dayhis produce will be greater,.
But that every thing may be done eafily and con- and he himfelf lefs exhaufted. During the firft fevem
veniently, and at the fame time with fuccefs and days, let four different mares be fuccefiively brought to.
advantage, great attention, expence, and precaution him ; and the ninth day let the firft be again brought,,
are requifite. The Hud maft be fixed in a good foil, and fo fucceflively while they continue in heatbut as
foam
H O R 662 1 H O R
foon as the heat pf any one is over, a fi eih mare is to
be put in her place, and covered in her turn every nine
days; and as feveral retain even at the firft, fecond, or
third time, it is computed that a ftallion, by fuch ma¬
nagement, may, during the three months, cover 15 or
18 mares, and beget io or 12 colts. Thefe animals
have a very large quantity of the feminal lymph j fo
that a conlrderable portion of it is (bed during the
emiflion. In the mares likewife is an emiffion, or ra¬
ther dillillation of the feminal lymph, during the whole
time they are horling; ejedling a vifcid whitilh lymph,
called the /.’faij, which ceafe on .conception. This
ichor the Greeks called hippomarics; and pretended
that philtres might be made of it, one remarkable ef-
ftft of which was, to render a horfe frahtic with lull.
This hippornanes is very different from that found in
the fecundines of the foal, which M. Daubenton firff
difcovered, and has fo accurately defcribed its nature,
origin, and fituation. The ejeftion of this liquor is
the mod certain fign of the mare’s heat; but it is alfo
known by the inflation of the lower part of the vulva,
by her frequent neighings, and attempts to get to the
horfes. After being covered, nothing more is requi-
fite than to lead her aVvay to the field. The ftrjt foal
of a mare is never fo ftrongly formed as the fucceed-
ing ; fo that care fhould be taken to procure for her,
the fifft time, a larger itallion, that the defedf of the
growth may be compenfated by the largenefs of the
fize. Particular regard (hould alfo be had to the dif¬
ference or' congruity of the fafliion of the ffallion and
the mare, in order to correft the faults of the one by
the perfe&ions of the other s cfpeeially never to make
any difproportionate copulations, as of a fmall horfe
with a large mare, or a large horfe with a fmall
mare ; as the produce of fuch copulation would be
fmall, or badly proportioned. It is by gradations that
we muff endeavour to arrive at natural beauty : for
inftance, to give to a mare a little too clumfy, a well-
made horfe and finely fhaped; to a fmall mare, a horfe
a little higher ; to a mare which is faulty in her fore¬
hand, a horfe with an elegant head and noble chell,
8cc.
It has been obferved, that horfes fed in dry and light
grounds, produce temperate, fwift, and vigorous foals,
with mufcular legs and a hard hoof; while the fame
bred in marflies and moift paftures have produced
foals with a large heavy head, a thick carcafe, clumfy
legs, bad hoofs, and broad feet. Thefe differences pro¬
ceed from the air and food, which is eafily underftood;
but what is more difficult to be accounted for, and Hill
more effential than what we have hitherto obferved, is,
to be continually croffing the breed to prevent a dege*
neracy.
In coupling of horfes, the colour and fiae fltould be
fuited to each other, the lhape contratled, and the breed
croffed by an oppofition of climates: but horfes and
mares foaled in the fame ftud fliould never be joined,'
Thefe are effential articles; but there are others which
fhould by no means be negle&ed t as that no fhort-
docked mares be fuffered in a ftud, becaufe from their
being unable to keep off the flies, they are much more
tormented by themthan others whichhave a longfweep-
ing tail; and their continual agitations from the flings
of thefe infe&s, oecafions a diminution in the quantity
of their milk, and has a great influence on the conftitu-
tion and fize of the colt, which will be vigorous in pro¬
portion as its dam is a good nurfe. Care mull alfo be
taken, that the ftud mares be fuch as have been always
brought up in paftures, and never overworked. Mares
which have always been brought up in the liable on
dry food, and afterwards turned to grafs, do not breed
at firlt; fome time is required for accuftoming them to
this new aliment.
Though the ufual feafon for the heat of mares be
from the beginning of April to the end of June, yet
it is not uncommon to find fome among a large num¬
ber that are in heat before that time : but it is ad-
vifable to let this heat pafs over without giving them
to the ftallion, beeaufe they would, foal in winter ; and
the colts, belides the inclemency of the feafon, would
have bad milk for their nourilhment. Again, if
the mares are not in heat till after the end of June,
they Ihould not be covered that feafon; becaufe the colts
being foaled in fummer, have not time for acquiring
flrength fufficient to repel the injuries of the following
winter.
Many, inftead of bringing the ftallion to the mare,
turn him loofe into the clofe, where all the mares are
biought together ; and there leave him to ehoofe fuch
as will (land to him. This is a very advantageous me¬
thod for the mares : they will always take horfe more
certainly than in the other $ but the Itallion, in fix
weeks, will do himfelf mote damage than in feveral
years by moderate exercife, conduced in the manner'
we have already mentioned.
When the mares are pregnant, and their belly be¬
gins to fwell, they mutt be feparated from thofe that
are not, left they hurt them. They ufually go 1 1 months
and fome days ; and foal Handing, whereas moft other
quadrupeds lie down. Thofe that cannot foal without
great difficulty, mutt be affilted; the foal mutl be placed
in a proper fituation ; and lometimes, if dead, drawn
out with cords. The head of the colt ufually prefenta
itfelf firft, as in all other animals: at its coming out of
the matrix, it breaks the fecundines or inteourrients
that inclofe it, which is accompanied with a great flux
of the lymph contained in them; and at the fame time
one or more folid lumps are difcharged, formed by the
fediment of the infpiffated liquor of the allantoides.
This lump, which the ancients called the hippomanes of
the teh, is fo far from being, as they imagined, a mafs
of fleffi adhering to the bead of the colt, that it is fe¬
parated from it by a membrane called amnois. As
foon as the colt is fallen, the mare licks it, but with¬
out touching the hippomanes ; which points out ano¬
ther error of the ancients, who affirmed that ftie in-
ftandy devours it.
The general eullom is to have a mare covered nine
days after hef foaling, that no time may be loft ; but
it is certain, that the mare having, by this means, both
her prefent and future foal to nourifh, her ability is
divided, and Are cannot fupply both fo largely as fhe
might one only. It would therefore be better, in ordef
to have excellent horfes, to let the mares be covered
only every other year; they would laft the longer, and
bring foals more certainly : for, in common rtuds, it is
fo far from being true that all mares which have been
covered bring colts every year, that it is confidered
II O R [ 6(53 ] HO R
Horfe, as a fortunate circumftaBce if half or at moll two a moderate .computation of 70 lb. each, will amount Hv-if*.
thirds of them foal. to 910 lb. Nothing is fo efitntial to the health of ’ v-”*
Mares, when pregnant, will admit of copulation ; thefe fervictable creatures as cleanlinefs j if they are
but it is never attended with any fuperfeetation. They fed ever fo well, and not kept clean, they will be fub-
ufually breed till they are 14 or 15 years of age ; and je61 to numerous difeafes.
the moft vigorous till they are above 18. btallions, The fervant who has the care of them ought to be
when well managed, will engender till the age of 20, up very eariy, and to clean the racks and mangers
and evert beyond ; but it mail be obferved, that fuch from all filth. The Currying of them ought to be care*
horfes as are foonetl made flallions, are alfo the fooneit fully performed every morning, but not in the liable.
incapable of generation : thus the large horfes, which,
acquire ftrength fooner than the flender, and are there¬
fore often ufed as llallions. as foon as they are four
years old, are incapable 0f generation before they are
fixteen.
Gelding of Houses. See Gelding.
Hearing of Horses. See Colt.
Uraught-HoRSE, in farming, a fort of coarfe-made
borfe deftined for the fervice of the cart or plough. In
the choice of thefe horfes for what is called the flow
draught, they are to be chofen of an ordinary height;
for otherwife, when put into the cart, one draws un¬
equally with the other. The draught-horfe Ihould be
large bodied and ftrong loined, and of fuch a difpo-
fition, as rather to be too dull than too brilk, and ra¬
ther to crave the whip than to draw more than is need¬
ful. Mares are the fitteft for this ufe for the farmer,
as they will be kept cheap, and not only do the work,
but be kept breeding, and give a yearly incrcafe of a
foal. They fhould have a good head, neck, brealt, and
Ihoulders; for the t ell of the lhape, it is not of much
confequence. Only, for breeding, the mare fhould have
a large belly ; for the more room a foal has in the dam,
the better proportioned it will be. Draught-horfes
fhould be always kept to that employ. Some put
them to the faddle on occafian, but it does them great
harm, alters their pace, and fpoils them for labour. The
draught horfe ought to have a large broad head, be-
caufe horfes of this lhaped head are lefs fubjedl than
ethers to difeafes of the eyes. The ears Ihould be
fmall, Hraight and upright; the nollrils large and open,
that he may breathe with the more freedom. A horfe
with a full and bold eye always promifts well. On the
other hand, a funk eye and an elevated brow are bad
figns. The horfe is efteemed fitted for this purpofe
alfo, that has a large and round buttock, which nei¬
ther finks down nor cuts. He mud have a firm and
ftrong tail, and the dock mud be thick and well furn-
ifhed with hair, and placed neither very high nor very
low. The legs Ihould be rather flat and broad than
round : the roundnefs of the leg being a fault in a
horfe dellined to labour that will foon ruin him. As
to the hinder legs, the thighs Ihould be flelhy and
long, and the whole mufcle which Ihows itfelf oti the
outiide of the thigh fhould be large and very thick.
No country can bring a parallel to the fize and llrength
of our horfes dedined for the draught. In London
there are indances of Angle'horfes that are able to
draw on a plain, for a fmall fpace, the weight of three
tuns, and which can with eafe, and for continuance,
draw half that weight. The pack horfes of Yorkfhire
ufually carry a burden of 420 lb. over the bighed hills
of the north, as well as the mod level roads : but the
mod remarkable proof of the drength of our Britifll
horfes is derived from that of our mill horfes ; fome
of which will at one load carry 13 meafures, which at
5
for the dud to fall upon the other hotfes, £8 it is too
often done. After the horfes are duded, they (houlcf
daily twid a whifp of draw hard up, and wetting it
in water, rub the legs, Ihoulders and body with it.
Many of the difeafes of draught-horfes, which are not
owing to naftinefs, are owing to bad water ; fuch as
are two raw, too muddy, or too cold, being all im¬
proper. If there be any running ftream in the neigh¬
bourhood, they fhould always be led to that to water
every day in fumnier, but in winter, w^ell-water is
warmifh, and is better for them. If there be a necef-
fity of giving them well-water in fummer, it mud be
drawn up fome hours before the time, and txpofed to
the fun-beams in tubs or troughs; marfh-water or that
of lowland ditches is word of all. When the labour¬
ing horfe has drank his water, he fhould have his oats
given him, and thefe fhould be carefully fifted, and
the manger duded fird. It is a common pradice, as
foon as a horfe is come in from his work, to rub down
his legs with a hard whifp of hay; but the bed judges
of horfes abfolutely condemn this, and obferve, that
this rubbing of the legs after hard labour brings down
humours into them, and makes them did.
The rubbing itfelf is wholefome, but the doing it
when the creature is hot is the mifehief; while a horfe
is in a fweat it is a great relief and refrefhment to him
to have his body rubbed down, but when he is cold is
the proper time to rub his legs. The racks are to be
well fupplied with hay, and the horfes fhould be left
to red and eat, about two hours, and then led to wa¬
ter ; after this their oats fhould be given them, and
they fhould then go to work again.
In the evening, when the labour of the day is over,
the fird thing to be done is to examine the feet, and
fee if any thing is amifs about the fhoes, and what
earth or gravel is lodged in the foot, between the fho*
and the foie, is to be picked out and fome frefh cow-
dung put in its place, which will cool and refrefli the part.
A very material thing for the prefervation of all forts
of cattle, but of none fo much as draught-hoffes, is
frefh and clean litter.
Horse-Chef nut. See JEsculus, and Hippocasta-
num.
Horse-Guards. See Guards.
Horse-Hunting. See Hunter.
Horse Meafure is a rod of box to Aide out of a
cane, with a fquare at the end, being divided into
hands and inches to meafure the height of horfes.
Horse- Mufck. See Mytulus.
Ract Horse. See Racing.
HuRSE-Radifh. See Cochlearia.
HoRSE-Shoe, a cover or defence for the foie of
a horfe’i foot. See Farriery, p 167.
HoRssfhoe head, a difeafe in infants, wherein the
futures of the fkull are too open, or too great a vacui¬
ty is left between them ; fo that the aperture fhall not
bet
H O R [ 664 ] H O R
be totally clofed up, or the cranium in that part not be <5
fo hard as the reft for fome years after. This open-
nefs is found to be increafed upon the child’s catching
cold. When the difeafe continues long, it is repu¬
ted a fign of weaknefs and fhort life. In this cafe,
it is ufual to rub the head now and then with warm
rum or brandy, mixed with the white of an egg and
palm-oil. Sometimes the diforder arifes from a col-
leftion of waters in the head called an hydrocephalus.
Stone-HoRSE. See Stallion.
Horse Tail. See Eq^uisetum and Ephedra.
HoRSE-Vetch. See Hippocrepis.
War-Horse. The proper rules for choofing ahorfe
for fervice in war, are thefe : he ihould be tall infta-
ture, with a comely head, and out fwelling forehead.
Hiseyethould be bright and fparkling, and the white
part of it covered by the eye brow. The ears fhould
be fmall, thin, thort, and pricking ; or if long, they
Ihould be moveable with eafe, and well carried. The
neck fhould be deep, and the breaft large and fwelling.
The ribs bending, the chine broad and ftraigftt, and
the buttocks round and full. The tail fhould be high
and broad, neither too thick nor too thin ; the thigh
fwelling; the leg broad and flat, and the paftern fhort.
When fuch a horfe is chofen, he muft be kept high du¬
ring the time of his teaching, that he may be full of
vigour. His food muft be fweet hay, and good clean oats,
or two parts of oats and one part of beans or peafe,
well dried and hardened. The quantity fhould be half
a peck in the morning, and the fame quantity at noon
and in the evening. Upon his refting days he is to be
drefled between five and fix in the morning, and water¬
ed at feven or'eight. In the evening he is to be dreffed
at four, and watered about five, and he muft always
have provender given him after watering ; he muft: be
littered about eight, and then muft have food gi¬
ven him for all night. The night before he is ridden
all his hay is to be taken away about nine o’clock, and
he muft have a handful or two of oats about four in
the morning : when he has eaten thefe, he is to be
turned upon the fnaffle, and rubbed very well with dry
cloths; then faddled, and made fit for his exercife.
When he has performed this, he is to be brought
■fvveating into the liable, and rubbed down with dry
wifps. When this has been done, the faddle is to be
taken off, and he is to be rubbed down with dry cloths ;
the houfing cloth is then to be laid on; and the faddle
being again laid on, he is to be walked gently about
♦ ill thoroughly cool. After this, he muft ftand with¬
out meat two or three hours, then he muft be fed ; and
in the afternoon he is to be rubbed and dreffed as be¬
fore, and watered in the ufual manner.
Horse Worm, in natural hiftory, a fpecies of fly-
worm called alfo bolt, produced of eggs depofited by a
two-winged fly of the fhape and fize of the humble
bee in the inteftines of horfes. See Botts.
River-HoRSE, in zoology. See Hippopotamus.
Horse is alfo ufed in the military language, to ex-
prefs the cavalry 5 or the body of foldierswho ferve on
horfeback.
The horfe includes horfe guards, horfe grenadiers,
and troopers. Dragoons are alfo frequently compre¬
hended under this name, though they fight on foot:
of thefe there are now 18 regiments ; befides three re-
N°i57-
ciments of dragoon-guards railed in 1685. See Gra- Horfe.
nadieE., Dragoons, and Guards. —-v—-
Majler of the Horse. See Master.
Light-HoRSE, are regiments of cavalry, mounted on
light fwift horfes, whofe men are fmall and lightly ac¬
coutred. They were firft raifed in 175:7. The deno¬
mination arofe hence, that anciently they were lightly
armed, in comparifon of the royal guards, which were
armed at all points.
Hungarian Horse. See Hussars.
Horse is alfo a term ufed in various arts and manu-
faftories, for fomething that helps to fuftain their
work from the ground, for the more commodious
working at it.
The horfe ufed by tanners and Ikinners, alfo called
the leg, is a piece of wood cut hollow and roundiftr,
four or five feet long, and placed aflope ; upon which
they pare their ikins td get off the dirt, hair, flefti, &c.
Horse is alfo ufed in carpentry, for a piece of wood
jointed acrofs two other perpendicular ones, to fuftain
the boards, planks, &c. which make bridges over fmall
rivers ; and on divers other occafions.
Horse, in fea language, is the name of a rope reach¬
ing from the middle of a yard .to its extremity, or what
is called the yard-arm, and depending about two or
three feet under the yard, for the failors to tread upon
whilft they are loofing, reefing, or furling the fails, rig¬
ging out the ftudding-fail booms, &c. In order, there¬
fore, to keep the horfe more parallel to the yard, it is
ufually fufpended to it at proper diftances, by certain
ropes called ftirrups, which hang about two feet under
the yard, having an eye in their lower ends through
which the horfe paffes.
House is alfo a thick rope, extended in a perpendi¬
cular diredlion near the fore or after-fide of a maft, for
the purpofe of hoifting or extending fome fail upon it.
When it is fixed before a maft, it is calculated for the
ufe of a fail called the fquare-fail, whofe yard being at¬
tached to the horfe, by means of a traveller or bull’s
eye, which Aides up and down occafionally, is retained
in a fteady petition ; either when the fail is fet, or
whilft it is hoifting or lowering. When the horfe is
placed abaft or behind a maft-, it is intended for the
try-fail of a fnow, and is accordingly very rarely fixed
in this pofition, except in thofe floopsof war which oc¬
cafionally affume the form of fnows, in order to de¬
ceive the enemy.
Horse is alfo a cant name introduced into the ma¬
nagement of lotteries, for the chance or benefit of a
ticket or number for one or more days, upon condi¬
tion, if it be drawn a prize within the time covenanted
for, of returning to the feller an undrawn ticket.— J'o
determine the value of a horfe ; multiply the amount
of the prizes in the lottery by the time the horfe is hi¬
red for; and from the produft fubtraft the amount of
the number of prizes by the value of an undrawn tic¬
ket into the time of the horfe : the remainder being
divided by the number of tickets into the whole time of
drawing, the quotient is the value of the horfe. See
Lottery.
HoRSE-Bread. See Bread.
HoRSR-.Dung, in gardening, is of great ufe in ma¬
king hot-beds, for the railing all forts of early crops ;
as fallading, cucumbers, melons, afparagus, &c. for
x which
r 66* i
iRorfe. tvliitli piffpofes bo ot’ner kinds of dung will do fo well.
—V—' Horfe dung ferments the ftrongefl;; and if mixed with
-Jitter and fea-coal afhes in a due proportion, will con¬
tinue its heat much longer than any other fort of dung
•vvhatfoever: and afterward, when rotted, becomes an
excellent manure for moft farts of land; more efpe-
cially for fuch as are of a cold nature. For ftilf clayey
land, horfe dung mixed with fea-coal alhes, and the
'-cleanfing of ftreets, will caufe the parts to feparate
much fooner than any other compoft; fo that where
it can be obtained in plenty, it is always to be recom¬
mended for fuch lands. -See Dung.
Animated HotiS-ffairs, a term ufed to exprefs a fort
of long and {lender water-worm, of a blackifh colour,
and fo much refembling a horfe-hair, that it is gene¬
rally by the vulgar fuppofed to be the hair fallen from
a horfe’s mane into the water as he drinks, and there
animated by fome ftrange power. Dr Lifter has at
large confuted this abfurd opinion in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaftions.
/foRSE-Hair Worms. See Amphisb^na.
HoRSB-Horing Hujbandry. See Agriculture, n®
318.
Hoife.
H ORSEMANSH
I P;
Or, The Art of Riding, and of Training and Managing, Horses.
. T. The Method of preparing Horfet to be
y—.. mounted.
THOUGH all herfes are generally bought at an
age when they have already been backed, they
fhould be begun and prepared for the rider with the
fame care, gentlenefs, and caution, as if they had ne¬
ver been handled or backed, in order to prevent acci¬
dents, which might elfe arife from {kittilhnefs or other
caufes : and as it is proper that they fhould be taught
the figure of the ground they are to go upon when
they are at firft mounted, they fhould be previoufly
trotted in a lotjge on circles, without any one upon
them.
^“embfoi * The manner of doing this is as follows; Put an eafy
’ifre&iom caveJfon uPon the horfe’s nofe, and make him go for¬
wards round you, Handing quiet and holding the
longer and let another man, if you find it needfary,
follow him with a whip. All this muft be done very
gently, and but a little at a time : for more horfes are
fpoiled by overmuch work, than by any other treat¬
ment whatever; and that by very contrary effedls;
for fometimes it drives them into vice, madnefs, and
defpair, and often ftupifies and totally difpirits them.
The firft obedience required in a horfe is going for¬
wards ; till he perform this duty freely, never even
think of making him rein back, which would inevi¬
tably make him reftive: as foon as he goes forwards
readily, flop and carefs him. You muft remember in
this, and likewife in every other exercife, to ufe him
to go equally well to the right and left; and when he
obeys, carefs him and difmifs him immediately. If a
horfe that is very young takes fright and ftands Hill,
lead on another horfe before him, which probably will
induce him inftantly to follow. Put a fnaffle in his
mouth ; and when he goes freely, faddle him, girting
-him at fnft very lorofe. Let the cord, which you
hold, be long and loofe ; but not fo much fo as to
endanger the horfe’s entangling his legs in it. It muft
be obferved, that fmall circles, in the beginning, would
conftrain the horfe too much, and put him upon de¬
fending himfelf. No bend muft be required at firft;
never fuffer him to gallop falfe; but whenever he at¬
tempts it, flop him without delay, and then fet him
oft afrefh. If he gallops of his own accord, and true,
permit him to continue it j but if he does it not volun-
Vol.VIII. Part II.
tarily, do not demand it of him at firft. Should he of r,a.c‘ni?
fly and jump, fhake the cord gently upon his nofe |the Rl^cr*<
without jerking it, and he will fall into his trot again. -
If he ftands ftill, plunges, or rears, let the man who
holds the whip make a noife with it; but never touch
him till it be abfolutely neceflary to make him go on.
When you change hands, Hop and carefs him, and en¬
tice him by fair means to come up to you : for by pre¬
senting yourfelf, as fome do, on a fudden before hor¬
fes, and frightening them to the other fide, you run
a great rifle of giving them a (hynefs. If he keeps his
head too low, {hake \)c\e caveffon to make him raife 115
and in whatever the horfe does, whether he walks,
trots, or gallops, let it be a conftant rule, that the
motion be determined, and really fuch as is intended,
without the Icaft {huffing, pacing, or any other irre¬
gular gait.
Sect. II The Method of placing the Rider and
rendering him firm on Horfeback, with fome oc-
cafional In fir unions for Riders and the Horfes.
It is neceffary that the greateft attention, and the
fame gentlenefs that is ufed in teaching the horfes,
be obferved likewife in teaching the rider, efpecially
at the beginning. Every method and art muft be
pra&ifed to create and preferve, both in man and
horfe, all poffible feeling and fenfibility; contrary to
the ufage of moft riding-mafters, who feeminduftrioufly
to labour at aboliihing thefe principles both in the one
and the other. As fo many effential points depend
upon the manner in which a man is at firft placed on
horfeback, it ought to be confidered and attended to
with the ftri&eft care and exatftnefs.
The abfurdity of putting a man, who perhaps has
never before been up®n a horfe, on a rough trotting
horfe, on which he is obliged to ftick with all the
force of his arms and legs, is too obvious to need men¬
tioning. This rough work, all at once, is plainly as
detrimental at firft, as it is excellent afterwards in pro¬
per time. No man can be either well or firmly feated
on horfeback, unlefs he be mafter of the balance-of
his body, quite unconftrained, with a full poflTefiion
of himfelf, and at his eafe ; none of which requifites
can he enjoy, if his attention be otherwife engaged;
as it muft wholly be in a raw, unfuppled, and un-
4 O prc.
666 H O R S E M
0£pte*irg prepared lad, who is put at once upon a rough horfe ;
the Rider. -H fucj1 a ,3iftrefsful ftate, he is forced to keep himfelf
- " V"1 on at any rate, by holding to the bridle (at the ex-
pence of the fenfibility both of his own hand and the
horfe’s mouth), and by clinging with his legs, in
danger of his life, and to the certain depravation of a
right feeling in the horfe.
The firft time a man is put on horfeback, it ought
to be upon a very gentle one. He never Ihould be
made to trot, till he is quite eafy in the walk; nor
gallop, till he is able to trot properly. The fame mail
be obferved in regard to horfes; they fliould never be
made to trot till they are obedient, and their mouths
are well formed on a walk, nor be made to gallop,
till the fame be effefted on a trot. When he is ar¬
rived at fuch a degree of firmnefs in his feat, the more
he trots, and the more he rides rough horfes, the bet¬
ter. This is not only the beft method, but alfo the
eafieft and the fhorteft: by it a man is foon made fuffi-
ciently an horfeman for a foldier: but by the other
deteflable methods that are commonly ufed, a man,
inftead of improving, contrails all forts of bad habits,
and rides worfe and worfe every day; the horfe too
becomes daily more and more unfit for ufe. In pro¬
ceeding according to the manner propofed, a man is
rendered firm and eafy upon the horfe, both his own
and the horfe’s fenfibility is preferved, and each in a
fituation fit to receive and praftife all leffons effec¬
tually.
Among the various methods that are ufed of pla¬
cing people on horfeback, few are direfted by reafon.
Before you let the man mount, feach him to know,
and always to examine, if the curb be well placed,
(that is, when the horfe has a bit in his mouth, which
at firft he fticuld not; but only a fnaffle, till the rider
is firm in his feat, and the horfe alfo fomewhat taught):
likewife to know if the nofe-band be properly tight;
the throat-band loofilh; and the mouth piece neither
too high nor too low in the horfe’s mouth, but right¬
ly put fo as not to wrinkle the fkin nor to hang lax ;
the girts drawn moderately, but not too tight; and
the crupper and the breaft-plate properly adjufted.
A very good and careful hand may venture on a bit at
firft, and fucceed with it full as well as by beginning
with a fnaffle alone; only colts, indeed, it is better, in
all fchools whatfoever, to avoid any preffure on the
bars juft at firft, which a curb, though ever fo deli¬
cately ufed, muft in fome degree occafion. When
the bridle, &c. have been well looked to, let the man
approach the horfe gently near the fhoulder; then
taking the reins and an handful of the mane in his left
hand, let him put his foot foftly in the left ftirrup, by
pulling it towards him, left he touch the horfe with
his toe; then raffing himfelf up, let him reft a moment
on it with his body upright, but not ftiff; and after
that, paffing his right leg clear over the faddle without
rubbing againft any thing, let him feat himfelf gently
down. He muft be cautious not to take the reins too
fhort, for fear of making the horfe rear, run, or fall
back, or throw up his head; but let him hold them of
an equal length, neither tight nor flack, and with the
little finger betwixt them. It is fit that horfes fliould
fee accuftomed to ftand ftill to be mounted, and not to
Air till the rider pleafes. All foldiers (hculd be in-
A N S H I P. Sea.IX
ftru&ed to mount and difmount equally well on both Of placing
fides, which may be of great ufe in times of hurry and the Ruler
confufion. Then place the man in his faddle, with 'l
his body rather back, and his head held up with eafe,
without ftiffnefs; feated neither forwards, nor very
backwards; with the breaft puftied out a little, and
the lower part of the body likewife a little forwards ;
the thighs and legs turned in without conftraint,
and the feet in a ftraight line, neither turned in nor
out. By this pofition, the natural weight of the
thighs has a proper and fufficient prefliire of itfelf,
and the legs are in readinefs to aft when called upon:
they muft hang down eafy and naturally ; and be fo
placed, as not to be wriggling about, touching, and
tickling, the horfe’s fides, but always near them in cafe
they fliould be wanted, as well as the heels.
The body muft be carefully kept eafy and firm, and
without any rocking when in motion ; which is a bad
habit very eaiily contrafted, efpecially in galloping.
The left elbow muft be gently leant againft the body,
a little forwards: unlefs it be fo refted, the hand can¬
not be fteady, but will always be checking, and confe-
quently have pernicious effefts on the horfe’s mouth.
And the hand ought to be of equal height with the
elbow; if it were lower, it would conftrain and con¬
fine the motion of the horfe’s flioulders: but, as the
mouths of horfes are dift'erent, the place of the hand
alfo muft occafionally differ: a leaning, low, heavy,
fore-hand, requires a high hand ; and a horfe that
pokes out his nofe, a low one. The right-hand arm
muft be placed in fymmetry with the left; only let
the right hand be a little forwarder or backwarder,
higher or lower, as occafions may require, in order
that both hands may be free ; both arms muft be a
little bent at the elbow, to prevent ftiffnefs. A
A foldier’s right hand fliould be kept unemployed
in riding; it carries the fword, which is a fufficient
bufinefs for it.
There remains one farther obfervation, that ought
not to be omitted, about the hand, that it mult be
kept clear of the body; i. e. about two inches and a
half forwards from it, with the nails turned oppofite
to the belly, and the wrift a little rounded with eafe ;
a pofition not lefs graceful than ready for flackeningj
tightening, and moving the reins from one fide to the
other, as may be found neceffary.
When the men are well placed, the more rough
trotting they have without ftirrups the better; but
with a drift; care always, that their pofition be pre¬
ferved very exaftly. In all cafes, great care muft be
taken to hinder their clinging with their legs: in
fhort, no flicking by hands or legs is ever to be al¬
lowed of at any time. If the motion of the horfe be
too rough, flacken it, till the rider grows by degrees-
more firm ; and when he is quite firm and eafy on his
horfe in every kind of motion, ftirrups may be given
him ; but he muft never leave off trotting often with¬
out any.
The ftirrups muft be neither ftiort nor long; but of
fuch a length, that when the rider, being well placed,
puts his feet into them (about one third of the length
of each foot from the point of it), the points may be
between two and three inches higher than the heels-
The rider muft not bear upon his ftirrups, but only.
Sea.ir. H O R S E M
inflrmSionslet tLe natural weight of his legs reft on them : For
concerning jf he bears upon them he would be raifed above and
ancl^Horfe out ^’8 > which (hould never be, except in
charging fword in hand, with the body inclined for¬
wards at the very inftant of attacking. Spurs may
be given as foon as the rider is grown familiar with
ftirrups ; or even long before, if his legs are well
placed.
A hand {hould always be firm, but delicate : a
horfe’s1 mouth {hould never be furprifed by any fudden
traniition of it, either from flack to tight, or from
tight to flack. Every thing in horfemanfhip muft be
effedled by degtees, but at the fame time with fpirit
and refolution. That hand which, by giving and
taking properly, gains its point with the Icaft force,
is the beft ; and the horfe’s mouth, under this fame
hand’s directions, will alfo confequently be the beft,
fuppofing equal advantages in both from nature. This
principle of gentlenefs fliould be obferved upon all oc-
cafions in every branch of horfemanftiip. Sometimes
the right hand rrny be neceffary, upon fome trouble-
fome horfes, to affift the left: but the feldomer this is
done, the better; efpecially in a foldier, who has a
fword to carry, and to make ufe of.
The fnaffle muft on all occafions be uppermoft;
that is to fay, the reins of it muft be above thofe of
the bridle, whether the fnaffle or the bit be ufed fe-
parately, or whether they be both ufed together.
When the rider knows enough, and the horfe is fuffi-
ci^ntly prepared and fettled to begin any work to¬
wards fuppling, one rein muft be (hortened according
to the fide worked to ; but it muft never be fo much
{hortened, as to make the whole ftrength reft on that
rein, alone : for, not to mention that the work would
be falfe and bad, one fide of the hoife’s mouth would
by that means be always deadened; whereas, on the
contrary, it fliould always be kept freftr by its own
play, and by the help of the oppofite rein’s acting
delicately in a fomewhat fmaller degree of tenfion ;
the joint effeft of which produces in a horfe’s mouth
the proper, gentle, and eafy, degree of appul pr bear¬
ing-
A coward and a madman make alike bad rider?,
and are both alike difcovered and confounded by the
•fuperior fenfe of the creature they are mounted upon,
who is equally fpoilt by both, though in very different
■ways. The coward, by fuffering the animal to have
his own way, not only confirms him in his bad habits,
but creates new ones in him: and the madman, by
falfe and violent motions and corrections, drives the
horfe, through defpair, into every bad and vicious trick
that rage can fuggeft.
It is very requifxte in horfemanfliip, that the hand
and legs {hould aCt in correfpondence with each other
in every thing ; the latter always fubfervient and af-
fiftant to the former. Upon circles, in walking, trot-
ting, or galloping, the outward leg is the only one to
be ufed, and that only for a moment at a time, in order
to fet off the horfe true, or put him right if he be falfe;
and as foon as that is done, it muft be taken away
again immediately: but if the horfe be lazy, or other-
wife retains himfelf, both legs muft be ufed and preffed
to his fides at the farpe time together. The lefs the
legs are ufed in {general, the better. Very delicate
A N S H I P. 667
good riders, with horfes they have jretfed themfelves, InflruClions
will fcarcely ever want their help. By the term out-
ward is undtrftood the fide which is more remote from an(j Horfe.
the centre; and by inivard is meant the fide next to ,—v— ■
the centre. In reining back, the rider fliould be care¬
ful not to ufe his legs, unlefs the horfe backeth on hii
fhoulders ; in which cafe they muft be both applied
gently at the fame time, and correfpond with the hand.
If the horfe refufe to back at all, the rider’s legs muft
be gently approached, till the horfe lifts up a l^g, as
if to go forwards; at which time, when that leg is in
the air, the.rein of the fame fide with that leg which
is lifted up, will eafily bring that fame leg backwards,
and accordingly oblige the horfe to back ; but if the
horfe offers to rear, the legs ,muft be inftaatly removed
away. The inward rein muft. be tighter on circles, fo
that the horfe may bend and look inwards; and the
outward one crofted over a little towards it; and both
held in the left hand.
Let the man and horfe begin on very flow motions*
that they may have time to underftand and refleCl on
what is taught them ; and in proportion as the effeCls
of the reins are better comprehended, and the manner
of working becomes more familiar, the quicknefs of
motion muft be increafed. Every rider muft learn to
feel, without the help of the eye, when a horfe goes
falfe, and remedy the fault accordingly : this is an in¬
telligence, which nothing but prance, application, and
attention, can give, in the beginning on flow motions.
A horfe may not only gallop falfe, but alfo trot and
walk falfe. If a horfe gallops falfe, that is to fay, if
going to the right he leads with the left leg, or if
going to the left he leads with the right; or in cafe
he is difun ited, e. if he leads with the oppofite leg
. behind to that which he leads with before ; flop him
immediately, and put him off again properly. The me¬
thod of effe&ing this, is by approaching your outward
leg, and putting your hand outwards; Hill keeping
the inward rein the fhorter, and the horfe’s head in¬
wards, if pofiible : and if he fliould ftill refift, then
bend and pull his head outwards alfo ; but replace
it again, bent properly inwards, the moment he goes
off true. A horfe is f'aid to be difunittd to the right,
when going to the right, and confequently leading with
the right leg before, he leads with the left behind;
and is faid to be difunited to the left, when going to
the left, and confequently leading with the left leg
before, he leads with the right behind. A horfe may
at the fame time be both falfe and difunited; in cor-
refting both which faults, the fame method muft be
ufed. He is both falfe and difunited to the right,
when in going to the right he leads with the left leg
before, and the right behind ; not with Handing that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than the left, hecaufe the horfe is working to the
right: And he- is falfe and difunited to the left, when
in going to the left he leads with the right leg before
and the left behind; notwithftanding, as above, that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than- the right, becaufe the horfe is working to
the left.
In teaching men a right feat on horfeback, the
greateft attention muft be given to prevent iiiffuefs,
and flicking by force in any manner upon any occa-
4 Q 3 fion t
668 H O R S E M
Of fuppllng fion : ftifFnef^ difgraces every right work ; and ftick-
, ^orfes- ing ferves only to throw a man (when difplaced) a
w-y—— great {j;{^ance from k;s hoi-fe by the Spring he muftgo'
off with : whereas, by a proper equilibrating pofitioir
of the body, and by the natural weight only of the
thighs, he cannot but be firm and fccure in his feat.
As the men become more firm, and the horfes more
fupple, it is proper to make the circles lefs; but not
too much fo, for fear of throwing the borfes forwards
upon their fiioulders.
Some horfes, when firft the bit is put into their
mouths, if great care be not taken, will put their heads
very low. With fuch horfes, raife your right hand
with the Ividoon in it, and play at the fame time with
the bit in the left hand, giving'and taking.
On circles, the rider mult lean his body inwards ;
unlefs great attention be given to make him do it, he
will be perpetually lofing his feat outwards. It is
fcarce pofiible for him to be difplaced, if he leans his
body properly inwards.
Sect. III. The Method of flippling Horfes -with
Men upon them, by the Evaule en dedans,
•with and -without a Longe, on Circles and on
Jlraight Lines.
When a horfe is well prepared and fettled in all
his motions, and the rider firm, it will be proper then
to proceed on towards a farther fuppling and teaching
of both.
In fetting out upon this new work, begin by bring¬
ing the horfe’s head a little more inwards than before,
pulling the inward rein gently to you by degrees.
When this is done, try to gain a little on the {boul¬
ders, by keeping the inward rein the {horter, as be¬
fore, and the outward one croffed over towards the
inward one. The intention of thefe operations is
this: The inward rein ferves to bring in the head, and
procures the bend; whilft the outward one, that is a
little croffed, tends to make that bend perpendicular,
and as it fiiould be, that is to fay, to reduce the nofe
and the forehead to be in a perpendicular line with
each other : it alfo ferves, if put" forwards, as well as
alfo croffed, to put the horfe forwards, if found necef-
fary ; which is often requifite, many horfes being apt
in this and other works rather to lofe their ground
backwards than otheryvife, when they (hould rather
advance ; if the nofe were drawn in towards the bread
beyond the perpendicular, it would confine the motion
of the {boulders, and have other bad effe&s. All other
bends, befides what are above fpecified, are falfe. The
outward rein, being croffed, not in a forward fenfe,
but rather a little backwards, ferves alfo to prevent
the outward {boulder from getting too forwards, and
makes it approach the inward one ; which facilitates
the inward leg’s croffing over the outward one, which
is the motion that fo admirably fupples the fhoulders.
Care mull be taken, that the inward leg pafs over the
outward one, without touching it: this iaward leg’s
croffing over muft be helped alfo by the inward rein,
■which you muft crofs towards and over the outward
rein every time the outward leg comes to the ground,
in order to lift and help the inward leg over it: at
any other time, but juft when the outward leg comes
■to the ground, it would be wrong to crofs the inward
a n s hip: Sea. iirj
rein, or to attempt to lift up the inward leg by it; DireiftionaJ
nay, it would be demanding an abfolute impoffibility, ior Mea'
and lugging about the reins and horfe to >no purpofe : an(i'Horfe,^;;
becaufe in this cafe, a very' great part of-the horfe’s ' J
weight refting then upon that leg, would render fuch
an attempt not only fruitlefs, but alfo prejudicial to
the fenfibility of the mouth, and probably oblige him
to defend himfelf; and, moreover, it would put the
horfe under a neceffity of ftraddling before, and alfo of
leading with the wrong leg, without being productive
©f any fuppling motion whatfoever.
When the horfe is thus far familiarly accuft&med to
what youdiave required of him^ then proceed to effeA’
by degrees the fame croffing in his hinder legs- By
bringing in the fore legs more, you will of courfe en¬
gage the hinder ones in the fame work : if they refill,
the rider muft bring both reins more inwards; and, if
neceffary* put back alfo, and approach his inward leg
to the horfe; and if the horfe throws out his croup too •
far, the rider muft bring both, reins outwards, and, iff7
abfolutely neceffary, he muft alfo make ufe of his out¬
ward leg, in order to replace the horfe properly : ob-
ferving that the croup {hould always be coniiderably
behind the (boulders, which in all actions muft go firft'.;
and the moment that the horfe obeys, the rider muft
put his hand and leg again in their ufual pofition.
Nothing is more ungraceful in itfelf, more detrimen¬
tal to a man’s feat, or more deftru&ive of the fenfibi¬
lity of a horfe’s fides, than a continual wriggling un-
fettlednefs in a horfeman’s legs, which prevents the
horfe from ever going a moment together true, fteady,
or determined;
A horfe {hould never be turned, without fi-rft moving
a ftep forwards : and when it is doing, the rider muft .
not lift his elbow, and difplace himfelf; a motion only
of the hand from .the one fide to the other being fuffb*
cient for that purpofe. It muftaifo be a constant rules,
never to fuffer a horfe to be flopped, mounted, or dif-
mounted, but when he is well placed. The flower the
motions are when a man or horfe is taught any things
the better.
At firft, the figures worked upon mart be great,
and afterwards made lefs by degrees, according to the
improvement which the man and horfe make; and the
cadenced pace alfo, which they work in, muft be ao
cordingly augmented. The changes from one fide to
the other, muft be in a bold determined trot, and at.
firft quite ftraight forwards, without demanding any
fide-motion on two pijles, which is very nectffary to
require afterwards when the horfe is fuffieiently
fuppled. By two pi/ks is meant, when the fore-parts
and hinder parts do not follow,-but.defcribe two dif¬
ferent Hhes.
In the beginning, a longe is ufeful on circles, and
alfo on Itraight lines, to help both the rider and the
horfe ; but afterwards, when they are grown more in¬
telligent, they {hould go alone. At the end of the
leflbn, rein back ; then put the horfe, by a little at a
time, forwards, by approaching both legs gently to
his fides, and playing with the bridle: if he rears, pufh.
him out immediately- into a full trot. Shaking the ce>-
vejfon on the horfe’s nofe, and alfo putting one’s felf
before himand.rather near to him, will generally make
him back, though he otherwife refufe to do it: and
niorever a flight ufe and approaching of the rider’s
Sea. W. H O R S E M
Gf Head t->leg$, will fometimes be neceflary in backing, in order
the Wallr prevent ti,e horfe from doing it too much upon his
. C~ {houlders; but the preffure of the legs ought to be very
fmall, and taken quite away the moment that he puts
himfelf enough upon his haunches. If the horfe does
not back upon a llraight line properly, the rider mull
not be permitted to have recourfe immediately to his
leg, and fa dittort himfelf by it; but firft try, if croffing
over his hand and reins to which ever fide may be ne-
celfary, will not be alone fufficient : which moft fre¬
quently it will; if not, then employ the leg.
After a horfe is well prepared and fettled, and goes
freely on in all his feveral paces, he ought to be in ail
his works kept, to a proper degree, upon his haunches,
with his hinder legs well placed under him ; whereby
he will be always pleafant to himfelf and his rider, will
he light in hand, and ready to execute whatever may
he demanded of.him, with facility, vigour, and quick-
nefs.
The common -methodthat is ufed, of forcing a horfe
lidewife, is a moft glaring abfurdity, and very hurtful
to the animal in its confequences; for inftead of fup-
pling him, it obliges him. to ftiffen and defend himfelf,
and often makes a creature that- is naturally benevo-
kntj reftive, frightenedj and vicious.
For horfes, who have very long and high fore-hands,
and who poke out their nofes, a running fnafllc is of
excellent ufe ; but for fuch as bore and keep their
heads low, a common one is preferable ; though any
horfe’s head indeed may be kept up alfo with a run¬
ning one, by the rider’s keeping his hands very high
and forwards: but whenever either is ufed alone with¬
out a bridle upon horfes that carry their heads low
and that bote, it muft be fawed about from one fide to
the other.
This leflbn of the epaule en dedans fltould be. taught
to fuch people as are likely to become ufeful in help¬
ing to teach men and to break horfes ; and the more
of fuch that, can be found the better: none others fliould
ever be fuffered upon any occafion to let their horfes
Idok any way b'efides the way they are. going. But all
horfes whatever* as like wife all men who are defigned
for the teaching others, muft go thoroughly and per-
fe&ly through this excellent leffon, under the direc¬
tions of intelligent Inftruftors, and often pra&ife it
too,afterwards; and when that is done, proceed to
and .be fiuiftied by the leffons of head and tail to the
wall.
Sect. IV. Of the Head to the Wall, and of the
Croup to the Wall.
This teflon fhould be pra&ifed immediately after
that of the epaule en dedans, in order to place the horfe
properly the way he goes*&c. The difference between
the head to the wall, and the croup to the wall, con
lifts in thise in the former, the fore-parts are more re¬
mote from the centre, and go over more ground ; in
the latter, the hinder parts are more remote from the
centre, and confequently go over more ground: in
both, as likewife in all other leffons, the ftioulders muft
go firft. In riding-horfes, the head to the wall is
the eafier leffon of the two at firft, the line to be
worked upon being marked by the wall, not far from
his head.
A N S H I P. 669
The motion of the legs to the right, ts the fame as Of Head to
that of the epaule en dedans to the left, and fo vice verfa ; Wall,
but the head is always bent and turned differently : in<Xc’ ^
the epaule en dedans, the .horfe looks the contrary way
to that which he goes; in this, he looks the way he is
goJng-
In the beginning, very little bend muft be required;
too much at once would aftonifh the horfe, and make
him defend himfelf: it is to be augmented by degrees.
If the horfe abfolutely refufes to obey, it is a fign that
either he or his rider has not been fufficiently prepared
by previous leffons. It may happen, that weaknefs or
a hurt in fome part of the body, or fometimes temper,
though feldom, may be the caufe of the horfe’s de¬
fending himfelf: it is the rider’s bufinefs to find out
from whence the obftacle arifes; and if he finds it to
be from the firft mentioned caufe, the previous leffons
imift be-refumed again for fome time ; if from the fe-
cond, proper remedies muft be applied ; and if front
the lait caufe, when all fair means that can be tried
have failed, proper correftions with coolnefs and judg,-
ment muft be ufed.
In praflifing this leffon to the right, bend the
horfe to the right with the right rein ; helping the
left leg over the right (at the time when the right
leg is juft come to the ground), with the left rein
croffed towards the right, .and keeping the right fhoul-
der back .with the right rein towards your body,, in
order to facilitate the left leg’s croffing over the right;
and fo likewife vice verfa-to the left, each rein help¬
ing the other by their properly; mixed effedls. In
wotking to the right, the riderls left leg helps the
hinder-parts on to the right, and his right leg ftops
them if they get too forwards; and fo vice verfa to
the left: but neither ought to be ufed, till the hand
being employed in a proper manner has failed, or finds
that a greater force is neceffary to bring about what
is required than it can effe<£t alone: for the legs
ftrould not only be correfppnding with, but alfofub-
fervient to, the hand; and all unneceffary aids, as well
as all force, ought always to be avoided as much as
poffible. •
In the execution of alLleffons, the equilibre of the
rider’s body is of great ufe to the horfe; it ought al¬
ways to go with and accompany every motion of the
animal; when to the right, to the right; and when to
the left,, to the left..
Upon all' horfe's, in every leflbn and adllon, it muft
be obferved, that there is no horfe but has his own
peculiar appul or-degree of bearing, and alfo a.fenfv-
bility of mouth, as likewife a rate of his own, which
it is abfolutely neceffary for the rider to difeover and
make himfelf acquainted with. A bad rider always
takes off at leaft the delicacy of both, if not abfolutely
deftroys it.'* The-horfe will inform his rider when he
has got his proper bearing in the mouth, by playing
pleafantly and fteadily with his bit, and by the fpray
about his chaps. A delicate and good hand will not
only always preferve a light.appui, or bearing,, in its
fenfibility ; but alfo of a heavy one, , whether naturally
fo. or acquired, make a light one. The lighter this
appui can be made, the better; provided that the
rider’s hand correfponds with it; if it does not, the
more the horfe is> properly prepared,-fo much the
worfe.. laftance* of tins inconvenieuce. of the beft of
appuis*
H O R S E M
To malie appuis, when the rider is not equally taught with the
ItancTpire ^or^e> ma>' t>e ^een every day in fome gentlemen, who
,,5jC> ’ try to get their horfes bitted as they call it, without
being fuitably prepared themfelves for riding them :
the confequence of which is, that they ride in danger
of breaking their necks; till at length, after much
hauling about, and by the joint Infenfibility and igno¬
rance of themfelves and their grooms, the poor animals
gradually become mere fenfelefs unfeeling polls; and
thereby grow, what they call, fettled. When the
proper appui is found, and made of courfe as light as
poffible, it mull not be kept duly fixed without any
variation, but be played with; otherwife one equally*
continued tenfion of reins would render both the t ider’s
hand and the horfe's mouth very dull. The flightell
and frequent giving and taking is therefore neceflary
"to keep both perfeft.
Whatever pace or degree of quicknefsyou work in,
be it ever fo fall, or ever fo flow), it mull be ca-
denced ; time is as neceflary for an horfeman as for a
mufician.
This leflbn of the head and of the tail to the wall,
mull be taught every,foldier: fcarce any manoeuvre can
be well performed without it. In doling and opening
of files, it is almoft every moment wanted.
"Sect. V. The Method of making Horfes Jland
Firey NoifeSy Alarms, Sights, &c.
In order to make horfes Hand fire, the found of
drums, and all forts of different noifes, you mull ufe
them to it by degrees in the liable at feeding-time;
and inltead of being frightened at it, they wdl foon
come to like it as a fignal for eating.
With regard to fuch horfes as are afraid of burning
objefts, beg111 by keeping them Hill at a certain di-
ftance from fome lighted llraw : carefs the horfe ; and
in proportion as his fright diminilhes, approach gra¬
dually the burning llraw very gently, and increafe the
'fize of it. By this means he will very quickly be brought
to be fo familiar with it, as to walk undaunted even
through it.
As to hotXes that are apt to lie down in the water,
if animating them, and attacking them vigoroufly,
fliould fail of the defired effed, then break a llraw-
bottle full of water upon their heads, and let the water
run into their ears, which is a thing they apprehend
very much.
All troop-horfes mud be taught to Hand quiet and
dill when they are Ihot off from, to Hop the moment
you prefent, and not to move after firing till they are
required to do it; this leffon ought efpecially to be
obferved in light troops: in fhort, the horfes mud be
taught to be fo cool and undidurbed, as to differ the
rider to adl upon him with the fame freedom as if he
was on foot. Patience, coolnefs, and temper, are the
only means requifite for accomplilhing this end. Be¬
gin by walking the horfe gently, then dop and keep
him from dirring for fome time, fo as to accudom
him by degrees not to have the lead idea of moving
without orders: if he does, then back him; and
when you dop him, and he is quite dill, leave the reins
quite loofe.
To ufe a horfe to fire-arms, fird put a pidol or a
carabine in the manger with his feed ; then ufe him
to the found of the lock and the pan; after which,
A N S H I P. Seft. V.
when you are upon him, Ihow the piece to him, pre- T« make
fenting it forwards, fometimes on one fide, fometimes „ Hor(5s
on the other : when he is thus far reconciled, proceed ^d F‘rc'
to flafil in the pan ; after which, put a fmall charge «
into the piece, and fo continue augmenting it by de-
gvees to the quantity which is commonly ufed : if he
feems uneafy, walk him forward a few fieps flowly •
and then dop, back, and carefs him. Horfes are
often alfo difquieted and undeady at the clad), and
drawing, and returning of fwords; all which they mud
be familiarized to by little and little, by frequency and
gentlenefs.
It is very expedient for all cavalry in general, hut
particularly for light cavalry, that their horfes fliould
be very ready and expert in leaping over ditches, hedges,
gates, &c. The leaps, of whatever fort they are, which
the horfes are brought to in the beginning, ought to
be very fmall ones ; the riders mud keep their bodies
back, raifc their hands a little in order to help the
fore-parts of the horfe up, and be very attentive to
their equilibre. It is bed to begin at a low bar co¬
vered with furze, which pricking the horfe’s legs, if
he does not raife himfelf fuffici-mtly, prevents h's con¬
tracting a fluggilh and dangerous habit of touching,
as he goes over, which any thing yielding and not
pricking would give him a cudom of doing. Let the
ditches you fird bring horfes to be narrow ; and in
this, as in every thing elfe, let the increafe be made by
degrees. Accullom them to come up to every thing
which they are to leap over, and to {land coolly at it
for focne time; and then to raife themfelves gently up
in order to form to themfelves an idea of the didancev
When they leap well danding, then ufe them to walk
gently up to the leap, and to go over it without firlt
halting at it; and after that praClice is familiar to
them, repeat the like in a gentle trot, and fo by de¬
grees falter and fader, till at length it is as familiar to
them to leap flying on a full gallop as any other way ;
all which is to be acquired with great facility by calm
and foft means, without any hurry.
As horfes are naturally apt to be frightened at the
fight and fmell of dead horfes, it is advifable to habi¬
tuate them to walk over and leap over carcafes of
dead horfes: and as they are particularly terrified at
this fight, the greater gentlenefs ought confequently to
he ufed.
Horfes diould alfo be accudomed to fwim, which
often may be neceffary upon fervifce ; and if the men
and horfes both are not ufed to it, both may he fre¬
quently liable to perilh in the water. A very fmall
portion of drength is fufficient to guide a horfe, any¬
where indeed, but particularly in the water, where they
mud be permitted to have their heads, and be no-ways
condrained in any lhape.
The unreafonable rage in Britain of cutting off all
extremities from horfes, is in all cafes a very pernicious
cudom. It is particularly fo in regard to a troop-
horfe’s tail. It is aimed incredible, how much they
fuffer at the picket for want of it: condantly fretting,
and fweating, kicking about and laming one another,
tormented, and dung off their meat, miferable, and
helplefs; whild other horfes, with their tails on, brulh
off all flies, are cool and at their eafe, and mend daily;
whild the docked ones grew every hour more and more
out of condition.
■3
■ULccr,
Sea.VI. HORSEMANSHIP. 671
Of reining
jack, &c. Sect. VI. The Method of reining back,—and of
T moving forwards immediately after of Piaf-
ing,— of Pillars, &c.
Never finifh your work by reining back with hor-
fes that have any difpofition towards retaining them-
felves ; but always move them forwards, and a little
upon the haunches alfo, after it, before you difmount,
(unlefs they retain themfelves very much indeed, in
which cafe nothing at all mull be demanded from the
haunches). This lefibn of reining back, and piafing,
is excellent to conclude with, and puts an horfe well
and properly on the haunches: It may be done, ac¬
cording as horfes are more or lefs fuppled, either go¬
ing forwards, backing, or in the fame place : if it is
done well advancing, or at moil on the fame fpot, it
is full fufficient for a foldier’s horfe : For to piafe in
backing, is rather too much to be expe&ed in the
hurry which cannot but attend fuch numbers both of
men and horfes as muft be taught together in regi¬
ments. This leffon muft never be attempted at all,
till horfes are very well fuppled, and fomewhat ac-
cuftomed to be put together; otherwife it will have
very bad confequences, and create reftivenefs. If they
refufe to back, and ftand motionlefs, the rider’s legs
mull be approached with the greateft gentlenefs to the
horfe’s fides ; at the fame time that the hand is afting
on the reins to folicit the horfe’s backing. This fel-
dom fails of procuring the defired effedl, by raifing
one of the horfe’s fore-legs, which being in the air,
has no weight upon it, and is confequently very eafily
brought backwards by a fmall degree of tenfion in the
reins. When this leflbn is well performed, it is very
noble and ufeful, and has a pleafing air; it is an ex¬
cellent one to begin teaching fcholars with.
The lefibn is particularly ferviceable in the pillars,
for placing fcholars well at firft. Very few regimental
riding houfes have pillars, and it is fortunate they
have not : for though, when. properly made ufe of
with Ikill, they are one of the greateft and beft difco-
veries in horfemanfiiip ; they muft be allowed to be
very dangerous and pernicious, when they are not un¬
der the direftion of a very knowing perfon.
Sect. VII. The Method of curing Reftiveneffes,
Vices, Defences, Starting, &c.
Whenever a horfe makes refiftance, one ought,
before remedy or corre&ion is thought of, to examine
very minutely all the tackle about him, if any thing
hurts or tickles him, whether he has any natural or
accidental weaknefs, or in fhort any the leaft impedi¬
ment in any part. For want of this precaution, many
fatal difafters happen : the poor dumb animal is fre¬
quently accufed falfely of being reftive and vicious ; is
ufed ill without reafon ; and, being forced into defpair,
is in a manner obliged to aft accordingly, be his tem¬
per and inclination ever fo well difpofed. It is very
feldom the cafe, that a horfe is really and by nature
vicious; but if fuch be found, he will defpife all caref-
fes, and then chaftifements become neceftary.
Correftion, according as you ufe it, throws a horfe
into more or lefs violent aftion, which, if he be weak,
he cannot fupport: but a vicious Itrong horfe is to be
confidered in a very different light, being able both
to undergo and confequently to profit by all ieffons; ©I curing
and is far preferable to the beft-natured weak one ^*‘venc^3
upon earth, JPatience and attention are never failing ,
me^ns to reclaim .fuch a horfe : in whatfoever manner
he defends himfelf, bring him back frequently with
gentlenefs (not however without having given him
proper chaftifement if neceffary) to the leffon which
he feems moft averfe to. Horfes are by degrees
made obedient, through the hope of recompenfe and
the fear of puniftiment: how to mix thefe two motivea
judicioufly together, is a very difficult matter; it re¬
quires much thought and praftice ; and not only a
good head, but a good heart likewife. The cooled
and beft-natured rider will always fucceed beft. By
a dexterous ufe of the incitements above-mentioned,
you will gradually bring the horfe to temper and obe¬
dience ; mere force, and want of Ikill and coolnefs,
would only tend to confirm him in bad tricks. If he
be impatient or choleric, never ftrike him, unlefs he
abfolutely refufe to go forwards ; which you muft re-
folutely oblige him to do, and which will be of itfelf
a correftion, by preventing his having time to medi¬
tate and put in execution any defence by retaining
himfelf. Refiftance in horfes, you muft confider, is
fometimes a mark of ftrength and vigour, and pro¬
ceeds from fpirit, as well as fometimes from vice and
weaknefs. Weaknefs frequently drives horfes into
vicioufnefs, when any thing wherein ftrength is necef¬
fary is demanded from them ; nay, it inevitably muft; :
great care therefore (hould always be taken to diftin-
guifti from which of thefe two caufes any remedy or*
puniftiment is thought of. It may fometimes be a
bad fign when horfes do not at all defend themfelves,
and proceed from a ffuggifli difpofition, a want of
fpirit, and of a proper fenfibility. Whenever one is
fo fortunate as to meet with a horfe of juft the right
fpirit, aftivity, delicacy of feeling, with ftrength and
good nature, he cannot be cheriftied too much; for
fuch a one is a rare and ineftimable jewel, and, if pro¬
perly treated, will in a manner do every thing of him¬
felf. Horfes are oftener fpoilt by having too much
done to them, and by attempts to drefs them in too
great an hurry, than by any other treatment.
If after a horfe has been well fuppled, and there
are no impediments, either natural or accidental, if
he ftill perfifts to defend himfelf, chaftifements then
become neceffary : but whenever this is the cafe, they
muft not be frequent, but always firm, though always
as little violent as poffible; for they are both dange¬
rous and very prejudicial when frequently or flightly
played with, and ftill more fo when ufed too vio¬
lently.
It is impoffible, in general, to be too circumfjieft
in leffons of all kinds, in aids, chaftifements, or ca- V
reffes. Some have quicker parts, and more cunning, *
than others. Many will imperceptibly gain a little
every day on the rider. Various, in Ihort, are their
difpofitions and capacities. It is the rider’s bufinefs
to find out their different qualities, and to make them
fenfible how much he loves them, and defires to be
loved by them ; but at the fame time that he doe#
not fear them, and will be mailer.
Plunging is a very common defence among re Hive
and vicious horfes : if they do it in the fame place, or
backing, they muft, by the rider’s legs and fpurg
672 H O R ST M
V lain Rules firmly applied, be obliged to go forwards, Bfid their
Ilorfemen ^eac^s UP ®ut t^ey *l ^7'°^ ^or*
wards, keep them back, and ride them gently and
‘ very flow for a good while together. Of all bad tem-
•pevs and qualities in horfes, thofe which are occa-
lioned by harlh treatment and ignorant riders are the
-worft.
Rearing is a bad vice, and, in weak horfes .efpe-
xially, a very dangerous one. Whilft the hsrfe is up,
the rider mull yield his hand ; and when the horfe is
'defcending, he" moft. vigorotifly determine him for-
-wards : if this be done at any other time but whilft
the horfe is coming down, it may add a fpring to his
• rearing, and make him fall backwards. With a good
•hand on them, horfes feldom pevfift in this vice; for
they are themfelves naturally much afraid of falling
backwards. If this method fails, you mull make the
horfe kick up behind, by getting fomebody on foot
to (Irike him behind with a whip; or, if that will not
effeft it, by pricking him with a goad.
Starting often proceeds' from a defe& in the fight;
which therefore muft be- carefully looked into. What*
. ever the horfe is afraid of, bring him up to it gently;
if you carefs him every ftep he advances, he will go
quite up to it by degrees, and foon grow familiar with
all forts of objefts. Nothing but great gentlenefs can
correft this fault; for if you inflidl punilhment, the
apprehenfion of chaltifement becomes prevalent, and
caufes more ftarting than the fear of the object. If
you let him go by the objedl, without bringing him
tip to it, you increafe the fault, and confirm him in
his fear: the confequence of which is, he takes his
rider perhaps a quite contrary way from what he was
, going, becomes his mailer, and puts himfelf and the
perfon upon him every moment in great danger.
With fuch horfes as are to a very great degree
fearful of any objects, make a quiet horfe, by going
before them, gradually entice them to approach nearer
and nearer to the thing they are afraid of. If the
horfe, thus alarmed, be undifciplined and headftrong,
he will probably run away with his rider; and if fo,
his head muft be kept up high, and the fnaffle fawed
backwards and forwards from right to left, taking up
and yielding the reins-of it, as alfo the reins of the
bit: but this latter muft not be fawed backwards and
forwards like the fnaffle, bat only taken up and
yielded properly. No man ever yet did, or ever will,
flop a horfe, or gain any one point over him,, by main
force, or by polling a dead weight again!! him.
Sect. VIII. Rules for bad Horfmen.
, In the firft place, every horfe fhould be accuftom*
(RuLi* to ftaod Hill when he is mounted. One would
*** " ’ imagine this might be readily granted; yet we fee how
much the contrary is pra£tifed. When a gentleman
mounts at a livery-liable, the groom takes the horfe
by the bit, which he bends tight ronnd his under jaw :
the horfe ilriving to go on, is forced back; advancing
again, he frets, as he is again Hopped fhort, and hurt
by the manner of holding him. The rider, in the
mean time, mounting without the bridle, or at leaft
bolding it but flightly, is helped to it by the groom,
iwho being thoroughly employed by the horfe’s flut*
,.N0 15?.
A N S "H I F. Sed. VlfC.
tering, has at the fame time both bridle and ftirntp to Plain Rules
give. This confulion would be prevented, if every forbad
horfe was taught to Hand Hill when he is mounted. H<,rfemea‘.
Forbid your groom, therefore, when he rides your ‘■f,
horfe to water, to throw himfelf over him from a
horfe-block, and kick him with his leg, even before
he is fairly upon him. This wrong manner of mount¬
ing is what chiefly teaches your horfe the vicious ha¬
bit again ft which we are here warning. On the
other hand, a conftant pra&ice of mounting in the
proper manner, is all that is neceflary to prevent a
horfe'’s going on till the rider is quite adjufted in the
faddle.
The next thing neceflary therefore is, that the rider
fhould mount properly. The common method is to
Hand near the croup or hinder part of the horfe, with
the bridle held very long in the right hand. By this
manner of holding the bridle before you mount, you
are liable to be kicked ; and when you are mounted,
your horfe may go on fome time, or play what gam¬
bols he pleafes, before the rein is Ihort enough in
your hand to prevent him. It is common likewife
for an aukward rider, as foon as his foot is in the
ftirrup, fo throw himfelf with all his force to gain his
feat; which he cannot do, till he hath fir ft overbalan¬
ced himfelf on one fide or the other: he will then
wriggle into it by degrees. The way to mount with
cafe and fafety is, to ftand rather before than behind
the ftirrup. In this pofture take the bridle Ihort, and
the mane together in your left hand, helping yourfelf
to the ftirrup with your right, fo that your toe may
not touch the horfe in mounting. When your left
foot is in the ftirrup, move on your right, till you face
the fide of the horfe, looking acrofs over the faddle.
Then with your right hand grafp the hinder Ipart of
the faddle ; and with that and your left, which holds
the mane and bridle, lift yourfelf upright on your left
foot. Remain thus a mere inftant on your ftirrup,
only fo as to divide the adlion into two motions.
While you are in this pofture, you have a- fare hold
with both hands, and are at liberty, either to get fafe-
ly down, or to throw your leg over and gain your
feat. By this deliberate motion, likewife, you avoid,
what every good horfeman would endeavour to avoid,
putting your horfe into a flutter.
"When yomdifmount, hold the bridle and mane to¬
gether in your Irft hand, as when you mounted ; .put
your right hand on the pemmel of the faddle, to raife
yourfelf; throw your leg back over the horfe, grafp
the hinder part of the faddle with your right hand,
remain a moment on your ftirrup, and in every refpedl
difmount as you mounted ; only what was your firft
motion-when you mounted, becomes the laft in dif-
mounting. Remember not to bend your right knee
m difmounting, left your fpur fliould rub againll the
horfe.
It may be next recommended to hold jmur bridle at
a convenient length. Sit fquare, and let not the pur-
chafe of the bridle pull forward your Ihoulder ; but
keep your body even, as it would be if each hand held
a rein. Hold your reins with the whole grafp of your
hand, dividing them with your little finger. Let
your hand be perpendicular ; your thumb will then be
uppermoft, and placed on the bridle. Bend your
wrift
Sea.VflI. H O It S E M
Plain Rules wrift a little outward ; and when you pull the bridle,
for bad ra;fe yOUr hand toward your breaft, and the lower
Horfemen. ^ pa|m rather more than the upper. Let the
' bridle be at fuch a length in your hand, as, if the
horfe fhould ftumble, you may be able to raife his
head, and fupport it by the ftrength of your arms, and
the weight of your body thrown backward. If you
hold the rein too. long, you are fubjeft to fall back¬
ward as your horfe rifes.
If, knowing your horfe perfe&ly well, you think a
tight rein unneceflary, advance your arm a little (but
not your (boulder) towards the horfe’s head, and keep
your ufual length of rein. By this means, you have
a check upon your horfe, while you indulge him.
If you ride with a curb, make it a rule to hook on
the chain yourfelf; the mod quiet horfe may bring
iiis rider into danger, (hould the curb hurt him. If,
in fixing the curb, you turn the chain to the right,
the links will unfold themfelves, and then oppofe a
farther turning. Put on the chain loofe enough to
hang down on the horfe’s under lip, fo that it may not
rife and prefs his jaw, till the reins of the bridle are
moderately pulled.
If your horfe has been ufed to (land ftill when he is
mounted, there will be no occafion for a groom to hold
him : but if he does, fuffer him not to touch the reins,
but that part of the bridle which comes down the
cheek of the horfe. He cannot then interfere with
the management of the reins, which belongs to the
rider only ; and holding a horfe by the curb (which is
ever painful to him) is evidently improper when he is
to (land ftill.
Another thing to be remembered is, not to ride
with your arms and elbows as high as your (boulders ;
nor let them (hake up and down with the motion of
the horfe. The pofture is unbecoming, and the weight
of the arms (and of the body too if the rider does
not fit ftill) afts in continual jerks on the jaw of the
Lprfe, which muft give him pain, and make him un¬
quiet, if he has a tends^aouth or any fpirit.
Bad riders wonder why horfes are gentle as foon as
they are mounted by Ikilful ones, tho’ their (kill feems
unemployed : the reafon is, the horfe goes at his eafe,
yet finds all his motions watched ; which he has faga-
city enough to difcover. Such a rider hides his whip,
if he finds his horfe is afraid of it; and keeps his legs
from his fides, if he finds he dreads the fpur.
Avoid the ungraceful cuftom of letting your legs
(bake againft the fides of the horfe : and as you are not
to keep your arms and elbows high, and in motion ;
fo you are not to rivet them to your fides, but let
them fall eafy. One may, at a diftance, diftinguifti
a genteel horfeman from an aukward one : the firft
fits ftill, and appears of a piece with his horfe; the
latter feems flying off at all points.
It is often faid with emphafis, that fuch a one has
no.feat on horfeback ; and it means, not only that he
does not ride well, but that he does not fit on the right
part cf the horfe. To have a good feat, is .to fit on
that part of the horfe, which, as he fprings, is the
centre of motion ; and from which, of courfe, any
weight would be with moft difficulty (haken. As in
the riling and falling of a board placed in aquilibrio,
the centre will be always moft at reft; the true feat
Vol. VIII. Part II.
A N S H I P. 673
will be found in that part of your faddle, into which 'Plain Rules
your body would naturally Hide, if you rode without for ba!i
ftirrups ; and is only to be preferved by a proper poife Horfemen-
of the body, though the generality of riders imagine V
it is to be done by the grafp of the thighs and knees.
The rider (hould confider himfelf as united to his horfe
in this point ; and when (haken from it, endeavour to
reftore the balance.
Perhaps the mention of the two extremes of a bad
feat may help to defcribe the true one. The one is,
when the rider fits very far back on the faddle, fo .that
his weight prefles the loins of the horfe; the other,
when his body hangs forward over the pommel of the
faddle. The firft may be feen pra&ifed by grooms,
when they ride with their ftirrups affettedly (hort ; the
latter, by fearful horfemen on the lead flutter of the
horfe. Every good rider has, even on the hunting
faddle, as determined a place for his thighs, as can be
determined for him by the bars of a demi-peak. In¬
deed there is no difference between the feat of either :
only, as in the firft you ride with (horter ftirrups,
your body will be confequently more behind your knees.
To have a good feat yourfelf, your faddle muft fit
well. To fix a precife rule might be difficult : it may
be a direStion, to have your faddle prefs as nearlv as
poffible on that part which we have defcribed as\he
point of union between the man and horfe; however,
fo as not to obftrudt the motion of the horfe’s (boul¬
ders. Place yourfelf in the middle or lowed part of
it: fit ereft; but with as little conftraint as in your
ordinary fitting. The eafe of a&ion marks the gentle¬
man : you may repofe yourfelf, but not lounge. The
fet and ftudied ere&nefs acquired in the riding-houfe,
by thofe whofe deportment is not eafy, appears ungen-
teel and unnatural.
If your horfe (lops (hort, or endeavours by riling
and kicking to unfeat you, bend not your body for¬
ward, as many do in thofe circumftances: that motion
throws the breech backward, and you off your fork or
twift, and out of your feat ; whereas, the advancing
the lower part of your body, and bending hack the
upper part and (boulders, is the method both to keep
your feat, and to recover it when loft. The bending
your body back, and that in a great degree, is the
greateft fecurity in flying leaps; it is a fecurity too,
when your horfe leaps Jlanding. The horfe’s rifing
does .not try the rider’s feat; the laffi of his hind legs
is what ought chiefly to be guarded againft, and is heft
done by the body’s being greatly inclined back. Stif¬
fen not your legs or thighs ; and let your body be pli¬
able in the loins, like the coachman’s on his box. This
loofe manner of fitting will elude every rough motion
of the horfe ; whereas the fixture of the knees, fo
commonly laid a ftrefs on, will in great ffiocks conduce
to the violence of the fall.
Was the cricket-player, when the ball is (truck with
the greateft velocity, to hold his hand firm and fixed
when he receives it, the hand would be bruifed, or
perhaps the bones fra&ured by the refiftance. To ob¬
viate this accident, he therefore gradually yields his
hand to the motion of the ball for a certain diftance ;
and thus by a due mixture of oppofition and obedi¬
ence, catches it without fuitaining the lead injury. The
cafe is exactly the fame in riding : the Ikilful horfeman
674 H O R S E M
Plain Rules will recover his poife. by giving fome way to the mo-
for had tjon . an(j ignorant horfeman will be flung out of
. °r l'niCn' his feat by endeavouring to be fixed.
Stretch not out your legs before you ; this will pulh
you againft the back of the faddle : neither gather up
your knees, like a man riding on a pack ; this throws
your thighs upwards : each praftice unfeats you. Keep
^ your legs ftraight down ; and fit not on the molt flefhy
part of the thighs, but turn them inwards, fo as to
bring in your knees and toes: and it is more fafe to
ride with the ball of the foot prefling on the ftirrup,
than with the ftirrup as far back as the heel ; for the
preflure of the heel being in that cafe behind the ftir¬
rup, keeps the thighs down.
When you find your thighs thrown upwards, widen
your knees to get them and the upper part of your
fork lower down on the horfe. Grafp the faddle with
the hollow or inner part of your thighs, but not more
than juft to aflift the balance of your body : this will
alfo enable you to keep your fpurs from the horfe’s
fides, and to bring your toes in, without that affe&ed
and ufelefs manner of bringing them in praftifed by
many. Sink your heels ftraight down ; for while your
heels and thighs keep down, you cannot fall: this (aid¬
ed with the bend of the back) gives the fecurity of a
feat, to thofe who bear themfelves up in their ftirrups
in a fwift gallop, or in the alternate rififtg and falling
in a full trot.
Let your feat determine the length of your ftirrups,
rather than the ftirrups your feat. If more precifion
is requifite, let your ftirrups (in the hunting faddle)
be of fuch a length, as that, when you ftand in them,
there may be the breadth of four fingers between your
feat and the faddle.
It would greatly aflift a learner, if he would prac-
tife riding in a large circle, as dire&ed left. ii. with¬
out ftirrups; keeping his face looking on the outward
part of the circle fo as not to have a full view of the
horfe’s head, but juft of that ear which is on the out¬
ward part of the circle ; and his ftioulder, which is to¬
wards the centre of the circle, very forward. By this
means you learn to balance your body, and keep a true
feat, independent of your ftirrups : you may probably
likewife efcape a fall, fhould you at any time lofe them
by being accidentally Ihaken from your feat.
As the feat in fome meafure depends on the faddle,
it may not be amifs to obferve, that becaufe a faddle
with a high pommel is thought dangerous, the other
extreme prevails, and the pommel is fcarce allowed to
be higher than the middle of the faddls. The faddle
ftiould lie as near the back-bone as can be, without
hurting the horfe ; for the nearer you fit to his back,
the better feat you have. If it does fo, it is plain the
pommel muft rife enough to fecure the withers from
preflure : therefore, a horfe whofe withers are higher
than common, requires a higher pommel. If, to avoid
this, you make the faddle of a more ftraight line, the
inconvenience fpoken of follows; you fit too much a-
bove the horfe’s back, nor can the faddle form a pro¬
per feat. There ftiould be no ridge from the but¬
ton at the fide of the pommel, to the back part of
the faddle. That line alfo ftiould be a little concave,
for your thighs to lie at eafe. In ftiort, a faddle
ought to be, as nearly as poflible, as if cut out of the
horfe.
A N S H 1 P. Sefl.vm:
_ When you want your horfe to move forward, raife Plain Rul«
his head a little, and touch him gently with your whip ; f>,r -’ad
or elfe, prefs the calves of your legs againft; his fides. Horfemell‘
If he does not move fall enough, prefs them with more v " ]
force, and fo till the fpur juft touches him. By this
pra&ice he will (if he has any fpirit) move upon the
lead preffure of the leg. Never fpur him by a kick ; but
if it be neceflary to fpur him brifldy, keep your heels
clofe to his fides, and flacken their force as he becomes
obedient.
When your horfe attempts to be vicious, take e<ich
rein feparate, one in each hand, and advancing your
arms forward, hold him very ftiort. In this cafe, it is
common for the rider to pull him hard, with his arms
low. But the horfe by this means having his head low
too, has it more in his power to throw out his heels:
whereas, if his head be raifed vefy high, and his nofe
thrown out a little, which is confequent, he can nei¬
ther rife before nor behind ; becaufe he can give him-
felf neither of thofe motions, without having his head
at liberty. A plank placed in aquilibrio, cannot rife
at one end unlefs it finks at the other.
If your horfe is headftrong, pull not with one con¬
tinued pull, but flop, and back him often, juft lhaking
the reins, and making little repeated pulls till he obeys.
Horfes are fo accnftomed to bear on the bit when they
go forward, that they are difcouraged if the rider will
not let them do fo.
If a horfe is loofe-necked, he will throw up his
head at a continued pull; in which fituation, the ri¬
der, feeing the front of his face, can have no power
over him. When your horfe does thus, drop your
hand and give the bridle play, and he will of courfe
drop his head again into its proper place : while it is
coming down, make a fecond gentle pull, and you will
find his mouth. With a little praftice, this is done
almoft inftantaneoufly ; and this method will flop, in
the diftance of a few yards, a horfe, which will run
away with thofe who pull at him with all their might.
Almoft every one muft have obferved, that when a
horfe feels himfelf pulled with the bridle, even when
he is going gently, he often miftakes what was defigned
to flop him, as a dire&ion to bear on the bit and to
go fafter.
Keep your horfe’s head high, that he may raife his.
neck and creft ; play a little with the rein, and move
the bit in his mouth, that he may not prefs on it in.
one conftant and continued manner: be not afraid of
raifing his head too high; he will naturally be toa
ready to bring it down, and tire your arms with its
weight, on the leaft abatement of his mettle. When
you feel him heavy, flop him, and make him go back
a few paces : thus you break by degrees his propenfity
to prefs on his bridle.
You ought not to be pleafed (though many are)
with a round neck, and a head drawn in towards his
breaft : let your horfe carry his head bridling in, pro¬
vided he carries it high, and his neck arching upwards
but if his neck bends downwards, his figure is bad, his
fight is too near his toes, he leans on the bridle, and
you have no command over him. If he goes prefling
but lightly on the bridle, he is the more fure-footed,,
and goes pleafanter; as your wrift only may guide him.
If he hangs down his head, and makes you fupport
the weight of that and his neck with your arms bear-
.VIIL . H O R S E M
Rulesing on his fore-legs, (which is called being on hisJImuU
bacl ders), he will ftrike his toes againft the ground, and
1 ftumble.
If your horfe is heavy upon the bit, tie him every
day, for an hour or two, with his tail to the manger,
and his head as high as you can make him lift it, by
a rein on each poll of the Hall, tied to each ring of
the fnaffle bit.
Horfe-breakers and grooms have a great propensity
to bring a horfe’s head down, and feem to have no
feat without a ftreng hold by the bridle. They know
indeed, that the head ftiould yield to the reins, and
the neck form an arch ; but do not take the proper
pains to make It an arch upward. A temporary effect
of attempting to raife a horfe’s head, may perhaps be
making him pufh out his nofe. They will here tell
you, that his head is too high already ; whereas it is
not the diftance from his nofe, but from the top of his
head to the ground, which determines the head to be
high or low. Befides, although the fault is faid to be in
the manner of carrying the head, it fhould rather be faid
to be in that of the neck ; for if the neck was raifed,
the head would be more in the pofition of one fet on
a well formed neck.
The defign therefore of lifting up the head, is to
raife the neck, and thereby bring in the head ; for
even while the bridle makes the fame line from the
rider’s hand to the bit, the horfe’s nofe may be either
drawn in, or thruft out, according as his neck is raifed
or deprelfed. Inftead of what has been here recom¬
mended, we ufually fee colts broke with their heads
caveffoned very low, their necks ftiff, and not in the
leaft fuppled. When the breaking-tackle is left off,
and they are mounted for the road, having more food
and reft, they frequently plunge, and a fecond break¬
ing becomes neceflary. Then, as few gentlemen can
manage their own horfes, they are put into the hands
of grooms, from whom they learn a variety of bad
habits.
If, on the other hand, your horfe carries his head
- (or rather his nofe) too high, he generally makes fame
amends by moving his ftioulders lightly, and going
fafely. Attend to the caufe of this fault. Some horfes
have their necks fet fo low on their fhoulders, that they
bend firfl: down, then upwards, like a flag’s. Some
have the upper line of their necks, from their ears to
their withers, too ftiort. A head of this fort cannot
poffibly bend inwards and form an arch, becaufe the
vertebrae (or neck bones) are too flrort to admit of
flexure ; for in long and (hort necked horfes the num¬
ber of the vertebrae is the fame. In fome, the jaw is
fo thick, that it meets the neck, and the head by this
means has not room to bend. On the other hand, fome
have the under line from the jaw to the breaft fo Ihort,
that the neck cannot rife.
In all thefe cafes you may gain a little by a nice
hand with an eafy bit; but no curb, martingale, or
other forcible method, will teach a horfe to carry his
head or neck in a pofture which nature has made un-
eafy to him. By trying to pull in his nofe farther than
he can bear, you will add a bad habit to nature. You
could not indeed contrive a more effe&ual method to
make him continually tofs his nofe up, and throw his
foam over you.
The rule already given to ride a loofe-necked horfe,
A N S H I P.
will be a proper one for all light-mouthed horfes : one Plain
caution being added, which is, always to fearch whe-
ther his faddle or girths may not in fome way pinch
him ; and whether the bit may not hurt his lip by be¬
ing too high in his mouth : becaufe, whenever he frets
from either of thefe caufes, his head will not be fteady.
It is a common cuftom to be always pulling at the
bridle, as if to fet off to advantage either the fpirit of
the horfe, or the Ikill of the rider. Our horfes there¬
fore are taught to hold their heads low, and pull fo, as
to bear up the rider from the faddle, flanding in his
ftirrups, even in the gentleft gallop : how very impro¬
per is this, we are experimentally convinced, when we
happen to meet with a horfe which gallops otherwife.
We immediately fay, he canters excellently, and find the
eafe and pleafure of his motion. When horfes are de-
figned for the race, and fwiftnefs is the only thing con-
fidered, the method may be a good one.
It is not to be wondered that dealers are always
pulling at their horfes; that they have the fpur con-
ftantly in their fides, and are at the fame time conti¬
nually checking the rein : by this means they make
them bound, and champ the bit, while their rage has
the appearance of fpirit. Thefe people ride with their
arms fpread, and very low on the ftioulders of their
horfes : this method makes them ftretch their necks,
and gives a better appearance to their fore-hands; it
conceals alfo a thick jaw, which, if the head was up,
would prevent its yielding to the bit; it hides like-
wife the ewe-neck, which would otherwife fhow itfelf.
Indeed, if you have a horfe untteady to the bit, formed
with a natural heavy head, or one which carries his
nofe obftinately in the air, you muft find his mouth
where you can, and make the beft of him.
Many horfes are taught to ftart by whipping them
for flarting. How is it poflible they can know it is
defigned as a punifhment ? In the riding-houfe, you
teach your horfe to rife up before, and to fpring and
lafh out his hinder legs, by whipping him when tied
between two pillars, with his head a little at liberty.
If he underftood this to be a puniftiment for doing fo,
he would not by that method learn to do it. He feems
to be in the fame manner taught to fpring and fly
when he is frightened. Moft horfes would go quietly
paft an objeft they were beginning to fly from, if their
riders, inftead of gathering up their bridles, and ftiow-
ing themfelves fo ready, ftiould throw the reins loofe
upon their necks.
When a horfe ftarts at any thing on one fide, moft
riders turn him out of the road, to make him go up
to what he ftarts at: if he does not get the better of
his fear, or readily comply, he generally goes paft the
objedt, making with his hinder parts, or croup, a
great circle out of the road; whereas, he ftiould learn
to keep ftraight on, without minding objeSs on either
fide.
If he ftarts at any thing on the left, hold his head
high, and keep it ftraight in the road, pulling it from
looking at the thing he ftarts at, and keeping your
right leg hard preffed againft his fide, towards his
flank: he will then go ftraight along the road. By
this method, and by turning his head a little more,
he may be forced with his croup clofe up to what
frightened him ; for as his head is pulled one way, his
croup neceffarily turns the other. Always avoid a
*» 4 P 2 quar=
676 H O R S E M
Plain Rules quarrel with your horfe, if you can : if he is apt to
Horfemen ^ art’ ^ou w‘^ occafions enough to exercife his
- obedience, when what he Harts at lies direftly in his
*- way, and you mujl make him pafs; if he is not fub-
jeft to Hart, you Ihould not quarrel with him about a
trifle.
It muft be obferved, however, that this rule in go¬
ing pall an object may perhaps be a little irregular in
a managed horfe, which will always obey the leg :
but even fuch a horfe, if he is really afraid, and not
rettive, it may not be amifs to make look another
way ; unlefs the objeft be fotnething you would par¬
ticularly accuftom him to the fight of.
The cafe will alfo be different with a horfe whofe
fear is owing to his being not ufed to obje&s; but
fiich a one is not to be rode by any horfeman to whom
thefe rules are dirc&ed : the flarting here meant arifes
merely from the horfe’s being pamper’d, and fpringing
through hvelintfs.
The notion of the neceffity of making a horfe go
immediattly up to every thing he is afraid of, and not
fuffering him to become mafter of his rider, feems to
be in general carried too far. It is an approved and
good method to conquer a horfe’s fear of the found of
a drum, by beating one near to him at the time of
feeding him : this not only familiarizes' the noif* to
him, but makes it pleafant, as a fore-runner c. his
* See meat * ; whereas, if he was whipped up to it, he might
fe6l, v. perhaps ftart at it as long as he lived. Might not
this be applied to his flarting at other things, and
fhow that it would be better to fuffer him (provided
he does not turn back) to go a little from and avoid
an objedl he has a diflike to, and to accuflom him to
it by degrees, convincing him, as it were, that it will
not hurt him ; than to punifh him, quarrel with him,
and perhaps fubmit to his will at lafl, while you infift
on his overcoming his fear in an inllant ? If he fees a
like objedl again, it is probable he will recolledt his
dread, and arm himfelf to be difobedient.
We are apt to. fuppofe that a horfe fears nothing
fo much as his rider : but may he not, in many cir-
cumflances, be afraid of inflant deflrudlion ? of being
crufhed ? of being drowned ? of falling down a preci¬
pice ? Is it a wonder that a horfe fhould be afraid of a
loaded waggon? may not the hanging load feem.to
threaten the falling on him ? There cannot be a rule
more general, than, in fuch a cafe, to fhow him there
is room for him to pafs. This is done by turning his
head a very little from the carriage, and preffing your
leg, which is farthefl from it, agajnft his fide.
A horfe is not to flop without a fign from his rider.
— Is it not then probable, that when driven up to a
carriage he flarts at it, he conceives himfelf obliged
either to attack or run againfl it ? Can he underfland
the rider’s fpurring him with his face direfted to it, as
a fign for him to pafs it ? That a horfe is eafily alarmed
for his face and eyes (he will even catch back his
head from a hand going to carefs him) ; that he will
not go with any force, face to face, even to another
horfe (if in his power to flop) } and that he fees per-
fe&ly fideways,—may be ufeful hints for the treat¬
ment of horfes with regard to flatting.
Though you ought not to whip a horfe for flarting,
there can be no good effedl from clapping his neck
■with your hand to encourage him. If one toqk any
A N S H I P. Sea. VII.
notice of his ftarting, it fhould be rather with fome Plain Rules 1
tone of voice which he ufually underflood as an ex- forbad |
preffion of diflike to what he is doing ; for there is ^0f^men*fl j
oppojition mixed with his flarting, and a horfe will ever
repeat what he finds has foiled his rider.
Notwithflanding the diredlions above given, of' not
preffing a-horfe up to a carriage he flarts at; yet if
one which you apprehend will frighten him meets
you at a narrow part of the road, when you have
once let him know he is t > pafs it, be fure you remain
determined, and prefs him on. Do this more efpe-
cially when part of the carriage has already palled you :
for if, when he is frightened, he is accuftomed to go
back, and turn round, he will certainly do it if he
finds, by your hand flackening, and legs not preffing,
that you are irrefolute; and this at the mod dangerous
point of time, when the wheels of the carriage take
him as he turns. Remember not to touch the curb
rein at this time ; it will certainly check him. It is
not known to every one, that the perfon who would
lead a horfe by the bridle, fhould not turn his face to
him when he refufes to follow him : if, befides this, he
raifes his arms, ihows his whip, or pulls the bridle
with jerks, he frightens the horfe, indead of perfua-
ding him to follow; which a little patience may bring
about.
Ride with a fnaffle ; and ufe your curb, if you have
one, only occafionally. Choofe your fnaffle full and
thick in the mouth, efpecially at the ends to which
the reins are fallened. Mod of them are made too
fmall and long; they cut the horfe’e mouth, and
bend back over the bars of his jaw, working like
pincers.
The management of the curb is too nice a matter
to enter on here, farther than to prefcribe great cau¬
tion in the ufe of it: a turn of the wrift, rather than
the weight of your arm, fhould be applied to it. The
eladicity of a rod, when it hath hooked a fifh, may
givp you fome idea of the proper play of a horfe’s
head on his bridle; his fpirit and his pliablenefs are
both marked by it.
A horfe fhould never be put to do any thing in a
curb which he is not ready at: you may force him,
or pull his head any way with a fnaffle ; but a curb
ads only in a draight line. It is true, that a horfe
will be turned out of one track into another by a curb,
but it is becaufe he knows it as a ftgnal. When he is
put to draw a chair, and. does not underdand the ne¬
ceffity he is then under of taking a larger fweep when
he turns, you frequently fee him rejlive, as it is then
called : but put him on a fnaffle, or buckle the rein to
that part of the bit which does not curb him ; and;
the horfe fubmits to be pulled about, till he under-
dands what is defired of him. Thefe dire&ions-
fuppofe your horfe to have fpirit, and a good mouth :
if he has not, you mud take him as he is, and ride
him with fuch a bit as you find mod eafy to your-
felf.
WTren you ride a journey, be not fo attentive to
your horfe’s nice carriage of himfelf, as to your en¬
couragement of him, and keeping him in good humour.,
Raife his head ; but if he flags, you may indulge him
with bearing a little more upon the bit than you
would differ in an airing. If a horfe is lame, tender¬
footed, or tired, he naturally hangs upon his bridle.
6 Go.
Sea.virr. h o r s e m
Plain Rules On a journey, therefore, his mouth will depend greatly
Horfemen °n ^*S ^renSt^ an<^ goodnefs of his feet. Be then
_ very careful about his feet, and let not a farrier fpoil
them. You will be enabled to keep them from
danger, by the direftions given’ tinder the article
Farriery, p. 167.
Very few, although praftifed in riding, know they
have any power over a horfe but by the bridle ; or
any ufe for the fpur, except to make him go forward.
A little experience will teach them a farther ufe. If
the left fpur touches him (and he is at the fame time
prevented from goin^ forward), he has a fign, which
he will foon underftand, to move fideways to the right.
In the fame manner to the left, if the right fpttr is
clofed to him : he afterwards, through fear of the
fpur, obeys a touch of the leg; in the fame manner
as a horfe moves his croup from one fide of the ftall
to the other, when any one ftrikes him with his hand.
In Ihort, his croup is guided by the leg, as his head is
by the bridle. He will never difobey the leg, unlefs
he becomes reftive. By this means you will have a
far greater power over him ; he will move fideways, if
yon clofe one leg to him ; and ftraight forward, if
both : even when he Hands ftill, your legs held near
him will keep him on the watch; and with the
flighteft, unfeen motion of the bridle upwards, he
will raife his head, and Ihow his forehand to advan-
tage.
On this ufe of the*legs of the rider, and guidance
of the croup of the horfe, are founded all the airs (as
the riding-maftera exprefs themfelves) which are
taught in the manege ; the palfage, or lide-motion of
troopers to clofe or open their files, and indeed all
their evolutions. But the convenience of. fome degree
of this difcipline for common ufe is the reafon of
mentioning it here. It is ufeful if a horfe is apt to
Humble or Hart. If to the firfl, by prefiing your legs
to his flank, and keeping up his head, he is made to
go light on his fore-legs, which is aiding and fup-
porting him; and the fame if he does adually Hum¬
ble, by helping him at the very inllant to exert him-
felf, while as yet any part of him remains not irreco¬
verably imprefled with the precipitate motion. Hence
this ufe of the hand and legs of the rider is called
giving aids to a horfe ; for, as to holding up the weight
of a heavy una&ive horfe, by mere pulling, it is as
impoflible as to recover him when falling down a pre¬
cipice.
A horfe is fupported and helped by the hands and
legs of his rider in every adtion they require of him ;
hence he is faid to perform his airs by the aids from
his rider.
A N S H I P. 677
The fame manner is ufeful if a horfe Harts. For if Plain Rules
when he is beginning to fly to one fide, you leg on forbad
the fide he is flying to, he flops his fpring immedi- tIor^rnen-
ately. He goes pall what he flarted at, keeping J
ftraight on, or as you choofe to diredfc him ; and he will
not fly hack from any thing if you prefs him with
both kgs. You keep his haunches under him, going
down a hill ; help him on the fide of a bank ; more
eafily avoid the wheel of a carriage ; and approach
more gracefully and nearer to the fide of a coach or
horfeman. When a pampered horfe curvets irregularly,,
and twills his body to and fro, turn his head either
to the right or left, or both alternately (but without
letting him move out of the track), and prefs your leg
to the oppofite fide : your horfe cannot then fpring on
his hind-legs to one fide, becaufe your leg prevents
him ; nor to the other, becaufe his head looks that
way, and a horfe does not ftart and fpring to the fide
on which he looks. Here it may not be amifs to ob-
ferve the impropriety of the habit which many riders-
have, of letting their legs fliake againft the fides of
the horfe : if a horfe is taught, they are then con¬
tinually prefiing him to violent adlion ; and if he
is not, they render him infenfibte and incapable of
being taught. The fretting of a hot horfe will hence
be excelfive, as it can no otherwife be moderated
than by the utmoH Hillnefs of the feat, hands, and
legs of the rider.
Colts at firft are taught to bear a bit, and by de¬
grees to pull at it. If they did not prefs it, they
could not be guided by it. By degrees they find their
necks Hronger than the arms of a man ; and that they
are capable of making great oppofition, and often of
foiling their riders. Then is the time to make them
fupple and pliant in every part. The part which of
all others requires moll this pliancy is the neck.
Hence the metaphor of Jliff-necked for difobedmit. A
horfe cannot move his head but with the mufcles of
his neck : this may be called his helm ; it guides his.
courfe, changes and dire&s his motion.
The ufe of this pliancy in the different parts and
limbs of a horfe has been already Ihown in a former
feftion. The prefent fedlion being direfted to the
unexperienced hoifeman, it may fuffice to add, that •
his idea of fupplenefs need only be, that of an abi¬
lity and readinefs in a horfe to move every limb, on
a fign given him by the hands or legs of his rider ^
as alfo, to bend his body, and move in a fhort com-
pafs, quick and collefted within himfelf, fo as inftantly
to be able to perform any other motion.
H O R
Horfham. HORSHAM, a town of Suflex, feated near St
v »»■ Leonard’s foreft, 38 miles from London. It has its
name from Horfa, brother to HengiH the Saxon ; and
is one of the largeH towns in the county. It has fent
members to parliament ever fince the 30th of Edward I.
and is the place where the county-gaol is held, and
often the affizes. It is a borough by prefeription, with
the title of two bailiffs and burgage-holders within and
without the borough, &c. who elect the members of
H O R
parliament, and they are returned by the bailiffs chofe Horfti:-,*-
yearly by a court-leet of the lord of the manor, who ——y-wJ
return Jour candidates to the lleward, and he nomi¬
nates two of them for the office. Here is a very fine
church, and a well endowed free-fchool. Great Hore
of poultry is bought up for London at its market on
Saturday, and it has a patent alfo for a monthly mar¬
ket.
HORSTIUS (James), profeffor of medicine in the
univerfity-
H O R f 678 ] H O R
Hoi-ftius univerfity of Helmftadt, in the 16th century. He
I joined devotion with the knowledge and pra&ice of
H^’rtUj, phyfic. He carefully prayed to God to blefs his pre-
y fcriptions, and publifned a form of prayer upon this
fubjeft. He alfo wrote, I. A treatife on the quali¬
ties of a good phyfician. 2. Another on the qualities
of a good apothecary. 3. A treatife of the plague,
in German. 4. A commentary inlibros Hippocratis de
corde, and other works.
Horstius (Gregory), nephew of the former, called
the JEfculapms of Germany, publifhed feveral books,
which are efteemed.
HORTAGILERS, in the grand fignior’s court,
npholiterers, or tapeftry-hangers. The grand fignior
has conftantly 400 in his retinue when he is in the
camp : thefe go always a day’s journey before him, to
fix upon a proper place for his tent, which they pre¬
pare firft ; and afterwards thofe of the officers, accord¬
ing to their rank.
HORTENSIUS (Quintus), a celebrated Roman
orator, the cotemporary of Cicero, pleaded with uni-
verfal applaufe at 19 years of age, and continued the
fame profeffion during 48 years. But being at laft
eclipfed by Cicero, he quitted the bar, and embraced
a military life ; became a military tribune, praetor,
and afterwardsconful, about 70 B. C. Cicero fpeaks
of him in fuch a manner as makes us regret the lofs
of his orations. Hortenfius had a wonderful memory,
and delivered his orations without writing down a
fmgle word, or forgetting one particular that had been
advanced by his adverfaries. He died very rich, a
little before the civil war, which he had endeavoured
by all poffible means to prevent.
HORTUS SICCUS, a dry garden ; an appella¬
tion given to a colle&ion of fpecimens of plants, care¬
fully dried and preferred.
The value of fuch a colleftion is very evident,
finde 1000 minutiae may be preferred in the well
dried fpecimens of plants, which the moft accurate
engraver would overlook. We (hall therefore give two
methods of drying and preferring a hortus Jiccus v the
firft by Sir Robert Southwell in Philofophical Tranf-
afftions, n° 237. ; and the other by Dr Hill, in his re¬
view of the works of the Royal Society, with his ob-
jeftions to Sir Robert’s method.
According to the former gentleman, the plants are
to be laid flat between papers, and then put between
two fmooth plates of iron, fcrewed together at the
corners; and in this condition committed to a baker’s
oven for two hours. When taken out, they are to be
rubbed over with a mixture of equal parts of aquafor¬
tis and brandy; and after this to be faftened down on
paper with a folution of the quantity of a walnut of
gum tragacanth difiblved in a pint of water. See
Herbal.
To this the Do&or obje&s, that the heat of an oven
is much too uncertain to be employed in fo nice an
operation ; and that the fpace of time ordered for con¬
tinuing the plants in it is of no information, unlefs
the degree of heat, and even the different nature
of the plant cs to its fucculency and the firm-
nefs or tendernefs of its fibres, be attended to; there
being fcarcely any two plants alike in thefe particulars:
confequently the degr.e and duration of heat fufficient
£01 one plant would deftroy another. Befide which,
the acid ufed deftroys the colour of many plants; and Hortus,
never recovers that of others loft in the drying ; and H°r'>s
frequently after the plant is fixed down, rots both the v—"
paper it is fixed to, and that which falls over it. Dr
Hill’s method is as follows. Take a fpecimen of a
plant in flower, and with it one of its bottom leaves if
it have any ; brifife the (talk if too rigid, or flit it if
too thick : fpread out the leaves and flowers on pa¬
per, cover it with more paper, and lay a weight over
all. At the end of 18 hours take out the plants, now
perfeftly flattened, and lay them on a bed of dry com¬
mon fand ; fift more dry fand over them to the depth
of two inches, and thus let them lie about three weeks:
the lefs fucculent dry much fooner, but they take no
harm afterward. If the floor of a garret be covered in
fpring with fand two inches deep, leaving fpace for
walking to the feveral parts, it will receive the col-
leftion of a whole fummer ; the covering of fand be¬
ing fifted over every parcel as laid in, they need no
farther care from the time of laying them till they are
taken up to be ftuck on paper. The cement ufed by
the Doddor is thus prepared : early in the fpring, put
two ounces of camphor into three quarts of water in a
large bottle, (hake it from time to time, and when the
firit colledted plants are ready for the faftening down,
put into a pint of the water, poured off into an earth¬
en veffel that will bear the fire, two ounces of com¬
mon glue, fuch as is ufed by the carpenters, and the
fame quantity of ichthybcolla beat to (hreds; let them
Hand 36 hours, then gently boil the whole a few mo¬
ments, and drain it off through a coarfe cloth: this is
to be warmed over a gentle heat when it is to be ufed,
and the back of the plants fmeared over with a paint¬
er’s brufh : after this lay them on paper, and gently
prefs them for a few minutes, then expofe them to
the air a little ; and finally, lay them under a fmall
weight between quires of paper to be perfe&ly dried.
It is fcarce to be conceived how ftrongly the water
becomes impregnated with the camphor by this Ample
procefe : a part of it indeed flies off in the making of
the cement and the ufing of it: but enough remains
with the plants to prevent the breeding of infefts in it.
He farther obferves, that plants may be dried very
well without fand, by only putting them frequently
into fre(h quires of paper, or a few', by only preffing
them between the leaves of a book : but the fand me¬
thod preferves the colour belt, and is done with leaft
trouble.
Another method much better than that of the
oven is the flattening and drying the plant by paffing
a common fmoothing iron for linen over the papers
between which it is laid : but for nice things the moft
perfecl of all methods is that by a common fand heat,
fuch as is ufed for chemical purpofes. The cold fand
■ if to be fpread fmooth upon this occafion, the plant
laid on it carefully flatted, and a thick bed of fand lift¬
ed over: the fire is then to be made, and the whole
procefs carefully watched until bf a very' gentle heat
the plant be carefully dried. The colour of the. ten-
dereit herb may by this manner be preferved ; and
flowers, that can no way elfe be preferved, may be ma¬
naged perfectly well thus.
HORUS, a renowned deity of ancient Egypt. He
was an emblem of the fun, Plutarch (in his treatife
de Ifide et Ofiride) fays, “ that virtue which p efides
over
H O R {6;
Horus. over the fun, whilft he is moving through fpace, the
Egyptians called Horus and the Greeks Apollo ” Job al-
fo calls Ur or Orus the fun—“ If I gazed upon the
fun [Ur, Orus) when he was fliining, or on (JarUha)
the moon walking in brightnefs, and my heart hath
been feverely enticed (i. e. to worlhip), or my mouth
hath killed my hand ; this alfo were an iniquity to be
punilhed by the judge, for I Ihould have denied the
God who is above.” Chap. xxxi. ver. 26, 27, 28.
The interpretation left by Hermapion of the hiero¬
glyphics engraved on the obelilk of Heliopolis (accord¬
ing to AmmianusMarcellinus), offers thefe remarkable
words: “ Horus is the fupreme lord and author of
time.” Thefe qualities, it is known, were chiefly
attributed to Ofiris: that they may apply, therefore,
to Horus, he muft neceffarily denote the flar of the
day in certain circumftances; and this is what is ex¬
plained to us by the oracle of Apollo of Claros:
Learn that the firft of the gods is Jao.
He is called invifMe in winter, Jupiter in the fpring,
The fun in futnmer, and towards the end of autumn the
tender Jao.
The ftar of the day, on attaining the fummer folftice,
and called per excellentiam The fun, is the fame as Ho¬
rus. In faft, the Egyptians reprefented him borne
on lions, which fignified his entrance into the fign of
the lion. They who prefided over the divine inftitu-
tions, then placed fphynxes at the head of the canals and
facred fountains, to warn the people of the approaching
f Saturnal, inundation. Macrebius f, who informs us why the
hb. 1. ’ Greeks gave Horus the name of Apollo, confirms this
fentiment: “ In the myfteries (fays he) they difeoyer
as a fecret, which ought to be inviolable, that the fun
arrived in the upper hemifphere, is called Apollo.”
Thefe teftimonies concur in proving, that this emble¬
matical deity was no other than the ftar of day, paf-
fing through the figns of fummer.
Thefe lights may lead us to the explication of the
facred fable, which the priefts publifhed on the fub-
jeA of Horus ; for they enveloped in myftery every
point of their religion. Plutarch gives it at length in
his treatifeof Ifis and Ofiris: Of the following are the
principal traits. They faid that he was the fon of Ofi¬
ris and of Ifis; that TyP^on> a^ter killing his brother
Ofiris, took poflefiion of the kingdom ; that Horus,
leaguing himfelf with Ifis, avenged the death of his
father, expelled the tyrant from his throne without
depriving him of life, and reigned glorioufly in E-
gypt. A perfon who has travelled ever fo little in
Egypt, eafily difeovers natural phenomena hid under
the veil of fable. In the fpring, the wind khamfin
frequently makes great ravages there. It raifes whirl¬
winds of burning fands, which fuffocate travellers,
darken the air, and cover the face of the fun in fuch
a manner as to leave the earth in perfeA obfeurity.
Here is the death of Ofiris and the reign «f Typhon.
Thefe hurricanes break loofe ufually in the months of
February, March, and April. When the fun ap¬
proaches the fign of the lion, he changes the ftate of
the atmofphere, difperfes thefe tempefts, and reftores
the northerly winds, which drive before them the ma¬
lignant vapours, and preferve in Egypt coolnefs and
falubrity under a burning fky. This is the triumph of
Horus over Typhon and his glorious reign. As the
9 ] H O S
natural philofophers acknowledge the influence of the Hofanna
moon over the ftate of the atmofphere, they united her ||
with this god, to drive the ufurper from the throne. Hofea.
The priefts confidering Ofiris as the father of time, lt.
might beftow the name of his fon on Horus, who
reigned three months in the year. This, according to
Mr Savary f, is the natural explication of this \ Letters on
gory. And all enlightened men, he thinks, muft have Egypt, II.
underftood this language, which was familiar to them. 4°3*
The people only, whofe feeble fight extends -no farther
than the exterior, without diving into the true meaning
of things, might regard thefe allegorical perfonages as
real gods, and decree prayers and offerings to them.
Jablonfld, who has interpreted the epithet of Aru-
eri, which the Egyptians gave to Horus, pretends
that it fignifies efficacious virtue. Thefe expreflions
perfe&ly chara&erife the phenomena which happened
during the reign of this god. It is in fummer, in faA,
that the fun manifefts all its power in Egypt. It is
then that he fwells the waters of the river with rains,
exhaled by him in the air, and driven againft the fum-
mits of the Abyflinian mountains ; it is then that the
hufbandman reckons on the treasures of agriculture. It
was natural for them to honour him with the name of A-
rucri, ox efficacious virtue, to mark thefe aufpicious effe&s.
HOSANNA, in the Hebrew ceremonies, a prayer
which they rehearfed on the feveral days of the feaft
of tabernacles. It was thus called, becaufe there was
frequent repetition therein of the word *ajwin, ferva
nunc, or ferva precor; i. e. fave us now ; or, fave us, we
pray.
There are divers of thefe hofannahs. The Jews-
call them hofchannolh ; i. e. the hofannahs. Some are
rehearfed on the firft day, others on the fecond, See.
which they call hofanna of the firft day, hofanna of the
fecond day, &c.
Hosanna Rabba, or Grand Hofanna, is a name they
give to their feaft of tabernacles, which lafts eight
days ; becaufe, during the courfe thereof, they are fre¬
quently calling for the afliftance of God, the forgive-
nefs of their fins, and his bleffing on the new year ;
and to that purpofe they make great ufe of the hof-
channoth, or prayers above mentioned.—The Jews al¬
fo apply the term hofanna. rabba, in a more peculiar
manner, to the feventh day of the feaft of tabernacles ;
becaufe they apply themfelves more immediately on
that day to invoke the divine bleffing, See.
HOSCH1US (Sidronius), a jefuit, who was born
at Marke, in the diocefe of Ypres, in 1596, and died
at Tongres in 1653. He wrote fome elegies and other
poems in Latin with great purity and elegance.
HOSE, from the Saxon Hofa, a flocking. See
Stocking.
HOSEA, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
fo called from the prophet of that name, its author,
who was the fon of Beri, and the firft of the leffer pro¬
phets. He. lived in the kingdom of Samaria, and deli¬
vered his prophefies .under the reign of Jeroboam II.
and his fucceffors, kings of Ifrael; and under the reigns
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of
Judah. His principal defign is to publilh the grofs ido¬
latries of the people of Ifrael and Judah, to denounce
the divine vengeance againft them, and to foretel the
captivity in Affyria.
*
HO S-
H O S [ 680 ] H O S
Hofplnian, HOSP1NIAN (Rodolphus), one of the greateft
Hofl ital vvr;terg t]iat Switzerland has given birth to. He was
• y""J~ born in 1547, at Altorf near Zurich; obtained the
freedom of Zurich ; and was made provifor of the
abbey fchool. Notwithftanding this employment, he
undertook a noble work of vaft extent, which was a
Hijiory of the Errors of Popery, Though he could
not complete this work according to his plan, he pub-
lilhed fome confiderable parts of it: what he publilh-
ed on the Eucharift, and another work called Concor¬
dia Difcors, exceedingly exafperated the Lutherans.
He did not reply to them; but turning his arms againft
the Jefuits, publiflied Hijloria Jefuitica, &c. Thefe
, writings gained him preferment; he being appointed
archdeacon of Caroline church, and then minifter of
the abbey-church. He died in 1626 ; and there was
an edition of his works publifhed at Geneva 1681, in
' feven volumes in folio.
HOSPITAL, popularly Spittal, a place or build¬
ing erefted, out of charity, for the reception and fup-
port of the poor, aged, infirm, fick, and otherwife
helplefs. The word is formed of the Latin hofpesy
“ holt, ftranger.,> See Host.
In the ages of the church, the bilhop had the im¬
mediate charge of all the poor, both found and difea-
fed, as alfo of widows, orphans, Itrangers, &c.—
When the churches came to have fixed revenues allot¬
ted them, it was decreed; that at leaft one fourth
part thereof fhonld go to the relief of the poor ; and
to provide for them the more commodioully, divers
MJufes of charity were built, which are fxnce denomi¬
nated hofpitals. They were governed wholly by the
priefts and deacons, under the infpeftion of the bi¬
lhop. In courfe of time, feparate revenues were aflign-
ed for the hofpitals; and particular perfons, out of
motives of piety and charity, gave lands and money
for creating of hofpitals. When the church difcipline
began to relax, the priefts, who till then had been
the adminiftrators of hofpitals, converted them into a
fort of benefices, which they held at pleafure, with¬
out giving account thereof to any body 5 referving
the greateft part of the income to their own ufe; fo
that the intentions of the founders were fruftrated.—■
To remove this abufe, the council of Vienne exprefsly
prohibited the giving any hofpital to fecular priefts in
the way of a benefice ; and direfted the adminiftra-
tion thereof to be given to fufficient and refponfible
laymen, who (hould take an oath, like that of tutors,
for the faithful difcharge thereof, and be accountable
to the ordinaries.—This decree was executed and con¬
firmed by the council of Trent.
In Britain, hofpitals are buildings properly endow¬
ed, or otherwife fupported by charitablejcontributions,-
for the. reception and fupport of the poor, aged, infirm,
fick, or helplefs.
A charitable fcundation laid thus for the fuftenance
and relief of the poor, is to continue for ever. Any
perfon feized of an eftate in fee, may, by deed inrol-
led in chancery, ere& and found an hofpital, and no¬
minate fuch heads and governors therein as he (hall
think fit; and this charitable foundation lhall be in¬
corporated, and fubjeft to the infpedlion and guidance
of the heads and vifitors nominated by the founder.
Likewife fuch corporations fliall have, take, and pur-
Np 157.
chafe lands, fo as not to exceed 2001. ayear, provided the Hofpital,
fame be not held of the king; and to make leafes, refer- Hofpitalny,
ving the accuftomed yearly rent. See Corporation.  v—^
HOSPITAL (Michael de P), chancellor of France
in the 16th century, was one of the greateft men of
hi? age, and had raifed himfelf by degrees. He agreed
to an edidl much feverer againft the Proteftants than
he could have wiftied, to prevent the introdu&ion of
the inquifition. It was that of Romorantin. The
fpeeches he made, in order to infpire a fpirit of tolera*
tion, made him much fufpedled by the Roman Catho¬
lics, and extremely odious to the court of Rome. The
maxims of date upon which he regulated himfelf were
of great advantage to France, fince he formed fome
difciples who oppofed, in proper time, the pernicious
attempts of the leaguers, and rendered them abortive. 
His pacific views being difliked by Catharine de Me-
dicis, who had contributed to his advancement, ftre ex¬
cluded him from the council of war, and occalioned
his difgrace. He retired, however, of his own ac¬
cord, in 1568; and fpent the reft of his life at his
country-feat at Vignai, where he died in 1573, aged
68. ' His poems arc efteemed. He alfo publimed
fome excellent fpeeches and memoirs.
Hospital (William-Francis-Anton^, marquis of),
a great mathematician of France, wras born of an
ancient family in 1661. He was a geometrician al-
moft from his infancy; for one day being at the duke
of Rohan’s, where fome able mathematicians were
fpeaking of a problem of Pafchal’s which appeared to
them extremely difficult, he ventured to fay, that he
believed, he could folve it. They were amazed at fuch
prefumption in a boy of 15, for he was then no more;
neverthelefs, in a few days he fent them the folution.
He entered early into the army, and was a captain of
horfe ; but being extremely fhort-fighted, and expofed
on that account to perpetual inconveniences and errors,
he at length quitted the army, and applied himfelf en¬
tirely to his favourite amufement. He contra&ed a
friendlhip with Malbranche, and took his opinion upon
all occafions. In 1693, vvdS received an honorary
member of the academy of fciences at Paris; and he
publifhed a work upon Sir Ifaac Newton’s calcula¬
tions, intitled, JJAnalyfe des infnimens petits. Fie was
the fir ft in France who wrote upon this fubjeft ; and
on this account was regarded almoft as a prodigy. He
engaged afterwards in another work of the mathemati¬
cal kind, in which he included Les Secliones Coniques,
les Lieux Geometriques, la ConJlruBion des Equations, et
Une Theorie des Courbes Meehaniques : but a little be¬
fore he had finiftied it, he was feized with a fever, of
which he died Feb. 2. 1704, aged 43. It was publilh-
ed after his death.
HOSPITALITY, the pra&ice of entertaining
ftrangers. Dr Robertfon, fpeaking of the middle ages,
fays, “ Among people whofe manners are fimple, and
who are feldom vilited by ftrangers, hofpitality is a
virtue of the firft rank. This duty of hofpitality was
fo neceflary in that ftate of fociety which took place
during the middle ages, that it was not confidered as
one of thofe virtues which men may praftife or not,
according to the temper of their minds and the gene-
rofity of their hearts. Hofpitality was enforced by
ftatutes, and thofe who negle&ed the duty were liable
to
H O S [ 681 J H O S
H^fpita- to puni/hment. The laws of the Slavl ordained that
hty. the moveables of an inhofpitable perfon (hould be con-
'""‘■v fifcatedj and his houfe burnt. They were even fo fe¬
licitous for the entertainment of ftrangers, that they
permitted the landlord to fteal for the fupport of his
gueft.”
The hofpitality of our Britifh anceftors, particularly
of the great and opulent barons, hath been much ad¬
mired, and confidered as a certain proof of the noble-
nefs and generofity of their fpirits. The fadt is well
attefled. The caftles of the powerful barons were ca¬
pacious palaces, daily crowded vfith their numerous
retainers, who were always welcome to their plentiful
tables. They had their privy counfellors, their trea- „
furers, marlhahj conftables, ftewards, fecretaries, chap¬
lains, heralds, purfuivants, pages, henflimen ot guards,
trumpeters, minflrels, and in a word all the officers of
a royal court, The etiquette of their families was an
exaft copy of that of the royal houfehold ; and fome
ot them lived in a degree of pomp and fplendor little
inferior to that of the greateft kings. Richard Ne¬
ville, earl of Warwick, we are told, “ was ever had in
greet favour of the commons of the land, becaufe of
the exceedinghoufehold which he daily kept in all coun¬
tries wherever he fojourned or lay: and when he came
to London) he held fuch an houfe, that fix oxen were
eaten at a breakfaft ; and every taVern was full of his
meat.” The earls of Douglas in Scotland, before the
fall of that great family, rivalled or rather exceeded
their fovereigns in pomp and profufe hofpitality. - But
to this manner of living, it is highly probable thefe
great* chieftans w’ere prompted by a dtfire of increa-
fing the number and attachment of their retainers, on
which, in thofe turbulent times, their dignity, and
even their fafety, depended, as much as to the innate
generofity of their tempers, Thofe retainers did not
' con(lantly refide in the families of their lords ; but
they wore their liveries and badges, frequently feafted
in their halls, fwelled their retinues on all great folem-
hities, attended them in their journeys, and followed
them into the field of battle. Some powerful chief¬
tains had fo gieat a number of thefe retainers conilant^
ly at their command, that they fit the laws at de¬
fiance, were formidable to their fovereigns, and ter¬
rible to their fellow-fubjedts; and feveral laws were made
againlt giving and receiving liveries. But thefe laws
produced little eftedt in this period.
Hofpitality wras not confined to the great and opu¬
lent, but was pradtifed rather more than it is at pre-
lent by pcrlons in the middle and lower ranks of life.
But this w'as owing to necefiity, ariling from the fear*-
city of inns, w'hich obliged travellers and firaiigers to
apply to private perfons for lodging and entertainment 5
and thofe who received thetn hofpitably acquired a
right to a iimilar reception. This was evidently the
cafe in Scotland in the fitft part of this period.
James I. A. D. 1424, procured the following adt of
parliament. “ It is ordanit, That in all burrow townis,
and throuchfairis quhair commoun paffages at, that
thair be ordanit holtillalies and refettis, havand ilables
and chalmersj and that men find with thame bread
and aill, and all utber fude, alfweil for- horfe as men,
for refonable priced’ But travellers bad been fo long
accuftomed to lodge in private houfes, that thefe pub¬
lic inns were quite negledted ; and thofe who kept
Vol. VIII. Part II.
them prefented a petition to parliament, complaining, Hofpital*
“ That the liegis travelland in the realme, quhen th£y
cum to burrowis and throuchfairis, herbreis thame not
in hoflillaries, hot with thairacquaintance andfriendis.” ——y-assj
This produced an adt prohibiting travellers to lodge in
private houfes where there were hoftalries, under the
penalty of 40 s. and fubjedting thofe who lodged them
to the fame penalty.
The inhabitants of the Highlands and the Wefterrt
Ilies were remarkable for their hofpitality and kindnefs
to ftrangers, and ftill retain the fame difpofition. Sec
Highlanders.
HOSPITALLERS, Hospitalarii, an order of
religious knights, who built an hofpital at Jtrufalem,
wherein pilgrims were received. To thefe pope Cle¬
ment V. transferred the eftedts and revenues of the
Templars; whom, by a council held at Vienne, he
fupprdfed for their many and great mifdemeanours.
Thefe hofpitallers were other wife called Knights of
St John of Jerufalem; and are the faitie with thofe
whom we now call Knights of Malta.
HOSPITIUM, a term ufed in old writers either for
an inn or a monaftery, built for the reception of ftran¬
gers and travellers. See Ink and Monastery.
HOSPODAU, a title borne by the princes of
Walachia and Moldavia, who receive the inveftiture
of their principalities from the grand fignior. He
gives them a veil and ftandard; they‘are under hig
protcdlion, and obliged to ferve him, and he even
fometimes depofes them ; but in other refpedls they-
are abfolute fovereigns tvithin their own dominions.
HOST, hospes, a term of mutual relation, ap¬
plied both to a perfon who lodges and entertains ano¬
ther, and to the perfon thus lodged, &c.—The word
is formed of the Latin,-.which fome will have
thus called, quafi helium or ojlium petens; for ojiium
was anciently written with an afpirate.—Thus the inn¬
keeper fays, he has a good h(f, in fpeaking of the
traveller who lodges with him: and the traveller,
again, fays, he has a kind hoji, in fpeaking of his
landlord,
It mu ft be obferved then, that it was the cuftom
amoi.g the ancients, when any ftrangfcr alked for lod¬
ging, for the mafter of the houfe, and the flranger,
each of them to fet a foot on their own fide of the
threfhold, and fwear they would neither of them do
any harm to the other. It was this ceremony that
raifed fo much horror againft thofe who violated the
law or right of hofpitality on either fide ; inafmucii
as they were looked on as perjured.
Ihftead oi hojpes, the ancient Latins called it hofis ;
as Cicero himfelf informs us: though, in cotirfe of
time, hoJUs came to fignify an enemy ; fo much was
the notion of hofpitality altered-.
Host is alio ufed by way of abbreviation for hoJUa*
a victim or facrifice offered to the Deity. In this
fenfe, hojl is more immediately underflood of the per¬
fon of the Word incarnate, who was offered up an hoft
or hojlitia to the Father on the crofs for the fins of
mankind. See Hostia.
Host, in the church of Rome, a name given to
the elements ufed in the eucharift, or rather to the
confecrated Wafer; which they pretend to offer up
every day a new hoft or facrifice for the fins of man¬
kind— They pay adoration to the hoft, upon a falfe
4 ^ pre-
H O S [ 682 ] H O S
Hoftage prefumption that the elements are no longer bread and
Hit. w>nt> but tranfubllantiated into the real body and blood
^Chrift. See Transubstaktiation Pope Gre¬
gory IX. firft decreed a bell to be rung, as the lignal
fur the people to betake themfelves to the adoration of
the hoft.- The veffel wherein the hoftsare kept is call¬
ed the cibory ; being a large kind of covered chalice.
HOSTAGE, a perfon given up to an enemy as
a fecurity for the performance of the articles of a treaty
HOSTIA, Host, in antiquity, a vidfim offered in
facrifice to a deity.
The word is formed from hojlis, “ enemyit being
the cuilom to offer up a facrifice before they joined
battle, to render the gods propitious; or, after the
battle was over, to give them thanks. Some choofe
to derive the word from hqjlio, <^. A. ferio, “ I ftrike.”
Ifidore on this word rema»ks, that the name hojlia was
given to thofe facrifices which they offered before they
marched to attack an enemy, (antequnm ad hqftem per-
gerent) ; in contradiftinftion from mtlima, whi^h were
properly thofe offered after the vidtory.
Hojlia alfo fignified the leffer forts of facrifice, and
’viBima the larger. A. Gellius fays, that every prieft,
indifferently, might facrifice the hojlia, but that the
viBima could be offered by none but the conqueror
himfelf. But, after all, we find thefe two words pro-
mifcuoufly ufed one for the other by ancient writers.
We read of many kinds of hojliie: as hojlia: pura, which
were pigs or lambs ten days old; hojlia pracidanea, facri¬
fices offered the day before a folemn feaft; hojlia bidentes,
facrifices of flieep or other animals of two years old ;
hojlia cximia, a facrifice of the flower of the flock; hojlia:
fuccedanea, facrifices offered after others which had ex¬
hibited fome ill omen ; hojlia umbarvales, vidlims facri-
ficed after having been folemnly led round the fields at
the atnbarvalia; hojlia amburbiales, vidfims flain after
the amburbium ; hjlia caneares or caviares, vidfims fa-
crificed every fifth year by the college of pontiffs, in
which they offered the part of the tail called caviar;
hojliaprodigia, facrifices in which the fire confumed all,
and left nothing for the priefts ; hojlia piaculares, expi¬
atory facrifices'; hojlia amhegna or ambiegna, facrifices of
cows or (beep that had brought forth twins; hojlia
haruga, vidfims offered to predidf future events from ;
hojlia mediates, black vidfims offered at noon.
HOSTILITY, the adtion of an enemy, or a ftate
of warfare. The word is Latin, hojlilitas, formed of
the primitive hojlis, which fignifies “enemy;” and
* which anciently fignified “ ftranger,” hofpes.
HOT-beds, in gardening, beds made with frelh
horfe-dung, or tanner’s bark, and covered with glaffes
to defend them from cold winds.
By the flcilful management of hot-beds, we may
imitate the temperature of warmer climates; by which
means, the feeds of plants brought from any of the
countries within the torrid zone may be made to
flourifh even under the poles.
The hot-beds commonly ufed in kitchen-gardens,
are made with new horfe dung mixed with the litter
of a liable, and a few fea-coal-alhes, which lalt are
of fervice in continuing the heat of the dung. This
fhould remain fix or feven days in a heap; and being
then turned over, and the parts mixed well together,
it Ihould be again calf into a heap; where it may con¬
tinue five or fix days longer, by which time it will
have acquired a due heat. Thefe hot-beds are made Hot.
in the following manner : In fome Iheltered part of —
the garden, dig out a trench of a length and width
proportionable to the frames you intend it for; and if
the ground be dry, about a foot or a foot and a half
deep ; but if it be WTt, not above fix inches: then
wheel the dung into the opening, obferving to ftir
every part of it with a fork, and to lay it exaftly
even and fmooth on every part of the bed, laying the
bottom part of the heap, which is commonly free from
litter, upon the furface of the bed : and if it be de-
figned for a bed to plant out cucumbers to remain-
for good, you muff make a hole in the middle of the.
place defigned for each light about ten inches over,
and fix deep, which Ihould be. filled with good frefh
earth, thrufting in a Hick to fhow the places where
the holes are; then cover the bed all over with the
earth that was taken out of the trench, about four
inches thick, and put on the frame, letting it remain
till the earth be w^arm, which commonly happens in
three or four days after the bed is made, and then the
plants may be placed in it. But-if your hot-bed. be
defigned for other plants, there need be no holes made
in the dung ; but after having fmoothed the furface
with a fpade, you fhould cover the dung about three
or four inches thick with good earth, putting on the
frames and glafles as before. In making thefe beds,
care muff be taken to fettle the dung clofe with a
fork; and if it be pretty full of long litter, it (hould
be trod down equally on every part. During the firft,
week or ten days after the bed is made, you fliould
cover the glafles but flightly in the night, and in the
day-time carefully raife them, to let out the fleam :
but as the heat abates, the covering (hould be increa-
fed ; and as the bed grows cold, new hot dung fliould
be added round the fides of it.
The hot-bed made with tanner’s bark is, however,
much preferable to that deferibed above, efpecially J
for all tender exotic plants and fruits, which requite
an even degree of warmth to be continued fur feveral
months, which cannot be effetffed with horfe-dung.
The manner of making them is Bs follows : -Dig a
trench about three feet deep, if the ground be dry ;
but if wet, it muft not be above a foot deep at moft,
and muft be raifed two feet above the ground. The
length muft be proportioned to the frames intended to
cover it; but it (hould never be lefs than ten or twelve
feet, and the width not lefs than fix. The trench
(hould be bricked up round the fides to the above-
mentioned height of three feet, and filled in the fpring
with frefli tanner’s bark that has been lately drawn
out of their vats, and has lain in a round heap, for
the moifture to drain out of it, only three or four
days: as it is put in, gently beat it down equally
with a dung-fork ; but it muft not be trodden, which
would prevent its heating, by fettling it too clofe:
then put on the frame, covering it with glafles ; and
in about ten days or a fortnight it will begin to heat;
at which time plunge your pots of plants or feed into
it, obferving pot to tread down the bark in doing it.
Thefe.beds will continue three or four months in a
good temper of heat; and if you ftir up the bark
pretty deep,^nd mix a load or two of frefh bark with
the old when you find the warmth decline, you will
preferve its heat two or three months longer. Many
HOT r 683 1 HOT
Hotel lay fome hot horfe-dung In the bottom of the trench
under the bark ; but this ought never to be praftifed
_ onentota unjefs tjie js wanlec] fooner than the bark would
- ' heat of itfelf, and even then there ought only to be a
fmall quantity of dung at the bottom.
The frames which cover thefe beds, (hould be pro¬
portioned to the feveral plants they are defigned to
contain. If they are to cover the ananas or pine¬
apple, the back part fhould be three feet high, and the
lower part 15 inches: if the bed be intended for taller
plants, the frame muft be made of a depth proportion-
able to them: but if it be for fowing of feeds, the
frame need not be above 14 inches high at the back,
and 7 in the front; by which means the heat will
be much greater.
Hor-Houfe. See Stove and Hypocaustum.
HOTEL, a French term, anciently fignifying a
houfe or dwelling place.—It is now more commonly
ufed for the palaces or houfes of the king, princes, and
great lords. In this fenfe they fay, the hotel de Gonde,
hotel de Conti, hotel du Louvre, &c.
The grand prevot de Photel, is the firft j udge of the
officers of the king’s hou^hold. His jurifdidion is
much like that of lord fteward of the houfehold of the
king of England.
The hotel de vide is what we call a town-houfe or
town’kall.
Hotel, is likewife ufed for a large inn, alfo for a
large lodging-hcufe ready furnilhed.
HOTMAN (Francis), one of the moft learned ci¬
vilians in the 16th century. He profeffed law at
Bourges: but, on account of religion, retired to Ge¬
neva, read leAures on civil law there, and publifhed
books with fuch ftrength againft the perfecutors, that
great promifes were made to him to engage him not
to write any more in that manner ; but he did not re¬
gard their offers. He died at Bafil in 1590. His
Franco-Gallia is well known, having been done in
Englifh by lord Molefworth. Some perfons think he
was the author of Vindiche contra Tyrannos. All his
works were printed at Geneva in 1590, in 3 vols
folio.
HOTTENTOTS, a people in the fouthern part
of Africa, whofe country furrounds the empire of Mo-
nomotapa, in form of a horfe-fhoe, extending, accord¬
ing to Magin, from the Negroeft of Cabo as far as the
Cape of Good Hope ; and from thence northward to
the river Magnica, or Rio de St Spirits, including
Mattatan a diftinft kingdom. According to Sanu-
tus, this coaft, beginning at the Mountains of the
Moon under the tropic of Capricorn in 23°^ S. Lat.
extends north beyond the Cape to the coatt of Zan-
guebar; having the Indian fea on the eaft, the Ethio-
pic on the weft, the fouthern ocean on the fouth ;
and on the north the kingdoms of Mattatan, Mono-
motapa, and the coaft of Zanguebar, or rather the
Mountains of the Moon, which divide it from the reft
©f the continent.
The Europeans firft became acquainted with this
country in the year 1493, when Bartholomew Diaz,
a Portufuefe admiral, ditcovered the moft foutherly
point of Africa now called the Cape of Good Hope, but
by him Cabo dos totos tormentor, or Cape of all
Plagues, on account of the ftorms he met with in the
neighbourhood } but John, then king of Portugal, ha¬
ving from the account of Diaz concluded that a paf- Hottentot*.
fage to the Eaft Indies was now difcovered, changed v 1 m4
the name to that of the Cape of Good Hope, which it
ftill retains. In 1497, it was circumnavigated by
Gafco de Gama, who made a voyage to India that
way ; however, it remained ufelefs to Europeans till
the year 1650, when Van Riebeck a Dutch furgeon
firft faw the advantages that would accrue to the Eaft
India company in Holland from a fettlement at fuch
a convenient diftance both from home and from India.
The colony which he planted has ever fince continued
in the hands of the Dutch, has greatly increafed in
value, and is vifited by all the European (hips trading
to the Eaft Indies. See GooD-Hope. '
The country now poffeffed by the Dutch is of pret¬
ty confiderable extent, and comprehends that part of
the African coaft on the weft called Terra de Natal.
It is naturally barren and mounfainous; but the in-
duftry of the Dutch hath overcome ail natural difficul¬
ties, and it now produces not only a fufficiency of all
the neceffaries of life for the inhabitants, but alfo for
the refreffiment of all the Europeans who pafs and re-
pafs that way.
The coaft abounds in capes, bays, and roads. Thir¬
ty leagues to the eaft of the Cape of Good Hope, in
S. Lat. 34. 21. is another Cape which runs out be¬
yond 350, called by the Portuguefe, who firft doubled
it, Cabo dos Agulhas, or the Cape of Needles, on ac¬
count of fome ftrange variations in the magnetical
needle obferved as they came near it. Near this Cape
is a flat (hore, with plenty of fiih: it begins in the
weft near a frefh-water river, and, extending 15 leagues
in the main fea, ends in the eaft near Fifh-bay. Cabo
Falfo, fo called by the Portuguefe, who returning from
India miftook it for the Cape of Good Hope, lies to
the eaft ward between thefe two capes, about eight or
nine leagues beyond that of Good Hope. Along the
coafts, on both fides of the Cape of Good Hope, are
many fine bays. Twenty-feven leagues to the north-
weft is Saldonha bay, fo named from a Portuguefe cap¬
tain (hipwrecked on the coaft. The largeft and moft
commodious is Table Bay, on the fouth, and near the
mountain of that name, fix leagues in circumference,
with four-fathom water clofe to the beach. Oppofite
to this bay is Robu Eilan, or the ifland of Rabbits, in
34. 30. S. Lat. 67 leagues eaft from the Cape of Good
Hope. Peter Both, in 1661, difcovered a bay, which
he named Uleefl, (heltered only from north winds, in
which is a fmall ifland, and on the weft a rivulet of frefli
water extremely convenient for European mariners.
Twenty-five or thirty leagues farther eaft, Both dif¬
covered Marfhal Bay, afterwards named by the Portu¬
guefe Seno Formofo. Next to this is Seno de Lago,
from its refemblance to a lake. There are feveral
roads in this bay, and an ifland called Ilha dos Caos.
Cabo de £. Francifco, and Cabo das Serras are mark¬
ed upon charts between thefe two bays. Near the
lattw of thefe capes is Cabo de Arecito, and the
ifland Contento ; and fomething more north-eaft is
St Chriftopher’s river, called San Chri/lovano by the
Portuguefe, and by the Hottentots Nagod. The
country beyond this river was called by the Por¬
tuguefe, who difcovered it on the day of our Lord’s
nativity, Terra de Natal. Between the Cape of
Good Hope and Cabo das Agulhas are the Sweet,
4 Salt,
HOT [ 684 ] HOT
Hottentots. Salt, and Jagulina rivers, which run into the fea,
and Sweet-water river flows from the Table-mountain.
The moft remarkable mountains in this country are,
Table-m°untain. Devil’s Tower, Lion’s Head, and the
Tiger hills. The three firft lie near Table-bay, and
furround Table-valley, wliere the Capetown hands.
(See the article GooD-Hope.). Mr Forfter, in his voyage,
informs us, that “ the extremity of Africa towards the
fouth is a mafs of high mountains, of which the outer-
moft are craggy, black, and barren, confifting of a coarfe
granite, which contains no heterogeneous parts, fuch as
petrified (hells, &c. nor any volcanic produ&ions.' The
ground gradually rifes on all fides towards the three
mountains which lie round the bottom of the bay,
keeping low and level only near the fea-fide, and grow¬
ing fomewhat mar(hy ^n the Ifthmus between Falfe
and Table Bays, where a fait rivulet falls into the Jat-
ter. The marihy part has fome verdure, but inter¬
mixed with a great deal of fand. The higher
grounds, which, from the fea-fide, have a parched
and dreary appearance, are, however, covered with
an immenfe variety of plants, among which are a
prodigious number of (hrubs, but fcarce one or two
I’pecies that deferve the name of trees. There are al-
fo a few fmall plantations wherever a little run of wa¬
ter moiftens the ground. The afeent of Table-mount
is very deep and difficult, on account of the number
of loofe Hones which roll away under the feet of the.
traveller. About the middle of the mountain is a bold,
grand chafm, whofe walls are perpendicular, and often
impending rocks piled up in ftrata. Small rills of
water ooze out of crevices, or fall from precipices in
drops, giving life to hundreds of plants and low
fhrubs in the chafm. The fummit of the mountain is
nearly level, very barren, and bare of foil; feveral ca¬
vities, however, are filled with rain water, or contain
a fmall quantity of vegetable earth, from whence a
few odoriferous plants draw their nourifliment. Some
antelopes, howling baboons, folitary vukures, and
toads, are fometimes to be met with on the mountain.
The view from thence is very extenfive and pidturefque.
The bay feems a fmall pond or bafon, and the (hips in
it dwindled to little boats; the town under our feet,
and the regular compartments of its gardens, look like
the work of children.”
Moft accounts of this country that have been pub-
lifhed mention a furpriiing phenomenon which is an¬
nually to be feen on the top of Table-hill from Sep¬
tember to March ; namely, a white cloud hovering on
its top, and called by failors the DeviVs table-cloth. (See
the article Good-Hope.) This cloud is faid by fome
to appear at firft no bigger than a barley-corn ; then
increafes to the fize of a walnut, and foon after co¬
vers the whole top of the mount. But, according
to Mr Kolben, it is never lefs, even on its firft appear-
ancer, than the fize of a large ox, often bigger. It
hangs in feveral fleeces over the Table-hill and the
Wind or Devil’s-hill; which fleeces, at laft uniting,
form a large cloud that covers the fummits of thefc
two hills. After this has refted for fome time with¬
out change or motion, the wind burfts out fuddenly
from it with the utmoft fury. The (kirts of the cloud
are white, but feem much more compact than the mat¬
ter of common clouds; the upper parts are of a leaden
colour. No rain falls from it; but fometimes it dif-
covera a great deal of humidity ; at which times it is Hottentot
of a darker colour, and the wind ifluingjfrom it is broken, ——v—■
raging by fits of (hort continuance. In its ufual (late,
the wind keeps up its firft fury unabated for one, two,
three, or eight days ; and fometimes for a whole month
together. The cloud feems all the while undiminiffied,
though little fleeces are from time to time detached
from it, and hurried down the fides of the hills, vanifh-
ing when they reach the bottom, fo that during the
floras the cloud feems to.be fupplied with new matter.
When the cloud begins to brighten up, thefe fupplies
fail, and the wind proportionably abates. At lengthy
the cloud growing tranfparent, the wind ceafes. Du¬
ring the continuance of theie iouth-eaft winds, the
Table-valley is torn by furious whirlwinds. If they
blow warm, they are generally of (hort duration ; and
in this cafe the cloud foon difappears. This wind
rarely blows till after funfet, and never longer than till
towards midnight, though the cloud remains; but then
it is thin and clear: but when the wind blows cold, it
is a fine fign that it will laft for fome time, an hour
at noon and midnight excepted ; when it feems to
lie ftill to recover itfelf, and then lets loofe its fury
anew.
The Europeans at the Cape confider the year as di¬
vided into two feafons, which they term monfoons. The
wet monfoon or winter, and the dry one or fummer.
The ftrft begins with our fpring in March ; the latter
with September, when our fummer ends. In the fum¬
mer monfoon reign the fouth call winds already men¬
tioned ; which, though they clear and render the air
more healthy, yet make it difficult for (hips outward
bound to enter Table-bay. In the bad feafon, the
Cape is much fubjedt to fogs; and the north-weft
winds and rain make the inhabitants ftay much at
home. But there are frequent intermiffions and many
dear days till. June and July ; when it rains almoft con¬
tinually, and from thence till fummer. The weather
in winter is cold, raw, and unpleafarrt ; but never
more rigorous than autumn in Germany. Water ne¬
ver freezes to above the thicknefs of half a crown ; and
as foon as the fun appears, the ice is diffolved. The
Cape is rarely vifited by thunder and lightning, ex¬
cepting a little near the turn of the feafons, which ne¬
ver does any hurt. During the continuance of the
fouth-eaft winds which rage in fummer, the (ky is free
of all clouds except that on the Table and Wind Hills
already mentioned ; but during the north-weft winds,
the air is thick, and loaded with heavy clouds big with
rain. If the fouth-eaft winds fhould ceafe for any
length of time, the air becomes fickly by reafon of the
fea-weeds driving aflrore and rotting ; hence the Eu¬
ropeans are at fuch times affedfed with head-achs and
other diforders: but, on the other hand, the violence
of thofe winds fubjedts them to inflammations of their
eyes, &c.
The natives of this country are called Hottentots, in
their own language ; a word of which it is vain to in¬
quire the meaning, fince the language of this country
can fcarce be learned by any other nation. T he Hot¬
tentot language is indeed faid to be a compofition of
the moft ilrange and difagreeable founds, deemed by
many the difgrace of fpeech, without human found or
articulation, refembling rather the noife of irritated
turkies, the chattering of magpies, hooting of owls, and
5 depending
HOT [ 685 ] HO T
Hsttentots. depending on extraordinary vibrations, inflexions, and
‘■'"—v—" claihings of the tongue againft the palate.—If this ac¬
count is true, however, it is obvious, that all the re¬
lations we have concerning the religion, &c. 'of the
Hottentots derived from themfelves, muft fall to the
ground, as nobody can pretend to underftand a lan¬
guage in itfelf unintelligible. The manners and cu-
Itoms of thofe people, however, are eafily obfervable,
whether they themfelves give the relation or not; and
if their language is conformable to them, it is no doubt
of a nature fufficiently wonderful.
Many accounts have been publifhed concerning the
extreme naftinefs and filthy cuftoms of the Hottentots;
but from the obfervations of late travellers it appears,
that thefe have either been exaggerated, or that the
Hottentots (which is not improbable) have in fome
meafure laid afide their former manners. Dr Sparrman
defcribes them in much lefs difguftful terms, and M.
Vaillant feems to have been charmed with their inno¬
cence and fimplicity. According to the Do&or, thefe
people are as tall as the generality of Europeans, though
more Header in their perfons, which he attributes to
their fcanty fupply of food, and not accuftoming them¬
felves to hard labour. The chara&eriftic of the nation,
however, and which he thinks has not been obferved by
any one before, is, that they have fmal! hands and feet
in proportion to the other parts of their body. The
diitance between the eyes appears greater than in Eu¬
ropeans, by reafon of the root of the nofe being very
low. The tip is pretty flat, and the iris of the eye has
generally a dark-brown call, fometimes approaching to
black. Their ikin is of a yellowilh brown, fomething
like that of an European who has the jaundice in a high
degree; though this colour does not in the lead appear
in the whites of the eyes. Their lips are thinner than
thofe of their neighbours the Negroes, Cqffres, or Mo-
%ambiques. “ In fine (fays our author) their mouths
are of a middling fize, and almoft always furnilhed with
a fet of the fined teeth that can be feen ; and, taken to¬
gether with the red of their features, as well as their
carriage, lhape, and every motion, in Ihort their tout
tnfemble indicates health and delight, or at lead an air
of fans fouci. This carelefs mien, however, difcovers
marks at the fame time both of alacrity and refolution;
qualities which the Hottentots, in fait, can Ihow upon
occafion.” The hair of the head is black and frizzled,
though not very clofe ; and has fo much the appear¬
ance of wool, that it would be taken for it, were it
not for its harlhnefs. They have but feldom any ap¬
pearance of a beard, or hair upon other parts of their
bodies; and when any thing of this kind happens to be
vifible, it is alway very flight.
A general opinion has prevailed, that the Hottentot
women have a kind of natural vail which covers the
fexual parts ; but this is denied by our author. “ The
women (fays he) have no parts uncommon to the red
©f their fex : but the clitoris and hymphae, particularly
of thofe who are pad their youth, are pretty much elon¬
gated ; a peculiarity which has undoubtedly got foot¬
ing in this nation in confequence of the relaxation ne-
ceffarily produced by the method they have of befmear-
ing their bodies, their flothfulnefs, and the warmth of
the climate.”
The Hottentots befmear all their bodies copioufly
with fat mixed up with a little foot. “ This (fays Hottentots,
our author) is never wiped off; on the contrary, I ne- v——
ver faw them ufe any thing to clean their Ikins, ex¬
cepting that when in greafing the wheels of their wag¬
gons, their hands were befmeared with tar and pitch,
they ufed to get it off very eafily with cow-dung, at
the fame time rubbing their arms into the bargain up
to the fhoulders with this cofmetic; fo that as the dud
and other filth, together with their footy ointment,
and the fweat of their bodies, mud neeeffarily, not-
withdanding it is continually wearing off, in fome mea-
fure adhere to the fkin, it contributes not a little to
conceal the natural hue-of the latter, and at the fame
time to change it from' a bright umber-brown to a
brownifh-yellow colour, obfeured with filth and na-
dinefs.”—The Doftor was enabled to difeover the na¬
tural colour of the Hottentots by means, of the nicety
of fome Dutch farmers wives, who had made their
Hottentot girls walh and fcour their Huns, that they
might be lefs filthy in looking after the children, or
doing any other work that required cleanlinefs. Many
of the colonids, however, are of opinion, that this ope¬
ration of walhing is no improvement to the look of an
Hottentot ; but that their natural yellow is fully as
difagreeable as the black or brown colour of the oint¬
ment ; and that the wafhed Ikin of a native of this coun¬
try feems to be deficient in drefs, like Ihoes that want
blacking. This the Dotlor does not pretehd to de¬
termine ; though, whatever may be fuppofed deficient
in look we diould think, mud be made up in cleanlinefs.
The Hottentots perfume their bodies, by daubing
them all over with the powder of an herb, the fmell of
which is at once rank and aromatic, approaching to
that of the poppy mixed with fpices. For this purpofe
they ufe various fpecies of the diofma, called by them
bucku, and which they imagine to be very efficacious in
the cure of diforders. One fpecies of this plant, grow¬
ing about Gaud's-rivier, is faid to be fo valuable, that
no more than a thimble-full of its powder is given in ex¬
change for a lamb.
By the ointment of foot and greafe duck full of the
powder of bucku, a pade is formed which defends the
bodies of the Hottentots in a great meafure from the
aftion of the air ; fo that they require very few clothes,
and in faft go almod quite naked. The only cover¬
ing of the men confids of two leather draps, which ge¬
nerally hang down the back from the chine to the
thighs, each of them in the form of an ifoficles tri¬
angle, their points uppermod, and fadened to a belt
which goes round their wade, their bafes not being
above three fingers broad ; fo that the covering they
form is extremely trifling. Thefe draps have very little
dreffing bedowed upon them, fo that they make a rat¬
tling noife as the Hottentot runs along; and our author
fuppofes that they may produce an agreeable coolnefs
by fanning him. Befides this, the men have a bag
or flap made of Ikin which hangs down before, and
is fadened to the belt already mentioned. The hollow
part of this feems defigned to receive that which with
us modedy requires to be concealed ; but being only
fadened by a fmall part of its upper end to a narrow
belt, in other refpefts hanging quite loofe, it is but a
very imperfeft concealment; and when the wearer is
walking, or otherwife in motion, it is none at all. They
call
H O T [ 6S6 ] HOT
Hottentots, call this purfe by the Dutch name of jackall, it being
almoft always prepared of the flein of that animal, with
the hairy fide turned outwards.
The women cover themfelves much- more fcrupu-
loufly than the men, having always two, and very of¬
ten three coverings like aprons ; though even thefe feem
to be abundantly fmall for what we would term decency
in this country. The outermoft of tbefe, which is the
largeft, meafures only from about fix inches to a foot in
breadth. All of them are made of a Ikin well prepa¬
red and greafed, the outermoft being adorned with glafs
beads ftrung in different figures. The outermofl
reaches about half-way down the thighs, the middle
about a third, or one half lefs, and the third fcarcely
exceeds the breadth of the hand. The firft is faid to
be defigned for ornament, the fecond as a defence for
modefty, and the third to be ufefulon certain occafions,
which, however, are much lefs troublefome to the Hot¬
tentot than to the European females. Our author,
with great probability fuppofes, that it was the fight
of this innermoft apron which mifled the reverend Je-
fuit Tackard, who, on his return to Europe, firft pro¬
pagated the ftories concerning the natural vails or ex-
creicences of the Hottentots.—A ftory was likewife
commonly believed, that the men in general had but
one tefticle, and that fuch as were not naturally formed
in this manner were artificially made fo. , But this our
author likewife denies; and though he fays that fuch an
operation might have been formerly performed upon
the males, yet it is not fo now.
The other garments worn by the Hottentots are
formed of a fheep’s lkin with the woolly fide turned
inwards ; this forming a kind of cloak, which is tied
forwards over the breaft : though fometimes, inftead of
a fheep’s-lkin, fome fmaller kind of fur is ufed as a
material. In warm weather they let this cloak hang
carelefsly over their ftioulders, fo that it reaches down
to the calves of the legs, leaving the lower part of the
breaft, ftomach, and fore part of the legs and thighs
bare ; but in cold weather they wrap it round them ;
fo that the fore-part of the body is likewife pretty well
covered by it as far as the knees : But as one Iheep-fkin
is not fufficient for this purpofe, they few on a piece
on the top at each fide with a thong or catgut. In
warm weather they fometimes wear the woolly fide out¬
wards, but more frequently take off the cloak altoge¬
ther, and catry it under their arm. This cloak or
krcjfe ferves them not only for clothes, but bedding
alfo ; and in this they lie oh the bare ground, drawing
up their bodies fo clofe, that the cloak is abundantly
fufficient to cover them.—The cloaks ufed by the wo¬
men differ little from thefe already defcribed, except¬
ing only that they have a long peak on them, which
they turn up ; forming with it a little hood or pouch,
with the hairy fide inwards. In this they carry their
little children, to which the mother’s breafts are now
and then thrown over the (boulders ; a cuftpm common
among fome other nations, where the breatts of the fe¬
males, by continual want of fupport, grow to an enor¬
mous length. The men commonly wear no covering
on their heads, though our author fays he has feen one
or two who wore a greafy night-cap made of fkin with
the bait" taken off. Thofe who live neareft the coloniits
have taken a liking to the European hats, and wear
fchem flouched all round, or with only one fide turned
up. The women alfo frequently go bare-headed; Ho'tentot*,,
though they fometimes wear a cap made in the fhape  v—^
of a fhort truncated cone. This appears to be the fec-
tion of fome animal’s ftomach, and is perfe&ly blacked
by foot and fat mixed up together. Thefe caps are fre¬
quently prepared in fuch a manner as to look fhaggy ;
others have the appearance of velvet; and in our au¬
thor’s appearance are not inelegant. Over this they
fometimes wear an oval wreath or kind of crown
made of a buffaloe’s hide, with the hair outermoft.
It is about four fingers breadth in height, and fur-
rounds the head fo as to go a little way down upon
the forehead, and the fame depth on the neck behind,
without covering the upper part of the cap above de¬
fcribed. The edges of this wreath, both upper and
under, are always fmooth and even ; each of them fet
with a row of fmall (hells of the cyprea kind, to the
number of more than 30, in fuch a. manner, that, be-
ing placed quite clofe to one another, their beautiful
white enamel, together with their mouths, are turned
outwards. Between two rows of thefe (hells run two
Others parallel, or elfe waved and indented in various
ways. The Hottentots never adorn their ears or nofes
as .other favages do : though the latter are fometimes
marked with a black ftreak of foot; at others, though
more rarely, with a large fpot of red lead ; of which ’
laft, on feftivals and holidays, they Hkewife put a little
on their cheeks. The necks of the men are bare, but
thofe of the women are ornamented with a thong of
undreffed leather, upon which are ftrung eight or
ten (hells. Thefe, which are about the iize of beans,
have a white ground, with large black fpots of differ¬
ent fizes: but as they are always made ufe of in a bur-
nifhed ftate, the Doctor is uncertain whether they be
of that kind which is received in the Syftema Naturae
under the name of nerita albicilla, or exuvia. Thefe
(hells are fold at an enormous price, no lefs than a
fheep for each; as it is faid that they come from the
moft diftant coaft of Caffraria. Both men and women
are very fond of European beads, particularly the blue
and white ones of the fize of a pea ; of which they tie
feveral rows round the middle, and next to the girdles
which hold the coverings above mentioned. Befides
thefe ornaments, they ufe rings on their arms and legs ;
moft of them made of thick leather ftraps generally
cut in a circular fhape ; which, by being beat and held
over the fire, are rendered tough enough to retain the
curvature that is given them. From thefe rings it
has been almoft umvcrfally believed, that the Hotten¬
tots wrap guts about their legs in order to eat them
occafionally. The men wear from one to five or fix
of thefe rings on their arms, juft above the wrift, but
feldom on their legs. The matrons of a higher rank
have frequently a confidtrable number of them both on
their arms and legs, efpeciaily on the latter; fo that
they are covered with them from the feet up to the
knees. Ihefe rings are of various thickneffes, from
that of a goofe-quill to two or three times that fize.
Sometimes they are made of pit ces iff leather forming
one entire ring ; fo that the arms and feet muft be put
through them when the wearer wifties to put them
on. They are ftrung upon the legs, fmall and great,
without any nicety; but are fo large, that they ihake
and get twifted when the perfon walks. Rings of
iron or copper, but efpecially of brafs, of tke fize of a
goofe.
HOT [ 687 1 HOT
Hottentots* goofe-quill, are confidtreJ as more genteel than thofe
of leather. However, they are fometimes worn %!ong
with the latter, to the number of fsx or eight at a time,
particularly on the arms. The girls are not allowed
to ufe any rings till they are marriageable. The Hot¬
tentots feldom wear any fhoes; but fuch as they do
make ufe of are of the fame form with thofe worn by
the African peafants, by the Eithonians, and Livo¬
nians, as well as by fome Finlanders; fo that it is
impoffible to fay whether they are the invention of the
Dutch or the Hottentots themfelves. They are made
of undreffed leather, with the hairy fide outward ; with¬
out any other preparation than that of being beat
and moiftened. If it be a thick and ftout hide, as
that of a buffaloe, it is kept for fome hours in cow-
dung, which renders it befides very foft and pliable.
Some kind of greafe is afterwards ufed for the fame
purpofe. The Ihoes are then made in the following
manner. They take a piece of leather, of a rectangu¬
lar form, fomething longer and broader than the foot
of the perfon for whom the Ihoes Hire intended ; the two
foremoft; corners are doubled up together, and fewed
down, fo as to cover the fore part of the foot ; but
this feam may be avoided, and the (hoes made much
neater at the toes, by fitting immediately over them a
cap taken from the membrane in the knee-joint of the
hind leg of fome animal. In order to make this piece
of (kin or leather rife up to the height of an inch on
both fides of the foot, and clofe it in neatly, it is
pierced with holes at fmall diftances all round the
edge, as far as the hind quarters; and through thefe
holes is patted a thong, by which the rim is drawn up
into gathers. In order to make ilrong hind quarters,
the back part of the piece of leather is doubled inwards,
and then railed up and prefied along the heel. The
ends of the thong or gathering firing are then threaded
on both fides through the upper edge of the hind¬
quarters, to the height of about two inches; they are
then carried forwards, in order to be drawn through two
of the above-mentioned holes on the infide of each
rim. Laftly, they are tied over the inftep, or if it be
thought neceflary to tie the fhoe ftill fatter, they are
carried crofs-ways over the inftep, and fo downwards
under the thong, which comes out from the hind-quar¬
ters; then upwards again over the ancle, and even round
the leg itfelf if the wearer choofes. Shoes of this kind
are not without their advantages : they fit as neat upon
the foot as a flocking, and at the fame time.preferve
their form. They are eafily kept foft and pliable by
conftantly wearing them ; or, if at any time they ftiould
become fomewhat hard, this is eafily remedied by beat¬
ing and greafing them. They are extremely light and
cool, by reafon that they do not cover fo much of the
foot as a common ftioe. They wear very well, as they
are without any feam, and the foies of the Ihoes are
both tough and yielding. Thefe field Ihoes, as they
are called, being made of almoft raw leather, are much
more durable than thofe of tanned leather, which are
burnt up by the African fands, and flip and roll about
in them ; being alfo very ready to be torn in a rocky
foil, which is not the cafe with the others. The Doc¬
tor is of opinion, that thefe flioes would be particularly
ufeful to failors.
The huts of the Hottentots are built exa&ly alike ;
and we. may readily give credit to cur author when he
tells us, that they are done in a ftyle of archileflure
which does not a little contribute to keep envy from
infinuating itfelf under their roofs. Some of thefe huts
are circular, and others of an oblong ftiape, refembling
a round bee-hive or vault; the ground-plot being
from 18 to 24 feet in diameter. The hicheft are
fo low, that it is Icarce ever poflible for a middle-fixed
man to ftand upright even in the centre of the arch ;
“ but (fays our author) neither the lownefs thereof, nor
that of the door, which is but juft three feet high, can
perhaps be confidered as any inconvenience to an Hot¬
tentot, who finds no difficulty in ftooping and crawl¬
ing upon all fours, and is at any time more inclined
to lie down than to ftand. The fire-place is in the
middle of each hut, by which means the walls are not
fo much expofed to danger from fire. From this fitua-
tion of the fire-place alfo the Hottentots derive this
additional advantage, that they can all fit or lie in a
circle round it, enjoying equally the warmth of the
fire. ■ The door, low as it is, alone lets in day-light
or lets out the fmoke : and fo much are thefe people
accuftomed to live in fuch fmoky manfions, that their
eyes are never afFe&ed by it in the leaft, nor even by the
mephitic vapour of the fuel, which to Europeans would
be certain death.
Hottentots.
The frame of the arched roof is compofed of flen-
der rods or fprays of trees. Thefe being previoufly
bent into a proper form, are laid, either whole or
pieced, fome parallel to one another, others crofswife;
after which they are {Lengthened by binding others
round them in a circular form with withies. All thefe
are taken principally from the cliffbrtia conoides, which
grows plentifully in this country near the rivers. Large
mats are then placed very neatly over this lattice work,
fo as perfe&ly to cover the whole. The aperture which
is left for the door is clofed occafionally by a fkin or
piece of matting. Thefe mats are made of a kind of kane
or reed in the following manner. The reeds being laid
parallel to one another, are fattened together with finews
or catgut, or fome kind of catgut which they have
had an opportunity of getting from the Europeans ;
fo that they have it in their power to make them as
long as they pleafe, and as broad as the length of the
reeds, which is from fix to ten feet. The colonifts
make ufe of the fame kind of matting, next to the
tilts of their waggons, to prevent the fail-cloth from
being rubbed and worn, and likewife to help to keep
out the rain.
In z eraal, or Hottentot village,, the huts are meft
commonly difpofed in a circle, with the doors inwards ;
by which means a kind of court-yard is formed, where
the cattle are kept at nights. The milk, as foon as
taken from the cow, is put to other milk which is
curdled, and kept in a leather fack with the hairy
fide inwards as being the more cleanly; fo that thus
the milk is never drunk fweet. In fome northern di-
ftrids, where the land is dry and parched, both Hot¬
tentots and colonifts are ftiepherds. When an Hot¬
tentot has a mind to fhift his dwelling, he lays all the
mats, fkins, and rods, of which it is compofed, oh
the backs of his cattle, which, to a ftranger, makes a
monttrous, unwieldy, and even ridiculous appearance.
There is a fptcies of Hottentots named Bojhiejmen,
who dwell in the woody and mountainous parts, and •
fubfift entirely by plunder. They ufe pojfoned ar¬
rows,.
H .ttentots.
HOT r 688 1 HOT
rows, which they {hoot from bows about a yard long
and an inch in thicknefs in the middle, very much
pointed at both ends. Dr Sparrman does not know
the wood of which they are made, Taut thinks that
it is not very elaftic. The firings were mcde, fomc
of fxnews, and others of a kind of hemp, or the
inner bark of fome vegetable ; but moft of them in a
very flovenly manner. The arrows are about a foot
and an half long, headed with bone, and a trian¬
gular bit of iron ; having alfo a piece of quill bound
on very ilrongly with finews, about an inch and an
half from the top, in order to prevent it from being
eafily drawn out of the fleflr. The whole is laftly
covered over with a very deadly pcifop of the con¬
fidence of an extra6l. Their quivers are two feet
long and four inches in diameter; and are fuppofed by
our author to be made of the branch of a tree hollow¬
ed out, or more probably of the bark of one of the
branches taken Oif whole, the bottom and cover being
made of leather. It is daubed on the outlide with an
untluous fubllance which grows hard when dry, and
is lined about the aperture with the fltin of the yeh
low ferpent, fuppofed to be the moft deadly in all
that part of the world. The poifon they make ufe of
is taken from the moft venomyps ferpents; and, igno¬
rant as the Hottentots are, they all know that the
Jioifon of ferpents may be fwallowed with fafety. See
the article Boshiesmen.
In the year 1779, Lieutenant William Paterfon,
who took a long and dangerous excurfion from the
Cape along the weftern fide of the continent, difco-
vered a new tribe of Hottentots, whofe living, he fays,
is in the higheft degree wretched, and who are ap¬
parently the dirtieft of all the Hottentot tribes. Their
drefs is compofed of the fltins of feals and jackals, the
fleftr of which animals they feed upon. If a grampus
happen to be caft afhore, they remove their huts to
the place, and feed upon the carcafe as long as it lafts,
though perhaps it may be half rotten by the heat of
the weather. They befmear their {kins with the oil j
by which means they fmell fo exceedingly rank that
their approach may be thus perceived before they come
in fight. Their huts, however, are much fuperior to
thofe of the fouthern Hottentots already defcribed ;
being higher, thatched with gfafs, and furnilhed with
ilools made of the back-bones of the grampus. They
dry their fiih in the fun ; as the lieutenant found feve-
ral kinds of fifh near their huts fufpended from poles,
probably for this purpofe. He found alfo feveral aro¬
matic plants which they had been drying.
With refpe<ft to the religion of the Hotteritots, it
does not appear that they have any. On being quef-
tioned on the fubjedl of a Creator and Governor of
the univerfe, they anfwer that they know nothing of
the matter; nor do they feem willing to receive any
inftrudlion. All of them, however, have the moft firm
belief in the powers of magic ; from whence it might
be inferred that they believe in an evil being analogous
to what we call the devil; but they pay no religious
worlhip to him, though from this fource they derive
all the evil that happens, and among thefe evils they
reckon cold, rain, and thunder. So monftroufly ig¬
norant are they, that many of the colonifts allured Dr
Sparrman, that their Bolhiefmen would abufe the
N8J58.
thunder with many opprobrious epithets, and threaten Hot
to a {fault the flalhes df lightning with old (hoes, or any
thing that comes firft to hand. Even the moft intel¬
ligent among them could not be convinced by all the
arguments our author could ufe, that rain was not al¬
ways an evil, and that it would be an unhappy circum-
ftance if it were never to rain. “ A maxim (lays he),
from a race of men in other refpefts really endowed
with fome fenfe, and frequently* with no fmall'degree
of penetration and cunning, ought, methinks, to be
confidered as an indelible religious or fuperftitious no¬
tion entertained by them from their infancy, rather
than as an idea taken up on due deliberation and con-
fequent conviftion.”
As the Hottentots have fo flrong a belief in'the
powers of magic, it is tio wonder that they have abun¬
dance of witches and conjurers among them. Thefe
will readily undertake any thing, even to pet a ftop
to thunder and rain, provided they be well paid for
their pains; and if it happen to thunder or rain longer
than the time they promifed, they have always for an
excufe, that a more powerful conjurer has put a ftop
to their incantations. Many of the Hottentots be¬
lieve that all diforders incident to the human body are
cured by magic. The wizards are fond of encouraging
this idea ; but at the fame time take care to employ
both external and internal remedies. Among the for¬
mer may be reckoned a cure performed upon Captain
Cook in fome of the South-Sea Hands, viz* that of
pinching, cuffing, and kneading the whole body of the
patient. To this, however, the Hottentot phyficians
add that of pretending to fuck out a bone from fome
part of the patient’s body. After this it fpinetimes
happens that the lick perfon is relieved, and fometimes
not. In the latter cafe the operation is repeated; and,
if he dies, his friends lament that he was bewitched
beyond the power of any one to affift him. Thefe
conjurors appear to be poffeffed of eonfiderable flight
of hand. Our author was informed by a colonift, that
when he was a child, and playing with a bone jof an ox
which he drew as a cart, it appeared to his great afto-
nifliment to be fucked out of a fick perfon’s back by
a wizard ; and as far as he could remember, the pa¬
tient recovered foon after. Thefe pretenfrons of the
wizards fometimes render them liable to perfecutions;
and there is an inftance of a chief named PalooY who
ordered a general maflacre among them, in hopes of
cutting off the perfon who he believed had bewitched
himfelf, and affiifted him with fore eyes.
The fuperftition of the Hottentots never operates
in the way of making them afraid in the dark. They
feem, however, to have fome ideas of a future ftate,
as they reproach their friends, when dead, with leaving
them fo foon ; at the fame time admoniffiing them
from henceforth to demean themfelves properly : by
which they mean, that their deceafed friends ffiould
not come back again and haunt them, nor allow them¬
felves to be made ufe of by wizards to bring any mif* .
chief on thofe that furvive them.
There is a genus of infefts (the mantis) which, it
has been generally thought, the Hottentots worlhip ;
but our author is fo far from being, of this opinion,
that he tells us they have more than onpe catched fe-
reral of them for him, and abided him in fticking pins
through
HOT r 689 1 HOT
sttentots through tli-em as he did through other infe&s. “ There
is (fays he), however, a diminutive fpecies of this in-
feft, which fome think it would be a crime, as well
as very dangerous, to do any harm to: but this we
have no more reafon to look upon as any kind of reli¬
gious worHiip, than we have to confider in the fame
light a certain fuperllitious notion prevalent among
many of the more fimple people in our own country
(Sweden), who imagine that three-fins will be forgiven
them, if they fet a cock chafer on its feet that has
happened to fall upon its back. The moon, according
to Kolbe, receives a kind of adoration from the Hot
tentots ; but the fa& is, that they merely take the op¬
portunity of her beams, and at the fame time of the
coolnefs of the night, to amufe themfelves with dan¬
cing ; and confequently have no more thoughts of wor-
thipping her than the Chriftian colonifts who are feen
at that time ftrolhng in great numbers about theftreets,
and parading on the done fteps with which their houfes
are ufually encircled ” The conjurors therefelves, ac¬
cording to our author, are generally freethinkers, who
have neither religion nor fuperftition of any kind.
Lieutenant Paterfon has given the following ac¬
count of the CafFres, a nation whom no European
but himfelf has ever feen, and who inhabit the country
to the northeail of the Cape as far down as 310
South Latitude.
The men are from five feet ten inches to fix feet
highland well proportioned; and in general manifeft
real courage in attacking lions or other wild beads.
1he nation, at the time he vifited them, was divided
into two parties, one to the northward, commanded by
a chief named Chatha Bea, or Tambu/hie, which latter
appellation he had obtained from his mother, a woman
of an Hottentot tribe named Tamlukies. This man
was the fon of a chief named Pharoa who died about
three years before, and left two fons. C&5 Cha Bea, and
another named Dfirika, who claimed the fupreme au¬
thority on account of his mother being of the Caffre
nation. This occafioned a conted between the two
brothers, in the cdurfe of which Cha Cba Bea was
driven out of his territories with a great number of his
party ; after which he took up his refidence at a place
named Khouta, where he had an opportunity of en-
terinor into an alliance with the Bolhies-men.—The
Caffres are of a jet black colour, their eyes large,
and their teeth as white as ivory. The clothing
of both fexes is nearly the fame ; confiding entirely
of the hides of oxen, which are made as pliant as cloth
The jnen wear tails of different animals tied round
their thighs, pieces of brafs in their hair, and large
rings of ivory on their arms : they are likewife adorn¬
ed with the hair of lions, feathers fadentd on their
heads, &c. They ufe the ceremony of circumcifion,
which is ufually performed upon them when they are
nine years of age. They are very fond of dogs, which
they exchange for cattle, and will even give two bul¬
locks in exchange for one dog which pleafes them.
They are expert in throwing lances, and in time of
War ufe fhields made of the hides of oxen. Through¬
out the day the men occupy themfelves in hunting,
fighting, or dancing; the women being employed in
the cultivation of their gardens and corn. They feem
not to be deditute of the knowledge of agriculture, as
they cultivate feveral vegetables which do not natu*
Vol. VIII. Part II.
rally grow in their own country, viz. tobacco, water- Hottentots.'
melons, a fmall kind of kidney-beans, and hemp. The - v” "t
women alfo make their bafkets and the mats on which
they lie. The men are very fond of their cattle, and
cut their horns in fuch a manner as to he able to turn
them into any diape they pteafe, and teach them to an-
fwer to a whittle. Mr Paterfon is of opinion that the
country they inhabit is greatly fuperior to any part of
Africa.
Of the Dutch fettlements and policy at the Cape,
Mr Forfter gives the following account.
“ The income of the governor here is very confi-
derable ; for, befides a fixed appointment, and the
ufe of houfes, gardens, proper furniture, ami every
thing that belongs to his table, he receives about to
dollars for every leagre of wine which the company
buy of the farmer in order to be exported to Batavia.
The company allows the fum of 40 dollars for each,
leagre, of which the farmer receives but 24 : what
remains is diared between the governor and fecond or
deputy ; the former taking two thirds, which fome-
times are faid to amount to 4000 dollars per annum.
The deputy-governor has the dire&ion of the com¬
pany’s w hole commerce here, and figns all -orders to
the different depaitments under him, as well as the
governor to others. He and the fifeal have the rank
of upper koopman. The fifeal is at the head of the po¬
lice, and fees the penal laws put in execution : his in¬
come confitts of fines, and of the duties laid on cer¬
tain articles of commerce ; but if he be ttri& in exaft-
ing them, he is univerfally detefted. The found policy
of the Dutch has likewife found it neceffary to place
the fifeal as a check, to overawe the other officers of
the company, that they may not counteract the inte-
refts of their matters, or infringe the laws of the mo¬
ther-country. He is, to that end, commonly well
verfed in juridical affairs, and depends folely upon the
mother-country. The major (at prefent Mr Von
Prehn, who received us with great politenefs) has the
rank of foopman or merchant: this circumftance fur-
prifes a (tranger, who, in all other European dates, is
ufed to fee military honours confer drftindtion and pre¬
cedence ; and appears (till more fingular to one who
knows the contrail in this particular between Holland
and Ruffia, where the idea of military rank is annexed
to every place, even that of a proftffor at the univer-
fity. The number of regular foldiers at this colony
amounts to about 700 ; of which 400 form the gar-
rifon of the fort, near the Cape town. The inhabi¬
tants capable of bearing arms form a militia of 4000
men ; of whom a confiderablc part may be affembled
in a few hours, by means of fignals made from alarm-
places in different parts of the country. We may from
hence make fome eftimate of the number of white
people in this colony, which is at prefent fo exteniive,
that the diftant fettlements are above a month’s jour¬
ney from the Cape : but thefe remote parlS lie
fometimes more than a day’s journey from each o-
ther, are furrounded by various nations of H >tten
tots, and too frequently feel the want of protec
tion from their own government at that diftance.
The flaves in this colony are at haft in the proportion
of five or more to one white perfon. The principal in¬
habitants at the Cape have fometimes from 2c to 30
flaves, which are in general treated with great lenity,
4 K Jdi
HOT [ 6go ] HOT
JioUentot*. and fometimes become great favourites with their ma- town every year : but lions and buffaloes, and the fa-Hoitentol
-y—jjers> wjj0 g{ve very good cloathing, but oblige tigue of the journey, deftroy numbers of their cattle
them to wear neither fhoe* nor ftockings, referring before they can bring them fo far. They commonly
thefe articles to themfelves. The flaves are chiefly take their families with them in large waggons covered
brought from Madagafcar, and a little veflel annually with linen or leather, fpread over hoops, and drawn
goes from the Cape thither on that trade; there are, by 8, 10, and fometimes 12 pair of oxen. They bring
however, befides them, a number of Malays and Ben- butter, mutton-tallow, the flefh and fkins of fea-cows
galefe, and fome negroes. The colonifts themfelves (hippopotamus), together with lion and rhinoceros'
are for the greateft part Germans, with fome families fkins to fell. They have feveral flaves, and commonly
«f Dutch, and fome of French Proteftants. The cha- engage in their fervice feveral Hottentots of the poorer
rafter of the inhabitants of the town is mixed. They fort, and (as we were told) of the tribe called Boshies-
are induftrious, but fond of good living, hofpitable, men, Bofchemans, or Bujhmen, who have no cattle of
and focial; though accuftomed to hire their apartments their own, but commonly fubfid by hunting, or by
to ftrangers for the time they touch at this fettlement, committing depredations on their neighbours. The
and ufed to be complimented with rich prefents of opulent farmers fet up a young beginner by intrufting
fluffs, &c. by the officers of merchant fhips. They to his care a flock of 400 or 500 fheep, which he leads
have no great opportunities of acquiring knowledge, to a diflant fpot, where he finds plenty of good graft
there being no public fchools of note at the Cape; and water ; the one-half of all the lambs which are
their young men are therefore commonly fent to Hoi- yeaned fall to his fhare, by which means he foon be-
land for improvement, and their female education is comes as rich as his benefaftor.
too much neglefted. A kind of diflike to reading, “ Though the Dutch company feem evidently to
and the want of public amufements, make their con- difcourage all new fettlers, by granting no lands ia
verfation uninterefting, and.too frequently turn it upon private property ; yet the produfts of the country
fcandal, which is commonly carried to a degree of in- have of late years fufficed not only to fupply the ifles
veteracy peculiar to little towns. The French, Eng- of France and Bourbon with corn, but likewife to
lilh, Portuguefe, and Malay languages, are very com- furnifh the mother-country with feveral fhip-loads.
monly fpoken, and many of the ladies have acquired Thefe exports would certainly be made at an eafier
them. This circumllance, together with the accom- rate than at prefent, if the fettlements did not extend
plifhments of Tinging, dancing, and playing a tune on fo far into the country, from whence the produfts
the lute, frequently united in an agreeable perfon, muft be brought to the Table-bay by land-carriage^
make amends for the want of refined manners and de- on roads which are almoft impafiable. The interme-
Kcacy of fentiment. There are, however, among the diate fpaces of uncultivated land between the different
principal inhabitants, perfona of both fexes, whofe fettlements are veiy extenfive, and contain many fpots
whole deportment, extenfive reading, and well-culti- fit for agriculture ; but one of the chief reafons why
vated underftanding, would be admired and diftinguifh- the colonifts are fo much divided and fcattered through-
ed even in Europe. Their circumftances are in gene- out the country, is to be met with in another regula-
ral eafy, and very often affluent, on account of the cheap tion of the company, which forbids every new fettler
rate at which the neceffaries of life are to be procured : to eftablifh himfelf within a mile of another. It is
but they feldom amafs fuch prodigious riches here as evident, that if this fettlement were in the hands of
at Batavia ; and I was told the greateft private fortune the commonwealth, it would have attained to a great
at the Cape did not exceed 100,000 dollars, or about population, and a degree of opulence and fplendor of
22,500!. fterling. which it has not the leaft hopes at prefent : but a pri-
“ The farmer's in the country are very plain hofpi- vate company of Eaft-Jndia merchants find their ac¬
table people ; but thofe who dwell in the remoteft count much better in keeping all the landed property
fettlements feldom come to town, and are faid to be to themfelves, and tying down the .colonift, left he
very ignorant : This may eafily be conceived, becaufe ftiould become too great and powerful,
t-hey have no better company than Hottentots, their “ The wines made at the Cape are of the greateflr
dwellings being often feveral days journey afunder, variety poffible. The beft, which is made at M. Vander
which muft in a great meafure preclude all intercourfe. Spy’s plantation of Conftantia, is fpoken of in Europe,
The vine is cultivated in plantations within the com- more by report than from real knowledge ; 30 leagres
pafs of a few days journey from the town ; which were (or pipes) at the utmoft are annually raifed of this
eftablifned by the firft colonifts, and of which the kind, and each leagre fells for about 501. on the fpot.
ground was given in perpetual property to them and The vines from which it is made were originally brought
their heirs. The company at prefent never part with from Shiraz in Perfia. Several other forts grow in the
the property of the ground, but let the furface to the neighbourhood of that plantation, which produce a
farmer for an annualrent, which, though extremely fweet rich wine, that generally pafles for genuine Con-
moderate, being only 25 dollars for 60 acres, yet does ftantia in Europe. French plants of burgundy, muf-
not give fufficient encouragement to plant vineyards, cade, and ffontignan, have likewife been tried, and
The diftant fettlements, therefore,, chiefly rarfe corn have fucceeded extremely well, fometimes producing
and rear cattle ; nay, many of the fettlers entirely wines fuperior to thofe of the original foil. An ex-
follow the latter branch of ruftic employment, and cellent dry wine, which has a flight agreeable tartnefs,
fome have very numerous flocks. We were told there is commonly drank in the principal families, and ia
were two farmers who had each 15,000 Iheep, and made of Madeira vines tranfplanted to the Cape. Se-
oxen in proportion ; and feveral who pofleffed 6000 veral low forts, not entirely difagreeable, are raifed in
or 8000 iheep, of which they drive great droves to great plenty, and fold at. a very cheap rate; fo that
the
(icttlnger the failors of the Eaft-India (hips commonly indulge cation in his native country, he ftudied the civil and Houg/s ^
11 themfclves very plentifully in them whenever they come canon law, which were then become mail falhionable „ ” , '
rfovedon. a(il0reM and lucrative branches of learning. He became do- 0^rK* .
“ The produfts of the country fupply w-ith provi- meftic chaplain to Henry II. who employed him to
fions the (hips of all nations which touch at the Cape, tranfaft feveral ecclefiaftical affairs ; in which he ac-
Corn, flour, bifcuit, faked beef, brandy, and wine, are quitted himfelf with honour. But his moll meritori-
HOT
1 6pt 1
HOT
to be had in abundance, and at moderate prices ; and
their frelh greens, fine fruits, good mutton and beef,
are excellent reftoratives to leamen who have made a
long voyage.”
HOTTINGER (John Henry), born at Zurich in
ous work was his annals of England, from A. D. 731,
when Bede’s ecclefiallical hiftory ends, to A. D. 1202.
This work, which is one of the mod voluminous of
our ancient hiftories, is more valuable for the fincerity
with which it is written, and the great variety of fadts
Switzerland in 1620, profefled the Oriental langua- which it contains, than for the beauty of its ftyle, or
ges at Leyden^ and was efteemed by all his learned the regularity of its arrangement.
11  tt   1 1  :.i .. u:. r :i„ TjriTrr'Tj .....
colleagues. H^ was drowned, with part of his family,
in the river Lemit, in the year 1667. He wrote a
prodigious number of works; the principal of which
are, 1. Exercitationes Anti - Moriniana de Pentateucho Sa-
marhano, 410 ; in which he defends the Hebrew text
againft father Morin. 2. Hijloria Orientalis, 4to. 3. Bi-
Uiothecarius quadripartkus. 4. Thefaurus Philologicus Sa¬
cra Scriptura, 410. 5. Hijloria Ecclejiajlica. 6. Promptu-
arium, five Bibliotheca Orientalis, 4to. 7. D'Jfertationes
mifcellaneit, &c.
HOUGH, ham, in the manege, the joint of the
hind-leg of a bead, which connects the thigh to the
leg. See Ham.
To Hough, or cut the Houghs, is to ham-dring, or to
difable by cutting the finews of the ham.
HOULIERES (Antoniette de), a French lady,
whofe poetry is highly edeemed in France. Her
works and thofe of her daughter have been collefted
and printed together in two volumes. Mod of the
Idyls, particularly thofe on flreep and birds, furpafs
HOTTONIA, water-violet: A genus of the -every thing of the kind in the French language : the
tnonOgynia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs thoughts and expreffions are noble ; and the dyle
of plants; and in the natural method ranking un- pure, flowing, and chafle. Mademoifelle des Hou-
der the 2id order, Preciee. The corolla is falver- lieres carried the poetic prize in the French academy
fhaped ; the flamina are placed in the tube of the co- againfl Fontenelle. Both of thefe ladies were mem-
rolla ; and the capfule is unilocular. There is but bers of the academy of Ricovatri ; the mother was
one fpecies, viz. the paluflris, with a naked dalk. alfo a member of the academy of Arles. Thofe who
It grows naturally in the danding waters in many defire to be more particularly acquainted with the
parts of England. The leaves, which are for the mod hidory of Madam des Houlieres, may confult her life
part immerfed in water, are finely winged and flat like prefixed to her works in the Paris edition of 1747,
mod of the fea plants; and at the bottom have long 2 vols i2mo.
fibrous roots, which drike into the mud : the flower- HOULSWORTHY, a large town of Devonfliire,
ftalks rife five or fix inches above the water, and to- feated between two branches of the river Tamer, ha-
ward the top have two or three whorls of purple flow- ving a good market for corn and provifions. W.
ers, terminated by a fmall clufler of the fame. Thefe Long. 4. 42. N. Lat. 50. 50.
flowers have the appearance of thofe of the dock gilli- HOUND. Ste Can 1$,Blood-Houndtz.n<iGre-Hound.
flower, fo make a pretty appearance on the furface of Training of Hounds. Before we fpeak of the me-
the water. It may be propagated in deep danding thods proper to be ufed for this purpofe, it will be ne>-
waters, by procuring its feeds when they are ripe, from ceflary to point out the qualities which fportfmen de-
the places of their natural growth ; which fhould be fire to meet with in thefe animals. It is generally un-
immediately dropped into the water in thofe places derdood, that hounds of the middle fize are the mod
where they are defigned to grow, and the fpring proper, it being remarked, that all animals of that de¬
following they will appear ; and if they are not dif- feription are dronger than either fuch as are very fmall
turbed, they will foon propagate themfelves in great or very large. The ftiape of the hound ought to be
plenty.—Cows eat this plant; fwine refufe it. particularly attended to ; for if he be not well propor-
Houbraken (Jacob), a celebrated engraver, whofe tinned, he can neither run fad nor do much work,
great excellence confided in the portrait line. His works His legs ought to be draight, his feet round, and not
are didinguiflied by an admirable fofenefs and delicacy of very large ; his (houlders back ; his bread rather wide
execution, joined with good drawing, and a fine tafle. than narrow; his died deep, his back broad, his
If his bed performances have ever been furpafled, it is head fmall, his neck thin; his tail thick and bufliy,
in the maderly determination of the features, which we and if he carry it well fo much the better. None of
find in the works of Nanteuil, Edelink, and Drevet: thofe young hounds which are out at the elbows, or
this gives an animation to the countenance, more eafily
to be felt than deferibed. His works are pretty nu¬
merous ; and mod of them being for Englifh publica¬
tions, they are fufficiently known in this country. In
fuch as are weak from the knee to the foot, Ihould
ever be taken into the pack. That the pack may
look well, it is proper that the hounds fliould be as
much as poflible of a fize: and if the animals be
particular the greater and bed part of the collection of handfome at the fame time, the pack will then be per-
portraits of Illudrious men, publiflied in London by fed. It mud not, however, be thought, that this
I. and P. Knapton, were by his hand. contributes any thing to the goodnefs of a pack; for
HOVEDON (Roger de), born of an illudrious very unhandfome packs, confiding of hounds entirely
family in Yorklhire, mod probably at the town of that different in fize and colour, have been known to afford
name, now called Howden, fome time in the reign of very good fport. It is only neceffary that they fhould
Henry I. After he had received the firft parts of edu- run well together; to which indeed an uniformity in
4 R 2 fiZ€
Hound.
f SJay on
Siuntiug.
H O TJ [ 692 ] H O 'ET
fize and fhape would feem to contribute in fome de- little care that is taken of them. “ If the diftemper Houn<S5
gree. The pack that can run ten miles, or any other (fayjSshe) once get among them, they muft.all have '-“'V*'*
confiderable fpace, in the fliorteft time, maybe faid to" it: yet notwithftanding that, as they will be conftant-
go fafteft,. though the hounds taken, feparateiy might ly well: fed, and will lie warm, (in a kennel built on
be confiderably inferior to others in fwiftnefs. A purpofe), l am confident it would be the faving of
pack of hounds, confidered in a colle&ive body, go many lives. If you (hould adopt this method, you
fall in.proportion to the excellence of their nofes and muft remember to ufe them early to go in couples:,
the head they carry. Packs which are compofed of and when they become of a proper age, they mult be.
hounds pf various kinds feldom run well. When the walked out often ; for fliould they remain confined*,
packs are very large,, the hounds arefeldom fufficiently they would neither have the health, fhape, or under¬
hunted to be good; twenty or thirty couple, therefore, Handing, which they ought to have. When I kept'
or at moil forty, will be abundantly fufficient for the harriers,. 1 bred up fome of the puppies at a dillant
keeneft fportfman in this country, as thus he may be kennel; but having no fervants there to exercife them
enabled, to hunt three or even four times a week. The properly, I found them much inferior to fuch of their
number of hounds to be kept, mull, however, in a brethren as had the luck to furvive the many difficul-
confiderable degree, depend on the ftrentrth of the ties and dangers they had undergone at their walks
pack and the country in which you hunt. They thefe were afterwards equal to any thing, and afraid
Jhould be left at home as feldom as poffible ; and too of nothing ; whilfl thofe that had been nurfed with fa
many old hounds fhould not be kept. None ought much care, were weakly, timid, and had every difad-
to be kept above five or fix feafons, though this alfo vantage attending private education, k have often
is fomewhat uncertain, as we have no rule for judging heard as an excufe for hounds not hunting a cold
how long a hound will lait. feent, that they were too high-bred. I confefs I know
In breeding of hounds, confiderable attention ought not what that means : but this I know, that hounds
to be paid to the dog from whom you breed. All are frequently too ill-bred to be of any fervice. It is
fuch are to be reje&ed as have a tender nofe, as are judgment in the breeder, and patience afterwards ia
babblers oxjkirters* An old dog fhould never be put the huntfman, that makes them,hunt,
to an old bitch ; nor fhould any attempts be made to “ When young hounds are firft taken in, they fhould
crofs the breed unlefs in a proper and judicious man- be kept feparate from the pack ; and as it will happen
ner. Mr Beckford f informs us, that he has feen fox- at a time of the year when there is little or no hunt*
hounds bred out of a Newfoundland dog and- fox- ing, you may eafily give them up one of the kennels
hound bitch ; the whelps were monftroufly ugly, and and grafs court adjoining. Their play frequently ends
had other bad qualities btfides. The crofs moll like- in a battle ; it therefore is lefs dangerous where all are
ly to be of fervice to a fox-hound is the beagle.. The equally matched.—If you find that they take a diflike
reafon of croffing the breeds fometimes is, that the to any particular hound, the fafeft way will be to re-
imperfeftions of one may fomtimes be remedied hy move him, or it is probable they will kill him at laft.
another. The months of January, February, and When a feeder hears the hounds quarrel in the
March, are the bed for breeding ; late puppies feldom kennel, he halloos to them, to flop them ; he then
thrive. After the females begin to grow big with goes in among them, and flogs every hound he can .
young, it will not be proper to let them hunt any come near. How much more reafouable, as well as
more, or indeed to remain for a much longer time in efficacious, would it be, were Ke to fee which were the
the kennel. Sometimes thefe animals will have an combatants before he fpeaks to them. Fanifhment
extraordinary number of whelps. Mr Beckford in- would then fall, as it ought, on the guilty only. In all.
forms us, that he has known a bitch have 15 puppies packs there are fome hounds more quarrelfbme than*
at a litter; and he affures us, that a friend of his in- the reft ; and it is to them we owe all the mifehief
formed him, that a hound in.his pack brought forth that is done. If you find chaftifement cannot quiet
16, all of them alive. In thefe cafes it is proper to them, it may be prudent to break their holders; for
put fome of the puppies to another bitch, if you want fince they are not neceflary to them for the meat they
to keep them all; but if any. are deftroyed, the beft have to eat, they are not likely to ferve them in any
coloured ought to be kept. The bitches fhould not good purpofe. Ypung hounds fhould be fed twice a
only have plenty of flefh, but milk alfo ; and the pup- day, as they feldom take kindly to the kennel meat
pies fhould not be taken from them till they are able at firft, and the diftemper is moft apt to feize them at
to take care of themfelves: their mothers will be re- this time. It is better not to round them till they are
lieved when they learn to lap milk, which they will do thoroughly fettled ; nor fhould it be put off till the
in a fhort time. After the puppies are taken away hot weather, for then they would bleed too much. It
From their mothers, the litter ftiould have three purging may be better perhaps to round them at their quat-
balls given them, one every other morning, and plenty ters, when about fix months old ; fhould it be done
of whey the intermediate day. If a bitch bring only fooner, it would make their ears tuck up. The tailing of
one or two puppies, and you have another that will them is ufually done before they are put out; it might
take them, by putting the puppies to her the former be better, perhaps* to leave it till they are taken in.
will foon be fit to hunt again. She ffiould, however, Dogs muft not .be rounded at the time they have the
be firft phyficked, and it will alfo be of fgrviqe to a- diftemper upon them, as the lofs of blood would
noint her dugs with brandy and water, weaken them too. much.
Whelps are very liable to the diftemper to which “ If any of the dogs be thin over the back, or any
dogs in general are fubjeft, and which frequently more quarrelfome than the reft, it will be of ufe to
makes great havoc among them.at their walks; and cut them: I alfo fpay fuch bitches as I fhall not want
this is fuppofed by Mr Beckford to be owing to the to breed from;. they are more uleful,. are floater, and
are
H O U [ 693 i H O U
are always in better order; befides it is absolutely ne-
ceflary if you hunt late in the Spring, or your pack
will be very fhort for want of it. The latter operation,
however, does not always fuccetd ; it will be neceflary
therefore to employ a ikilful perfon, and one on whom
you can depend ; for if it be ill done, though they
cannot have puppies, they will go to heat notwith-
flanding. They ftiould be kept low for Several days
before the operation is performed, and mull be fed on
thin meat for Some time after.”
It is impoffible to determine how many young hounds
ought to be bred in order to keep up the pack, as
this depends altogether bn contingencies. The defi¬
ciencies of one year mull be fupplied by the next; but
it is probable, that from $0 to ^5 couple of old.hounds,
and from eight to twelve couple of young ones, will
anfwer the purpofe where no more than 40 couple are
to be kept, A confiderable number, however, ought
always to be bred ;.for it is undoubtedly, and evidently
true, that thofe who breed the greateli number of
hounds mud expeft the bed. pack.
, After the hounds have been rounded, become ac¬
quainted with the huntfman, and anfwer to their
names, they, ought to be coupled together, and walked
out among Iheep. Such as are particularly, ill natured
ought to have their couples loofe about their necks in
the kennel till they become reconciled to them. The
mod dubborn ought to be coupled to old hounds ra
ther than to young ones; and two dogs- Ihould not be
coupled together when you can avoid it. As young
hounds are aukward at fiift, a few. ought only to be
Set out at a time with people on foot, and they will
Soon afterwards follow a horfe. When they have been
walked out often in this manner amongft. the flieep,
they fhould be uncoupled by a few at a time, and thofe
chadifed who offer to run after the (beep ; but it will
be difficult to reclaim them after they have once been
allowed to tade blood; Some are accudomed to cou¬
ple the dogs with a ram in order to, break them from
jheep ; but this is very dangerous for both parties.
Mr Beckfbrd relates a dory of a nobleman who put a
large ram into his kennel in order to break his hounds
from (beep ; but when he came fome time after to fee
how nobly the ram defended himfelf, he found him en¬
tirely eaten up, and the hounds gone to fleep after
having filled their bellies.
When hounds are to be aired, it is bed to take them
outSeparately, the old ones one day, and'the young
another ; though, if they are to have whey from a di-
ffant dairy, .both old and young may be taken out
together, obferving only to take the young hounds
in couples, when the old ones are along with them.
Young hounds are always apt to fall into mifchief, and
even old ones when idle will be apt to join them. Mr
Beckford mentions a whole pack running after a flock
of flieep through the mere accident of a horfe’s falling,
and then running away.
With regard to the fird entering of hounds to a
fcent, our author gives fuch dire&ions as have fuh-
jeftt-d him to* a fevere charge of inhumanity. We
fiiall give them.in his own words. “ You had better
enter them at their own game ; it will fave you much
trouble afterwards. Many dogs, I believe, like that
fcent heft which they were fird blooded to: but be this
as it may, it is mod certainly reafonable to ufe them
to.that which it is intended they ihould .hunt. It may
not be amifs firft when they begin to hunt to put light
collars on them. Young hounds may eafily get out of
their knowledge ; and (by ones, after they have been
much beaten, may not choofe to return home. Col¬
lars, in that cafe, may prevent their being lod.—You
fay you like to fee your young hounds run a trail-
fcent.—I have no doubt that you would be glad to fee
them run over an open down, where you could fo eafily
obferve their aftion and their fpeed. I cannot think
the doing of it once or twice could hurt your hounds ;
and yet as a fportfman I dare not recommend it to you.
All that I can fay is, that it would be lefs bad than
entering them at hare. A cat is as good a trail as any j
but on no account fliould any trail be ufed after your
hounds are dooped to a fcent. I know an old fportf-.
man who enters his young hounds fird at a cat, which
he drags along the ground for a mile or two, at the
end of which he turns out a badger, fird taking care
to break his teeth: he takes out about a couple of old
hounds along with the young ones to hold them on.
He never enters his young hounds but at vermin ; for
he fays. Train up a child in the way he fhould go,
and when he is old he will not depart from it!”
Hounds ought to be entered as foon as poffible,
though the time mud be uncertain, as it depends oa-
the nature of the country in which they are. In corn
countries hunting may not be practicable till the corn
is cut down ; but you may begin fooner in grafs coun¬
tries, and at any time in woodlands. “ If (fays Mr
Beckford) you have plenty of foxes, and can afford to
make a facrifi.ce of fome of them for the fake of making
your young hounds deady, take them fird where you
have lead riot, putting fome of the deadied of your
old hounds among them. If in filch a place you are
fortunate enough to find a litter of foxes, you may
affure yourfelf you will have but little trouble with
your young hounds afterwards.—If, owing to a fcar-
city of foxes, you fhould doop .your hounds at hare,
let them by no means have the blood of her -; nor, for
the fake of confidency, ■ give them much encourage¬
ment. Hare-hunting has one advantage;^ hounds
are chiefly in open ground, where you can eafily
command them; but notwithdanding that, if foxes
be in tolerable plenty, keep them to their own game.
— Frequent hallooing is of ufe with young hounds;
it keeps them forward, prevents their being lod, and
hinders them from hunting after the red. The oftener
therefore that a fox is feen and hallooed, the better.
I by no means, however, approve of much hallooing
to oldhounjls; though it is true that there is a time
when hallooing is of ufe, . a time when it does hurt,
and a time when it is perfeftly indifferent: but long
praClice and great attention to hunting can only teach -
the application.
“ Hounds at their fird entrance cannot be encou¬
raged too much. When they are become handy, love
a fcent, and begin to know what is right, it will then
be foon enough to chadife them for what is wrong; in
which cafe one-fevere beating will fave a great deal of
trouble. When a hound is flogged, the whipper-in fhodd
make ufe of his voice as well as his whip. If any be
very undeady, it will not be amifs to fend them out by
themfelves when the men go out to exercife their horfes.
If you have hares in plenty, let fome be found fitting,
and turned out before them ; and you will find that .
the mod riotous will not run after them. If you in*
3. teni-i
H O U [ 694 1 H 0 U
ten3 tiiem to be fteady from deer, they fiiould often
fee deer, and then they will not regard them ; and if
after a probation of this kind you turn out a cub be¬
fore them, with fome old hounds to lead them on, you
may affure yourfelf they will not be unfteady long,”
It is proper to put the young hounds into the pack
when they ftoop to a fcent, become handy, know a
rate, and ftop eafdy. A few only are to be put to the
pack at a time ;> and it is not advifable even to begin
this till the pack have been out a few times by the'm-
felves, and “ are gotten well in blood.” They ihould
be low in fleih when you begin to hunt; the ground be-
ing generally hard at that time, fo that they are liable to
be fhaken.—By hounds being handy, our author means
their being ready to do whatever is required of them ;
and particularly, when caft, to turn ealily which way
the huntfman pleafes.
Mr Beckford begins to hunt with his young hounds
in Auguft. The huntfman in the preceding months
keeps his old hounds healthy by giving them proper
exercife, and gets his young hounds forward ; and for
this purpofe. nothing anfwers fo well as taking them
frequently out. The huntfman {hould go along with
them, get frequently off his horfe, and encourage them
to come to him :—too much reftraint will frequently
incline the hounds to be riotous. Our author frequent¬
ly walks out his hounds among (heep, hares, and deer.
Sometimes he turns down a cat before them, which
they kill; and when the time of hunting approaches,
he turns out young foxes or badgers ; taking out fome
of the mo ft fteady of his old hounds to lead on the
young ones. Small covers and furze-brakes are drawn
with them to ufe them to a halloo, and to teach them
obedience. If they find improper game and hunt it,
they are flopped and brought back ; and as long as
they will ftop at a rate, they are not chaftifed. At
fuch times as they are taken out to air, the huntfman
leads them into the country in which they are defigned
to hunt; by which means they acquire a knowledge of
the country, and cannot mifs their way home at any
time afterwards. When they begin to hunt, they are
firft brought into a large cover of his own, which has
many ridings cut in it; and where young foxes are
turned out every year on purpofe for them. After
they have been hunted for fome days in this manner,
they are font to more diftant covers, and more old
hounds added to them. There they continue to hunt
till they are taken into the pack, which is feldom later
than the beginning of September; for by that time
they will have learned what is required of them, and
feldom give much trouble afterwards. In September
he begins to hunt in earned ; and after the old hounds
have killed a few foxes, the young ones are put into
the pack, two or three couple at a time, till all have
hunted. They are then divided ; and as he feldom has
occafion to take in more than nine or ten couple, one
half are taken out one day, and the other the next, till
they are fteady.
To render fox-hunting complete, no young hounds
fhould be taken into the pack the firft feafon ;--a re-
quifite too expenfive for moft fportfmen The pack
fhould confift of about 40 couple of hounds, that have
hunted one, two, three, four, or five feafons. The
young pack fhould confift of about 20 couple of young
hounds, and an equal number of old ones. They {hould
have a feparate eftablifhment, and the two kennels
fhould not be too near ofte another. When the feafon Hounflow.
is over, the beft of the young hounds fhould be takea H
into the pack, and the draught of old ones exchanged ~°ur' .
for them. Many muft be bred to enable a fportfman —'
to take in to couple of young hounds every feafon.
It will always be eafy to keep up the number of old
hounds; for when your own draft is not fufficient,
drafts from other packs may be obtained, and at a
fmall expence. When young hounds are hunted to¬
gether for the firft feafon, and have not a fufficient
number of old ones along with them, it does more
harm than good.
Kennel for Hounds. See Kennel.
HOUNSLOW, a town ofMiddlefex, 10 miles from
London. It is fituated on a heath of the fame name j
and belongs to two parifhes, the north fide of the ftreet
to Hefton, and the fouth fide to Ifleworth. It is fitu¬
ated on the edge of a heath of the fame name, and near
it are powder-mills. It has fairs on Trinity-Monday,
and Monday after September 29. Here is a charity-
fchool and a chapel. In this place was formerly a
convent of mendicant friars, who, by their inftitution,
were to beg alms for the ranfom of captives taken by
the infidels.—The heath is noted for robberies and
horfe-races.
HOU-quang, a province of China, occupying
nearly the centre of the empire: the river Yang-tfe-
kiang traverfes it from weft to eaft ; and divides it into
two parts, the northern and fouthern. This province
(the greater part of which is level, and watered by
lakes, canals, and rivers) is celebrated for its fertility;
the Chinefe call it the ftore-houfe of the empire ; and
it is a common faying among them, that “ the abun¬
dance of Kiang-fi could furnifh all China with a break-
faft ; but the province of Hou-quang alone could fupply
enough to maintain all its inhabitants.” Some princes
of the race of Hong-vou formerly refided in this pro¬
vince ; but that family was enitrely dcftroyed by the
Tartars when they conquered China. The people here
boaft much of their cotton cloths, fimples, gold-mines,
wax, and paper made of the bamboo-reed. The nor¬
thern part of the province contains eight fou, or cities
of the firft clafs, and fixty of the fecond and third.
The fouthern comprehends feven of the firft clafs, and
fifty-four of the fecond and third, exclufive of forts,
towns, and villages, which are every where to be
found.
HOUR, in chronology, an aliquot part of a natu¬
ral day, ufually a 24th, but fometimes a 12th. The
origin of the word hora, or “p*, comes, according to
fome authors, from a furname of the fun, the father
of hours, whom the Egyptians call Horus. Others
derive it from the Greek opdov, to terminate, dijlin-
guijh, &c. Others from the word «?'»' urine; hold¬
ing, that Trifmegiftus was the firft that fettled the
divifion of hours, which he did from obfervation of
an anfmal confecrated to Serapis, named cynocephalut,
which makes water 12 times a-day, and as often in
the night, at equal intervals.
An hour, with us, is a meafure or quantity of time,
equal to a 24th part of the natural day, or nyfthe-
meron; or the duration of the 24th part of the earth’a
diurnal rotation. Fifteen degrees of the equator an-
fwer to an hour; though not precifely, but near e-
nough for common ufe. It is divided into 60 mi¬
nutes j the minute into 60 feconds, &c.
? The
Hocr*
H O U [ 695 ] H O U
The dlvifion of the day into hours is very ancient:
as is ihown by Kircher, Oedipt. -/Egypt- Tom. Ik P. II.
claff. VII. c. 8.: though the paflages he'quotes from
Scripture do not prove it.—The moft ancient hour is
that of the 12th part of the day. Herodotus, lib. ii.
obferves, that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians,
among other things, the method of dividing the day
into twelve parts.—The aftronomers of Cathaya, &c.
bifhop Beveridge obferves, ftill retain this divifion.
They call the hour chag ; and to each chag give a pe¬
culiar name, taken from fome animal: The firil is call¬
ed zeih, “ moufe the fecond, chiu, “ bullock the
third, zem, “ leopard the fourth, mail, “ hare the
fifth, chiu, “ crocodile, &c.
The divifion of the day into 24 hours, was not
known to the Romans before the firft Punic war.—
Till that time they only regulated their days by the
rifing and fetting of the fun. They divided the 12
hours of their day into four, viz. prime, which com¬
menced at fix o’clock ; third, at nine ; Jixth, at twelve,
and none, at three. They alfo divided the night into
our watches, each containing three hours.
HOURS, Hor^e, in the ancient mythology, were
certain goddefles, the daughters of Jupiter and Themis;
at firft only three in number, Eunomia, Dice, and
Irene ; to which were afterwards added two more, Car-
po and Thallote.
Homer makes them the doorkeepers of heaven. O-
vid allots them the employment of harneffing the fun :
'Jungcre equos Titan vtlocibus imperat Horis.
And fpeaks of them as Handing, at equal diftances,
about the throne of Sol:
——et,pofitA/patits eqaalihus. Horse.
The poets reprefent them as dreffed in fine coloured o*
embroidered robes, and gliding on with a quick and
eafy motion.
Hours, Hora, in the Romilh church, are certain
prayers performed at ftated times of the day ; as mat-
tins, vefpers, lauds, &c.—The leffer hours are, prime,
tierce, Jixth, and none. They are called hours, or ca¬
nonical hours, as being to be rehearfed at certain hours
prefcnbed by the canons of that church, in comme¬
moration of the myfteries accompliihed at thofe hours.
Thefe hours were anciently alfo called courfe, curjus ;
F. Mabillon has a differtation on them, intitled, De
Curfu Gallicano.
The firft conftitution enjoining the obfervation of the
canonical hours, is of the ninth century, being found in a
capitular of Heito bifhop of Bafil diredfed to his curates,
importing that the priefts fhall never be abfent at the
canonical hours either by day or night.
Houn-Glafs, a popular kind of chronometer or clep-
fydra, ferving to meafure the flux of time by the de-
fcent or running of fand out of one glafs veffel into ano¬
ther. The belt hour-glafies are thofe which, inftead
of fand, have egg-fhells well dried in the oven, then
beaten fine and lifted.— Hour-glalfcs are much ufed at
fca for reckoning, &c.
HOURIS, in modern hiftory, is 3 name given by
the Mahometans to thofe females that are defigned for
the faithful in paradife. Thefe are not the fame with
whom they have lived on earth, but formed for this
purpofe with lingular beauty and undecaj-ing charms.
HOUSE, a habitation, or place built with conveni-
encies for dwelling in. See Architecture.
JIo«ses? amongft the Jews, Greeks, and Romans,
were flat on the top for them to walk upon, and had Houft.
ufually flairs on the outfide, by which they might a-
fcend and defcend without coming into the houfe. Each
houfe, in faft, was fo laid out, that it inclofed a quad¬
rangular area or court. This court was cxpofed to the
weather, and being open to the Iky, gave light to the
houfe. This was the place where company was recei¬
ved, and for that purpofe it was ftrewed with matts or
carpets for their better accommodation. It was paved
with marble or other materials, according to rhe own¬
er’s ability, and provided with an umbrella of vellum to
flicker them from the heat and inclemencies of the wea¬
ther. This part of their houfes, called by the Romans
impluvium, or cava tedium, was provided with channel*-
to carry off the water into the common fewers. The
top of the houfe was level, and covered with a ftrong
plafter by way of terrace. Hither, efpecially amonglt
the Jews, it was cuftomary to retire for meditation,
private converfe, devotion, or the enjoyment of the
evening breezes.
The Grecian houfes were ufually divided into two
parts, in which the men and women had diftindt man-
iions affigned. The part afligned to the men was to¬
wards the gate, and called Avjywv.?<; • the apartment of
the women was the fartheft part of the houfe, and call¬
ed VxjyatMiti'ii;, Jews, Greeks, and Romans, fuppofed
their houfes to be pollated by dead bodies, and to {land
in need of purification.
House is alfo ufed for one of the eftates of the king¬
dom of Britain affembled in parliament. Thus we fay,
the houfe of lords, the houfe of commons, &c. See
Peers, Commons, &c.
House is alfo ufed for a noble family, or a race of
illuftrious perfons ifiued from the fame ftock. In this-
fenfe we fay, the houfe or family of the Stuarts, the
Bourbons, the houfe of Hanover, of Auftria, of Lor-
rain, of Savoy, &c.
Cheap, eafy, and expeditious Method of confrucling
Houses, which have been found to be very ufeful hofpitals
for the recovery of thefck, and therefore may probably male
very wholefome places of refidence for the healthy. — The
firft thing to be done is to choofe a dry and airy fitua-
tion, on a gravelly or chalky foil if poffible ; upon this
lay down the plan of your building, make one end
of it face that quarter from whence the pureft and
healthieft winds may be expefted to blow, of a
breadth that can be conveniently roofed. Then, if
boarding does not come fo cheap, drive flakes, at
about fix feet diftance from each other, into the ground,
fo as to ftand about fix feet above it; and, interlacing
them with wattles, coat the wattles on the fide next
the weather with frelh ftraw; and make the roof in
the fame manner, but thicker, or of thatch in the
ufual way, with a hole at the very top of it, to open
occafionally. Let the end of the building facing the
wholefomeft quarter lie open fome feet back, fo as to-
forma porch, where the convalefcents may take the
air without danger of any injury from the weather.
A large chimney and kitchen grate may be ere&ed at
the other end. If the foil happens to be chalky or
gravelly, you may hollow it four or five feet deep,
within a foot or eighteen inches of the walls; but let
the fteps into this hollow lie far enough within the
porch, that no water may get into it, and, if of chalk-,,
the fteps may not grow flippery in wet weather. From
time to time ogen the vent-hole at the roof j.by means
o£
K O U I 696 ] H © T7
Houfc. of wLIcli all the unwholeforae Infectious air, as being
warmer, and confequently lighter, than that which is
pure and wholefome, will be driven out by the ru(h-
ing in of the frelh air: a purpofe, which the little o-
penings, that may be left in the fides and roofs of
foch rude and hafty buildings, will, even of themfelves,
anfwer fo well, as fufficiently to compenfate any cold
they may let in, even in the coldeft months. Let
the floor likewife be fcraped three or four inches
deep every five or fix days, and what comes off re¬
moved to fome diftance. Hails of this kind, 50 feet
long and 20 broad, coft but a trifle to build ; yet,
with thefe .precautions , (even without the addition of
clean ftraw for every new patient to lie on, inclofed
in clean waihed facks fit for the pupofe, which come
infinitely cheaper than the bare cleaning of flock or
even feather beds, fuppofing it pofiible to walh fuch
beds), proved of infinitely more advantage in the reco¬
very of fick foldiers, than the low-roofed rooms of
the farm houfes of the Ifle of Wight, or even the
better accommodations of Carifbrooke caftle in the
fame ifland, in which there perifhed four times the
number of .fick that there did in thefe temporary re¬
ceptacles ; w/hich were firft thought of by dodfor
Procklefby,. on occafion of fome terrible infedlions
from confined animal effluvia.
,1s Jt nat furprifing, that we have not availed our-
felves more of the above difcovery in natural hiftory,
being, perhaps, the moft important the moderns can
boaft of, in the moft ufeful fcience, viz. the fuperior
lightnefs of unwholefome and infedtious air! The up¬
per Tallies in moft houfes, even of thofe who pretend
*0 fome knowledge in thefe matters, are generally
immoveable, by means of which no part of the foul
air above the level of the lowed rail of the other falh’s
greateft rile can efcape by the window; and, if it
efcapes by the doors, it is generally for want of a
vent in the higheft part of the roof, merely to accu¬
mulate in the upper ttory of the houfe, and add to the
infedtion, which the great quantities of old furniture
^ufually ftored up there are of themfelves but too apt
to create, when care is not frequently taken to open
ihe windows of it. Thus, the chief benefit to he ex-
.pedled from lofty rooms is in a great meafure loft.
Whereas, were the upper falhes contrived to come
down, all the air might be eafily changed, and that
almoft infenfibly, by letting them down an inch or
two. Nay, the upper fafti might be often let entire-
Jy down with lefs danger or inconvenience from cold,
than the lower thrown up the tenth part of an inch,
though the doing of the former would be attended
with infinitely more advantage to the health of the
inhabitants than the latter. It is, perhaps, on this
principle, that we are to account for the good health
enjoyed by the poor who live crowded in damp cellars,
and often with great numbers of rabbits, poultry, and
even fwine about them. Thefe cellars are open to the
ftreet, with doors reaching from the floor to the very
ceiling, but never fo clofe at bottom or at top as to
-prevent a free circulation of air ; in confequence of
which, that all vivifying fluid, as fait as it is fpoiled
by paffing through the lungs of the inhabitants and
jtheir ftock, or is infedted by their infenfible perfpira-
jtion, excrementS| &c. is driven out and replaced by
£he freih air.
House, in aftrology, denotes the twelfth part of the Houfa.
heavens. ——y—
The divifion of the heavens into houfes, is founded
upon the pretended influence of the ftars, when meet¬
ing in them, on all fublunary bodies. Thefe influences
are fuppofed to be good or bad ; and to each of thefe
houfes particular virtues are affigned, on which all ro-
logers prepare and form a judgment of their horofeopes.
The horizon and meridian are two circles of the cele-
ftial houfes, which divide the heavens into four equal
parte, each containing three houfes; fix of which are
above the horizon and fix belov it ; and fix of thefe
are called eajlern and fix miejlern 'houfes.
A fcheme or figure of the heavens is compo'ed of
ta triangles, all called ^ok/m, in which is marked the
ftars, figns, and planets, fo included in each of thefe
circles. Every planet has likewife two particular houfes,
in which it is pretended that they exert their influence
in the ftrongeft manner; but the fun and moon have
only one, the houfe of the former being Leo, and that
of the latter Cancer.
The houfes in aftrology have alfo names given them
according to their qualities. The firft is the houfe of
life : this is the afeendant, which extends five degree*
above the horizon, and the reft below it. The fecond
is the houfe of riches : the third, the houfe of brothers-:
the fourth, in the lowed part of the heavens, is the
houfe of relations, and the angle of the earth : the fifth,
the houfe of children : the fixth, the houfe of health:
the feventh, the houfe of marriage, and the angle of the
weft : the eighth, the houfe of death : the ninth, the
houfe of piety ; the tenth, the houfe of offices : the ele¬
venth, the houfe of friends; and the twelfth, the houfe
of enemies.
Country-YlovsE, is the villa j" of the ancient Ro-1 See Villa;
mans, the quinta of the Spaniards and Portuguefe, the
cloferie and cajfme of the French, and the vigna of the
Italians.
It ought always to have wood and water near it?
thefe being the principal beauties of a rural feat. The
trees make a far better defence than hills, as they yield
a cooling and healthy air, lhade during the heat of
fummer, and very much break the feverities of the win¬
ter feafon.
It fliould not be fituated too low, ©n account of the
moifture of the air ; and, on the other hand, thofe built
on places expofed to the winds are expenfive to keep
in repair. In houfes not above two ftories high, and
upon a good foundation, the length of two bricks, or
18 inches, for the heading courle, will be fufficient for
the ground-work of any common ftrudture ; and fix or
feven courfes above the earth, to a water-table, where
the thicknefs of the walls are abated or taken in, on
either fide the thicknefs of a brick, viz. two inches and
a quarter. But for large and high houfes of three,
four, or five ftories, with garrets, their walls ought to
.he three heading courfes of bricks, or 28 inches at
leaft, from the foundation to the firft water-table; and
-at every ftory a water table, or taking in, on the in-
fide, for the fummers, girders, and joifts to reft upon,
laid into the middle, or one quarter of the wall at leaft,
for the better bond. But as for the partition-wall, a
brick and half will be fufficiently thick ; and for the
upper ftories, a brick length or nine inch brick will fuffice.
Hot-Hwss.. See Stove and Hypocaustum.
House-
H O U t 697 ] H O TJ
Houfe, Hovsn -BreaLing, or Robbing, is the breaking into gage, vulgarly called fmoke-farthings; which were paid
joufehold. an(j robbing a houfe in the day-time ; the fame crime by cuftom to the king for every chimney in the houfe.
being termed biJr,gi.ary when done by night: both And we read that Edward the Black Prince (foon af-
are felony without oenefit of clergy. ter his fucceffes in France), in imitation of the Engliih
HOUSEHOLD, the whole of a family confidered cuftom, impofed a tax of a florin upon every hearth in
collectively, including the miftrefs, children, and fer- his French dominions. But the firft parliamentary
vants. But the houfehold of a fovereign prince in- eftabliftiment of it in E
eludes only the officers and domeftics belonging to his
palace.
The principal officers of his majefty’s houfehold a
England was by ftatute 13 & 14.
Car. II. c. 10. whereby an hereditary revenue of 2s.
for every hearth, in all houfes paying to church and
poor, was granted to the king for ever. And, by fub-
the lord fteward, lord chamberlain of the houfehold, fequent ftatutes, for the more regular aflefiment of this
the groom of the ftole, the mafter of the great ward¬
robe, and the mafter of the horfe.
tax, the conftable and two other fubftantial inhabitants
of the parilh, to be appointed yearly (or the furveyor
The civil governujent of the king’s houfe is under appointed by the crown, together with fuch conftable
the care of the lord fteward of the king’s houfehold; or other public officer), were, once in every yeaj, em-
who, being the chief officer, all his commands are powered to view the infide of every houfe in the pa-
obferved and obeyed. His authority extends over all rlfh. But, upon the Revolution, by flat. 1. W. & M.
the other officers and fervants, except thofe of his ma- c. 10. hearth -money was declared to be “ not only
jefty’s chapel, chamber, and ftable, and he is the judge a great oppreflion to the poorer fort, but a badge of
of all crimes committed either within the court or the flavery upon the whole people, expofing every man’s
verge. houfe to be entered into and fearched at pleafure, by
Under him are the treafurer of the houfehold, the perfons unknown to him ; and therefore, to eredt a laft-
comptroller, cofferer, the mafter of the houfehold, the ing monument of their majefties goodnefs, in every
clerks of the green-cloth, and the officers and fervants houfe in the kingdom the duty of hearth-money was
belonging to the accounting houfe, the marfhalfea, the taken away and abolifhed.” This monument of good-
verge, the king’s kitchen, the houfehold kitchen, the nefs remains among us to this day: but the profpe&
acatery, bake-houfe, pantry, buttery, cellar, paftry, of it was fomevvhat darkened, when in fix years after-
&c. Next to the lord fteward is the lord chamberlain wards, by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 18. a tax was laid up-
of the houfehold, who has under him the vice-cham- on all houfes (except cottages) of 2r. now advanced to
berlain, the treafurer, and comptroller of the chamber; 1,5. per houfe, and a tax alfo upon all windows, if they
48 gentlemen of the privy chamber, 12 of whom wait exceeded nine, in fuch houfe. Which rates have been
Quarterly, and two of them lie every night in the privy- from time to time varied, being now extended to all
chamber ; the gentleman ufher, the grooms of the great windows exceeding fix ; and power is given to furvey-
chamber, the pages of the prefence-chamber; the mace- ors, appointed by the crown, to infpeft the outfide of
bearers, cup bearers, carvers, muficians, &c. See Lord houfes, and alfo to pafs through any houfe, two days
Chamberlain of the Houfehold. in the year, into any court or yard, to infpeft the win-
The groom of the ftole has under him the 11 other dows there,
lords of the bed-chamber, who wait weekly in the bed- Schemes of the different rates of duty upon houfes and
windows may be feen in the Almanacks, or in Kearfefs
Tax-Tables publilhed yearly.
HousE-Leek, in botany. See Sedum and Semper*
vivum.
HOUSING, or HousE-Line, in the fea-language,
a fmall line, formed of three fine ftrands ortwiftsof'
chamber, and by turns lie there a-nights on a pallet-
bed ; and alfo the grooms of the bed-chamber, the
pages -of the bed-chamber and back-ftairs, &c. See
Groom of the Stole.
The mafter or keeper of the great wardrobe has un¬
der him a deputy, comptroller, clerk of the robes,
bruflier, &c. and a number of tradefmen and artificers, hemp, fmaller than rope-yarn. It is chiefly ufed to
who are all fworn fervants to the king. feize blocks into their drops, to bind the corners of
The mafter of the horfe has under his command the the fails, or to faften the bottom of a fail to its bolt-
equerries, pages, footmen, grooms, coachmen, farriers, rope, &c. See Boir-Rope.
faddlers, and all the other officers and tradefmen em- Housing, or Houfee, a cover laid over thefaddleof
ployed in his majefty’s ftables. a horfe, in order to fave it from the weather, dirt, &c.
Next to .the civil lift of the king’s court, is the mi- The word is formed of the Frenchwhich figni-
litary, confiding of the band of gentlemen penfion- fies the fame thing; though it anciently denoted a kind
ers, the yeomen of the guard, and the troops of the of hood worn by country people.—The cavaliers appear-
houfehold; of which the two firft guard the king ed with their embroidered houfings.
above flairs. ... . . > Housing, among bricklayers, a term ufed for a
When the king dines in public, he is waited upon brick which is warped, or is call crooked or hollow in
at table by his majefty’s cup-bearers, carvers, and burning ; in fuch a cafe, they fay it is houfng.
gentlemen fewers; the muficians playing all the time. HOUSTONIA, in botany ; a genus of the mono-
The dinner is brought up by the yeomen of the guard, gynia order, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants;
and the gentlemen fewers fet the difhes in order. The and in the natural method ranking under the 47th or-
carvers cut for the king, and the cup-bearers ferve him der, Stellata. The corolla is monopetalous and funnel-
the drink with one knee on the ground, after he has fhaped; the capfule bilocular, difpermous, fuperior.
firft tailed it in the cover. HOU-TCHEOU- fou, a city of China, in the pro* -
House and Window Duty, a branch of the king’s vince of Tche-kiang. It is a city of the firft clafs *
e A- extraordinary revenue As early as the conqueft and is fituated on a lake, from which it takes its name!
r* mention is made in domefday book of fumage or fu- The quantity of filk manufaAured here is almoft incrc!
Vol. VIII. Part II, 4s . dible.
Houfehold
II
Hou-
tcheou -fou.
HOW [Ml HOW.
Howard, dible. To give fonae idea of it, we (hall only fay, that
the tribute paid by a city under its jurifdidion, named
Te-tfih-hien, amounts to more than 500,000 taels or
ounces of iilver. Its diftrift contains feven cities, one
of which is of the fecond, and fix of the third, clafs.
HOWARD (Henry), earl of Surry, a foldier and
a poet, the fon and grandfon of two lord treafurers,
dukes of. Norfolk, was born probably about the year
1520, and educated in Windfor caftle, with young Fitz-
royearl of Richmond, natural fon to king Hen. VIII.
Wood fays, from tradition, that he was fome time a
Undent at Cardinal College, Oxford. In his youth he
became enamoured of the Fait Geraldine, whom his
funnels have immortalized. In 1532, Howard with
his companion Richmond was at Paris, where they
continued fome time. The latter died in 1536; after
which our young hero made, a tour to Italy, and at
Florence, like a true inamorato, publifhed a challenge
againft all comers, whether Chritlians, Jew's, Saracens,
Turks, or cannibals, in defence of the beauty of his
fair Geraldine; and whs vi&orious in the tournament
inftituted by*he grand duke on the occafion. The
duke, we are told, was fo charmed with his gallant ex¬
ploits, that he would gladly have retained him at his
Court; but he rejedted the invitation, being determined
to maintain the fuperlative beauty of his Geraldine in
all the principal cities in Italy. This romantic refolu-
tjon was' however fruflrated by the command of his
fovereign, Henry VIII. to return to England.
In 154Q, he fignaltzed himfelf in a tournament at
Weftminfter, againft Sir John Dudley, Sir Thomas
Seymour, and others. In 1542, he marched, under
the command of his father, againft the Scots; and in
the fame year was confined in Windfor caftle for eat¬
ing fleftt in Lent, contrary to the king’s proclamation.
In 1544, on the expedition to Boulogne in France, he
was appointed field marftral of the Englifh army; and
• after the taking of that town, in 1546, made captain-
general of the king’s forces in France. He was at this
time knight of the garter. In the fame year, attempt¬
ing to intercept a convoy, he was defeated by the
French, and foon after fuperfeded in his command by
the earl of Hertford,
Surry, after his return to England, confcious of his
former fervices, and peevifh under his difgrace, could
not help reflecting on the king and council. This was
His firft ftep towards deftruftion- He had married
Frances, the daughter of John earl of Oxford ; and,
after her death, is faid to have made love to the prin-
cefs Mary. For this the Seymours, rivals of the Nor¬
folk family, and now in favour with the king, accufed
him of afpiring to the crown; adding, that he already
prefumed to quarter part of the royal arms with his
own : but, whatever might be the pretence, the caufe
of his ruin was the jealoufy and power of his enemies.
In ftiort, the deftruAion of the Howards being deter¬
mined, Surry, and his father the duke of Norfolk,
v/ere committed to the Tower, in December 1546;
and on the 13th of January following, Simry was tried
at Guild hall by a common jury, and beheaded on
Tower-hill on the rgth day of the fame month, nine
days before the death of the king ; who thus, that the
meafure of his crimes might be full, finifhed Ins life
with the murder of his bell fubj. A. The accu.fations
brought againtt this amiable and innocent young noble¬
man on bis trial, were fo extremely ridiculous, that Howard
one is aftonilhed how it was poflible, even in the moft
defpotic reign, to find a judge and jury fo pufillani-
moufly villanous as to carry on the farce of juftice on
the occafion. We boaft of our excellent conftitution,
and our trial by juries; but this example may teach
us, that our conftitution and our juries are not incom¬
patible with defpotic monarchy. He was firft inter¬
red in the church of All-hallows, Barkin, near Tower-
hill ; and afterwards, in the reign of king James I. re¬
moved to Farmingham in Suffolk, by his fon Henry
earl of Northampton.
As to the charaAer of this unfortunate earl, all our
poets have fang his praife. Mr Walpole begins his
anecdotes of Surry with thefe words: “ We now
emerge from the twilight of learning to an almoft claf-
fic author, that ornament of a hoifterous, yet not un-
polilhed court, the earl of Surry, celebrated by Dray¬
ton, Dryden, Fenton, Pope, illuftrated by his own
mufe, and lamented for his unhappy death: a man (as
Sir Walter Raleigh fays) no lefs valiant than learned,
and of excellent hopes.” Ltland calls him the con-
feript enrolled heir of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the elder,
in his learning and other excellent qualities ; and the
author of The Jlrt of Etigifh Poetry fays, that the earl
of Surry, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, may be juftly call¬
ed the reformers of our poetry and flyle. His poems
were publiflied in 1557, izmo; and in 1565, 1574,
1585, 1587, 8vo. Several of the fonnets are by Sir
Thomas Wyatt and others.
Howard (Charles), an able ftatefman and experi¬
enced feamen, was the fon of lord William Howard,
baron of Effingham, and born in 1536- He ferved
under his father, who was lord high admiral of Eng¬
land, till the acceffion of queen Elizabeth. In January
1573, he fucceeded his father in his title and eftate :
after which he fucceffively became chamberlain of the
houfehold and knight of the garter; and in 1585 was
made lord high admiral, at that critical junAure when
the Spaniards were fending their Armada, in their opi¬
nion, to the affured conqueft of this kingdom. When
he received intelligence of the approach of the Spanifh,
fleet, and faw the prodigious confequence it was to get
out the few fhips that were ready at Plymouth, he not
only gave orders in every thing himfelf, but wrought
alfo with his own hands, and the firft night left the
port with fix fhips. The next morning, though he
had only 30 fail, and thofe the fmalleft of the fleet, he
attacked the Spanifh navy; but firft difpatched his
brother-in-law Sir Edward Hobby, to the queen to
defire her to make the proper difpofition of her land-
forces for the fecurity of the coaft, and to haften as
many (hips as poffible to his affiftance. His valour was
confpicuoufly difplayed in his repeated attacks of a iu-
perior enemy. The coolnefs of his temper was no lefs
confpicuous ; and it was owing to his magnanimity-
and prudence that the viAory was fo great The queen -
expreffed her fenfe of his merit in the moft honourable
terms; and granted him a penfion for life. In 1596,-
he commanded in chief at fea, as Effex did by land,
the forces fent againft Spain, when h:s prudence and"
moderation were among the principal caufesof the fuc-
cefs the Enghffi met with in that great and glorious
enterprize ; fo that, upon his return the next year, he
was. advanced to the dignity of earl of Nottingham.
% Thfc-
784, r-
HOW t 699 ] HO W
■J. The next eminent fervice in which his Lordlhip was nan : at thelafl of thofetowns were feveralof ouf fliip's Howard.
” engaged was in 1599, when the Spaniards feemed to crew, and my fervant. I had fufficient evidence of  
meditate a new invafion. Her majdty, who always their being treated with fuch barbarity, that many
placed her fafety in being too quick for her enemies, hundreds had perifhed, and that 36 were buried in a
drew together, in a fortnight’s time, fuch a fleet, and hole at Dinnan in one day. When I came to England,
fuch an army, as took away all appearance of fuccefs Itill on parole, I made known to the commiffioners of
from her foreign and domeftic enemies ; and flie gave fick and wounded feamen the fundry particulars, which
the carl the foie and fupreme command of both the gained their attention and thanks. Remonftrance was
fleet and army, with the title of lord lientmant general made to the French-court: our failorshad redrefs ; and
of all England, an office unknown in fucceeding times, thofe that were in the three prifons mentioned above.
When age and infirmity had unfitted him for aftion. were brought home in the firft cartel fhips.—Perhaps
he refigned his office, and fpent the remaining part of (adds Mr Howard) what 1 fuffered on this occafion
his life in eafe and retirement, till the time of his de- increafed my fympathy with the unhappy people whofe
ceafe, which happened in 1624, in the 87th year of cafe is the fubjedt of this book.”
his age. He afterwards, it is faid, made the tour of Italy ;
Howard (John), Efq; a man of Angular and tranf- and at his return fettled at Brokenhurft, a retired and
cendent humanity, was the fon of a reputable tradefman pleafant villa in the New Forelt, near Lymington in
in St Paul’s church-yard. He was born about the year Hampfhire, having, April 25. 1758, married a daugh-
1725 or 1726 ; and at a proper age was put apprentice ter of Edward Leeds, Efq; of Croxton, Cambidgeflifre,
to Mr Nathaniel Newnham, a wholefale grocer in Wat- king’s ferjeant. This lady died in 1 765 in child-bed,
ling ftreet. His father died, leaving only this fon and of her only child, a fon, who unfortunately became lu-
a daughter, to both of whom he bequeathed handfome natic. After her death Mr Howard left Lymington,
fortunes ; and by his will dire&ed that his fon fhould and purchafed an eftate at Cardington, near Bed-
not be confidered of age till he was five and twenty, ford.
His conftitutiqn was thought very weak, and his health “ While he lived here in retirement (fays Mr Pal-
appeared to have been injured by the neceffary duties merj), it was his meat and drink to make his neigh-1 Funenl
cf his apprenticefliip ; and therefore, at the expiration hours happy. His neat but humble manfion was ever Serm»”'
of it, he took an apartment in a lodging-houfe in hofpitable to a few feleft friends, but was never the
Church-ftreet, Stoke Newington, Middlefex ; but not feene of riot or luxurious banqueting. Though polite °W"
meeting with the tendereft treatment there, he removed to all, he neither fought nor admitted the company of
to another lodging-houfe in the fame ftreet, which was the profligate, however diitinguilhed by rank or for-
kept by a widow lady Mrs Sarah Lardeau, a worthy tune.—His charity had no bounds, except thofe of
fenfible woman, but an invalid. Here he was nurfed prudence ; and was not more commendable for the ex-
with fo much care and attention, that he refolved to tent of it, than for the manner in which it was exer-
marry his landlady out of gratitude for her kindnefs. cifrd. He gave not his bounty to countenance vice
In vain flie expoftulated with him upon the extravagance and idlenefs, but to encourage virtue and induftry. He
of fuch a proceeding, he being about 28 and fhe about was Angularly ufeful in furnilhing employment for the
5 1 years of age, and 20 years older in conftitution : labouring poor of both fexes, at thofe feafons when
but nothing could alter Ids refolution, and they were a fcarcity of work rendered their lituation moft com
privately married about the year 1752. She was poflefled paffionable. And at other times, though never inat
of a fmall fortune, which he prefented to her After, tentive to the tale of wo, he was not eafily impofed
During his refidence at Newington, the minifter ©f the upon by it, but made himfelf acquainted with the cafe,
diflenting meeting-houfe there refigned his office, and He had indeed a general acquaintance with the cafes
a fucceffor was elefted ; and Mr Howard, who was bred and characters of the poor around him, and made it
a diflenter, and ftedfaftly adhered all his life to that pro- his bufinefs to vifit the abodes of afflidtion. In cir-
feffion, prOpofed to purchafe the leafe of a houfe near the cumftances of bodily diforder he often afted the part
meeting-houfe, and to appropriate it as a parfonage- of a phyfician as well as a friend. But his kindnefs
houfe for the ufe of the minifter for the time being, and was not confined to the bodies of his fellow-creatures,
contributed 50/. for that purpofe. His wife died No- it extended to their fpiritual and immortal part. He
vember to. 1755, aged 54; and he was a fincere and carefully watched over the morals of his neighbour-
afleftionate mourner for her death. About this time, hood, and ufed his advice, his admonitions, and in-
it is believed, he was elected F. R. S. In the year 1756 fluence, to difcountenance immorality of all kinds, and
he had. the fortune to experience fome of the evils to promote the knowledge and praftice of religion,
which it afterwards became the bufinefs of his life to As a molt effectual means to this great end, he °pro-
redrefs. He embarked that year in a Lifbon packet, vided for the inilruftion of poor children, by erecting
the Hanover, in order to make the tour of Portugal; and fupporting fchools, which he carefully fuperintend-
when the veflel was taken by a French privateer. “Be- ed. In fhort, he was a univerfal bleffiug to the vil-
fore we reached Breft (fays he*) I fuffered the extre- lage where he. refided, in every part of which are to
mity of thirft, not having for above 40 hours one drop be feen the pleafing monuments of his munificence and
»• of water, nor hardly a morfel of food. In the caftle tafte.—His liberality exiended alio to adjacent places,
at Breft I lay fix nights upon ftraw ; and obferving in which there are many who will call him bleffed!
how cruelly my countrymen were ufed there and at Nor was it confined to perfons of his own religious
Morla.x, whither I was carried next, during the two peifuafion, but comprehended the neceffitous and de-
months I was at Carhaix upon parole, l correfponded ferving of all parties; while he was .particularly ufe-
with the Englilh prifoners at Breft, Morlaix, and Din- ful in lerving tiie intereft of the Chnftian fociety to
4 S 2 which
HOW [
Howard' which he belonged. What wonder if fuch a man
univerfally beloved ? Was it poffible he (hould have
an enemy ? One however he had (and I never heard
of more), an idle and difiblute wretdh, who, having
been often reproved by him for his vices, formed the
defperate refolution to murder him as he was going to
public woifhip, which he almolt always did on foot.
But Providence remarkably interpofed to preferve fo
valuable a life, by inclining him that morning to go on
horfeback a different road.”
But the fphere in which he had hitherto moved was
too narrow for his enlarged mind. Being named in
1773 to the office of fheriff of Bedfordfhire, from
that time his feene of ufefulnefs was extended. His
office, as he himfelf obferves, brought the diftrefs
of prifoners more immediately under his notice. A
fenfe of duty induced him perfonally to vifit the
county jail, where he obferved fuch abufes, and fuch
feenes of calamity, as he had before no conception of;
and he foon exerted himfelf in order to a reform. With
a view to obtain precedents for certain regulations
which he purpofed, he went to infpedt the prifons in
fome neighbouring counties. But finding in them equal
room for complaint and commiferation, he determined
to vifit the principal prifons in England. The farther
he proceeded, the more fhocking were the feenes pre-
fented to his view: which induced him to refolve upon
exerting himfelf to the utmoft, in order to a general
reform in thefe horrid places of confinement; confi-
dering it as of the higheft importance, not only to the
wretched objefts themfelves, but to the community at
large. Upon this fubjeft he was examined in the houfe
of commons in March 1774, when he had the honour
of their thanks. This encouraged him to proceed in
his defign. He revifited all the prifons in the king¬
dom, together with the principal houfes of correction.
He alfo°in 1775 enlarged his circuit by going into
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where he found the
fame need of reformation.
One grand objeft which he had in view was, to
put a ftop to that fhocking diflemper called the jail-
fever ; which raged fo dreadfully in many of the pri¬
fons, as to render them to the laft degree offenfive and
dangerous : A diftemper, by which more had been
taken off than by the hands of the executioner; and
which, in feveral inflances, had been communicated
from the prifoners into the courts of juftice, and had
proved fatal to the magiftrates and judges, and to mul¬
titudes of perfons who attended the trials, as well as
.to the families of difeharged felons and debtors. A-
nother end he propofed was, to procure the. immediate
releafe of prifoners, who, upon trial, were acquitted,
but who often continued long to be unjuftly detained
for want of being able to pay the accuilomed fees : As
alfo to abolifh many other abfurd and cruel ufages which
700 ] HO W
arts of villany and the myfteries of iniquity ; fo that, in- Howard.
Head of being reformed by their confinement (which -—
fhould be the chief end of punifhment), thofe that were
difeharged became more injurious to focietythan before.
In order to the attainment of thefe great objeds,
Mr Howard fpared no pains nor expence, and cheer¬
fully expofed himfelf to much inconvenience and ha¬
zard ; particularly from that malignant dillemper, of
which he faw many dying in the molt loathfome dun¬
geons, into which none, who were not obliged, befides
himfelf, would venture. “ I have been frequently
(fays Mr Howard) afked what precautions 1 ufc to
preferve myfelf from infection in the prifons and hofpi-
tals which I vifit. I here anfwer, next to the free
goodnefs and mercy of the Author of my being, tern-
perance and cleanlinefs are my prefervatives. Trail¬
ing in divine Providence, and believing myfelf in the
Yvay of my duty, I vifit the moll noxious cells; and
while thus employed, I fear no evil. 1 never enter an
hofpital or prifon before breakfaft ; and in an offenfive
room, I feldom draw my breath deeply.”
His laudable endeavours he had the pleafure to fee,
in fome inllances, crowned with fuccefs; particularly
in regard to the healthinefs of prifons, fome of which
were rebuilt under his infpedtion. Through his inter-
pofition alfo, better provifion has been made for the in-
ftrudtion of prifoners, by the introduction of bibles and
other pious books into their cells, and a more con-
llant attendance of clergymen. The gaolers likewife
have, by a6t of parliament, been rendeied incapable of
felling ftrong liquors, which had been the fource of
much drunkennefs and diforder. But a minute detail
of particulars is not to be expedited here; for thefe the
reader is referred to Mr Howard’s publications, which
ffiow that much is yet wanting
But in order to a more general and happy regula¬
tion, and the reformation of criminals, he determined
to vifit other countries, to fee the plans there adopted;
in hope of collecting fome information which might be
ufeful in his own country. For this purpofe he tra¬
velled into France, Flanders, Holland, Germany, and
Switzerland. Afterwards through the Pruffian and
Auftriao dominions. He vifited alfo the capitals of
Denmark, Sweden, Ruffia, and Poland, and fome ci¬
ties in Portugal and Spain. In all thefe expenfive and
hazardous journeys, he denied himfelf the ufual grati¬
fications of travellers, and declined the honours which
were offered him by perfons of the firft diftinCtion, ap¬
plying himfelf folely to his one grand objeCt. To him
the infpedtion of a jail, or hofpital, was more grate¬
ful than all the entertainments of a palace. With what
aftonifhment and gratitude he was received by their
miferable inhabitants may eafily be imagined, fince
while he made obfervations on their fituation, he medi¬
tated their relief; and many diftreffed prifoners abroad,
had long prevailed. But the great objeft of all was, to as well as at home, partook of his bounty, and fome
introduce a thorough reform of morals into our prifons;
where he had found the moll flagrant vices to prevail in
fuch a degree, that they were become feminaries of wick-
ednefs and villany, and the moft formidable nuifances to
the community ; in confequence of the promifeuous in-
tereourfe of prifoners of bath fexes, and of all ages and
deferiptions ; whereby the young and lefs experienced
liberated by it; for he confidered all of every na¬
tion, and people, and tongue, as brethren. Nor was
he fparing of advice, or of reproof, as he faw occa-
fion, to perfons of rank and influence, whereby the
miferies of their countrymen might be relieved. As
he courted the favour of none, neither did he fear
the frowns of any; but, with a manly freedom and a
were initiated, by old and hardened finaers, into all the Chrillian fortitude, fpoke his mind to crowoed heads
<5 (parti-
HOW [
Howard, (particularly the late emperor of Germany) in a i
ner to which they were not accuftomed ; which, how¬
ever, in a perfon of fuch difinterefted views, procured
him reverence and eftetm, and in fome inftances
proved effedtual for relieving the miferable and oppref-
fed. On his return, he publiihed in 1777, “The
701 ] HOW
imperfeA), he publifhed^the refult of his laft laborious Howard,
inveftigations, in “ An Account of the principal La-
zarettos in Europe, with various Papers relative to the
Plague, together with further Obfervations on fome
Foreign Prifons and Hofpitals, and additional Remarks
on the prefent State of thofe in Great-Britain and Ire-
State of the Prifons in England and Wales, with land,” with a great number of curious plates. The
Preliminary Obfervations, and an Account of fome
foreign Prifons.” 4to. And in 1778 he took a
third journey through the Pruffian and Auftrian do¬
minions, and the free cities of Germany, and like-
wife extended his tour through Italy, and revifited
fome of the countries he had before feen. The obfer¬
vations he made in this tour were publiflred in an ap¬
pendix, 1780; containing alfo fome remarks refpeft-
work likevvife contained Obfervations on Penitentiary
Houfes, which had been encouraged by a6t of par¬
liament, for the corre&ion and reformation of crimi¬
nals, of which he and Dr Fothergill had been nomi¬
nated by the king to be fuperintendants. Befide thefe,
he publifhed the Grand Duke of Tufeany’s “ new Code
of Criminal Law with an Englilh Tranflation :” and
of all his publications he gave away a vaft number of
xng the management of prifoners of war, and the hulks copies among his acquaintance in the mod liberal man-
on the Thames. But wilhing to acquire fome further ner. His laying open the horrors of defpotifm in
knowledge on the fubjeft, he in 1781 again revifited
Holland and fome cities in Germany. He vifited alfo
the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, Rufiia, and Po¬
land ; and in 1783 fome cities in Portugal and Spain,
and returned through France, Flanders, and Holland.
The fubftance of all thefe travels was afterwards thrown
into one narrative, which was publilhed in 1784. He
alfo publifhed a curious account of the Ballile, in 8vo;
that infamous French prifon happily now no more.
His travels and exertions, however, were not yet at
an end. He conceived a further defign, which was
to viiit the principal lazarettos in France and Italy,
in order to obtain information concerning the bed me¬
thods to prevent the fpreading of the plague, with a
view to apply them with refpedl to other infedlious
diforders. Not gaining all the fatisfadion here which
he wifhed for, he proceeded to Smyrna and Condan-
tinople, where that mod dreadful of human didempers
actually prevailed, “ pleafing himfelf (as he faid) with
the idea of not only learning, but of being able to
communicate fomewhat to the inhabitants of thofe di-
dant regions.” In the execution of this defign, though
he was fo much expofed tp danger, and a&ually caught
the plague, “ that merciful Providence (as he him¬
felf pioufly remarks) which had hitherto preferved
him, was pleafed to extend his protection to him in
this journey alfo, and to bring him home once more
in fafety.” In his return he revifited the chief pri¬
fons and hofpitals in the countries through which he
paffed ; and afterwards went again to Scotland, and
then to Ireland, where he propofed a new and very
important objeft ; namely, to infpeft the Protedant
Charter Schools, in fome of which he had before ob-
ferved diameful abufes, which he had reported to a
committee of the Irifh Houfe of Commons. In this
neighbouring country had very nearly expofed him to
the fufferings of them ; and had it not been for the
timely notice of our ambaffador, he liad ended his days-
in the Badile.
Not fatisfied, however, with what he had already
done, he concludes his “ Account of Lazarettos”
with announcing his “ intention again to quit his coun¬
try, for the purpofe of revifiting Ruflia, Turkey, and
fome other countries, and extending his tour in the
Ead. I am not infenfible (fays he) of the dangers that
mud attend fuch a journey. Truding, however, in
the proteClion of that kind Providence which has hi- «
therto preferved me, I calmly and cheerfully commit
myfelf to the difpofal of unerring wifdom. Should
it pleafe God to cut off my life in the profecution of
this defign, let not my conduft be uncandidly imputed
to radmefs or enthufiafm, but to a ferious deliberate
conviction that I am purfuing the path of duty, and
to a lincere defire of being made an inftrument of more
extenfive ufefulnefs to my fellow-creatures than could
be expeited in the narrower circle of a retired life.”
Accordingly, to the great concern of his friends, he
fet out in fummer 1789 on this'hazardous enterprize ;
the principal objed of which was to adminider a me¬
dicine in high repute at home, in malignant fevers *, * DrJamsbl
under a drong perfuafion that it would be equally effi- Powder,
cacious in the plague. In this fecond tour in the
Ead “ it did pleafe God to cut off his life :” for, ha¬
ving fpent fome time at Cherfon, a new fettlement of
the Emprefs of Ruffia, in the mouth of the Dnieper
or Borydhenes, toward the northern extremity of the
Black Sea, near Oczakow, he caught, in vifiting the
Ruffian hofpital of that place, or as fome fay a young
lady wffio was ill of the fame complaint, a malignant
fever, which carried him off on the 20th of January,
more extenfive tour, he took a particular account of after an illnefs of about twelve days : and after ha-
what he ohferve.^ amifs. in the rnnrhiA of rhic vinor £ . a.: 
■what he obferved amifs in the condud of this noble
charity, with a view to a reformation, and not without
confiderable fuccefs. In the courfe of thefe journeys,
particular cities and communities were not unmindful
to pay him proper refped. At Dublin, he was created
by the univerfity a Dodor of Laws ; and the city of
Glafgow and the town of Liverpool did honour to
themfelyes by enrolling him among their members.
Upon his return home, having again infpeded the
prifons in England, and the hulks on the Thames, to
iee what alterations had been made for the better
(which he found to be very confiderable, though yet
ving been' kept, according to his exprefs diredions
to his fervant, five days, he was buried, by his own de¬
fire, in the garden of a villa in the neighbourhood, be¬
longing to a French gentleman from whom he had
received great civilities, by his faithful fervant who had
attended him on his former jouineyings, and whom he
exprefsly enjoined not to return home till five weeks,
from his death. While abfent on his firtt tour to Tur¬
key, idc. his charader. for adive benevolence had fo
much attracted the public attention, that a fubferip-
tion w'as fet on foot to ered a fiatue to his honour, and
in no long fpace above L. 1 jeo was fubferibed for that
gurgafe*.
HOW [7
'Howard pflrpofe. But fome of thofe who knew Mr Howard.beft,
li never concurred in the fcheme, being well allured that
l, wou^ neither countenance nor accede to it; and in
+ See G •nt con^ecluence tw0 Otters from Mr Howard himlelff
mZ vo”. to t^e fubfcribers, the defign was laid afide. It has,
Ivii.p. 101. however, been refumed fince his death : And furely,
of all the ftatues or monuments ever erefted by pub¬
lic gratitude to illuftrious characters either in ancient
or modern times, none was ever creCted in honour of
worth fo genuine and admirable as his—who devoted
his time, his ftrength, his fortune, and finally facri-
ficcd his life, in the purfuits of humanity:—who (to
\ Speech at a<l0pt the expreffive words of Mr Burke ;}:) “ vifited
Guildhall in all Europe [and the Eaft], not to furvey the fumptu-
JBri/!oit oufnefs of palaces, or the Itatelinefs of temples ; not
*7So» to make accurate meafurements of-the remains of an¬
cient grandeur, nor to form a fcale of the curiofity of
modern art; not to colleCt medals, or to collate manu^
fcripts ; but to dive into the depth of dungeons; to
plunge into the infeftion of holpitals; to furvey the
manfions of for row and of pain ; to take the gauge
and dimenfions of mifery, depvefiioh, and contempt;
to remember the forgotten ; to attend to the negleCted ;
to vifit the forfaken ; and to compare and collate the
diftreffes of all men in all countries. His plan is ori¬
ginal ; and it is as full of genius as it is of humanity.
It is a voyage of difcovery, a circumnavigation of
charity; and already the benefit of his labour is felt
more or lefs in every country.”
HOWDEN, a t«wn in the Eaft Riding of York-
fhire, 180 miles from London, Hands on the north
fide of the Oufe, has a market on Saturdays, and four
fairs in the year. Here waiT formerly a collegiate
church of five prebendaries, erefted in the laft century
but one ; adjacent to which the bilhops of Durham,
who poflefs many eftates hereabouts with a temporal
jurifdiftion, have a palate. One of them built a very
tall fteeple to the church here, whither the inhabitants
might retire in cafe of inundations; to which it is
very liable from the great frelhes that come down the
Oule fometimes at ebb. This part of the county is
from hence called Howdenftiire, and is watered by a
conflux of i>veral large rivers that fall into the Hum¬
ber. At Howdendike is a ferry over the Oufe.
HOM E (John), a learned Englifh nonconformift
divine born in 1630. He became minifter of Great
Torrington in Devonfliire, and was appointed houfe-
hold chaplain to Cromwell ; but feems to have been
free from the fanaticifm then in fafhion, as he offended
Cromwell greatly by preaching againft the notion of
particular faith, which the minifters of his court were
great advocates for. When Oliver died, he continued
chaplain to Richard; and when Richard was d^pofed,
he returned to Torrington, where he continued till
the aft of uniformity took place and fet him afide.
He afterwards fettled at Utrecht, until the declaration
for liberty ofconfcience was publiftred by king James II.
under fhelter of which he returned to London, where
he died in 1705. He publifhed a great number of fer-
mons and religious w'orks, which have been reprinted
together in two vols folio.
Hoivr Ifland, a fmall ifland of the South Sea, dif-
covered by captain Wallis, tailed by the inhabitants
of the Society Ifland Mopcba; lies in S. Lat. j6. 46.
and W. Long. 154. 8.
02 ] HOW
Lord Hotte's Ifland, a fmall ifland in the neigh¬
bourhood of New South Wales, difeovered on Febru¬
ary 17. 1788, S. Lat. 31. 36. E. Long. 159. 04.
It is of an arched figure, lying from north-weft to
fouth-eaft, the two extiemities including a fpace of
about fix miles, though, by reafon of the curved figure
of the ifland itfelf, it is near feven in length. It is
deeply indented on the middle of the eafiern part-by
a bay named Rofs’s Bay, and on the oppofite and
weftern part has another named Prince William Hen¬
ry’s Bay; fo that the whole has the appearance of two
iflands joined together by an ifthmus, which in fome
places is not above half a mile broad. On the fouth-
ern part of thstdivifion which lies moft to the north¬
ward are two confiderable bays, named Callam’s and
Hunter’s Bay ; and on the fouth-weftern part of the
other are two high mountains, the moft foutherly na¬
med Mount Gower, and the other Mount Lidgbird.
The convex part of the ifland lying towards the north-
eaft, and the concave fide towards the oppofite quarter,
is terminated by two points named Point King and
Point Philip. No frelh water was found on the ifland;
but it abounds with cabbage-palms, mangrove, and
manchineel trees, even up to the fummitsof the moun¬
tains. There are plenty-of ganets, and a land fowl of
a dulky brown colour, with a bill about four inches
long, and feet like thofe of a chicken. Thefe were
found to be remarkably fine meat, and were very fat.
There are many large pigeons, and the white birds
found in Norfolk Ifland were alto met with in this
place. The bill of this bird is red, and very ftrong,
thick, and tharp pointed. Great numbers of fine
turtle frequent this ifland in ,fummer, but go to the
northward in winter. Thefe, it was imagined, would
prove of great fervice to the colony at Port Jackfon ;
but, from fome caute or other, it appears they have hi¬
therto been difappointed. Plenty of fifli were caught by
a hook and line. At the diftance of about four leagues
from Lord Howe’s Ifland is a very remarkable and
high rock, to which the name of Ball’s Pyramid has
been given. This ifland may be approached without
danger ; but about tour miles from the fouth weft part
of the pyramid there is a very dangerous rock, which
flrows itfelf above the furface of the water, and appears
not to be larger than a boat. The fouthern part of
the ifland is lined with a fandy beach, which is guard¬
ed againft the fea by a reef of coral rock, at the di¬
ftance of half a mile from the beach, ttnough which
there arc feveral fmall openings for boats; but there is
nowhere a greater depth of water within the reef than
four feet. By the account of Mr Watts, who vifited
this ifland in his return from Port Jackfon, the ifthmus
which joins the two parts has evidentlyr been overflow¬
ed, and the ifland disjoined, as in the very centre the
men faw large beds of coral rocks and great quantities
of fljells ; and- on the eaft, which feems in general to
be the weather-fide, the fea has thrown up a bank of
fand from 25 to 30 feet high, which ferves as a bar¬
rier againft future inundations. The ifland alfo ap¬
pears to have fuffered by volcanic eruptions, as great
quantities of pumice ftones and other matters of that
kind were found upon it. Mr Aultin alfo found the
whole reef which flrelters the weft bay a burnt-up mafs.
The time he vilited the ifland was that of the incuba¬
tion of the ganets, of which there were then prodigi¬
ous
HOY L 703 ] H U A
' Howel ous numbers, their nefts being only hollows made in
f II the fand, there not being any quadrupeds on the
H°y ifland to difturb them. BtTides the large pigeons al-
J"’"’"*''”"'* ready meniioned, they met with beautiful parrots and
parroquets ; a new fpecies of the coote, as well as of
the rail and magpie. They found likewife a very
beautiful fmall bird' of a brown colour with a yellow
breaft, and yellow on the wing, which feemed to be a
fpecies of humming bird. They found alfo a black
bird like a (heerwater, having a hooked bill; and which
burrows in the ground. The only infedts met with
here were the common earth worm and ants ; which
lait were in great plenty. Befidts the trees already
mentioned., they found feveral eiculent vegetables, as
fcurvy grafs, celery, fpinach, endive, and iamphire.
HOWEL (James), a voluminous waiter of the 1 7th
century, fupported himfelf many years by writing and
tranflating of books. Though he bad been a zealous
loyalift, he afterwards flattered Cromwell; yet on the
reftoration he was made hiftoriographfr to the king,
being the firft in England who enjoyed that title. He
died in 1666.
HOW1TZ, a kind of mortar, mounted upon a field-
carriage like a gun. .The differencebetwet n a mortarand
a howitz is, that the trunnions ot the fir !1 are at the end,
and at the middle in the laft. The invention of howitzes
is of much later date than mortars, tor ihty really had
their origin from them. The conftrudtions of howitzes
are as various and uncertain as the.ft of mortar s, except
ting the chambers, which are all cylindric. They are
dillinguifbed by the diameter of the bore; for inltance,
a ten inch howitz rs that the diameter of which is 10
inches; and fo of the ftnaller ones.
HOWTH, a promontory which forms the northern
entrance of the bay of Dublin, having a fmall village
about fevtn miles north eaft from that city in the pro¬
vince of Leinfter. It gives title of earl to the family
of Bt Lawrence, who were fo called from a viftory ob¬
tained by them over the Irifh on St Lawrence’s day
1177, their former name being Triftram ; and this
place has continued in pofleiKon of the family a-
bove 6co years. N. Lat. 53. 21. W. Long. 6. 22.
The fhorts off this hill are rocky and precipitous, af¬
fording, however, a few harbours for fmall craft. It
was formerly called Ben-hedar, i. e. “ the Birds pro¬
montory and celebrated for having Dun Criomthan,
or the rath or royal palace of Criomthan ertfted on it,
he having been chief or king of that diltridt, and me¬
morable for making feveral fuccefsful defeents on the
coaft of Britain againft the Romans in the time of A-
gricola. Howth, though now ftript of trees, wasfor-
morly. covered with venerable oaks, and was a feat of
the Druids ; one of their altars ffill remains in a-feque-
ftered valley on the. call fide of the hill. The manfion-
houfe is built in form of a caftle, and was probably
erefted by Sir Armoticus Triftram.. Near the houfe
Hands the family chapel, and on the w^eftern fhore are
the ruins of St Mary’s church, with fome ancient mo-
Huments of lord Howth’s anceftors. Due weft of
Howth houfe are the ruins of St Fenton’s church.
HOY, a fmall vtffel, chiefly ufed in coafting, or car-
rying goods to or from a (hip, in a road or bay, where
the ordinary lighters cannot be managed with fafety,
or cpiivenieoce...
It would be very difficult to deferibe, precifely, the Hoy
marksof diftindtion between thisveffeland fome others of
the fame fize, which are alfo rigged in the fame manner; ,
becaufe what is called a &oy in one place, would aflume
the name of aoryirwri irt another ; and even the
people who navigate thefe veffels, have, upon examina¬
tion, very vague ideas of the marks by which they
are diftinguiftied from thofe above mentioned. In Hol¬
land, the hoy has two mafts ; in England, it has but
one, where the main-fail is fometimes extended by a
boom, and fometimes without it. Upon the whole, it
may be defined a fmall veffel, ufually rigged as a floop,
and employed for carrying paffengers and luggage from
one place to another, particularly on the fra-coaft.
Hoy, an ifland of Scotland, and one of the Orcades.
It is about 10 miles long; and that part called IVaes
is fruitful and pretty populous, and is a good place for
fiftiing
HOYE, a town of Germany, in Weftphalta, and’
capital of a county of the fame name. It is feated on
the river Wefer, and is fubjeft to the eleftor of Hano¬
ver. E Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 53. 5.
HUAHINE one of the SociETr-IJlands, in the.
South Sea, fituated in S. Lat. 16. 43. W. Long. 150,
52. and is about feven or eight leagues in compafs. Its
furfaee is hilly aiid uneven, and it has a fafe and con¬
venient harbour. It was firft, difeovered by captain
Cook in 1769. It is divided by a deep inlet into two
peninfulas connefted by an ifthmus, which is entirely
overflowed at high water. From the appearance of it&
hills it may be concluded, that the country has at fome
period or other been the Lat of a volcano. The fummitof '
one of them had much the appearance of a crater, and
a blackifh fpongy earth was feen upon one of its Tides,.
which Teemed to be lava 5 and the rocks and clay every
where had a burnt appearance. The ifland is plenti¬
fully fupplied with water by many rivulets which de-
feend from the mountains and broken rocks. The in¬
habitants are nearly as fair as Europeans; and their
conduA is bolder than that of the inhabitants of the
other Society Iflands. They are a flout large made -
people, fome of the talk ft being fix feet three inches
in height; they are extremely indolent, and feem to
have as little curiofity as fear. The dogs are in great
favour with all their women, “ who could not have ca-
reffed them (fays Mr Forfter) with a more ridiculous,
affeftiun if they had been European ladies of falhion.”
Here was feen a middle-aged woman, whofe breafts .
were full of milk, offering them to a little puppy who
bad been trained up to fuck them. The fight dtfgufted .
thofe who faw it fo much, that they could not for¬
bear expreffing their diflike to it; but the woman fmi-
led, and told them that Ihe allowed young pigs to do the
fame. It appeared afterwards that this woman had loft
her child. Some of tluTgentlemen were prefent at a
dramatic entertainment on this ifland : the piece repre-
ftnted a girl running away from her parents ; and feem¬
ed to be levelled at a female paffenger who had come :
in captain Cook’s fhip from Otaheite, and who hap¬
pened to be prefent at the reprefentation. It made
fuch an impreffion oft the girl, that the gentlemen could .
Farce prevad upon her to fee the piece out, or to re-
■ frain from tears while it, was afting. It concluded-1,
with the reception file was fupppfed to meet with from i
hafr
HUD [ 704 ] HUD
Huber her friends, which was made out not to be a very
Hudfon a£reea^^e one-—Thefe people introduce extempore
pieces upon occafion; and it is moft probable that this
was meant as a fatire upon the girl above mentioned,
and to difcourage others from adting in the fame man¬
ner.
HUBER (Ulric), one of the greateft: civilians in
the i 7th century, was born at Dockum in 1636. He
became profeflbr of law at Franeker; and wrote, 1. A
treatife De jure civil at is. 2. Jurifprudentia Frijica.
3. Specimen philofophice civiiis. 4. Injlitutiones hi/ioria ci-
vi/is ; and feveral other works which are efteemed. He
died in 1694.
HUBERT (St), a town of the Netherlands, on
the confines of Liege, with a very fine abbey, where
they bring thofe that are bit by mad animals to be
cured. E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 34. 32.
HUBNER (John), a learned geographer of Ger¬
many, taught geography at Leipfic and Hamburg
with extraordinary reputation ; and died at Hamburg
in 1732, aged 63. His principal work.is A Geogra¬
phical treatife, printed at Bafil in 1746, in 6 vols i2tno.
HUDSON (Jeffrey). See Dwarf.
Hudson (Henry), an eminent Englifh navigator,
who, about the beginning of the laft century, under¬
took to find out a paffage by the north-eaft or north-
weft to Japan and China. For this purpofe he was
four times fitted out : he returned three times unfuc-
cefsful; but in the laft voyage, in 1610, being per-
fuaded that the great bay to which his name has been
iince given, mufl lead to the paffage he fought, he
wintered there, to profecute his difeovery in the
fpring. But their diflreffes during the winter produ¬
cing a mutiny among his men, when the fpring arri¬
ved, they turned him, with his fon and feven fick
men, adrift in his own fhallop, and proceeded home
with the fhip. As Hudfon and his unhappy compa¬
nions were never heard of afterw'ard, it is to be fuppo-
fed they all perifhed.
Hudson (John), a very learned Englifh critic,
born in 1662. He diflinguifhed himfelf by feveral
valuable editions of Greek and Latin authors; and,
in 1701, wTas eledted head keeper of the Bodleian li¬
brary at Oxford. In 1712, he was appointed prin¬
cipal of St Mary’s Hall, through the intereft of the
famous Dr Ratcliffe ; and it is faid that the univerfity
of Oxford is indebted for the moft ample benefaftions
of that phyfician to Dr Hudfon’s felicitations. He
died in 1719, while he was preparing for publication
a catalogue of the Bodleian library, which he had
caufed to be fairly tranferibed in fix folio volumes.
Hudson’s-Bay, a large bay of North America, ly¬
ing between 51 and ^9 degrees oflatitude, difeovered
in 1610 by Henry Hudfon. This intrepid mariner,
in fearching after a north-weft paffage to the South-feas,
difeovered three ftraits, through which he hoped to find
out a new way to Afia by America. He had made
two voyages before on the fame adventure ; the firft
in 1607, and the fecond in 1608. In his third and laft,
t6io, he entered the ftraits that lead into this new
Mediterranean, the bay known by his name ; coafted
a great part of it; and penetrated to eighty degrees
and an half into the heart of the frozen zone. His
* ardour for the difeovery not being abated by the difficul¬
ties he ftruggltd, with in this empire of winter, and
158.
world of froft and fnow, he ftaid here until the enfu- Hudfoti,
ing fpring, and prepared in the beginning of 1611
to piirfue his difeoveries ; but his crew, who fuffered
equal hardfhips, without the fame fpirit to fupport
them, mutinied, feized upon him and feven of thofe
who were moft faithful to him, and committed them
to the fury of the icy feas in an open boat. Hudfop
and his companions were either fwallowed up by the
waves, or gaining the inhofpitable coaft were deftroyed
by the favages; but the ffiip and the reft of the men
returned home. Other attempts towards a difeovery
were made in 1612 and 1667 ; and a patent for plant¬
ing the country, with a charter for a company, was
obtained in the year 1670. In 1746 Captain Ellis
wintered as far north as 57 degrees and a half, and
Captain Chriftopher attempted farther difeoveries in
1761. But befides thefe and tl\e late voyages, which-
fatisfy us that we muft not look for a paffage on this
fide of the latitude 67 degrees north, we are indebted
to the Hudfon’s' Bay Company for a journey, by land;
which throws much additional light on this matter, by
affording what maybe called demonftration, how much
farther north, at leaft in feme parts of their voyage,
ffiips muft go, before they can pafs from one fide of
America to the other. The northern Indians, who
come down to the company’s fasftories to trade, had
brought to the knowledge of our people a river, which
on account of much copper being found near it, had
obtained the name of the Copper-mine river. The
company being defirous of examining into this matter
with ptecifion, direfted Mr Hearne, a young gentle¬
man in their fervice, and who having been brought
up for the navy and ferved in it the war before laft,
was extremely well qualified for the purpofe, to pro¬
ceed over land under the convoy of thofe Indians, for
that river, which he had orders to furvey if poffible
quite down to its exit into the fea; to make obferva-
tions for fixing the latitudes and longitudes; and to
bring home maps and drawings both of it and the
countries through which he (hould pafs. Accordingly
Mr Hearne fet out from Prince of Wales’s Fort, on
Churchill river, latitude 58° 4yj-'North, and longi¬
tude 940 7^ Weft from Greenwich, on the 7th of
December 1770. On the 13th of June he reached
the Copper-mine river, and found it all the way, even
to its exit into the fea, encumbered with ffioals and
falls, and emptying itfelf into it over a dry flat of the
fhore, the tide being then out, which feemed by the
edges of the ice to rife about 12 or 14 feet. This
rife, on account of the falls, will carry it but a very
fmall way within the river’s mouth, fo that the water
in it had not the leaft brackifh tafte. Mr Hearne was
neverthelefs fure of the place it emptied itfelf into be¬
ing the fea, or a branch of it, by the quantity of whale¬
bone and feal fkins which the Efquimaux had at their
tents ; and alfo by the number of feals which he faw
upon the ice. The fea at the river’s mouth was full of
iflands and Ihoals as far as he could fee by the afiift-
ance of a pocket telefcope ; and the ice was not yet
(July 17th) broken up, but thawed away only for
about three quarters of a mile from the fliore, and for
a little way round the iflands and flioals which lay off
the river’s mouth. But he had the moft extenfive view
of the fea when he was about eight miles up the river;
from which ftation the extreme parts of it bore N. W.
by
ffuufon’
HUD I 7°5 1 HUD
s by W. and N. E. By the time Mr Hearne had fini/hed
his furvey of the river, which was about one o’clock in
the morning on the 18th, there came on a very thick
fog and drizzling rain ; and as he had found the river
and fea in every refpedt unlikely to be of any utility,
he thought it unneceflary to wait fot fair weather to
determine the latitude more exa&ly by obfervation;
but by the extraordinary care he took in obferving the
courfes and diftances, walking from Congecathawha-
chaga, where he had two very good obfervations, he
thinks the latitude may be depended on within 20' at
the utmoft. It appears from the map which Mr
Hearne conftrufted of this Angular journey, that the
mouth of the Copper-mine river lies in latitude 720 N.
and longitude 250 W. from Churchill river; that is
about ii9°W. of Greenwich. Mr Hearne’s journey
back from the Cdpper-mine river to Churchill lafted
till June 30th 1772 ; fo that he was abfent almoft a
year and feven months. The unparalleled hardfhips
he fuffered, and the elfential fervice he performed,
met with a fuitable reward from his mafters, and he
was made governor of Prince of Wales’s Fort on
Churchill river. But though the adventurers failed
in the original purpofe for which they navigated this
bay, their project, even its in failure, has been of great
advantage to this country, as is ftiown under the ar¬
ticle Company (Hudfon’t Bay.)
The country lying round Hudfon’s Bay is called
New Britain^ or the country of the Efquimaux ; com¬
prehending Labrador, now North and South Wales.
The entrance of the bay from the ocean, after leaving
to the north Cape Farewell and Davis’s Straits, is
between Refolution ifles on the north, and Button’s
ifles on the Labrador coaft to the iouth, forming
the eaftern extremity of the ftraits diftingniflred by
the name of its great difcoverer. The coafts are very
high, rocky, and rugged at top ; in fome places precipi¬
tous, but fometimes exhibit large beaches. The ifles of
Salilbury, Nottingham, and Digges, are alfo very
lofty and naked. The depth of water in the middle
of the bay is a hundred and forty fathoms. From
Cape Churchill to the fouth end of the bay are regu¬
lars foundings ; near the fhore lhallow, with muddy or
fandy bottom. To the north of Churchill the found¬
ings are irregular, the bottom rocky, and in fome parts
the rocks appear above the furface at low water. From
Moofe river or the bottom of the bay to Cape Churchill
the land is flat, marfliy, and wooded with pines, birch,
larch, and willows. From Cape Churchill to Wager’s
Water the coafts are all high and rocky to the very
fea, and woodlcfs, except the mouths of Pockerekelko
and Seal rivers. The hills on their back are naked,
nor are there any trees for a great diftance inland.
The mouths of all the rivers are filled with ftroals ;
except that of Churchill, in which the largeft fttips
may lie : but ten miles higher, the channel is obftruft-
ed with fand-banks ; and all their rivers, as far as has
been navigated, are full of rapids and catara&s from
ten to fixty feet perpendicular. Down thefe rivers the
Indian traders find a quick paflage ; but their return
is a labour of many months. As far inland as the
company have fettlements, which is fix hundred miles
to the weft, at a place called Hudfon Houfe, lat. 53.
long. to6. 27 from London, is flat country : nor is it
Von. VIII. Part II.
known how far to the eaftward the great chain feen
by our navigators from the Pacific Ocean branches off.
The climate even about Haye’s river, in only lat.
57, is during winter exceffively cold. The fnows be¬
gin to fall in Oftober, and continue falling by inter¬
vals the whole winter; and when the froft is moft ri¬
gorous, in form of the fineft fand. The ice on the
rivers is eight feet thick. Port-wine freezes into a
folid mafs ; brandy coagulates. The very breath fell
on the blankets of the beds in the form of a hoar froft,
and the bed-cloaths often were found frozen to the wall.
The fun rifes in the ftiorteft day at five minutes paft
nine, and fets five minutes before three. In the long-
eft day the fun rifes at three, and fets about nine. The
ice begins to difappear in May, and hot weather com¬
mences about the middle of June, which at times is
fo violent as to fcorch the face of the hunters. Thun¬
der is not frequent, but very violent. But there muft be
great difference of heat and cold in this vaft extent,
which reaches from lat. 50. 40, to lat. 63 north.—
During winter the firmament is not without its beau¬
ties. Mock funs and halos are not unfrequent; they
are very bright, and richly tinged with all the colours of
the rainbow. The fun rifes and fets with a large cone
of yellowifh light. The night is enlivened with the
Aurora Borealis, which fpreads a thoufand different
lights and colours over the whole concave of the fky,
not to be defaced even by the fplendour of the full
moon; and the ftars are of a fiery rednefs.
The eaftern boundary of the bay is Terra di La¬
brador ; the northern part has a ftraight coaft facing the
bay> guarded with a line of ifles innumerable. A vaft
bay, called the Archivinnipy Sea, lies within it, and
opens into Hudfon’s Bay by means of Gulph Hazard,
through which the Beluga whales dart in great num¬
bers. Here the company had a fettlement for the fake
of the fifhery, and for trading with the Efquimaux ;
but deferted it as unprofitable about the year 1758 or
1759. The eaftern coaft is barren paft the efforts of
cultivation. The furface is every where uneven, and co¬
vered with maffes of ftone of an amazing fize. It is
a country of frnitlefs valleys and frightful mountains,
fome of an aftonifhing height: the firft watered by a
chain of lakes, formed not from fprings but rain and
fnow, fo chilly as to be produ&ive of only a few fmall
trout. The mountains have here and there a blighted
. ftrub, or a little mofs. The valleys are full of crooked
ftunted trees, pines, fir, birch, and cedars, or rather
a fpecies of Juniper. In lat. 60, on this coaft, vege¬
tation ceafes. The whole ftiore, like that on the weft,
is faced with iflands at fome diftance from land. The
inhabitants among the mountains are Indians; along
the coafts Efquimaux. The dogs of the former are
very fmall; of the latter large, and headed like a fox.
Notwithftanding they have rein-deer, they never train
them for the fledge ;• but apply the do,s to that ufe.
Walrufes vifit a place called Nuchvunk, in lat. 60,
during winter ; from thence the natives purchafe the
teeth with which they head their darts. Davis fuf-
pedted that he had found a paffage on this coaft, in
1586, to the Weftern ocean; but it proves no more
than a deep bay.
The laudable zeal of the Moravian clergy induced
them t« fend, in the year 1752, miflionaries from
4 T Green-
Hudfon’s
Bay.
HUD [ 706 ] HUE
Hudftm's Grtenland to this country. They fixed on Nifbet’s gynia order, belonging to the dodecandria clafs of
harbour f r their fettkment; but the firft party was plants. There is no corolla ; the calyx is pentaphyllous
Hudfonia. partly killed, partly driven away. In 1764, under the and tubular: there are 15 ftamina; the capfule is uni- “
y~. protection of our government, another attempt was locular, trivalvular, and trifpermous.
made. The mifiionaries were wtll received by the HUE and Cry, in law, the purfuit of a perfon
Esquimaux, and the million goes on with fuccefs. who has committed felony on the high way.—Of this
The animals of thefe countries are, the moofe deer, cullom, which is of Britilh origin, the following dc-
ftags, rein-deer, bears, tygers, bulfaloes, wolves, foxes, du&ion is given by Mr Whitaker. “ When it was
beavers, otters, lynxes, martins, fquirrels, ermins, wild requifrte for the Britons to call out their warriors into
cats, and hares. The rein-deei pafs in vaft herds to- the field, they ufed a method that was particularly
wards the north in Oftober, feeking the extreme cold, marked by its expeditioufnefs and decifivenefs ,and re-
The male polar beats rove out at fea, on the floating mains partially among us to this moment. They raifed
ice, moft of the winter, and till June : the females lie a cry, which was immediately caught up by others,
concealed in the woods, or beneath the banks of ri- and in an inftant tranfmitted from mouth to mouth
vers till March, when they come abroad with their through all the region. And, as the notice paifed a-
twin cubs, and bend their courfe to the fta in fearch long, the warriors fnatched their arms, and hurried
of their conforts. Several are killed in their paffage ; away to the rendezvous. We have a remarkable de-
and thofe which are wounded fhow vaft fury, roar fcription of the faft in Caefar, and there fee the alarm
hideoufly, and bite and throw up into the air even propagated in 16 or 17 hours through 160 miles in a
their own progeny. The females and the young, when line. And the lame pra&ice has been retained by the
not interrupted, continue their way to fea. In June Highlanders to our own time. When the lord of a
the males return to Ihore, and by Auguft are joined clan received intelligence of an enemy’s approach, he
by their conforts, with the cubs, by that time of a immediately killed a goat with his own fword, dipped
confiderable fize. The feathered kinds are, peefe, the end of a half-burnt ftick in the blood, and then
buflards, ducks, partridges, and all manner of wild- gave it and the notice of the rendezvous to be carried
fowls. Indeed multitudes of birds retire to this re- to the next hamlet. The former fymbolically threat-
remote country to Labrador and Newfoundland, ened fire and fword to all his followers that did not in-
from places moft remotely fouth, perhaps from the ftantly repair to the latter. The notice was difpatched
Antilles ; and fome even of the moft delicate little from hamlet to hamlet with the utmoft expedition,
fpecies. Moft of them, with numbers of aquatic And in three or four hours the whole clan was in arms,
fowls, are feen returning fouthward with their young and alfembled at the place appointed. This was within
broods to more favourable climates. The favages in thefe few years the ordinary mode by which the chief-
fome refpecls regulate their months by the appearance tains affembled their followers for war. The firft per-
of birds ; and have their goofe month from the vernal fon that received the notice, fet out with it at full fpeed,
appearance of geefe from the fouth. All the grous delivered it to the next that he met, who in ftantly fet out
kind, ravens, cinereous crows, titmoufe, and Lapland on the fame fpeed, and handed it to a third. And,
finch, brave the fevereft winter; and feveral of the fal- in the late-rebellion of 1745, it was fent by an un¬
cons and owls feek fhelter in the woods. Of fob, there known hand through the region of Breadalbane ; and,
are whales, morfes, feals, cod-filh, and a white fob flying as expeditioufly as the ballick fignal in CaTar,
preferable to herrings; and in their rivers and frefh traverfed a tra& of 32 miles in three hours. This
waters, pike, perch, carp, and trout. quick method of giving a diffufive alarm is even pre-
All the quadrupeds of thefe countries are clothed with ferved among ourfelves to the prefent day ; but is
a clofe,foft,warmfur. Infummerthtre is here, asin other applied, as it feems from Casfar’s account above to have
places, a variety in the colours of the feveral animals; been equally applied among the Celtae, to the better
when that feafon is over, which holds (.nly for three purpofes of civil polity. The hutejium and clameur o£
months, they all aflume the livery of winter, and every our laws, and the hue and cry of our own times, is a
fort of beafts, and moft of their fowls, are of the co- well known and powerful procefs for fpreading the no-
lour of the fnow; every thing animate and inanimate tice and continuing the purfuit of any fugitive felons,
is white. This is a furprifing phasnomenon. But The cry, like the clamour of the Gauls or the fum-
what is yet more furprifing, and what is indeed one of mons of the Highlanders, is taken from town to town
the moft ftriking things, that draw the moft inattentive and from county to county ; and a chain of commu¬
te an admiration of the wifdom and goodnefs of Pro- nication is fpeedily carried from one end of the king-
vidence, is, that the dogs and cats from Britain that dom to the other.”
have been carried into Hudfon’s Bay, on the approach HUER, a name given to certain fountains in Ice-
©f winter have entirely changed their appearance, and land, of a moft extraordinary nature; forming at
acquired a much longer, fofter, and thicker coat of times jets d'eaux of fealding water ninety-four feet
hair than they had originally. high and thirty in diameter, creating the moft mag-
Hvdson’s-Bay Company. See Company. nificent gerbes that can be imagined, efpecially when
Huvson’s River, a large river of North America, backed by the fetting fun. They arife out of cylindri-
which tifes on the eaft of Lake Ontario, and running cal tubes of unknown depths : near the furface they
by Albany, and on the back of the fouth part of expand into apertures of a funnel fhape, and the mouths
New England through part of New-York, falls into fpread into large extent of ftala&itical matter, formed
the bay of the fea beyond the weft end of Long-Ifland, of fucceffive fcaly concentric undulations. The play-
and below the town of New-York. ing of thefe ftupendous fpouts is foretold by noifes
HUDSONIA, in botany; a genus of the mono- roaring like the cataraft of Niagara. The cylin-
5 des
HUE [ 707 ] HUG
Iluefca der begins to fill 1 it rlfes gradually to the furface,
HHet and gradually encreafes its height, fmohing ama-
i singly, and flinging up great Itones. After attain¬
ing its greateft height it gradually finks till it to¬
tally difappears. Boiling jt/s d’eaux and boiling
fprings are frequent in mod parts of the ifland. In
many parts they are applied to the culinary ufes of the
natives. The moft capital is that which is called Geyer
Plate or Gexfer* in a plain rifing into ftnall hills, and in the
Ccxxxvi. midft of an amphitheatre, bounded by the mod mag¬
nificent and various-lhaped icy mountains ; among
which the three-headed Hecla foars pre-eminent. See
Iceland, N° 4. Thefe huers are not confined
to the land ; they rife in the very fea, and form
fcalding fountains amidfl the waves. Their didance
from the land is unknown ; but the new vulcanic ifle,
twelve miles off the point of Reickenes, emitting fire
and fmoke, proves that the fubterraneous fires and wa¬
ters extend to that fpace ; for thofe awful effe&s arife
from the united fury of thefe two elements.
HUESCA, an ancient and confiderable town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon, with a bi(hop’s
fee and an univerfity. It is feated on the Ifluela, in
a foil producing excellent wine, in W. Long. o. 13.
N. Lat. 40. 2.
HUESCAR, or Guescar, a town of Spain, In the
kingdom of Granada, feated on a plain in W. Long.
1. 45. N. Lat. 37. 32.
HUESNE, or Huena, a fmall ifland in the Bal¬
tic Sea, in the Sound, where was the famous obfer-
vatory of Tycho Brahe. E. Long. 13. y. N. Lat.
55 54-
HUET (Peter Daniel), a very learned French wri¬
ter, born at Caen in Normandy, on the 8th of Fe¬
bruary 1630. He difcovered, from his infancy, a
great inclination to the dudy of polite literature and
the fciences, and at fird applied himfelf to the law \
but Des Cartes’s principles, and Bochart’s facred geo¬
graphy, made him change his dudies for thofe of phi-
lofophy, mathematics, the languages, and antiqui*
ties. His admiration for .Bochart made him defirous
of knowing him. He contra&ed a very drift friend*
fhip with him, and accompanied that learned man to
Sweden. Here Chridina would have engaged him in
her fervice ; but he, fenfible of her incondant temper,
returned to France. All he brought with him was a
copy of a MS. of Origen, which he tranfcribed at
Stockholm. He refufed feveral offers from Chridina
after fhe abdicated and went to Rome, and from Gu-
ftavus her fucceffor. In 1670, Mr Boffuet being ap¬
pointed by the king preceptor to the dauphin, his
majefly chofe Mr Huet for his colleague, with the
title of fub preceptor to the prince. It was he that
formed the plan of the commentaries in ufum Del-
phini, and direfted the execution. His fentiments of
piety determined him to enter into holy orders, which
he did at the age of 46. Soon after this, he was pre-
fented by the king to the abbey of Aunay; and in
1685 was nominated to the bifhopric of Soiffons, which
he exchanged for the fee of Avranches. After go¬
verning that diocefe ten years, he refigned, and was
made abbot of Fontenay near Caen. His love to his
native place determined him to fix there. But law-
fuits coming upon him, he retired to Paris, and lodged
among 'the Jefuits in the Matfon Profeffet whom he
had made heirs to his library. A fevere diftemper Hughe*
weakened his body extremely, but not the vivacity of W
his genius: he wrote his own life in a very elegantmguenol:i*
ftyle ; and died in 1721, aged 91. He was a man of
very agreeable converfation ; and of great probity, as
well as immenfe erudition.—The following are the
titles of his principal works. 1. De claris interpre¬
t'd us, et de optima genere interpretandi. 2. An edi¬
tion of Origen’s commentaries on the holy Scriptures,
in Greek and Latin. 3. A treatife on the origin
of the Romans. 4. Demonjlratio evangelica, folio.
5. ^ueejliones Alnetanee de Concordia rationis et Jidei.
6. Of the fituation of the terreftrial paradife, in
French. 7. A hiftory of the commerce and naviga¬
tion of the ancients, which has been tranflated into
Englifh. 8. Commentarius de rebus ad eum perii-
nentibus. 9. Huetiana. 10. Latin and Greek ver-
fes, &c.
HUGHES (John), an ingenious and polite wri¬
ter, was born in 1677. In the earlieft parts of his
youth, he cultivated the filler-arts, poetry, drawing,
and mufic, in each of which he by turns made a con¬
fiderable progrefs; but followed thofe and his other
ftudies only as agreeable amufements, under frequent
confinement on account of his ill Hate of health. The
lord Chancellor Cowper made him' fecretary for the
commiffions of the peace without his knowledge, and
diftinguilhed him with lingular marks of his efteem.
He continued in the fame employment under the earl
of Macclesfield, and held it to the day of his death ;
which happened in 1719, the very night in which his
tragedy, intitled The ftege of Damafcus, was firil ac¬
ted. He was then 42. He tranflated Fontenelle’s
dialogues of the dead, Vertot’s revolutions of Portu¬
gal, and the letters of Abelard and Eloifa. He gave
a very accurate edition of Spencer’s works, with hi*
life, a gloffary, and remarks; and wrote feveral papers
in the Tatler, Speftator, and Guardian. Mr Dun-
combe, who married his filter, collefted his poems
and effays in 2 vols X2mo, in 1735.
HUGHLY, a town of Alia, in the kingdom of
Bengal, feated on the molt welterly branch of the ri¬
ver Ganges. It is of large extent, reaching about
two miles along the river-fide, and drives a great trade
in all the commodities of that country ; affording rick
cargoes for 50 or 60 Ihips annually, befides what is
brought on carriages to the neighbouring towns.
Saltpetre is brought hither from Patnia in veffels above
50 yards long and five broad. The inhabitants are
chiefly Indians ; but there are alfo Portuguefe, Eno--
lilh, and other Europeans. E. Long 87,. 55. N.
Lat. 22.0.
HUGO Capet, chief of the third race of the kings
of France, being count of Paris and Orleans.; he was
railed to the throne for his military valour and public
virtues in 987. See France, n 38.
HUGONIA, in botany : A genus of the decandria
ordet, belonging to the monadelphL clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The corolla is pentapetalous ;
the fruit is a plum with a llriated kernel.
HUGUENOTS, an appellation given by way of
contempt to the reformed or Proteftant Calvinills of
Fiance.
The name had its firft rife in 1560; but authors are
4 T 3 not
H U L C 708 I HUM
1 not agreed as to the origin and occafion thereof: but
one of the two following feems to be the leaft forced
derivation.
One of the gates of the city of Tours is called the
gate Fourgon, by corruption from feu Hugon, i. e. the
late Hugon. This Hugon was once count of Tours,
according to Eginhardus, in his life of Charles the
Great, and to fome other hiftorians. He was it feems
a very wicked man, who by his fierce and cruel tem¬
per made himfelf dreadful; fo that after his death he
was fuppofed to walk about in the night-time, beating
all thofe he met with : this tradition the judicious
Thuanus has not fcrupled to mention in his hiftory.
Davila and other hiftorians pretend, that the nickname
of Huguenots was firft given to the French Proteftants,
becaufe they ufed to meet in the night-time in fubter-
raneous vaults near this gate of Hugon ; and what
feems to countenance this opinion is, that they were
firft called by the name of Huguenots at this city of
Tours.
Others afiign a more illuftrious origin to that name ;
and fay that the leaguers gave it to the reformed, be¬
caufe they were for keeping the crown upon the head
of the prefent line defcended from Hugh Capet;
whereas they were for giving it to the houfe of Guife,
as defcended from Charles the Great.
Others again derive it from a French and faulty pro¬
nunciation of the German word eidgnojfen, fignifying
confederates, and originally applied to that valiant part
of the city of Geneva, which entered into an alliance
with the Swifs cantons, in order to maintain their li--
berties againft the tyrannical attempts of Charles III.
duke of Savoy.
Thefe confederates were called Eignots, whence Hu¬
guenots.
The perfecution which they underwent has fcarce its
parallel in the hiftory of religion : though they obtain¬
ed a peace from Henry III. in 1576, it was only of
fhort continuance; and their fufferings, mitigated by
the famous edift of Nantes, granted to them in 1598
by Henry IV. were again renewed, after the revocation
of this edidt, by Louis XIV. in 1685.
HULK, an old Ihip of war, fitted with an appa¬
ratus, to fix or take out the malts of his majefty’s
Ihips, as* occafion requires.
The mail of this veffel is extremely high, and with¬
al properly {Lengthened by^roar/r anr/jftryr, in order
to fecure what are called the Jheers, which ferve, as
the arm of a crane, to hoift out or in the malts of any
lhip lying alongfide. The Iheers are compofed of fe-
veral long malts, whofe heels reft upon the fide of the
hulk, and having their heads declining outward from
the perpendicular, fo as to hang over the velfel whofe
malts are to be fixed or difplaced. The tackles, which
extend from the head of the malt to the Iheer-heads,
are intended to pull in the latter towards the malt-
head, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a maft after it is railed out of any Ihip,
which is performed by ftrong tackles depending from
the iheer-heads. The effort of thefe tackles is pro¬
duced by two capfterns, fixed on the deck for this
purpofe.
Hulk, is alfo a name bellowed on any old veffel
laid by as unfit for further fervice. It is probably de¬
rived from the oxxaJ'tf j or veffels of burthen, of the an¬
cient Grecians.
HULL, in the fea-language, is the main body of
a Ihip, without either malts, yards, fails, or rigging.
Thus to Jlrike a Hull in a ftorm, is to take in her
fails, and to lalh the helm on the lee-fide of the Ihip;
and to hull, or lie a-hull, is faid of a Ihip whofe fails
are thus taken in, and helm lalhed a-lee.
Hull, a river in Yorklhire, which falls into the
Humber at Kingflon upon Hull. See Kingston.
HUMAN, in general, is an appellation given to
whatever relates to mankind : thus we fay, the human
foul, human body, human laws, &c.
HUMANITY, the peculiar nature of man, where¬
by he is diftinguilhed from all other beings.
Humanities, in the plural, fignify grammar,
rhetoric, and poetry, known by the name of litera
humaniores; for teaching of which, there are profef-
fors in the univerfities of Scotland, called humanijls.
HUMBER, a river formed by the Trent, Oufe,
Derwent, and feveral other ftreams. By the late in¬
land navigation, it has a communication with the ri¬
vers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Severn, Thames, Avon,
&c. which navigation, including its windings, extends
above yco miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland, Chefter, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter. It di¬
vides Yorklhire from Lincolnfhire, and falls into the
German ocean near Holdernefs.
HUME (David, Efq;) a late celebrated philofo-
pher and hiltorian, was born in the fouth part of Scot¬
land on the 26th of April O. S. in the year 1711.
Being the younger fon of a country gentleman of good
family, but no great fortune, his patrimony was of
confequence infufficient to fupport him. For this
reafon he was deftined for the bar, and paffed through
his academical courfes in the univerfity of Edinburgh;
but being more inclined to ftudies of a different na¬
ture, he never put on the gown, nor even took the in-
troduftory fteps neceliary for that purpofe. The wri¬
tings of Locke and Berkeley had direfted the attention
of the generality of learned men towards metaphyfics;
and Mr Hume having early applied himfclf to ftudies
of this kind, publilhed in 1739 the two firft volumes
of his 'Treatife of human nature, and the third the fol¬
lowing year. He had the mortification, however, to
find his book generally decried ; and to perceive, that
the tafte for fyftematic writing was now on the de¬
cline. He therefore divided this treatife into fe-
parate Effays and Differtations, which he afterwards
publilhed at different times with alterations and im¬
provements.
In 1742, Mr Hume publilhed two fmall volumes,
confiding of Effays moral, political, and literary.
Thefe were better received than his former publica¬
tion ; but contributed little to his reputation as an au¬
thor, and Hill lefs to his profit; and his fmall patri¬
mony being now almoft fpent, he accepted an invita¬
tion from the marquis of Annandale to come and live
with him in England. With this nobleman he ftaid. a
twelve-month; during which time his fmall fortune was
confiderably incrtafed. He then received an invitation
from General St Clair, to attend him as a fecretaiy to
his expedition, which was at firlt meant againlt Cana.-
S t#,// Mr, y^v/ .
■ ;
HUM [ 709 ] HUM
Hume, (Ja, but afterwards ended in an excurfion againft the
v  eoaft of France. In 1747, he received an invitation from
the general to attend him in the fame ftation in his mi¬
litary embafly to the courts of Vienna and Turin. He
then wore the uniform of an officer; and was introdu¬
ced at thefe courts as aid de-camp to the general, along
with Sir Harry Erfkine and captain Grant, afterwards
general Grant. In 1749, he returned to Scotland, and
lived two years with his brother at his country-houfe ;
where he compofed the fecond part of his effays, call¬
ed Political Difcourfes. And now the general approba¬
tion of his performances was indicated by a more ex-
tentlve fale than formerly, and likewife by the nume¬
rous anfwers publiihed by different perfons in order to
countera& their fuppofed pernicious tendency. In
1752, were publifhed at Edinburgh his Political Dif¬
courfes, the only work of his which was well re¬
ceived on its firft appearance ; and the fame year,
at London, his Inquiry concerning the Principles of
Morals, which in his own opinion was incomparably
the beft of all his performances. This year alfo he
was appointed librarian to the faculty of Advocates at
Edinburgh; the principal advantage refulting from
which employment was, that he had by that means the
command of a large library. He then formed the
plan of writing the Hiftory of England: but deeming
the whole to be too extenfive, he confined his hiftory
to that of Britain under the hou'fe of Stuart. The
book was almoft univerfally decried on its firft appear¬
ance, and foon after feemed to fink in oblivion. Dr
Herring primate of England, and Dr Stone primate
of Ireland, were the only literati of the author’s ac¬
quaintance who approved of the work, and fent him
rheffages not to be difcouraged.
Notwithftanding the approbation of thefe eminent
men, however, Mr Hume’s fpirits were fo much funk
by his bad fuccefs, that he had fome thoughts of re¬
tiring to Fi ance, changing his name, and bidding adieu
to his own country for ever ; but his defign was ren¬
dered impra&icable by the breaking out of the war of
1755 between France and Britain. He then publilh-
ed his Natural Hiftory of Religion ; to which an an-
fwer was publifhed, foon after its appearance,' in the
name of Dr Hurd bifhop of Litchfield and Coven¬
try ; of which, however, he hath fince difclaimed be¬
ing the foie author. In 1756, the fecond volume of
the Hiftory of the Stuarts was publifhed, two years
after the appearance of the firft. This was better re¬
ceived, and helped to retrieve the charafter of the for¬
mer volume. Three years after, his Hilloiy of the
Houfe of Tudor made its appearance ; which was al¬
moft as ill received as the , Hiftory of the Stuarts had
been, the reign of Elizabeth being particularly obno¬
xious. The author, however, had now learned to de-
fpife popular clamours ; and continued to finifh at his
leifuie the more early part of the Englifh hiftory, which
was publifhed in 1761, and was received with tolerable
foccefs.
Mr Hume being now turned of fifty, and having ob¬
tained by the fale of his books a competent and inde¬
pendent fortune, retired into his native country of
Scotland, determined never more to fet his foot out of
it. From this refolution, however, he was diverted
by the earl of Hertford ; whom he attended as fecre-
tary on his embaffy to Paris in 1763. In 1765, the
earl being appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, Mr Hume.
Hume was intrufted with the foie management of the —v—-
bufinefs of the ftate till the arrival of the duke of
Richmond towards the latter end of the year. In
1767, he returned to Edinburgh, with a much larger
income, procured to him by the earl of Hertford, than
he formerly had ; and now formed the fame defign he
had formerly entertained, namely, of burying himfelf
in his philofophical retreat. In this, however, he was
again difappointed, by receiving an invitation from ge¬
neral Conway to be under fecretary; and this invita¬
tion he was prevented from declining, both by the
charadler of the perfon, and his connedions with lord
Hertford. In 1769 he returned to Edinburgh, pof-
feffed of L- 1000 a-year, healthy, and though fome-
what ftricken in years, yet having a profped of long
enjoying his eafe, and of feeing the increafe of his re°
putation. Of his laft illnefs and chara&er, he him¬
felf gives the following account. “ In fpring 1775,
I was ft ruck with a diforder in my bowels ; which at
firft gave me no alarm, but has fince, as I apprehend
it, become mortal and incurable. I now reckon upon
a fpeedy diifolution. I have fuffered very little pain
from my diforder; and what is more ftrange, have,
notwithftanding the great decline of my perfon, never
fuffered a moment’s abatement of my fpirits; info-
much, that were I to name the period of my life
which I (hould moft choofe to pafs over again, I might
be tempted to point to this latter period. I poffefs-
the fame ardour as ever in ftudy, and the fame gaiety
in company. I confider, befides, that a man of iixty-
five, by dying, cuts off only a few years of infirmities ;
and though I fee many fymptoms of my literary repu¬
tation breaking out at laft with additional luftre, I
knew that I could have but few years to enjoy it. It
is difficult to be more detached from life than I am at
prefent.
“ To conclude, hiftorically, with my own character,
I am, or rather was (for that is the ftyle I muft now
ufe in fpeaking of myfelf, which emboldens me the-
more to fpeak my fentiments) ; I was, I fay, a man
of mild difpofitions, of command of temper, of an
open, focial, and cheerful humour, capable of attach¬
ment, but little fufceptible of enmity, and of gre;afc
moderation in all my paffions. Even my love of li+
terary fame, my ruling paffion, never foured my tem¬
per, notwithftanding my freqtlent difappointments.
My company was not unacceptable to the young and
carelefs, as well as to the ftudious and literary ; and
as I took, a particular pleafure in the company of mo-
deft women, I had no reafon to be difpleafed with the
reception I met with from them. In a word, though
moft men any wife eminent have found reafon to com¬
plain of calumny, I never was touched, or even attack¬
ed, by her baleful tooth : and though I wantonly ex-
pofed myfelf to the rage of both civil and religious fac¬
tions, they feemed to be difarmed in my behalf of their
wonted fury. My friends never had occafion to vindi¬
cate any one circumftance of my charadier and con¬
duct : not but that the zealots, we may well fuppofe,
would have been glad to invent and propagate any
ftory to my difadvantage, but they could never find'
any which they thought would wear the face of pro¬
bability. I cannot fay there is no vanity in making
this funeral oration of myfelf, but I hope it is not.»
naifplacedi
H U M [ 710 ] H U M
Humeila- mifplaced one ; and this is a matter of fa& which is
t:?n eafily cleared and afcertained.”
Humour. ^ls ^ears concerning the incurablenefs of his difor-
> -y— der proved too true. He died on the 25th of Au-
guft 1776 ; and was interred in the Gallon burying-
ground, Edinburgh, where a monument is eredted to
his memory.
HUMECTATION, formed of humour, moifiure*
moiftening, in pharmacy, the preparing of a medicine,
by fteeping it a while in water, in order to foften and
moiften it when too dry ; or to cleanfe it, or prevent
its fubtile parts from being diffipated in grinding, or
the like.
Humectation is alfo ufed for the application of
moiftening remedies.
In this fenfe we fay, embrocations, emplafters, unc¬
tions, humediations, fomentations, See.
HUMERUS, or Os Humeri, in anatomy, the Up-
permoft bone of the arm, popularly called the Jhouldef-
bone ; extending from the fcapula, or ftioulder-blade,
to the upper end of the cubitus, or elbow. See A-
NATOMY, nJ 47.
HUMIDITV, that quality in bodies whereby they
are capable of wetting other bodies. This differs very
much from fluidity ; and feems to be merely a relative
thing, depending on the congruity of the component
particles of the liquor to the pores of fuch particular
bodies as it is capable of adhering to, penetrating a
little into, or wetting. Thus, for inftance, quickfd-
ver is not a moift thing with regard to our hands or
clothes ; but may be called fo in reference to gold, tin,
or lead, to whofe furfaces it will perfedlly adhere, and
render them foft and moift.
HUMILIATE a congregation of religious in the
church of Rome, eftablifhed by fome Milanefe gentle¬
men on their releafe from prifon, where they had been
confined under the emperor Conrad, or, as others fay,
under Frederick I. in the year 1162. This or¬
der, which acquired great wealth, and had no lefs
than 90 monafteries, was abolifhed by pope Pius V.
in 1570, and their houfes given to the Dominicans and
Cordeliers for their luxury and cruelty.
HUMILIATION, the adt of humbling, i. e. of
abating a perfon’s pride, and bringing him lower in
bis opinion.
In this fenfe, humiliation ftands diftinguifhed from
■mortification: humiliation brings down the mind 5
mortification fubdues the flefh.
HUMILITY, in ethics, is a virtue confiding in
the moderate value which a perfon puts upon himfelf,
and every thing relating to him. Or, more particular¬
ly, it confifts in not attributing to ourfelves any excel¬
lence or good which we have not; in not over-rating
any thing which we have or do ; in not taking an
immoderate delight in one’s felf; in not affuming more
-of the praife of a quality or adlion than belongs to us;
and in a lowly fenfe and ackno wledgment of our imper-
fedtions, errors, and fins. This virtue expreffes itfelf
in the modefty of our appearance, of our purfuits, and
of our behaviour towards other men. It is diftinguifh-
td from afftdlation, bafhfulnefs, and meannefs.
HUMMING-bird. See Trochilus.
HUMOUR, from the Latin humor, in its original
Signification, ftands for moifture in general; from
W hence it has been reftrained to fignify the .moifture of
animal bodies, or thofe fluids which circulate through Hummir,
them. Humphrey.
It is diftinguiftied from moifture in general in this, v"~^.
that humours properly exprefs the fluids of the body ;
when, in a vitiated ftate, it would not be improper to
fay, that the fluids of fuch a perfon’s body were full
of humours.
The only fluids of the body, which, in their natural
and healthf ul ftate, are called humours, are thofe in the
eye ; we talk of the aqueous humour, the cryftalline
humour, without meaning any thing that is morbid
or difeafed: yet, when we fay in general, that fuch a
perfon has got a humour in his eye, we underftand it
in the ufual fenfe of a vitiated fluid.
As the temper of the mind is fuppofed to depend
Upon the ftate of the fluids in the body, humour has
come to be fynonymous with temper and difpofition.
A perfon’s humour, hovrever, is different from his dif¬
pofition, in this, that humour feems to be the difeafe of
a difpofition: it would be proper to fay that perfons of a
ferious temper or difpofition of mind, were fubjedl to
melancholy humours ; that thofe of a delicate and ten¬
der difpofition, were fubjedl to peevifh humours.
Humour may be agreeable of difagreeable : but it
is ftill humour ; fomething that is whimfical, caprici¬
ous, and not to be depended upon. An ill-natured
man may have fits of good-humour, which feem to
come upon him accidentally, without any regard to
the common moral caufes of happinefs or mifery.
A fit of cheerfulnefs conftitutes the whole of good-
humour ; and a man who has many fuch fits, is a good-
humoured-man : yet he may not be good-natured;
which is a character that fuppofes fomething biorc
conftant, equable, and uniform, than what was requi*
file to conftitute good humour.
Humour is often made ufe of to exprefs the quali¬
ty of the imagination, which bears a confiderable re-
femblance to wit.
Wit expreffes fomething that is more defigned, con¬
certed, regular, and artificial; humour, fomething that
is more wild, loofe, extravagant, and fantaftical; fome¬
thing which comes upon a man by fits, which he can
neither command nor reftrain, and which is not per-
fedlly confiftent with true politenefs. Humour, it
has been faid, is often more diverting than wit; yet a
man of wit is as much . above a man of humour, as a
gentleman is above a buffoon; a buffoon, however, will
often divert more than a gentleman. The duke of
Buckingham, however, makes humour to be all in all:
wit, according to him, fhould never be ufed, but to add
an agreeablenefs to fome proper and juft fentiment,
which, without fome fuch turn, might pafs without its
effedt. See Wit.
HUMPHREY (Dr Lawrence), a very learned
Engliih divine in the 16th century, who, during the
perfecution under queen Mary, retired with other Pro-
teftant refugees to Zurich. He returned on the ac-
ceffion of queen Elizabeth; and was made prefident of
Magdalene college, Oxford, dean of Glouceiter, and
then dean of Winchefter. Pie was a great and gene¬
ral fcholar, an able linguift, and a deep divine ; and
publifhed, 1. De religionis confervat'wne et refurmatione,
deque primatu regum. 2. De ratione interpreUindi aucto-
res. 3. Optimates; five de nobilitate, ejufque origine.
4. Sermons, and other works. He died in 1590.
HUMULUS,
HUN [ ;
Humultts, HUMULUS, the hop : A genus of the pentandria
, Hundred. or(jer> belonging to the dicecia clafs of plants ; and in
' * the natural method ranking under the 53d order, Sea-
brida. The male calyx is pentaphyllous ; there is no
corolla ; the female calyx is monophyllous, patent obli¬
quely, and entire, there is no corolla ; but two ftyles;
and one feed within the calyx, the latter confifting of
one large leaf. There is only one fpecies, viz. the lu-
pulus, which is fometimes found wild in hedges near
houfes and gardens, but probably is not indigenous.
The {talk is weak and climbing ; it creeps up the fup-
port in a fpiral, afeending always from the right hand
to the left. The ftalk and the leaves are rough to the
touch; the upper leaves are heart (haped, the lower
ones divided into three lobes ferrated on the edges, and
grow in pairs on long footftalks. The male flowers
grow on a diftinft plant on branched peduncles ; the
females on peduncles in pairs of the form of aJirobilus
or cone, compofed of large imbricated calyces con¬
taining each one or two feeds. For the culture and
ufes of hops, fee the articles Hop and Husbandry.
HUNDRED, hundredum, or Centuria, a part
or divifion of a county ; which was anciently fo called
from its containing an hundred families, or from its
furnifhing an hundred able men for the king’s wars.
After king Alfred’s dividing this kingdom into coun¬
ties, and giving the government of each county to a
fheriff, thefe counties were divided into hundreds, of
which the conftable was the chief officer. The grants
of hundreds were at firft made by the king to parti¬
cular perfons: but they are not now held by grant or
prefeription, their jurifdi&ion being devolved to the
county-court; a few of them only excepted, that have
been by privilege annexed to the crown, or granted to
fome great fubje&s, and ftill remain in the nature of
a franchife.
HuNDREtt-Covrt. This is only a larger Court Ba¬
ron, being held for all the inhabitants of a parti¬
cular hundred inftead of a manor. The free fuitors
are here alfo the judges, and the fteward the regifter,
as in the cafe of a court-baron. It is likewife no
court of record ; refembling the former in all points,
except that in point of territory it is of a greater ju-
rifdidlion. This is faid by Sir Edward Coke to have
been derived out of the county-court for the eafe of the
people, that they might have juftice done them at their
own doors, without any charge or lofs of time: but
its inftitution was probably co-eval with that of hun¬
dreds th^mfelves, which were formerly obferved to
have been introduced though not invented by Alfred,
being derived from the policy of the ancient Germans.
The centeni, we may remember, were the principal in¬
habitants of a diftrift compofed of different villages,
originally in number an hundred, but afterwards only
called by that name ; and who probably gave the fame
denomination to the diftiidl out of which they were
chofen. Casfar fpeaks pofitively of the judicial power
exercifed in their hundred-courts and courts-baron.
“ Principes regionum, atqyepagorum,” (which we may
fairly coitftrue, the lords of hundreds and manors)
“ inter fuos jus dicunt, controverjiafque minuunt.” And
Tacitus, who had examined their conilitution ftill
more attentively, informs us not only of the authority
of the lords, but that of the centeni, the hundredors,
or jury ; who were taken, out of the common freehold-
ii ] HUN
ers, and had themfclves a {hare in the determination. Hungary.
“ Eliguntur in conciliis el principes, qui jura per pagos » 1
vicofque reddunt : centeni Jingulis, ex plele comites, con-
Jilium Jimul et audoritas, adjuntP This hundred-
court was denominated kareda in the Gothic conftitu-
tion. But this court, as caufes are equally liable to
removal from hence as from the common court-ba¬
ron, and by the fame writs, and may alfo be reviewed
by writ of falfe judgment, is therefore fallen into equal
difufe with regard to the trial of adtions.
HUNGARY, a kingdom of Europe, the greateft
part of which was anciently called Pannonia. It had
the name of Hungary from the Hunns, a Scythain or
Tartar nation, who fubdued it in the ninth century.
It lies between the 18th and 22d degrees of eaft long,
and betwixt the 45th and 49th degrees of north lat.
being bounded to the north by the Carpathian moun¬
tains, which feparate it from Poland ; to the fouth-
by Servia, and the river Drave, which feparates it
from Sclavonia; to the weft by Moravia, Auttria,
and Stiria ; and to the eaft by Walachia and Tran-
fylvania. It is about 240 miles in length, and 235
in breadth ; and is divided into the Upper and Lower
Hungary, the former being that part which lies to¬
wards the eaft, and the latter that which lies towards
the weft.
The northern parts of the kingdom are mountain¬
ous and barren, but healthy ; the fouthern, on the
contrary, are level, and exceeding fruitful, but not
very healthy. The country along the Danube, from
Prelburg to Belgrade, for upwards of 200 miles, is
one continued plain, and no foil can be more fertile ;
but the air, by reafon of the many fwamps and mo-
raffes, is not fo wholefome as on the higher and
drier grounds. Here are mines of gold, filver, cop¬
per, iron, lead, quickfilver, cinnabar, antimony, yel¬
low orpiment, fnlphur, vitriol, marcafite, fait native
and factitious, faltpetre, magnets, affieftos or {tone*
flax, marble of feveral colours, alabafter, with dia¬
monds, and all forts of precious ftones. Corn is in.
fuch plenty, that it is fold for one fixth of its price
in England. Their grapes are large and lufeious
and their wines preferred to any in Europe. They
have vaft numbers of cattle and horfes, the latter
moftly moufe-coloured, with buffaloes, deer, wild¬
fowl, game, and fiffi, and many fpecies of wild
beafts, particularly chamois, goats, bears, and lynxes.
Of vegetables, befides vines, and the common forts,,
here are tobacco, faffron, buck-wheat, millet, me¬
lons, and chefnuts. Here alfo are excellent warm
baths, and fprings of various kinds and qualities.
The chief mountains of Hungary are the Crapack
or Carpathian, which is the general name for all
thofe that feparate this kingdom from Poland, Mo¬
ravia, Silefia, and fome part of Auftria. The fides-
of moft of them are ccvered with wood, and their
tops with fnow. The chief rivers are the Danube,
the Drave, the Save, the Wag or Waag, the Gran„
the Temes, the Raab, and Theifs, all well ftockedi
with fiffi. There are feveral lakes among the Carpa¬
thian mountains, and fome alfo in the lowlands.
The inhabitants are a mixture of the defeendants of
the ancient Huns, Sclavonians, Camani, Germans,.
Walachians, Greeks, Jews, Turks, and a wandering
people called Zigduns, faid to be of uncertain origin,.
buts;
HUN [ 71
Hungary tut probably the fame as thofe we called gypjies. The
Hungarians are faid to be of a fanguine choleric tem¬
per, and fomewhat fierce, cruel, proud, and revenge¬
ful. They have been always reputed good foldiers,
being much more inclined to arms, martial exercifes,
and hunting, than to arts, learning, trade, or agri¬
culture. The nobility affeft great pomp and magni¬
ficence, and are much addicted to feafting and carou-
fing. The men in general are ftrong and well pro¬
portioned. They (have their beards, but leave whif-
kers on the upper-lip; wearing fur caps on their
heads, a clofe-bodied coat girt with a fafli, with a
fhort cloak or mantle over all, fo contrived as to be
buckled undey the arm, and leave the right hand at
liberty. Their horfe are called hujfars, and their foot
heydukes. The former wear a broad-fword, or fcy-
meter, and carry a hatchet or battle-ax. Their hor-
fes are fleet, but not near fo large as the German hor-
fes, and therefore they Hand up on their fhort ftir-
rups when they ftrike. The heydukes ufually wear
feathers in their caps, according to the number of
the enemies they pretend to have killed. Both horfe
and foot are an excellent militia, very good at a pur-
fuit, or ravaging and plundering a country, but not
■equal to regular troops in a pitched battle. The wo¬
men, when they go abroad, wear fhort cloaks and a
veil.
There are four languages fpoken in this country,
viz. the Hungarian, which, like the people, is of Scy¬
thian origin, and has little or no affinity with any
^European tongue ; the German, Sclavonian, Walla-
chian, and Latin. The laft; is fpoken, not only by the
better fort, but alfo by the common people, though
very corruptly. The people called Zigduns have alfo
a particular jargon.— Chriftianity was planted in Hun¬
gary in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the fix-
teenth the reformation made a great progrefs in it ;
but at prefent, though the Roman catholics hardly
make a fourth part of the inhabitants, their religion
is predominant, the Proteftants enjoying only a bare
toleration. Befides feveral fefts of Proteftants, here
are alfo great numbers of the Greek church and Jews ;
the laft pay double taxes of all kinds. Befides Jefuits
colleges and other convents, there are feveral uni-
verfities for the Roman-catholics. The Lutherans
alfo and Calvinifts have their gymnafiums and fchools,
but under divers reftriftions.
As to the traffic of this country, it is almoft wholly
in the hands of the Greeks and Jews. The exports
conlift chiefly of wine, horfes, cattle, metals, mine¬
rals, faffron, wool, and leather. Hungary, iq par¬
ticular, furnifhes Auftria, and other countries weft of
it, with vaft droves of cattle, as well as variety of
excellent wines, of which thofe of Tockay are rec¬
koned the beft. The principal manufaftures aie thofe
of copper, brafs, iron, and other hard wares. Great
quantities of brafs and iron are exported, wrought and
unwrought.
Hungary at firft, like moft other countries, was
divided into many little principalities and ftates, which
at length were united under one head, who had the
title of duke. The laft of thefe dukes was Geyfa : who,
becoming a profelyte to Chriftianity, was baptized ;
after which he refigned the government to his fon
Stephen, who took the title of king, amo icoo- But
.N0 158.
2 ] HUN
as the throne was filled by eledlion, though generally Hungary,
out of the fame family, the difpofal of the crown was Mu»ger.
difputed between the Turkifti and German emperors * ~
for near 200 years: but after the year X527, when
Ferdinand archduke of Auftria was advanced to the
throne, the Auftrians found means to influence the
eleftions in fuch a manner, as to keep the crown in
their family till 1687, when it was fettled heredita¬
rily on their heirs male; and now, in confequence of
an aft made by the diet at Prefburg in 1723, in cafe
of the failure of heirs-male, it is to defcend to females.
The ftates of the kingdom confift of the prelates, the
barons, the gentry, and the royal towns. To the
firft clafs belong two archbilhops, about a dozen bi-
Ihops, near as many abbots and provofts, with the
Pauline and Prasmonftratenfian Jefuits. To the fe-
cond, the ftadtholder or palatine, who reprefents the
king ; the court-judge; the Ban or viceroy of Dalma¬
tia, Croatia, and Sclavonia ; the ftadtholder of Tran-
filvania; the great treafurer, the great cup-bearer, the
fteward of the houfehold, the mafter of the horfe, the
lord chamberlain, the captain of the yeomen of the
uards, and the grand-marlhal of the courts who are
yled the great barons, together with the inferior bans
or counts and barons. To the third clafs belong the
gentry, fome of whom have noble manors, and others
only the privileges of nobles. To the fourth clafs be¬
long the royal free cities, which are not fubjeft to the
counts, but hold immediately of the king. The gen¬
try alfo, who hold of the archbifhops and bifhops,
have the fame privileges as the Hungarian nobility.
The common people are vaffals to the lords, on whole
lands they live, whether thefe lands belong to the
crown, the clergy, nobility, or gentry.
The ordinary revenue of this kingdom is faid to ex¬
ceed a million Sterling, arifing from the mines, duties
on cattle, royal demefnes, falt-works, contributions,
cuftoms, &c. The fortifications and garrifons con-
ftantly maintained on the frontiers againft the Turks,
are a great expence to the government. Hungary
can eafily bring into the field 100,000 men, regulars
and militia ; for there are 50,000 in aftual pay, and
the provinces furnilh the other 50,000 when they are
wanted.
Hungary-Water, a diftilled water prepared from
the tops or flowers of rofemary ; fo denominated from
a queen of Hungary, for whofe ufe it was firft; made.
See Pharmacy.
HUN.GER, an uneafy fenfation occafioned by long
abftinence from food when the body is in a healthy
ftate.—See Abstinence ; Fasting ; and Anatomy,
n° 103.
The following ufeful obfervations upon hunger or
famine are extrafted from a paper by Dr Percival in
the fecond volume of the Manchefter Tranfaftions.
In famine, life may be protrafted (the Doftor
obferves) with lefs pain and mifery, by a moderate
allowance of water. For the acrimony and putre-
faftion of the humours are obviated by fuch dilu¬
tion, the fmall veflels are kept permeable, and the
lungs are furnilhed with that moifture which is ef-
fential to the performance of their funftions. Fon-
tanus, a writer of refpeftable authority in the eftima-
tion of Morgagni, relates the hiftory of a woman
who obftinately refufed to take any fuftenance, except
i twice.
Plate CCXXXVIli
H U N
«'Lib.
Dr Gold,
'tith's hi/}.
twice, during the fpace of 50 days, at the fetid of which
period (he died. But he adds, that (he ufed water by
way of drink, though ih fmall quantity. Redi who
made many experiments (cruel and unjuftifiable in my
opinion), to afcertain the effefets of fading on fowls,
obferved, that none were able to fupport life beyond
the ninth day to whom drink was denied ; whereas
one indulged with water lived more than 20 days.
Hippocrates has obferved, that children are more
affe&ed by abftinence than young perfons ; thefe, more
than the middle aged ; and the middle aged, more than
old men. Thepower to endure famine, however, mnftde-
pend no lefsupon the (late of health and (trength than on
the age of the fufferer. There are alfo particular confti*
tutions which do not fuffer much pain from the calls of
hunger. Dr Percival was informed by a young phyfician
from Geneva, that when he was a (Indent at Montpe¬
lier, he faded three nights and four days, with no o-
ther refrefhment than a pint of water daily. His hun¬
ger was keen, but never painful, during the (irft and
fecond days of his abdinence ; and the two following
days, he perceived only a faintnefs when he attempted
either bodily or mental exertion : A fenfe of coldnefs
was diffufed over his whole frame, but more particu*
larly affe&ed the extremities. His mind was in a very
unufual date of pufillanimity ; and he experienced a
great tendency to tears whenever he recolledled the
circumdance which had been the occafion of his fad¬
ing. During the whole period, the alvine excretions
w< vc fupprefled, but not thofe by the kidneys : and at
the dofe of it, his (kin became tinged with a (hade of
yellow. The fird food he took was veal broth; which
ha1' fomething of an intoxicating effett, producing a
glow of warmth, and raifing his fpirits, fo as to render
him aftiamed of his deipondency. Perhaps in the
cafe of Sextius Baculus, as recorded in the commenta¬
ries of Casfar *, the extraordinary courage and prowefs
which he fuddenly exerted, might be aided by the ex-
hilerating efftdt of fudenance, which, under fuch cir-
cumdances, it is probable he would no longer decline.
The fa£t, however, evinces, that neither his ficknefs
nor the fenfations of hunger had been fo violent as
much to impair his ftrength of body or vigour of
mind. Pomponius Atticus, the celebrated friend of
Cicero, who put a voluntary end to his life in the
77th year of his age by refilling all food, appears to
have experienced eafe from his diforder, rather than any
acute fufferings by famine. “ Sic cum biduo cibo fe
abdinuiflet, fubito febris decefiit, leviorque morbus e(fe
csepit: tamen propofitum nihilo fecius perigit. Ita-
que die quinto, poftquam id confilium inierat, deceffit ”
(Corn. Nepos in Fit- Pomp, jlttic.) From the former
circumdance it has been conje&ured, that he did not
wholly deny himfelf the ufe of water, or of fume other
diluent. But though a few examples of this kind may
be adduced, we have the evidence of numerous melan¬
choly fafts to (how, that the prelfure of want is agoni¬
zing to the human frame. “ I have talked, (fays an
ingenious* writer f), with the captain of a (hip, who
was one of fix that endured it in its extremity, and who
was the only peifon that had not lod his fenfes when
they received accidental relief. He allured me his
pains at firft were fo great, as to he often tempted to
eat a part of one of the men who died, and which the
red: of his crew a Anally for feme time lived upon s
Vol. VIII. Part II.
[ 7t3 1
H U N
He faid, that dtiring the continuance of this paroxyfm. Hunger1,
he found his pains infiipportable, and was defirotis at
one time of anticipating that death which he thought
inevitable : But his pains, he faid, gradually decreafed
after the fixth day (for they had water in the (hip, which
kept them alive fo long), and then he was in a (late
rather of languor than defire ; nor did he milch wiftt
for food, except when he faw others eating ; and that
for a while revived his appetite, though with diminiih-
ed importunity. The latter part of the time, when
his health was almoft deftroyed, a thoufand ftrange
images rofe upon his mind ; and every one of his fen¬
fes began to bring him Wrong information. The mod
fragrant perfumes appeared to him to have a fetid fmell;
and every thing he looked at took a greenifh hue, and
fometimes a yellow. When he w:as prefented with
food by the (hip’s feompany that took him and his men
up, four of whom died (hortly after, he could not help
looking upon it with loathing inftead of defire ; and it
was not till after four days thar his ftomach was
brought to its natural tone ; when the violence of his
appetite returned with a fort of canine eagernefs.”
To thofe who by their occupations are expofed to
fuch dreadful calamities, it is of fi rious importance to
be inftrufted in the means of alleviating them. The
American Indians are faid to ufe a compolition of the
juice of tobacco, and the (hells of fnails, cockles, and
oyfters calcined, whenever they undertake a long jour¬
ney, and are likely to be deftitute of provifions. It is
probable the (hells are not burnt into quicklime, but on¬
ly fo as to deftroy their tenacity, and to render them
fit for levigation. The mafs is dried, and formed into
pills, of a proper fize to be held between the gum and
lip, which, being gradually diflblved and fwallowed, ob-
tund the fenfations both of hunger and of third. To¬
bacco, by its narcotic quality, feems well adapted to
counteraft the uneafy impreffions which the gaftric
juice makes on the nerves of the ftomach when it is
empty ; and the combination of teftaceous powders
with it may tend to correA the fecretion that is fup-
pofed to be the chief agent in digeftion, and which, if
not acid, is always united with acidity. Certain at
lead it is, that their operation is both grateful and fa-
lutary ; for we find the luxurious inhabitants of the
Eaft Indies mix them with the betel nut, to the chew¬
ing of which they are univerfally and immoderately ad-
diAed. Perhaps fuch abforbents may be ufefully ap¬
plied, both to divide the dofes and to moderate the
virulence of the tobacco. For, in the internal exhibi¬
tion of this plant, much caution is required, as it pro¬
duces ficknefs, vertigo, cold clammy fweats, and a
train of other formidable fymptoms, when taken in too
large a quantity. During the time of war, the im-
preffed failors frequently bring on thefe maladies, that
they may be admitted into the h >fpitals, and releafed
from fervitude. _ It would be an eafy and fafe experi¬
ment to afcertain the efficacy, and to adjuft the ingre¬
dients,. of the Indian compofition mentioned. And
there is reafon to believe, that the trial would be in
fome degree fucfeefsful ; for it is known that booking
tobacco gives relief in thrife habitual pains of the fto¬
mach which appear to arife from the irritation of the
gaftric fecretions. The like effi-A is fometimes produ¬
ced by increafing the flow of faliva, and fwallowing
what is thus difeharged. And Dr Percival has related
4 U tht
HUN [ 7*4 1 HUN
Hanger, the cafe of a gentleman, who ufed to mafticate, many
hours daily, a piece of lead, which being neither
hard, friable, nor offenfive to the palate, fuited his
purpofe, as he thought, better than any other fub-
ilance. He continued the cuftom many years, deri¬
ving great cafe from it, and fuffering no fenfible inju¬
ry from the poifonous quality of the metal. On
mentioning this fa£t to a navy furgeon, the Doctor was
told, that the failors, when in hot climates, are wont
to mitigate third by rolling a bullet in their mouths.
A more innocent mean, the Doftor obferves, might be
devifed ; but the efficacy of this evinces, that the fali-
vary glands are for a while capable of furniffiing a fub-
flitute for drink. When a fcarcity of water occurs at
fea, Dr Franklin has advifed, that the mariners ffiould
bathe themfelves in tubs of fait-water: For, in pur-
fuing the amufement of fwimming, he obferved, that,
however thirfty he was before immerlion, he never
continued fo afterwards; and that, though he foaked
himfelf feveral hours in the day, and feveral days fuc-
ceffively in falt-water, he perceived not, in confequence
of it, the lead tade of faltnefs in his mouth. He alfo
further luggeds, that the fame good effedf might per¬
haps be derived from dipping the failor’s apparel in the
fea ; and expreffes a confidence that no danger of
catching cold would enfue.
To prevent the calamity of famine at fea, it has been
propofed by Dr Lind, that the powder of falep ffiould
conilitute part of the provifions of every ffiip’s com¬
pany. This powder and portable foup, diffolved in
boiling water, form a rich thick jelly ; and an ounce
of each of thefe articles furniffies one day’s fubfidence
to a healthy full grown man. Indeed, from Dr Per-
cival’s experiments it appears, that falep contains more
nutritious matter, dn proportion to its bulk, than any
other vegetable produftion now ufed as food. It has
the property alfo of concealing the naufeous tade of
falt-vvater; and confequently may be of great advan¬
tage at fea, when the dock of freffi water is fo far con-
fumed, that the mariners are put upon ffiort allowance.
By the fame mucilaginous quality, it covers the offen-
fivenefs, and even, in fome meafure, corrects the acri¬
mony of faked and putrefcent meats. But, as a pre-
fervative againd hunger, falep would be mod efficaci¬
ous combined with an equal weight of beef fuet. By
fwallowing little balls of this lubricating compound ut
proper intervals, the coats of the domach would be de¬
fended from irritation : and as oils and mucilages are
highly nutritive, of flow digedion, and indifpofed to
pafs off by perfpiration, they are peculiarly well adap¬
ted to fupport life in fmall quantities. This compofi-
lion is fuperior in fimplicity, and perhaps equal in ef¬
ficacy, to the following one, fo much extolled by Avi¬
cenna the celebrated Arabian phytician ; to whom we
are- indebted for the introdudlion of rhubarb, caffia,
tamarinds, and fenna, into the materiamedica. “Take
fweet almonds and beef fuet, of each one pound ; -of
the oil of violets two ounces ; and of the roots of marffi
mallows one ounce: bray thefe ingredients together in
a mortar, and form the mafs intobolufes, about the fize
of a common nut.” Animal fat is fingularly powerful
in affuaging the mod acute fenfations of third, as ap¬
pears from the narrative of the fufferings experienced by
ihofe who were confined in the black hole at Calcutta.
A hundred and forty-fix perfons, exhauded by fatigue
and military duty, were there thrud together into a
chamber of 18 cubic feet, having only two windows,
drongly barred with iron, from which, in a clofe ful-
try night, and in fuch a climate as that of Bengal,
little or no circulation of freffi air could be enjoyed.
In a few minutes, thefe unhappy .wretches fell into fo
profufe a perfpiration, that an idea can hardly be
formed of it; and this was fucceeded by a raging
third, which increafed in proportion as the body was
drained of its moidure. Water ! Water ! became the
univerfal cry; and an old foldier on the outflde, through
pity, furniffied them with a few Ikinfuls of it. But
thefe fcanty fupplies, like fprinklings on the fire, fer-
ved only to feed and increafe the flame. From this
experience of its effe&s, Mr Holwell, their chief, de¬
termined to drink no more ; and kept his mouth moid
by fucking the perfpiration out of his ffiirt fleeves, and
catching the drops as they fell from his head and face.
“ You cannot imagine (fays he) how unhappy I was
if any of them efcaped me.” He came into the pri-
fon without his coat, the feafon being too hot to bear
it: and one of his miferable companions, obferving the
expedient he had hit upon of allaying his third, rob¬
bed him from time to time of a confiderable part of
his dore. This plunderer, whom he found to.be a
young gentleman in the fervice of the Ead India Com¬
pany, afterwards acknowledged, that he owed his life
to the many comfortable draughts which he derived
from him. Before Mr Holwell adopted this mode of
relief, he had attempted, in an ungovernable fit of
third, to drink his own urine : but it was fo intenfe-
ly bitter, that a fecond tade could not be endured ;
whereas, he affures us, no Bridol water could be more
foft and pleafant than his perfpiration. And this, we
may prefume, confided chiefly of animal fat, melted by
exceffive heat, and exuding from the cellular mem-,
brane through the pores of the (kin.
Perfons who have been accudomed to animal food,
are foon reduced when fupplied only with the farina-,
cea. Several years ago, to determine the comparative
nutritive powers of different fubdances, an ingenious
young phyficifin, as Dr Percival informs us, made a
variety of experiments on himfelf, to which he unforr
nately fell a facrifice. He lived a month upon bread
and water ; and under this regimen of diet he every
day diminiffied much in his weight. But in ) 784, a
dudent of phjfic at Edinburgh confined himfelf for
a longer fpace of time to a pint of milk and half a
pound of white bread daily : And he affured our an-,
thor, that he paffed through the ufual labours of dudy
and exercife without feeling any decay of health or
drength, and without any fenfible lofs of bulk. The
cutaneous, urinary, and alvine excretions, were very
fcanty during the whole period ; and the difeharge of
fasces occured only once in a week. In this cafe the
oily and coagulable parts of the milk probably furniffit
ed a larger proportion of aliment, and at the fame
time contributed to check the wade by perfpiration
and other difeharges; for oleaginous fubdances are
retained long in the body by their vifeidity. Dr
Ruffel, in his natural Hiflory of Aleppo, relates, that
in thofe feafons when oil abounds, the inhabitants, by
indulgence in it, are difpofed to fever, and affedled
with infarctions of the lungs ; maladies which indi-:
cate both retention and obftruCtion. Milk has bee 3
fuf-
Hanger."
HUN r ?
Hunger, nifpefted by fame of producing fimilar effects, though
  in a {lighter degree ; and the free ufe of it has been
On this account forbidden to afthmatics.
Gum arabic might be a good fubftitute for falep in
the compofition already recommended ; and as it will
give fuch firmnefs to the mafs, as to require mandu-
cation, the faliva, by this means feparated and carried
into the ftomach, would further contribute to affuage
the fenfations both of hunger and of third. See
Cum-Arabic. This gum, combined with fugar and
the whites of eggs, has been lately extolled in France,
tinder the name of patigumo, as a remedy for catarrhal
defluxions. Dr Percival has feen cakes made of thefe
ingredients, and thinks they might very w'ell be ap¬
plied to the purpofe of obviating hunger. They are
not perilhable in the hotted climates, may be carried
about the perfon with convenience, and though very
tough are pleafant to the talle. In the formula by
which they are made, the proportion of fugar is too
large, and that of gum arabic too fmall, if the mafs be
intended to afluage the cravings of appetite. Accord¬
ing to our author’s information, the receipt is as fol¬
lows. “ Take of fine fugar four ounces, and of gum
arabic one ounce : Levigate them well together; and
add half an ounce of rofe water, and of the white of
eggs a fufficient quantity.” '
In our attempts to recover thofe who have fuffered
under the calamities of famine, great circumfpeftion
is required. Warmth, cordials, and food, are the means
to be employed ; and it is evident that thefe may prove
too powerful in their operation, if not adminidered
with caution and judgment. For the body, by long
fading, is reduced to a date of more than infantile
debility ; the minuter veflels of the brain, and of the
other organs, collapfe for want of fluids to diflend
them ; the domach and intedines {brink in their capa¬
city ; and the heart languidly vibrates, having fcarcely
fufficient energy to propel the fcanty current of blood.
Under fuch circumdances, a proper application of heat
feems an eflential meafure, and may be effedted by
placing on each fide a healthy man in contaft with the
patient. Pediluvia or fomentations may alfo be ufed with
advantage. The temperature of thefe ffiould be lower
than that of the human body, and gradually increafed
according to the effedts of theiu,dimulus. New milk,
weak broth, or Water gruel, ought to be employed both
for the one and the other; as nutriment may be con¬
veyed into the fydem this way, by paflages probably
the mod pervious in a date of fading, if not too long
Watfon's protradted. “ A lad at New-marketf, a few years ago,
'hemkal having been almod darved in order that he might be
olm’ reduced to a proper weight for riding a match, was
.xoi.' weighed at nine o’clock in the morning, and again at
ten ; and he was found to have gained near thirty
ounces in weight in the courfe of an hour, though he
had only drank half a glafs of wine in the interval.
The wine probably dimulated the adtion of the nervous
fydem, and incited nature, exhaufled by abflinence,
to open the abforbent pores of the whole body, in or¬
der to fuck in fome nourilhment from the air.” But
no fuch abforption as this can be expedted in a date
of extreme weaknefs and emaciation gradually indu¬
ced ; becaufe the lymphatics mud partake of the ge¬
neral want of tone and energy. And notwithflanding
the falutary effirdfs of wine in the cafe of the jockey,
15 1 HUN
who, it is likely, had been reduced by fvveating as well
as by abdinence, fuch a flimulant might prove dange¬
rous, and even fatal in other cafes. It appears fafer
therefore to advife the exhibition of cordials in very
fmall dofes, and at firft confiderably diluted. Slen-
der wine-whey will perhaps bed anfwtr this purpofe ;
and afford, at the fame time, an eafy and pleafant
nourifhment. When the domach has been a little
flrengthened, an egg may be mixed with the whey, or
adminidered under fome other agreeable form. The
yolk of one was, to Cornaro, fufficient for a meal;
and the narrative of this noble Venetian, in whom a
fever was excited by the addition of only two ounces
of food to his daily allowance, {hows, that the return to
a full diet ffiould be conducted with great caution, and
by very flow gradations.
HUNNS, a fierce and favage nation, who formerly
inhabited that part of Sarmatia bordering on the
Paulus Mseotis and the Tanais, the ancient boundary
between Europe and Afia. Their country, as de-
fcribed by Procopius, lay north of mount Caucafus,
which, extending from the Euxine to the Cafpian
Seas, parts Afiatic Sarmatia from Colchis, Iberia, and
Albania ; lying on the idhmus between the two feas
above mentioned. Here they refided, unknown to
other nations, and themfelves ignorant of other coun¬
tries, till the year 376. At this time, an hind pur*
fued by the hunters, or, according to fome authors,
an ox flung by a gad-fly, having pafled the marfh,
was followed by fome Hunns to the other fide, where
they difcovered a country much more agreeable than
their own. On their return, having acquainted their
countrymen with what they had feen, the whole na¬
tion pafled the marfh, and, falling upon the Alans who
dwelt on the banks of the Tanais, almoft exterminated
them. They next fell upon the Oftrogoths, whom
they drove out of their country, and forced to retire
to the plains between the Borylilienes and the Tanais,
now known by the name of Podolea. Then attacking
the Vifigoths, they obliged them to ffielter themfelves
in the mpft mountainous parts of their country ; till'at
laft the Gothick nations, finding it impoffible to with-
ftand fuch an inundation of barbarians, obtained leave
from the emperor Valens to fettle in Thrace.
The Hunns thus became mafters of all the country
between the Tanais and Danube in 376, where they
continued quietly till the year 388, when great num¬
bers of them Were taken into the pay of Theodolius I.
but, in the mean time, a party of them, called the
Nephthalite or White Hunns, who had continued in Afia,
over-ranall Mcfopotamia, and even laid fiege to Edefla,
where they were repulfed with great {laughter by the
Romans. The European Hunns frequently pafled the
Danube, committing the greateft ravages in the weftern
empire; fometimes they fell upon the eaftern provinces,
where they put all to fire and fword. They were
often defeated and repulfed by the Romans, but the
empire was now too weak to fubdue or confine them
from making excurfions; fo that they continued to
make daily encroachments, and became every day
more formidable than before. 10441, the Hunns,
under Attila, threatened the weflern empire with total
deftru&ion. This monarch, having made himfelf ma¬
tter of all the northern countries from the confines
of Perfia to the banks of the Rhine, invaded Masfia,
4 U 2 Thrace,
Hunger.
HUN r 716 1 H U N
Hunger. Thrace, and Illyricwn; where he made fuch progrefs,
"“"V  that the emperor, not thinking himfelf fafe in Conflan-
tinople, withdrew into Alia. Attila then broke into
Gaul; where he took and deftroyed feveral cities,
tnaffacring the inhabitants with the greateft cruelty.
At laft- he was driven oat with great flaughter by
Aetius the Roman general and Theodoric king of
the Goths, and could never afterwards make any great
progrefs. About the year 452 or 453 Attila died,
and his kingdom was immediately fplit into a number
of fmall ones by his numerous children, who waged
perpetual war with each other. The Hunns then ceafed
to be formidable, and became daily lefs able to cope
with the other barbarous nations whom Actila had
kept in fubje&ion. Still, however, their dominion
was confiderable ; and in the time of Charles the Great
they were mafters of Tranfylvania, Walachia, Servia,
Carniola, Carrntbia, and the greater part of Auftria,
together with Bofnia, Sclavonia, and that pare of
Hungary which lies beyond the Danube. In the year
776, while Charles was in Saxony, two princes of the
Hunns, Caganus and Jugunus,fent ambaffadors to him,
defiring his friendlhip and alliance. Charles received
them with extraordinary marks of friendlhip, and
readily complied with their requeft. However, they
entered, not long after, into an alliance with Taffiia
duke of Bavaria, who had revolted from Charles, and
raifed great difturbances in Germany. Charles dif-
fembled his refentment till he had entirely reduced
Bavaria, when he refolved to revenge himfelf on the
Hunns for thofe fuccours they had underhand given to
his enemy. Accordingly, he ordered levies to be
made throughout his dominions; and having by that
means affembled a very numerous army, he divided it
into two bodies, one of which he commanded himftlf,
and the other he committed to the care of his gene¬
rals. The two armies entered the country of •the
Hunns at different places, ravaged their country far
and near, burnt their villages, and took all their ftrong
holds. This he continued for eight years, till the
ople were almoft totally extirpated; nor did the
unns ever afterwards recover themfelves, or appear
as adiftindt nation.
There were two different nations that went by the
name of Hunns; the Nepthalite or White Hunns, and
•the Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns. The former in¬
habited a rich country, bordering to the north on
Perfia, and at a great diftance from the Sarmatian or
Scythian Hunns, with whom they had no intercourfe
nor the lead refemblance either in their perfons or
manners. They were a powerful nation, and often
ferved againft the Romans in the Perfian armies; but
in the reign of the emperor Zeno, being provoked by
Perozes king of Perfia laying claim to part of their
country, they defeated the Perfians in two pitched
battles, flew their king, over-ran all Perfia, and held
it in fubje£lion for the fpace of two years, obliging.
Cabades, the fon and fucceffor of Perozes, to pay them
a yearly tribute. Th'efe Hunns, called by the writers
of thofe times the white Hunns, did not wander, like
the others, from place to place ; but, contented with
their own country, which fupplied them with all ne-
ceffaiies, they lived under a regular government, fub-
je£l to one prince, and feldom made inroads,-..unlefs
provoked either into the Perlian or Roman territories.
They lived according to their own laws, and dealt up- Hunger,
rightly with one another, as well as with the neigh- ——v**"
bouring people. Each of their-great men ufed to
choofe 20 or more companions to enjoy with him-his
wealth, and partake of all his diverlions; but, upon
his deceafe, they were all buried with him in the fame
grave. This cuftom favours, of barbarity; but in
every other refpeft, the Nephthalite were a far more
civilized nation than the Scythian Hunns, who, break¬
ing into the empire, filled moft of the provinces of Eu¬
rope with blood and flaughter.
The latter were, according to Atnmianus Marcel-
linus, a favage people, exceeding in cruelty; the moft
barbarous nations. They begin to prafifcife their
cruelty, fays Jornandes, upon their own children the
very ftrlt day they come into the world, cutting and
mangling the cheeks of their males, to prevent the
growth of hair, which they muft have looked upon,
contrary to the fentiments of other nations, as unbe¬
coming and unmanly. They had, perhaps, in this-;
praftice another view, which Jornandes feems to infi-
nuate elftwhere, vi%. to {hike terror into the enemy,
with their countenances, thus deformed and covered
with fears. They had no other food,but roots and
raw meat, being quite unacquainted with the ufe of
fire, and no houfes at all, not even huts ; but lived
conftantly expofed to the air in the woods, and on the
mountains, where, from their infancy, they were inured
to hunger, thirft, and all manner of hardfliips: nay,
they had fuch an averfion to houfes, which they called
the fepulchres of the living, that, when they went into
other countries, they could harly be prevailed upon
to come within the walls of any houfe, not thinking
themfelves fafe when Ihut up and covered. They ufed^
even to eat and fleep on horftback, fcarce ever dif-
mounting ; which, in all likelihood, induced Zofimus
to write, that the Hunns could not walk. They co¬
vered their nakednels with goats fltins, or the Ikins of
a fort of mice fewed together. Day and night were
indifferent to them, as to buying, felling, eating, and .
drinking. They had no law, nor any kind of reli¬
gion ; but complied with their inclinations, whatever
they prompted them to, without the leaf! reflraint, or
diftin&ion betwen good and evil. In war, they be¬
gan the battle with great fury, and an hideous- noife :
but if they; met with, a vigorous- oppofition, their
fury began to abate after the firft onfet; and when ,
once put into diforder, they never rallied, but fled in.
the utmoft confufion. They were quite unacquainted-
with the art of befieging towns; and authors obferve, .
that they never attacked the enemy’s camp. They-
were a faithlefs nation, and thought, themfelves no .
longer bound by the moft folemn treaties, than they
found their advantage in obferving them. Hence we
often find them, upon the leaft profpedf of obtaining
more advantageous conditions, breaking into the Ro¬
man empire, in defiance of the moft folemn oaths and
engagements. Several corps of H.unns, after their
coming into Europe, ferved in the Roman armies
againtt the Goths and other barbarous nations; nay,
they were ready, for hire, to fight againft each other,
being blind to every other regard and confideration.
HUNGERFQRD, a town of Berkfhire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Kennet, in a low and watery
foil. It is a great thoroughfare in the Bath and Bri-
3 ftol
HUN
Hunnin- ft0l road, 65 miles from London ; and was formerly
ca^e<^ Inghford Chamamjlreet. The con ft able of this
town, who is chofen annually, is lord of the manor,
which he holds immediately of the crown. They have
a horn here which holds about a quart, and appears by
an infcrip.tipn on it to have been given by John of
Gaunt, together with a grant of the royal fifhery, in a
part of the river which aboitnds with good trouts and
craw fifti. Here is a market on Wednefdays, and fair
in Auguft.
HUNNINGUEN, a town of Germany, in Alface,
and in Suntgaw, fubjeft to the French; feated on the
Rhine, and fortified by Vauban. E. Long. 11.40.
N. Lat. 47. 42.
HUNTER, a name given to a horfe qualified to
£arry a perfon in the chace. The (hape of the horfe
deftgned for this fervke, fhould be ftrong and well knit
together, as the Jockeys exprefs it. Irregular or une¬
qual fliapes in thefe creatures are always a token of
weaknefs. The inequalities in fhape which ftiow a
horfe improper for the chace, are the having a large
head and a fmall neck, a large leg and a fmall foot,
and the like. The head of the hunter fliould indeed
always be Ihrge, but the neck (hould alfo be thick and
ftrong to fupport it. The head ftiould be lean, the
noftrils wide, and the windpipe ftraight.
The hunter, in order to his behaving well in the
field, ought to have great care and indulgence in the
liable : he ought to have as much reft; and quiet as
may be, to be kept well fupplied with good meat,
clean litter, and frefti water by him; he ftiould be often
drefled, and fuffered to fleep as much as he pleafes,
He ftiould be fo fed, that his dung may be rather foft
, than hard, and it muft be of a bright and clean colour.
All this may be eafily managed by the continual ob-
fervance and change of his food, as occafion requires.
After his ufual fcourings he fliould have exercifes and
raafhes of fwcet malt, or bread and beans; or wheat and
beans mixed together, are to be his beft food, and beans
and oats his worft.
Some very great fportfmen are for keeping their
horfes out at grafs all the buck-hunting feafon, never
taking them up into the ftable at all, but allowing
them in the field as much oats with their grafs as they
will eat. The horfe may be thus rid three days in the
week for the whole feafon, and never damaged by it,
nor ever ftiowing any marks of harm afterwards.
The whole (hape of a horfe intended for a hunter,
ftiould be this: The ears ftiould be fmall, open, and
pricked ; or though they be fomewhat long, yet if
they ftand up ereft and bold like thofe of a fox, it is a
fign of toughnefs-or hardinefs. The forehead ftiould
be long and broad, not flat; or, as it is ufually termed,
mare-faced, but rifing in the.middle like that of a hare;
the feather fliould be placed above the eye, the contra¬
ry being thought by fome to threaten blindnefs. The
eyes ftiould be full, large, and bright; the noftrils not
only large, but looking red and frefti within ; for an
open and frefh noftril is always efteemed a fign of a
good wind. The mouth ftiould be large, deep in the
wicks, and hairy. The wind-pipe fliould be large,
and appear ftraight when he bridles his head ; for if,
on the contrary, it bends like a bow on his bridling,
it is not formed for a free paftage of the breath. This
skfeft in a horfe is expreffed among the dealers by the
HUN
phrafe cock-ihrepphd. The head fliould be fo fet on to
the neck, that a fpace may be felt, between the neck
and the chine; when there is no fuch fpace, the horfe
is faid to be bull-necked ; and this is not only a blemifti
in the beauty of the horfe, but it alfo occafions his
wind not to be fo good. The creft fhould be ftrong,
firm, and well rifen ; the neck fhould be ftraight and
firm, not loofe and pliant; the breaft fhould be ftrong
and broad, the ribs round like a barrel, the fillets large,
the buttocks rather oval than broad, the legs clean,
flat, and ftraight; and, finally, the mane and tail
ought to be long and thin, not fhort and bufhy, the
laft being counted a mark of dulnefs. When a hunter
is thus chofen, and has been taught fuch obedience,
that he will readily anfwer to the rider’s fignals both
of the bridle and hand, the voice, the calf of the leg,
and the fpurs; that he knows howto make his way
forward, and has gained a true temper of mouth, and
a right placing of his head, and has learned to flop
and to turn readily, if his age be fufficiently advanced,
he is ready for the field. It is a rule with all Haunch
fportfmen, that no horfe fhould be ufed in hunting till
he is full five years old ; fome will hunt them at four,
but the horfe at this time is not come up to his true
ftrength and courage, and will not only fail at every
tough trial, but will be fubjedl to flrains and accidents
of that kind, much more than if he were to be kept
another year firft, when his ftrength would be more
confirmed.
When the hunter is five years old, he may be put
to grafs from the middle of May till Bartholomew-
tide ; for the weather between thefe is fo hot, that it
will be very proper to fpare him from work. At Bar¬
tholomew tide, the ftrength of the grafs beginning to
be nipped by frofls and cold dews. To that it is apt to
engender crudities in the horfe, he fhould be taken up
while his coat is yet fmooth and fletk and put into the
ftable. WThen he is firft brought home, he fhould be
put in fome fecure and fpacious place, where he may
evacuate his body by degrees, and be brought not all at
once to the warm keeping; the next night he may be
ftabled up. It is a general rule with many not to
clothe and liable up their horfes till two or three days
after they are taken from grafs, and others who put
them in the ftable after the firft night, yet will not
drefs and clothe them till three or four days afterward;
but all this, except the keeping the horfe one day in a
large and cool place, is needlels caution.
There is a general pradlice among, the grooms, in
many places, of giving their hunters wheat ftraw as
foon as they take them up from grafs. They fay
they do this to take up their bellies ; but there feems
much reafon to difapprove of this. The change is very
violent, and the nature of the ftraw fo heating and
drying, that there feems great reafon to fear that the
aftringent nature of it would beprejudicial, more than
is at firft perceived. It is always found that the dung
is hard after this food, and is voided with pain and
difficulty, which is in general very wrong for. this fort
of horfe. It is bet er therefore to avoid this fltaw-
feeding, and to depend upon moderate airing, warm
cloathing, and good old hay, and old corn, than to •
have recourfe to any thing of this kind.
When the horfe has evacuated all his grafs, and has
been properly ‘ fhod, and the fhoes have had time to-.»
fettle..
[ 7>7 1
HUN t 7
fettle to liis feet, he may be ridden abroad, and treat*
' ed in this manner: the groom ought to vifit him ear¬
ly in the morning, at five o’clock in the long days, and
at fix in the (hort ones; he muft then clean out the
liable, and feel the horfe’s neck, flank, and belly, to
find the Hate of his health. If the flank feels foft and
flabby, there is a neceflity of good diet to harden it,
otherwife any great exercife will'occafion fwellings
andgoutinefs in the heels. After this examination, a
handful or two of good old oats, well fifted, Ihould be
given him; this will make him have more inclination
to water, and will alfo make the water fit better on his
ftomach, than if he drank falling. After this he is to
be tied up and drefled. If in the doing of this he
opens his mouth, as if he would bite, or attempts to
kick at the perfon, it is a proof that the teeth of the
curry-comb are too (harp, and mull be filed blunter.
If afcer this he continues the fame tricks, it is through
wantonnefs, and he Ihould be corre&ed for it with the
whip. The intent of currying being only to raife
the dull, this xs to be brulhed off afterwards with a
horfe-tail nailed to a handle, or any other light brulh.
Then he is to be rubbed down with the brulh, and
-dulled a fecond time ; he Ihould then be rubbed over
■with a wet hand, and all the loofe hairs, and whatever
foulnefs there is, Ihould be picked bflF. When this
is done, and he is wiped dry as at firll, a large faddle-
■ cloth is to be put on, reaching down to the fpurring
place ; then the faddle is to be put on, and a cloth
thrown over it that he may not take cold: then rub
down his legs, and pick his feet with an iron picker,
and let the mane and tail be combed with a wet mane-
comb. Lallly, it is a cuftom to fpurt feme beer in his
mouth jull before the leading him out of the liable.
He fhould then be mounted, and walked a mile at leaft
to fome running water, and there watered ; but he
mull only be fuffered to take about half his water at
one drinking.
It is the cullom of many to gallop the horfe at a
violent rate as foon as he comes out of the water ; but
this is extremely wrong for many reafons. It endan¬
gers the breaking a horfe’s wind more than any other
practice, and "bften has been the occafion of burfling
very good horfes. It ufes them alfo to the difagreeable
trick we find in many horfes, of running away as foon
as ever they come out of the water: and with fome it
makes them averfe to drinking, fo that they will ra¬
ther endure thirft, and hurt themfelves greatly by it,
than bring on the violent exercife which they remem¬
ber always follows it. The better way is to walk him
a little after he is out of the water, then put him to a
gentle gallop for a little while, and after this to bring
him to the water again. This fliould be done three or
four times, till he will not drink any more. If there
is a hilly place near the watering place, it is always .
well to ride up to it 5 if otherwife, any place is to be
chofen where there is free air and fun. That the
creature may enjoy the benefit of this, he is not to be
■galloped, but walked about in this place an hour, and
then taken home to the liable. The pleafurethe horfe
himfelf takes in thefe airings when well managed is
very evident; for he will gape, yawn, and fhrug up
his body : and in thefe, whenever he would Hand Hill
■40 tlale, dung, or liften to any noife, he is not to be
■ 8 I HUN
hindered from it, but encouraged in every thing of
this kind.
The advantages of thefe airings are very evident i
they purify the blood, teach the creature how to make
bis breathing agree with the reft of the motions of his
body, and give hinv an appetite to his food, which
hunters and racers that are kept Hailed up are other-
wife very apt to lofe. On returning from airing, the
litter of the liable Ihould be frelh, and by ftirring this
and whittling, he will be brought to Hale. Then he
is to be led to his Hall, and tied up, and again care¬
fully rubbed down ; then he Ihould be covered with a
linen cloth next his body, and a canvas one over that,
made to fit him, and reaching down to his legs. This,
as the duke of Newcaftle obferves, is a cuftom which
we learned of the Turks, who are of all people the
moll nice and careful of their horfes. Over this cover¬
ing there Ihould be put a body-cloth of fix or eight
ftraps; this keeps his belly in lhape, and does not
hurt him. This doatl ing will be fufficient while the
weather is not very lharp, but in fevere feafons, when
the hair begins to rife and Hart in the uncovered parts,
a woollen cloth is to be ’added, and this will always
prove fully fufficient.
Different horfes, and different feafons, make variety
of the degree of cloathing neceffary ; but there always
is an obvious rule to point out the neceffary changes,
the roughnefs of the coat being a mark of the want of
cloathing, and the fmoothnefs of it a proof that the
cloathing is fufficient. Therefore if at any time the
hair i* found to Hart, it is a notice that fome farther
cloathing is to be added.
If the horfe fweat much in the night, it is a fign
that he is over fed and wants exercife ; this therefore
is eafily remedied. An hour or more after the horfe
is come in from his airing, the groom Ihould give him
a wifp of clean hay, making him eat it out of his
hand ; after this let the manger be well cleaned out,
and a quartern of oats clean fifted be given him. If he
eats up this with an appetite, he ftxould have more
given him ; but if he is flow and indifferent about it,
he muft have no more. The bufinefs is to give him
enough, but not to cloy him with food.
If the horfe gets flefh too fall on this’home feedings
he is not to be ftinted to prevent it, but only his exer¬
cife increaTed ; this will take down his flelh, and at the
fame time give him ftrength and wind. After the
feeding in the morning is over the liable is to be Ihut
up, only leaving him a little hay on his litter. He
need be no more looked at till one o’clock, and then
only rubbed down, and left again to the time of his
evening watering, which is four o’clock in the fummer
and three in the winter. When he has been watered,
he muft be kept out an hour or two, or more if necef¬
fary, and then taken home and rubbed as after the
morning watering. Then he is to have a feed of corn
at fix o’clock, and another at nine at night; and be¬
ing then cleaned, and his litter put in order, and hay
enough left for the night, he is to be left till morning.
This is the dire&ion for one day, and in this manner
he is to be treated every day for a fortnight ; at the
end of which time his flefh will be fo hardened, his
wind fo improved, and his mouth fo quickened, and
his gallop brought to fo good a ftroke, that he will be
3 fit
HUN [ 719 ] HUN
Hunter, fit to be put to moderate hunting. During the time
V"—v  that he js ufed to hunting, he muft be ordered on his
days of reft exaftly as he is directed for the fortnight
when he is in preparation ; but as his exercife is now
greatly increafed, he muft be allowed a more ftrength-
ening food, mixing fome old fplit beans, at every feed¬
ing with his oats.
And if this is not found to be fufficient, the follow¬
ing bread muft be given : let two pecks of old beans
and one peck of wheat be ground together, and made
into an indifferently fine meal; then knead it into
dough with fome warm water and a good quantity of
yeaft ; let it lie a time that it may rife and fwell, which
will make the bread the lighter; then make it it into
loaves of a peck each, and let it be baked in a flow
even, that it may be thoroughly done without being
burnt ; when it is taken, out of the oven, it muft be
fet bottom upwards to cool: when it is one day old
the cruft is to be chipped off, and the crumb given
him for food. When this is ready, he flrould have
fome of it at leaft once in the day ; but it is not to be
made the only food, but fome feeds are to be of oats
alone, fome of oats and this bread, and fome of oats
and beans mixed together. The making a variety in
this manner being the beft of all methods of keeping
up the appetite, which is often apt to fail.
The day before the horfe is to hunt, he muft have
no beans, becaufe they are hard of digeftion, but only
fome oats with this bread; or if he will be brought to
eat the bread alone, that will be beft of all. His even¬
ing feed ftiould on this day be fomewhat earlier than
ufiial; and after this he is only to have a wifp of
hay out of the groom’s hand till he return from hunt¬
ing.
HUNTER (DrWilliam), a celebrated anatomift and
phyfician, v. as born on the 23d of May 1718, at Kilbride
T>r Foart in t^e county of Lanerk in Scotland. He was the fe-
^accmntnf vent^ ten children of John and Agnes Hunter, who
the life and refided on a fmall eftate in that pariflr called Long Cal-
■writings of derivood, which had been long in the poffeffion of his
Lf ^ family. His great grandfather by his father’s fide,
er’ was a younger fon of blunter of Hunterfton, chief of
the family of that name. At the age of fourteen his
father fent him to the college of Glafgow. In this fe-
minary he paffed five years; and by his prudent beha¬
viour and diligence acquired the efteem of the profef-
fors, and the reputation of being a good fcholar. His
father had defigned him for tlje church ; but the idea
of fubfcribing to articles of faith was fo repugnant to
the liberal mode of thinking he had already adopted,
that he felt an ihfuperable aveifion to his theological
purfuits. In this ftate of mind he happened to be¬
come acquainted with Dr Cullen, the late celebrated
profeffor at Edinburgh, who was then juft eftabliftied
in pradlice at Hamilton under the patronage of the
duke of Hamilton. Dr Cullen’s converfation foon de¬
termined him to lay afide all thoughts of the church,
and to devote himfelf to the profeffion of phyfic. His
father’s confent having been previoufly obtained, Mr
Hunter in 1737 went to refide with Dr Cullen. In
the family of this excellent friend and preceptor he
paffed nearly three years ; and thefe, as he has been
often heard to acknowledge, were the happieft years
of his life. It was then agreed, that he ftiould go and
grofecute his medical ftudies at Edinburgh and Lon¬
don, and afterwards return to fettle at Hamilton in Hunter,
partnerlhip with Dr Cullen. He accordingly fet out
for Edinburgh in November 1-740; and continued there
till the following fpring, attending the k&ures of the
medical profeffors, and amongft others thofe qf the late
Dr Alexander Monro, who many years afterwards, m
allufion to this circumftance, ftyled, himfelf his old-
majler.
Mr Hunter arrived in London in the fummer of
1741, and took up hisrefidence at Mr, afterwards Dr,
Smellie’s, who was at that time an apothecary in Pall
Mall. He brought with him a letter of recommenda¬
tion to his countryman Dr James Douglas, from Mr
Foulis printer at Glafgow, who had been ufeful to the
Dodtor in colledling for him different editions of Ho¬
race. Dr Douglas was then intent on a great anato-
mical.work on the bones* which he did not live to-
complete, and was looking out for a young man of a-
bilities and induftry whom he might employ as a dif-
fedtor. 'Phis induced him to pay particular attention
to Mr Hunter ; and finding him acute and fenfible, he
defired him to make him another vifit. A fecond con--
verfation confirmed the dodtor in the good opinion he
had formed of Mr Hunter ; and without any farther
hefitation he invited him into his family to affift in his
diffedtions and to fuperintend the education of his
fon.—Mr Hunter having accepted Dr Douglas’s invi¬
tation, was by his friendly afiiftance enabled to enter
himfelf as a furgeon’s pupil at St George’s Hofpital
under Mr James Wilkie, and as a diffedting pupil un¬
der Dr Frank Nichols who at that time taught ana¬
tomy with confiderable reputation. He likewife at¬
tended a courfe of ledtures on experimental philofophy
by Dr Defaguliers. Of thefe means of improvement
he did not fail to make a proper ufe. He foon became
expert in diffedtion, and Dr Douglas was at the ex-
pence of having feveral of his preparations engraved.
But before.many months had elapfed, he had the mis¬
fortune to lofefthis excellent friend.—The death of Dr
Douglas, however, made no change of the fit nation of
our author. He continued to refide with the Dodtor’s
family, and to purfue his ftudies with the fame diligence
as before.
In 1743 he communicated to the Royal Society an
effay on the Strudlure and Difeafes of articulating
Cartilages. This ingenious paper, on a fubjedt which
till then had not been fufficiently inveftigated, affords
a ftriking teftimony of the rapid progrefs he had made
in his anatomical inquiries. As he had it in contem¬
plation to teach anatomy, his attention was diredted
principally to this objedt; and it deferves to be men¬
tioned as an additional mark of his prudence, that he
did not precipitately engage in this attempt, but.
paffed feveral years in acquiring fuch a degree of know¬
ledge and fuch a colledtion of preparations, as might
infure him fuccefs. Dr Nichols, to Miom he com¬
municated his fcheme, and who declined giving lec¬
tures about that time in favour of the late Dr Law¬
rence, did not give him much encouragement to pro-
fecute it. But at length an opportunity prefented it-
felf for the difplay of his abilities as a teacher. A fo-
ciety of navy furgeons had an apartment in Covent
Garden, where they engaged the late Mr Samuel Sharpe
to deliver a courfe of ledtures on the operations of fur-
gery. Mr Sharpe continued to repeat this courfe,,
HUN { 720 ] HUN
fHunter, till finding that it interfered too much with his other
U””"’v engagements, he declined the talk in favour of Mr
Hunter ; who gave the fociety fo much fatisfaftion,
that they requefted him to extend his plan to anatomy,
and at firft he had the ufe of their room for his lec¬
tures. This happened in the winter of 1746. He
is faid to have experienced much folicitude when he
began to fpeak in public: but the applaufe he met with
foon infpired him with courage; and by degrees he
became fo fond of teaching, that for many years be¬
fore his death he was never happier than when employ¬
ed in delivering a lefture. The profits of his two firft
courfes were confiderable ; but by contributing to the
wants of different friends, he found himfelf at the re¬
turn of the next feafon obliged to defer his ledlures for
a fortnight, merely becaufe he had not money enough
to defray the neceffary expence of advertifements.
In 1747, he was admitted a member of the corpora¬
tion of furgeons ; and in the fpring of the following
year, foon after the clofe of his lectures, he fet out in
company with his pupil, Mr James Douglas, on a
tour through Holland to Paris. His leftures fufifered
no interruption by this journey, as he returned to Eng¬
land foon enough to prepare for his winter-courfe,
which began about the ufual time.
At firft he pradtifed both furgery and midwifery ;
but to the former of thefe he had always an averfion.
His patron, Dr James Douglas, had acquired confider¬
able reputation in midwifery; and this probably indu¬
ced Mr Hunter to diredt his views chiefly to the fame
line of pradtice. His being eledled one of the furgeon
tnen-midwives, firft to the Middlefex, and foon after¬
wards to the Britifh Lying-in Hofpital, aflifted in
bringing him forward in this branch of his profeffion,
in which he was recommended by feveral of the moft
eminent furgeons of that time, who refpedted his ana¬
tomical talents and wilhed to encourage him. But
thefe were not the only circumftances that contributed
to his fuccefs. He owed much to his abilities, and
much to his perfon and manner, which eminently qua¬
lified him for the pradtice of midwifery.
In 1750, he feems to have entirely relinquiftied his
views in furgery ; as in that year he obtained the de¬
gree of Dodtor of Phyfic from the univerfity of Glaf-
gew, and began to pradlife as a phyfician. About
this time he quitted the family of Mrs Douglas, and
went to refide in Jermyn-ftreet. In the fummer of
1751 he revilited his native country, for which he al¬
ways retained a cordial affedtion. His mother was ftill
living at Long Calderwood, which was now become
his property by the death of his brother James. Dr
Cullen, for whom he always entertained a fincere re¬
gard, was then eftabliflied at Glafgow, and had ac¬
quired confiderable reputation both as a pradtitioner
and teacher of phyfic ; fo that the two friends had
the pleafure of being able to congratulate each other
on their mutual profperity. During this vifit he
fhowed his attachment to his little paternal inheritance,
by giving many inftrudfions for repairing and impro¬
ving it, and for purchafing any adjoining lands that
might be offered for fale. After this journey to Scot¬
land, to which he devoted only a few weeks, he was ne¬
ver abfent from London, unlefs his profeffional engage-
.ments, as fometimes happened, required his attend¬
ance at a diftance from the capital.
N° ij8-
In lyyj’, ®n the refignation of Dr Layard, one of .Hnnter-
the phyficians of the Britifti lying-in hofpital, we find ~ “
the governors of that inftitution voting their “ thanks
to Dr Hunter for the fervices he had done the hofpi¬
tal, and for his continuing in it as one of the phy¬
ficians:” fo that he feems to have been eftablifhcd in
this office without the ufual form of an ele&ion. The
year following he was admitted a licentiate of the Royal
Gollege of Phyficians. Soon afterwards he was eledted
a member of the Medical Society ; and to the Obferva*
tion^ and Inquiries publiflied by that fociety, he at dif¬
ferent periods contributed ftveral valuable papers.
In 1762, we find him warmly engaged in controver-
fy, fupporting his claim to different anatomical difeo-
veries, in a work intitled Medical Commentaries, the
ftyle of which is corredt and fpirited. As an excufe
for the tardinefs with which he brought forth this
work, he obferves in his introdudtion, that it required
a good deal of time, and he had little to fpare; that
the fubjedt was unpleafant, and therefore he was very
feldom in the humour to take it up. In this publica¬
tion he confined himfelf chiefly to a difpute with the
prefent learned profeffor of anatomy at Edinburgh,
concerning injedtiohs of the tefticle, the dubts of the
lacrymal gland, the origin and ufe of the lymphatic
veffels, and abforption by veins. He likewiie defend¬
ed himfelf againft a reproach thrown upon him by
profeffor Monro fenior, by giving a concile account of
a controverfy he was involved in with Mr Pott con¬
cerning the difeovery of the Hernia Congenita. It
was not long before Mr Pott took occafion to give the
public his account of the difpute; and, in reply.
Dr Hunter added a fupplement to his commenta¬
ries. No man was ever more tenacious than Dr Hun¬
ter of what he conceived to be his anatomical rights.
This was particularly evinced in the year 1780, when
his brother communicated to the Royal Society a dif¬
eovery he had made 25 years before, relative to the
ftrudture of the placenta, the communication httveefl
it and the uterus, and the vafcularity of the fpongy
chorin. At the next meeting of the fociety, a letter
was read, in which Dr Hunter put in his claim to the
difeovery in queftion. This ktter was followed by a
reply from Mr John Hunter, and here the difpute
ended.
In 1762, when the queen became pregnant, Dr Hun¬
ter was confulted : and two years afterwards he had
the honour to be appointed phyfician extraordinary t*
her majefty.
About this time his avocations were fo numerous,
that he became defirous of leffening his fatigue ; and
having noticed the ingenuity and affiduous application
of the late Mr William Hewfon, F. R. S. who was
then one of his pupils, he engaged him firft as an af-
fiflant, and afterwards as a partner, in his leftures.
This connedtion continued till the year 1770; when
fome difputes happened, which terminated in a fepa-
ration. Mr Hewfon was fucceeded in thepartnerfhfp
by Mr Cruikfhank, whofe anatomical abilities are
defervedly refpedted.
In 1767, Dr Hunter was ele&ed a fellow of the
Royal Society : and in the year following communi¬
cated to that learned body obfervations on the bones,
commonly fuppofed to be elephants bones, which have
been found near the river Ohio in America. This
was
HUN [ 721 ] HUN
was nftt tlie only fubjeft of natural hlftory on which
our author employed his pen ; for in a fubfequent vo¬
lume of the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, we find him
offering his remarks on fome bones found in the rock
of Gibraltar, and which he proves to have belonged to
feme quadruped. In the fame work, likewife, he pub-
lifhed an account of the nyl-ghau, an Indian animal
not deferibed before. In 1768, Dr Hunter became a
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries; and the fame year,
at the inflitution of a Royal Academy of Arts, he was
appointed by his majefty to the office of profeffor of ana¬
tomy. This appointment opened a new field for his abi¬
lities; and he engaged in it, as he did in every other pur-
fuit of his life, with unabating zeal. He now adapted his
anatomical knowledge to the objefts of painting and
fculpture, and the novelty and juflnefs of his obferva-
tions proved at once the readinefs and extent of his
genius. In January 1781, he was unanimoufly ele&ed
to fucceed the late Dr John Fothergill as prefident of
the Medical Society. As his name and talents were
known and refpe&ed in every part of Europe, fo the
honours conferred on him were not limited to his own
country. In 1780, the Royal Medical Society at Pa¬
ris defied him one of their foreign affociates ; and in
1782, he received a fimilar mark of diftinftion from
the Royal Academy of Sciences in that city.
The moll fplendid of Dr Hunter’s medical publica¬
tions was the Anatomy of the Human Gravid Ute¬
rus. The appearance of this work, which had been
begun fo early as the year 1751 (at which time 10 of
the 34 plates it contains were completed), was retard¬
ed till the year 1775, only by the author’s defire of
fending it into the world with fewer imperfedions.
This great work is dedicated to the king. In his pre¬
face to it, we find the author very candidly acknow¬
ledging, that in moll of the difTeftions he had been af-
fifted by his brother Mr John Hunter, “ whofe accu¬
racy (he adds) in anatomical refearches is fo well known,
that to omit this opportunity of thanking him for
that affiftance would be in fome meafure to difregard
the future reputation of the work itfelf.” He like¬
wife confelfes his obligations to the ingenious artifts
who made the drawings and engravings; “ but par¬
ticularly to Mr Strange, not only for having by his
hand fecured a fort of immortality to two of the plates,
but for having given his advice and affiftance in every
part w ith a fteady and difinterefted friendlhip. An ana¬
tomical defeription of the gravid uterus was a work
W'hich Dr Hunter had in contemplation to give the
public. He had likewife long been employed in col¬
lecting and arranging materials for a hiftory of the va¬
rious concretions that are formed in the human body.
Amongft Dr Hunter’s papers have been found two
mtroduttory lectures, which are written out fo fairly,
and with fuch accuracy, that he probably intended no
farther correftion of them before they fhould be given
to the w orld. In thefe leCtures Dr Hunter traces the
hillory of anatomy from the earlieft to the prefent
times, along with the general progrefs of fcience and
the arts. He confiders the great utility of anatomy
in the practice of phyfic and forgery ; gives the an¬
cient divifions of the different fubftances compofmg the
human body, which for a long time prevailed in ana¬
tomy; points out the moll advantageous mode of cul¬
tivating this branch of natural knowledge ; and con-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
eludes with explaining the particular plan of his own
ledures. Befides thefe manuferipts, he has alfo left
behind him a confiderable number of cafes of diffec-
tior.: moftly relating to pregnant women.
The fame year in which the Tables of the Gravid
Uterus made their appearance. Dr Hunter communi¬
cated to the Royal Society an Eflay on the Origin of
the Venereal Difeafe. In this paper he attempted to
prove, that this dreadful malady was not brought from
America to Europe by the crew of Columbus, as had
been commonly fuppofed, although it made its firft
appearance about that period. After this paper had
been read to-tbe Royal Society, Dr Hunter, in a con-
verfation with the late Dr Mufgrave, was convinced
that the teftimony on which he placed his chief depen¬
dence w-as of lefs weight than he had at ffrft imagined,
as many of Martyr’s letters afford the mod convincing
proofs of their having been written a confiderable time
after the period of their dates. He therefore very
properly laid afide his intention of giving his ef*
fay to the public. In the year 1777 Dr Hunter join¬
ed with Mr Watfon in prefenting to the Royal Society
a Ihort account of the late Dr Maty’s illnefs, and of
the appearances on diffedlion ; and the year following
he publifhed his Refleftions on the Section of the
Symphyfis Pubis.
We muft now go back a little into the order of
time to deferibe the origin and progtefs of Dr Hun¬
ter’s mufeum, without fome account of which the hi¬
ftory of his life would be very incomplete.
When he began to praftife midwifery, he was de-
firous of acquiring a fortune fufficient to place him in
eafy and independent circumftances. Before many
years' had elapfed, he found himfelf in pofleffion of a
fum adequate to his wifties in this refpect; and this he
fet apart as a refource of which he might avail himfelf
whenever age or infirmities ffiould oblige him to re¬
tire from bufinefs. After he had obtained this com¬
petency, as his wealth continued to accumulate, he
formed a laudable defign of engaging in fome fcheme
of public utility, and at firft had it in contempla¬
tion to found an anatomical fchool in this metro¬
polis. For this purpofe, about the year 1765, du¬
ring the adminiftration of Mr Grenville, he prefent-
ed a memorial to that minifter, in which he requefted
the grant of a piece of ground in the Mews, for the
feite of an anatomical theatre. Dr Hunter under¬
took to expend L. 7000 on the building, and to en-
. dow a profelforlhip of anatomy in perpetuity. This
fcheme did not meet with the reception it deferved.
In a converfation on this fubjefl foon afterwards with
the earl of Shelburne, his lordfhip expreffed a wifh
that the plan might be carried into execution by fub-
feription, and very generoufly requefted to have his
name fet down for a ihoufand guineas. Dr Hunter’s
delicacy would not allow him to adopt this propofal.
He chofe rather to execute it at his own expence; and
accordingly purchafed a fpot of ground in Great Wind-
mill-ftreet, where he eredled a fpacious houfe, to which
he removed from Jermyn-ftreet in 1770. In this
building, befides a handfome amphitheatre and other
convenient apartments for his kdtures and diffedtions,
there was one magnificent room, fitted up with great
elegance and propriety as a mufeum. Of the magni¬
tude and value of his anatomical colledtion fame idea
4 X may
HUN [ 722 ] HUN
Hunter, may be formed, when we confider the great length of
Hunting. year3 hg employed in the making of anatomical prepa-
rations and in the difleftion of morbid bodies, added
to the eagernefs with which he procured additions
from the colleftions of Sandys, Hewfon, Falconer,
Blackall, and others, that were at different times offer¬
ed for fale in this metropolis. His fpecimens of rare
difeafes were likewife frequently increafed by prefents
from his medical friends and pupils ; who, when any
thing of this fort occurred to them, very juftly thought
they could not difpofe of it more properly than by
placing it in Dr Hunter’s mufeum. Sneaking of an
acquifition in this way in one of his publications, he
fays, “ I look upon every thing of this kind which is
given to me, as a prefent to the public ; and confider
myfelf as thereby called Upon to ferve the public with
more diligence.”
Before his removal to Windmill-ftreet, he had
confined his colleftion chiefly to fpecimens of human
and comparative anatomy and of difeafes ; but now
he extended his views to foflils, and likewife to the
promotion of polite lite’-ature and erudition.. In a
fhort fpace of time he became pofleffed of “ the moll
magnificent treafure of Greek and Latin books that
has been accumulated byany perfon now living fince the
days of Mead.” A cabinet of ancient medals contri¬
buted likewife much to the richnefs of his mufeum.
A defcription of part of the coins in this colleflion,
ftruck by the Greek free cities, has lately been pub-
lifhed by the Doftor’s learned friend Mr Combe. In
a clalfical dedication of this elegant volume to the
queen, Dr Hunter acknowledges his obligations to
her majefty. In the preface fome account is given of
the progrefs of the colleftion, which has been brought
together fince the year 1770, with Angular tafte, and
at the expence of upwards of L. 20,000. In 1781,
the mufeum received a valuable addition of {hells, co¬
rals, and other curious fubje&s of natural hiftory, which
had been collected by the late worthy Dr Fothergill,
who gave directions by his will, that his collection
fhould be appraifed after his death, and that Dr Hunter
fliould have the refufal of it at L. 500 under the valua¬
tion. This was accordingly done, and Dr Hunter pur-
chafed it for the fum of L. 1200. The fame of this
mufeum fpread throughout Europe. Few foreigners
diftinguifhed for their rank or learning vifited this me¬
tropolis without requefting to fee it. Men of fcience
of our own country always had eafy aceefs to it.—Con-
fidered in a collective point of view, it is perhaps with¬
out a rival.
Dr Hunter, at the head of his profeffion, honoured
with the efteem of his fovereign, and in pofleffion of
every thing that his reputation and wealth could con¬
fer, feemed now to have attained the fummit of his
wiflies. But thefe fources of gratification were imbit-
tered by a difpofition to the gout, which harafled him
frequently during the latter part of his life, notwith-
ftanding his very abftemious manner of living. On Sa¬
turday the 15th of March 1783, after having for feve-
ral days experienced a return of a wandering gout, he
complained of great head-ach and naufea. In this (late
he went to bed, and for feveral days felt more pain than
ufual both in his ftomach and limbs. On the Thurf-
day following he found himfelf fo much recovered, that
he determined to give the introductory leCture to the
operations of furgery. It was to no purpofe that his Hunting,
friends urged to him the impropriety of fuch an at- —v’""
tempt. He was determined to make the experiment,
and accordingly delivered the leClnre; but towards the
conclufion his ftrength was fo exhaufted that he fainted
away, and was obliged to be carried to bed by two fer-
vants. The following night and day his fymptoms
were fuch as indicated danger ; and on Saturday morn¬
ing Mr Combe, who made him an early vifit, was
alarmed on being told by Dr Hunter himfelf that du¬
ring the night he had certainly had a paralytic ftroke.
As neither his fpeech nor his pulfe were affeCled, and
he was able to raife himfelf in bed, Mr Combe encou¬
raged him to hope that he was miftaken. But the
event proved the DoClor’s idea of his complaint to be
but too well founded ; for from that time till his death,
which happened on Sunday the 30th of March, he
voided no urine without the afliftance of the catheter,
which was occafionally introduced by his brother ; and
purgative medicines were adminiftered repeatedly with¬
out procuring a paflage by ftool. Thefe circumftances,
and the abfence of pain, feemed to fliow, that the in-
tellines and urinary bladder had loft their fenfibility and
power of contraction ; and it was reafonable to prefume
that a partial palfy had affeCled the nerves diftributed
to thofe parts.
By his will, the ufe of his mufeum, under the di¬
rection of truftees, devolves to his nephew Matthew
Baillie, B. A. and in cafe of his death to Mr Cruik-
fhank for the term of thirty years, at the end of which
period the whole collection is bequeathed to the uni-
verlity of Glafgow. The fum of eight thoufand
pounds fterling is left as a fund for the fupport and aug¬
mentation of the collection.
Dr Hunter was regularly fhaped, but of a (lender
make, and rather below a middle ftature. His man¬
ner of living was extremely fimple and frugal, and
the quantity of his food was (mail as well as plain. He
was an early rifer ; and when bufinefs was over, was
conftantly engaged in his anatomical purfuits, or in
his mufeum. There was fomething very engaging in
his manner and addrefs; and he had fuch an appearance
of attention to his patients, when he was making his
inquiries, as could hardly fail to conciliate their confi¬
dence and efteem. In confultation with his medical
brethren, he delivered his opinions with diffidence and
candour. In familar converfation he was cheerful and
unaffuming. As a teapher of anatomy he has been
long and defervedly celebrated. He was a good
orator; and having a clear and accurate conception
of what he taught, he knew how to place in di-
ftinCl and intelligible points of view the mod abftrufe
fubjeCls of anatomy and phyfiology. Among other
methods of explaining and illuftrating his doCtrines,
he ufed frequently to introduce fome appofite (lory or
cafe that had occurred to him in his praClice; and few
men had acquired a more interefting fund of anecdotes
of this kind, or related them in a more agreeable man
ner.
HUNTING, the exercife or diverfion of purfuing
four-footed beads of game. See the article Game.
Four-footed beads are hunted in the fields, woods,
and thickets, and that both with guns and gre-
hounds.
Birds, on the contrary, are either (hot in the air,
or
HUN [ 723 ] HUN
or taken with nets and other devices, which exercife
is called fowling; or they are purfued and taken by
birds of prey, which is called hawking. See the ar¬
ticles Fowling, Hawking, Falconry, Shooting,
BiRD-Catching, and Decoy.
F. de Launay, profefibr of the French laws, has an
exprefs treatife of hunting. From thofe words of
God to Adam, Gen. i. 26, and 28. and to Noah,
Gen. ix. 2, 3. hunting was confidered as a right de¬
volved or made over to man ; and the following ages
appear to have been of the fame fentiment. Accord¬
ingly we find, that among the more civilized nations
it made one of their diverfions ; and as to the wilder and
more barbarous, it ferved them with food and necef-
faries. The Roman jurifprudence, which was formed
on the manners of the firft ages, made a law of it,
and eftablilhed it as a maxim, that as the natural right
of things which have no matter belongs to the firft
pofleffor, wild beafts, birds, and fifties, are the pro¬
perty of whomfoever can take them firft.
But the northern nations of barbarians who over-ran
the Roman empire, bringing with them a ftronger
tafte for the diverfion, and the people being now pof-
feffed of other and more eafy means of fubfittence
from the lands and poffeffions of thofe they had van-
quiftied, their chiefs and leaders began to appropriate
the right of hunting, and, inftead of a natural right,
to make it a royal one. Thus it continues to this day;
the right of hunting, among us, belonging only to the
king, and thofe who derive it from him.
The hunting ufed by the ancients was much like
that now pra&ifed for the rein-deer; which is feldom
hunted at force, or with hounds ; but only drawn with
a blood-hound, and foreftalled with nets and engines.
Thus did they with all beafts; whence a dog is never
commended by them for opening before he has difco-
vered where the beaft lies. Hence, they were not in
any manner curious as to the mufic of their hounds, or
the compolition of their kennel or pack, either for
deepnefs, loudnefs, or fweetnefs of cry, which is a
principal point in the hunting of our days. Their
huntfmen, indeed, were accuftomed to ftiout and make
a great noife, as Virgil obferves in the third of his
Georgies : Ingentem clamorepremes ad retia cervum > But
that confufion was only to bring the deer to the nets
laid for him.
The Sicilian way of hunting had fomething in it
very extraordinary.—The nobles or gentry being in¬
formed which way a herd of deer patted, gave notice
to one another, and appointed a meeting ; every one
bringing with him a crofs-bow or long-bow, and a
bundle of ftaves fhod with iron, the heads bored, with
a cord pafiing through them all: thus provided, they
came to the herd, and, calling themfelves about in a
large ring, furrounded the deer.—Then, each taking
his Hand, unbound his faggot, fet up his ftake, and
tied the end of the cord to that of his next neighbour,
at the diftance of ten feet from one another.—Then
taking feathers, died in crimfon, and faftened on a
thread, they tied them to the cord ; fo that with the
leaft breath of wind they would whirl round.—
Which done, the perfons who kept the Hands with- Hunting
drew, and hid themfelves in the next covert. Then '—v—
the chief ranger entering within the line with hounds
to draw after the herd, roufed the game with their cry;
which flying towards the line, were turned off, and,
Hill gazing on the fhaking and Ihining feathers, wan¬
dered about as if kept in with a real wall 01 pale. The
ranger Hill purfued, and calling every perfon by name
as he patted by their Hand, commanded him to (hoot
the firft, third, or fixth, as he pleafed: and if any of
them miffed, or fingled out another than that afllgned
him, it was counted a grievous difgrace. By fuch
means, as they patted by the feveral ftations, the
whole herd was killed by the feveral hands. Pier.
Hieroglyphic, lib. vii. cap. 6.
Hunting formed the greateft part of the employ¬
ment of the ancient Germans, and probably of the
Britons alfo, when they were not engaged in war.
We are informed by fome ancient hiftorians, that this
was the cafe even as late as the third century with the
unconquered Britons who lived beyond Adrian’s wall;
nay, that they fubfifted chiefly by the prey they took
in this way. The great attachment Ihown by all the
Celtic nations to hunting, however, proceeded moft
probably from its being a kind of apprenticelhip to
war. Thus their youth acquired that courage, ftrength,
fwiftnefs, and dexterity in handling their arms, which
made them fo formidable in time of war to their ene¬
mies. . Thus alfo they freed the country from many
mifehievous animals which abounded in the forefts,
furnilhing themfelves alfo with materials for thofe feafts
which feem to have conftituted their greateft pleafure.
The young chieftains had thus likewife an opportunity
of paying court to their miftieffes, by dil'playing their
bravery and agility, and making them prefents of their
game ; nay, fo ftrong and univerfal was the pafiion for
hunting among the ancient Britons, that young ladies
of the highelt quality and greateft jbeauty fpent much
of their time in the chace. They employed much the
fame weapons in hunting that they did in war, viz.
long fpears, javelins, and bows and arrows; having
alfo great numbers of dogs to attilt them in finding
and purfuing their game. Thefe dogs, we are alfo
told, were much admired among other nations, on ac¬
count of their fwiftnefs, ftrength, fiercenefs, and ex-
quifite fenfe of fmelling. They were of feveral diffe¬
rent kinds, called by different names'! and formed a
confiderable article of commerce. They were highly
valued by all the Celtic nations, infomuch that fome
very comical penalties were inflifted upon thofe who
were convidted of Healing them (a). From the poems
of Ottian alfo it appears, that the Britons were not un¬
acquainted with the art of catching birds with hawks
trained for that purpofe; but they feem to have been
abfolutely ignorant of the method of catching fifti; for
there is not a fingle allufion to this art in all the works
of that venerable bard. Their ignorance of this art is
both confirmed and accounted for by Dio Niceus, who
affures us, that the ancient Britons never tatted fifti,
though they had innumerable multitudes in their feas,
rivers, and lakes. “ By the by (fays Dr Henry), we
4X2 may
(a) Si quis canem veltraum aut fegutium vel .petrunculum, prasfumferit involare, jubemus ut convidus, co¬
ram omni populo, pofteriora ipfius ofculetur.
HUN f 724 ] HUN
Hunting;. may obferve that this agreement between the poems
* of Ofiian and the Greek hiftorian, in a circumftance fo
Angular, is at once a proof of the genuine antiquity
of thefe poems, and that the Greek and Roman writers
were not fo ill informed about the affairs and manners
of the ancient Britons as fome have imagined.”
The Mexicans, whatever imbecility may be impu*
ted to them in other refpe&s, were very dexterous in
hunting. Th<jr ufed bows and arrows, darts, nets,
fnares, and a kind of tubes named carbottane, through
which they fliot by blowing out little balls at birds.
Thofe which the kings and great men made ufe of
were curioufly carved and painted, and likewife adorn-
' ed with gold and filver. Befides the exercife of the
chace which private individuals took either for amufe-
ment or to provide food for themfelves, there were ge¬
neral hunting-matches, fometimes appointed by the
king ; at others, undertaken with a view to provide
plenty of victims for facrifices. A large wood, gene¬
rally that of Zacatapec, not far diftant from the ca¬
pital, was pitched upon as the fcene of thefe grand
hunting-matches. Here they chofe the place bed
adapted for fetting a great number of fnares and
nets. The wood was inclofed by fome thoufands
of hunters, forming a circle of fix, feven, or eight
miles, according to the number of animals they intend¬
ed to take. Fire was then fet to the grafs in a great
number of places, and a terrible noife made with
drums, horns, fhouting, and whittling. The hunters
gradually con trailed their circle, continuing the noife
till the game were inclofed in a very^mall fpace. They
were then killed or taken in fnares, or with the hands of
the hunters. The number of animals taken or deftroyed
on thefe occafions was fo great, that the firft Spaniih
viceroy of Mexico would not believe it without ma¬
king the experiment himfelf. The place chofen for
his hunting-match was a great plain in the country of
the Otomies, lying between the villages of Xilotepec and
S. Giovani del Rio; the Indians being ordered to pro¬
ceed according to their ufual cuttoms in the times of
their paganifm. The viceroy, attended by a vaft re¬
tinue of Spaniards, repaired to the place appointed,
where accommodations were prepared for them in houfes
cf wood ere&ed for the purpofe. A circle of more
than 15 miles was formed by 11,000 Otomies, who
ftarted fuch a quantity of game on the plain, that the
viceroy was quite aftonifhed, and commanded the greater
part of them to be fet at liberty, which was accordingly
done. The number retained, however, was ftill in¬
credibly great, were it not attefted by a witnefs of the
higheft credit. On this oceafion upwards of 600 deer
and wild goats, 100 cajotes, with a furprifing number
of hares, rabbits, and other fmaller animals. The plain
ftill retains the Spaniih name Cazaden, which fignifies
the “ place of the chace.”
The Mexicans, befides the ufual methods of the.
chace, had particular contrivances for catching certain
animals. Thus, to catch young afles, they made a
fmall fire in the woods, putting among the burning
coals a particular kind of ftone named cacalsttl “ raven
or black ftone,” which burfts with a loud noife when
heated. The fire was covered with earth, and a little
maize laid around it. The affes quickly aflemblcd with
their young, in order to feed upon the maize; but
while they were, thus employed, the ftone burft, and
*
feared away the old ones by the explofion, while the Hunting,
young ones, unable to fly, were carried off by the  
hunters. Serpents were taken even by the hands,
feizing them intrepidly by the neck with one hand,
and fewing up their mouths with the other. This me¬
thod is ftill praftifed. They Ihowed the greatell dex¬
terity in tracing the fteps of wild beafts, even when
an European could not have difeerned the fmalleft
print of their feet. The Indian method, however,
was by obfervir.g fometimes the herbs or leaves broken
down by their feet; fometimes the drops of blood which
fell from them when wounded. It is faid that fome of
the American Indians (how ftill greater dexterity in
dffcovering the trafts of their enemies, which to an
European would be altogether imperceptible.
Hunting was a favourite diverfion of the great and
bloody conqueror Jenghiz Khan, if indeed we can apply
the word diverfion to a monfter whofe mind was fet
upon the deftrudlion of his own fpecies, and who only
endeavoured to make the murder of brutes fubfervient
to that of men, by keeping his foldiers in a kind of
warfare with the beafts when they had no human ene¬
mies to contend with. His expeditions were conduc¬
ed on a plan fimilar to that of the Mexicans already,
mentioned; and were no doubt attended with ftill
greater fuccefs, as his numerous army could inclofe a
much greater fpace than all the Indians whom the
Spanifli viceroy could mufter. The Eaft Indian princes
ftill fhow the fame inclination, to the chace ; and Mr
Blane, who attended the hunting excurfions of Afoph
U1 Dowlah vifir of the Mogul empire and nabob of
Oude in 1785 and 1786, gives the following account
of the method praCifed on this occafion.
The time chofen for the hunting party is about the
beginning of December; and the diverfion is continued
till the heats, which commence about the beginning of
March, oblige them to ftop. During this time a cir¬
cuit of between 400 and 6oo miles is generally made ;
the hunters bending their courfe towards the fkirts
of the northern mountains, where the country is wild
and uncultivated. The vilir takes along with him
not only his court and feraglio, but a great part of
the inhabitants of his capital. His immediate atten¬
dants may amount to about 2000; but befides thefe he is
alfo followed by 500 or 600 horfe, and feveral battalions
of regular fepoys with their field pieces. Four or five
hundred elephants are alfo carried along with him ; of
which fome are ufed for riding, others for fighting,
and fome for clearing the jungles and forefts of the
game. About as many fumpter horfes of the beauti-,
ful Perfian and Arabian breeds are carried along with
him. A great many wheel carriages drawn by bul¬
locks likewife attend, which are ufed chiefly for the
convenience of the women ; fometimes alfo he has an
Englifh ehaife or two, and fometimes a chariot; but
all thefe as well as the horfes are merely for fhow, the
vifir himfelf never ufing any other conveyance than
an elephant, or fometimes when fatigued or indifpofed
a palanquin. The animals ufed in the fport are prin¬
cipally gre-hounds, of which there may be. about 3005
he has alfo about zoo hawks, and a few trained leo¬
pards for bunting deer. There are a great number
of markfmen, whofe profeffion it is to fhoot deer j.-,
with many fowlers, who provide game ; as none of
the natives of India know how to (hoot game with.
fmall
HUN [ 7*5 ] HUN
Hunting, fmall foot, or to hunt with flow hounds. A vaft num
'm~~*  her of matchlocks are carried along with the company
with many Englifh pieces of various kinds, 40 or 50
pairs of piftols, bows and arrows, befides fwords, dag¬
gers, and fabres without number. There are alio nets
of various kinds, fome for quail, and others very large,
for filhing, which are carried along with him upon ele¬
phants, attended by fifliermen, fo as always to be ready
for throwing into any river or lake that may be met
with. Every article that can contribute to luxury or
pleafure is likewife carried along with the army. A
great many carts are loaded with the Ganges water, and
even ice is tranfported for cooling the drink. The
fruits of the feafon and frefli vegetables are daily fent
to him from his gardens by bearers ftationed at the
diitance of every ten miles ; by which means each ar¬
ticle is conveyed day or night at the rate of four miles
an hour. Beudcs the animals already mentioned, there
are alfo lighting antelopes, buffaloes, and rams in great
numbers ; alfo feveral hundred pige'ons, fome fighting
cocks, with a vatl variety of parrots, nightingales, &c.
To complete the magnificence or extravagance of
this expedition, there is always a large bazar, or mo¬
ving town, which attends the camp; confifting of fhop-
keepers and artificers of all kinds, money-changers,
dancing women ; fo that, on the mod moderate calcu¬
lation, the whole number of people in his camp can¬
not be computed at fewer than zo,ooo. The nabob
himfrlf, and all the gentlemen of his camp, are provi¬
ded with double fets of tents and equipage, which are
always fent on the day before to the place to which he
intends to go ; and this is generally eight or ten miles
in whatever dire&ion moft game is expected ; fo that
by the time he has finifhed his fport in the morning,
he finds his whole camp ready pitched for his recep¬
tion.
The nabob, with the attending gentlemen, proceed
in a regular moving court or durbar, and thus they
keep converfing together and looking out for game.
A great many foxes, hares, jackals, and fometimes
deer, are picked up by the dogs as they p.afs along:
the hawks are carried immediately before the elephants,
and let fly at whatever game is fprung for them, which
is generally partridges, buftards, quails, and different
kinds of herons ; thefe laft affording excellent fport
with the falcons or fharp-winged hawks. Wild
boars are fometimes ftarted, and either fhot or run
down by the dogs and horfemen. Hunting the tyger,
however, is looked upon as the principal diverfion,
and the difcovery of one of thefe animals is accounted
a matter of great joy. The cover in which the tyger
is found is commonly long grafs, or reeds of fuch an
height as frequently to reach above the elephants ; and
it is difficult to find him in fuch a place, as he com¬
monly endeavburs either to fteal off, or lies fo clofe to
the ground that he cannot be roufed till the elephants
are almoft upon him. He then roars and fltulks away,
but is fhot at as foon as he can be feen ; it being ge¬
nerally contrived that the nabob fhall have the compli¬
ment of firing firft. If he be not difabled, the tyger
continues to fkulk along, followed by the line of ele¬
phants ; the nabob and others {hooting at him as of¬
ten as he can be feen till he falls. The elephants them-
felves are very much afraid of this terrible animal, and
difcover. their agprehenfiona by fhrieking and roaring
as foon as they begin to fmell him or bear him growl; Hunting;
generally attempting to turn away from the place where J'
he is. When the tyger can be traced to a particular
fpot, the elephants are difpofed of in a circle round
him; in which cafe he will at laft make a defperate
attack, fpringing upon the elephant that is neareft, and
attempting to tear him with his teeth or claws. Some,
but very few, of the elephants, can be brought to at¬
tack the tyger; and this they do by curling up their
trunks under their mouths, and then attempting to
tofs, or otherwife deftroy him with their tufks, or to
crufh him with their feet or knees. It is confidered
as good fport to kill one tyger in a day; though fome¬
times, when a female is met with her young ones, two
or three will be killed.
The other objedfs of purfuit in thefe excurfions are
wild elephants, buffaloes, and rhinocerofes. Our au¬
thor was prefent at the hunting of a wild elephant of
vaft fize and ftrength. An attempt was firft made to
take him alive by furrounding him with tame ele¬
phants, while he was kept at bay by crackers and other
fire-works ; but he conftantly eluded every effort of
this kind. Sometimes the drivers of the tame ele¬
phants got fo near him, that they threw ftrong ropea
over his head, and endeavoured to detain him by faften-
ing them around trees; but he conliantly fnapped the
ropes like pack-threads, and purfued his way to the
foreft. Some of the ftrongeft and molt furious of the
fighting elephants were then brought up to engage
him; but he attacked them with fuch fury that they
were all obliged to defift. In his ftruggle with one
of them he broke one of his tuflts, and the broken
piece, which was upwards of two inches in diameter,
of folid ivory, flew up into the air feveral yards above
their heads. Orders were now given to kill him, as
it appeared impoffible to take him alive; but even this
was not accomplifhed without the greateft difficulty.
He twice turned and attacked the party who purfued
him; and in one of thefe attacks ftruck the elephant
obliquely on which the prince rode, threw him upon
his fide, but then paired on without offering farther
injury. At laft he fell dead, after having received a£
was fuppofed upwards of 1000 balls into hrs body.
Notwithftanding the general paffion among moft na¬
tions for hunting, however, it has by many been deem¬
ed an exercife inconfiftent with the principles of hu¬
manity. The late king of Pruffia expreffed himfelf on
this fubjeft in the following manner. “ The chace
is one of the moft fenfual of pleafures, by which the
powers of the body are ftrongly exerted, but tbofe
of the mind remain unemployed. It is an exercife
which makes the limbs ftrong, a&ive, and pliable;
but leaves the head without improvement. It confifts
in a' violent defire in the purfuit, and the indulgence
of a cruel pleafure in the death, of the game. I am
convinced, that man is more cruel and favage than any
beaft of prey : We exercife the dominion given us over
thefe our fellow-creatures in the moft tyrannical man¬
ner. If we pretend to any fuperiority over the beafts^
it ought certainly to confift in reafon; but we-commonly
find that the moft pallionate lovers of the chace re¬
nounce this privilege, and converfe only with their
dogs, horfes, and other irrational animals. This ren¬
ders them wild and unfeeling; audit is probable that
they cannot be very merciful to the human fpecies.
HUN
Hunting. por
a man who can in cold blood torture a poor inno-
--y—cent animal, cannot feel much compaffion for the dif-
treffes of his own fpecies. And, befides, can the chace
be a proper employment for a thinking mind ?”
The arguments ufed by his majelly againft hunting
feem indeed to be much confirmed by confidering the
various nations who have moft addicted themfelves to
it. Thefe, as mull be feen from what has already been
laid, were all barbarous; and it is remarkable, that
Nimrod, the firfl: great hunter of whom we have any
account, was like wife the firft who opprelfed and en-
flaved his own fpecies. As nations advanced in civili¬
zation, it always became necefiary to reftrain by law
the inclination of the people for hunting. This was
done by the wife legiflator Solon, left the Athenians
fhould negleft the mechanic arts on its account. The
.Lacedemonians, on the contrary, indulged themfelves
in this diverfion without controul ; but they were bar¬
barians, and moft cruelly oppreffed thofe whom they
bad in their power, as is evident from their treatment
of the Helots. The like may be faid of the Egyptians,
Perfians, and Scythians ; all of whom delighted in war,
and oppreffed their own fpecies. The Romans, on
the other hand, who were fomewhat more civilized,
were lefs addifted to hunting. Even they, however,
were Exceedingly barbarous, and found it neceffary to
make death and daughter familiar to their citizens from
their infancy. Hence their diverfions of the amphi¬
theatre and circus, where the hunting of wild beafts was
fhown in the moft magnificent and cruel manner ; not to
mention their ftill more cruel fports of gladiators, &c.
In two cafes only does it feem poflible to reconcile
the praflice of hunting with humanity ; viz. either
when an uncultivated country is over-run with noxious
animals ; or when it is neceffary to kill wild animals
for food. In the former cafe, the noxious animals are
killed becaufe they themfelves would do fo if they were
allowed to live ; but if we kill even a lion or a tyger
merely for the pleafure of killing him, we are undoubt¬
edly chargeable with cruelty. In like manner, our mo¬
dern fox-hunters exprefsly kill foxes, not in order to
deftroy the breed of thefe noxious animals, but for the
pleafure of feeing them exert all their power and cun¬
ning to fave their lives, and then beholding them torn
in pieces after being half dead with fatigue. This te-
iinement in cruelty, it feems, is their favourite diver-
lion ; and it is accounted a crime for any perfon to
deftroy thefe animals in felf-defence, as appears from
the following paffage in Mr Beckford’s treatifc on
hunting. “ Befides the digging of foxes, by which
method many young ones are taken and old ones de-
ftroyed, traps, &c. are too often fatal to them. Far¬
mers for their lambs (which, by the bye, few foxes
ever kill), gentlemen for their game, and old women
for their poultry, are their inveterate enemies. In the
country where I live, moft of the gentlemen are fportf-
men ; and even thofe who are not, flrow every kind
of attention to thofe who are. I am forry it is other-
wife with you ; and that your old gouty neighbour
Ihould deftroy your foxes, I muft own concerns me. I
know fome gentlemen, who, when a neighbour had de-
ftroyed all their foxes, and thereby prevented them from
purfuing a favourite amufement, loaded a cart with fpa-
Kiels, and went all together and deftroyed his phea-
fants. I think they might have called this very pro-
H U N
perly Itsc taTionh ■: and it had the defired effeft ; for as Hunting,
the gentleman did not think it prudent to fight them
all, he took the wifer method, he made peace with
them. He gave an order that no more foxes fhould
be deftroyed, and they never afterwards killed any of
his pheafants.”
In the firft volume of the Manchefter Tranfa&ions
we have a differtation upon the diverfions of hunting,
fhooting, &c. as compatible with the principles of hu¬
manity. One argument ufed by the author is, that
death is no pofitive evil to brutes. “ It would per¬
haps (fays he) be too hafty an affertion to affirm, that
death to brutes is no evil. We are not competent to
determine whether their exiftence, like our own, may
not extend to fome future mode of being, or whether
the prefent limited fphere is all in which they are in-
terefted. On fo fpeculative a queftion little can be
advanced with precifion ; nor is it neceffary for the in-
veftigation of the fubjeft before us. If we may be al¬
lowed to reafon from what we know, it may be fafely
conjedlured, that death to brutes is no pofitive evil: we
have no reafon to believe they are endowed with fore¬
fight; and therefore, even admitting that with them
the pleafures of life exceed its pains and cares, in ter¬
minating their exiftence, they only fuffer a privation
of pleafure.,>
On this extraordinary piece of reafoning we may
obferve, that it would hold much more againft the hu¬
man fpecies than againft the brutes. There are few
amongft us willing to allow that the pleafures we em
joy are equivalent to our pains and cares: death there¬
fore muft be to us a relief from pain and mifery, while
to the brutes it is a privation of pleafure. Hence, if
it be no pofitive evil for a brute to fuffer death, to a
man it muft be a pofitive good : add to which, that a
man lives in hope of an endlefs and glorious life, while
a brute has no fuch hope; fo that, if to kill a brute,
on our author’s principles be no cruelty, to kill a man
muft be an a6t of tendernefs and mercy !
Another argument, no lefs inconclufive, is our au¬
thor’s fuppofing that death from difeafe is much more
to be dreaded in a brute than a violent death. Were
brutes naturally in as helplefs a ftate as man, no doubt
their want of fupport from fociety in cafes where
they are attacked by ficknefs, would be very deplo¬
rable ; but it muft be confidered that the parallel
betwixt the two fpecies is in this refpedt by no means
fair. A brute has every where its food at hand,
and is naturally capable of refilling the inclemencies
of the weather ; but man has not only a natural inabi¬
lity to procure food for himfelf in the way that the
brutes do, but is, befides, very tender and incapable
of refilling the inclemency of the air. Hence, a man
unaffifted by fociety muft very foon perilh ; and, no
doubt, it would be much more merciful for people to
kill one another at once, than to deprive them of the
benefits of fociety, as is too frequently done in various
ways needlefs to be mentioned at prefent. A brute,
however, has nothing to fear. As long as its ftomach
can receive food, nature offers an abundant fupply. One
that feeds upon grafs has it always within reach; and
a carnivorous one will content itfelf with worms or in¬
fers, which, as long as it is able to crawl it can ftill
make a Ihift to provide ; but fo totally helplefs is man
when left to himfelf in a ftate of weaknefs, that many
barbarous
r 726 i
HUN [ 727 1 HUN
ijs 'Hunting, barbarous nations have looked upon the killing of their
.-f y—_ an(j infirm people to be an aft of mercy.
Equally unhappy is our author in his other argu¬
ments, that the quick tranfition from a flare of per-
feft health to death mitigates the feverity. The tran¬
fition is not quick. The fportfmen eflimate their di-
verfion by the length of the chace; and during all that
time the creature mufl be under the ftrongeit agonies
of terror ; and what perfon of humanity is there who
mufl not feel for an animal in this fituation ? All this
is affented tq by our author, who fays, “ Hard is the
heart who does not commiferate the fufferer.” Is not
this an acknowledgment on his part, that before a
perfon can become a thorough fportfman, he mufl
harden his heart, and flifle thofe amiable fenfations of
compaffion, which on all occafions ought to be encou •
raged towards every creature, unlefs in cafes of necef-
lity. But in the prefent cafe no neceffity is or can
be pretended. If a geiltleman choofes to regale him-
felf with venifon of any kind, he may breed the animals
for the purpofe. We call Domitian cruel, becaufe he
took pleafure in catching flies, and flabbing them with
a bodkin. A butcher is excluded from fitting on a
jury on account of his being accuflomed to fights which
are deemed inhuman; but whether it is more inhuman
to knock down an ox at once with an ax, or to tear
him in pieces with dogs (for they would accomplifh
the purpofe if properly trained), mufl be left to the
fportfmen to determine.
Laflly, the great argument in favour of hunting, that
it contributes to the health of the body and exhilaration
©f the fpirits, feems equally fallacious with the reft. It
cannot be proved that hunters are more healthy or long
lived than other people. That exercife will contribute
to the prefervation of health, as well as to the exhila¬
ration of the mind, is undoubted; but many other kinds
of exercife will do this as well as hunting. A man
may ride from morning to night, and amufe himfelf
with viewing and making remarks on the country
through which he paffes ; and furely there is no per¬
fon will fay that this exercife will tend to impair his
health or fink his fpirits. A man may amufe and
exercife himfelf not only with pleafure, but profit alfo,
in many different ways, and yet not accuftom himfelf
to behold the death of animals with indifference. It
is this that conftitutes the cruelty of hunting ; becaufe
we thus wilfully extinguifh in part that principle natu¬
rally implanted in our nature, which if totally eradi¬
cated would fet us not only on a level with the mofl
ferocious wild beafts, but perhaps confiderably below
them ; and it mufl always be remembered, that what¬
ever pleafure terminates in death is cruel, let us ufe
as many palliatives as we pleafe to. hide that cruelty
from the eyes of others, or even from our own.
The gentlemen and matters of the fport have invent¬
ed a fet of terms which may be called the hunting-
language. The principal are thofe which follow :
1. For beafts as they are in company.—They fay, a
herd of harts, and all manner of deer. A bey of roes.
A founder of fwine. A rout of wolves. A richefs of
martens. A brace or kajh of bucks, foxes, or hares.
A couple of rabbits or coneys.
2. For their lodging.—A hart is faid to harbour.
A buck lodges. A roe beds. A hare feats or forms. Hunting!.
A coney fits. A fox Itennels. A marten trees. An r—
otter watches. A badger earths. A boar couches.—■
Hence, to exprefs their diflodging, they fay, Unhar¬
bour the hart. Roufe the buck. Start the hare. Bolt
the coney. Unkennel the fox. Untree the marten. Vent
the otter. Dig the badger. Rear the boar.
3. For their noife at rutting time.—A hart bellethi
A buck growns or treats. A roe bellows. A hare
beats or taps. An otter whines. A boar freams. A fox
barks. A badger fhrieks. A wolf howls. A goat rattles'.
4. For their copulation.—A hart or buck goes to
rut, A roe goes to tourn. A boar goes to brim.
A hare or coney goes to buck. A fox goes to die kit¬
ting. A wolf goes to match or make. An otter hunt-
eth for his kind.
5. For the footing and treading.—Of a hart, we
fay the flat. Of a buck, and all fallow-deer, the view.
Of all deer, if on the grafs and fcarce vifible, the
foiling. Of a fox, the print; and of other the like ver¬
min, the footing. Of an otter, the marks. Of a boar,
the track. The hare, when in open field, is faid to
fore ; when {he winds about to deceive the hounds, ft.e
doubles ; when (he beats on the hard highway, and her
footing comes to be perceived, {he pricketh: in fnow,
it is called the trace of the hare.
6. The tail of a hart, buck, or other deer, is call¬
ed the fngle. That of a boar, the wreath. Of a
fox, the brufh or drag; and the tip at the end, the
chape. Of a wolf, the fern. Of a hare and coney,
the feut.
7. The ordure or excrement of a hart and all deer,
is called fewmets or fewmifhing. Of a hare, crotiles
or crotifng. Of a boar, leffes. Of a fox, the billiting ;
and of other the like vermin, the/asn*. Of an ot¬
ter, the fpraints.
8. As to the attire of deer, or parts thereof, thofe
of a ftag, if perfeft, are the bur, the pearls, the little
knobs on it, the beam, the gutters, the antler, the fur-
antler, royal, fur-royal, and all at top the croches. Of
the buck, the bur. beam, brow-antler, black antler, ad¬
vancer, palm, and fpellers. If the croches grow in the
form of a man’s hand, it is called a palmed head. Heads
bearing not above three or four, and the croches pla¬
ced aloft, all of one height, are called crowned heads.
Heads having double croches, are called forked heads,
becaufe the croches are planted on the top of the beam
like forks,
9. They fay, a litter of cubs, a nef of rabbits, a
fquirrel’s dray.
to. The terms ufed in refpeft of the dogs, &c. are
as follow.—Of gre-hounds, two make a brace; of
hounds, a couple. Of gre-hounds, three make a leafh;
of hounds, a couple and half.—They fay, let fip a
gre-hound ; and, caf off & hound. The firing wherein
a gre-hound is led, is called a leaf; and that of a
hound, z lyome. The gre-hound has his collar, and
the hound his couples. We fay a kennel of hounds, and
a pack of beagles.
Hunting, as praftifed among us, is chiefly per¬
formed with dogs; of which we have various kinds,
accommodated to the various kinds of game, as hounds,
gre-hounds, blood-hounds, terriers, &c. See Cams,
Hound, &c.
HUN [72!
’Hunting. In the kennels or packs they generally rank them
c——™ under the heads of cnhrers, drivers, Jlyers, tyers, See.
On fome occafions, nets, fpears, and inftruments for
digging the ground, are alfo required : nor is the hunt¬
ing horn to be omitted.
The ufual chafes among us are, the hart, buck, roe,
hare, fox, badger, and otter.—We Avail here give
fomething of what relates to each thereof: firlt premi-
fing an explanation of fome general terms and phrafes,
more immediately ufed in the progrefs of the fport it-
felf; what belongs to the feveral forts of game in par¬
ticular being referved for the refpedtive articles.
When the hounds, then, being call off, and finding
the feent of fome game, begin to open and cry ; they
are faid to challenge. When they are too bufy ere
the feent be good, they are faid to babble. When too
bufy where the feent is good, to bawl. When they
run it endwife orderly, holding in together merrily,
and making it good, they are faid to be in full cry.
When they run along without opening at all, it is call¬
ed running mute.
When fpaniels open in the firing, or a gre-hound in
the courfe, they are faid to lapfe.
When beagles bark and cry at their prey, they are
faid to yearn.
When the dogs hit the feent the contrary way, they
are faid to draw amifs.
When they take frefh feent, and quit the former
-chafe for a new one, it is called hunting change.
When they hunt the game by the heel or track, they
are faid to hunt counter.
When the chafe goes off, and returns again, tra-
verfing the fame ground, it is called hunting the foil.
When the dogs run at a whole herd of deer, inftead
of a Angle one, it is called running riot.
Dogs fet in readinefs where the game is expected to
come by, and call off after the other hounds are pafs-
ed, are called a relay. If they be caft off ere the other
dogs be come up, it is called vauntlay.
When, finding where the chafe has been, they make
a proffer to enter, but return, it is called a blemfh.
A leffon on the horn to encourage the hounds, is
named a call, or a recheat. That blown at the death
of a deer, is called the mart. The part belonging to
the dogs of any chafe they have killed, is the reward.
They fay, take off a deer’s {kin ; Jlrip or cafe a hare,
fox, and all forts of vermin ; which is done by begin¬
ning at the fncut, and turning the (kin over the ears
down to the tail.
Hunting is pra&ifed in a different manner, and
with different apparatus, according to the nature of
the beafis which are hunted, a defeription of whom
may be found under their refpeftive articles, infra.
With regard to the feafons, that for hart and buck¬
hunting begins a fortnight after midfummer, and lafts
till Holy-rood day ; that for the hind and doe, begins
on Holy-rood day, and laffs till Candlemas; that for
fox-hunting begins at Chriftmas, and holds till Lady-
day ; that for roe hunting begins at Michaelmas, and
ends at Chriftmas ; hare-hunting commences at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lafts till the end of February ; and where
the wolf and bore are hunted, the feafon for each be¬
gins at Chriftmas, the firft ending at Lady-day, and
the latter at the Purification.
When the fportfmen have provided themfelves with
N8 155.
? ] HUN
nets, fpears, and a hunting-horn to call the dogs to- Hunting,
gether, and likewife with inftrument^ for digging the
ground, the following directions will be of ufe to them
in the purfuit of each fort of game.
Badger-HuNTiNG. In doing this, you mnft feck
the earths and burrows where he lies, and in a clear
moonftrine night go and Hop all the burrows, except
one or two, and therein place fome facks, faftened
with drawing firings, which may ftrut him in as foon
as he ftraineth the bag. Some ufe no more than to
fet a hoop in the mouth of the fade, and fo put it into
the hole ; and as foon as the badger is in the fack and
ftraineth it, the fack flippeth off the hoop and follows
him to the earth, fo he lies tumbling therein till he
is taken. Thefe facks or bags being thus fet, caft off
the hounds, beating about all the woods, coppices,
hedges, and tufts, round about, for the compafs of a
mile or two ; and what badgers are abroad, being a-
larmed by the hounds, will foon betake themfelves to
their burrows ; and, obferve that he who is placed to
watch the facks, muft {land clofe and upon a clear
wind ; otherwife the badger will difeover him, and will
immediately fly fome other way into his burrow. But
if the hounds can encounter him before he can take his
fanftuary, he will then Hand at a bay like a boar, and
make good fport, grievoufly biting and clawing the
dogs, for the manner of their fighting is lying on theii
backs, ufing both teeth and nails ; and by blowing up
their {kins defend themfelves againft all bites of the
dogs, and blows of the men upon their nofes. And
for the better prefervation of your dogs, it is good
to put broad collars about their necks made of grey
{kins.
When the badger perceives the terriers to begin to
yearn him in his burrow, he will flop the hole betwixt
him and the terriers, and if they ftill continue baying,
he will remove his couch into another chamber or part
of the burrow, and fo from one to another, barrica¬
ding the way before them, as they retreat, until they
can go no further. If you intend to dig the badger
out of his burrow, you muft be provided with the
fame tools as for digging out a fox ; and befides, you
ftiould have a pail of water to refreth the terriers, when
they come out of the earth to take breath and cool
themfelves. It will alfo be neceffary to put collars of
bells about the necks of your terriers, which making
a noife may caufe the badger to bolt out. The tools
ufed for digging out of the badger, being troublefome
to be carried on mens backs, may be brought in a cart.
In digging, you muft confider the fituation of the
ground, by which you may judge where the chief an¬
gles are ; for elfe, inftead of advancing the work, you
will hinder it. In this order you may befiege them in
their holds, or caftles ; and may break their platforms,
parapets, cafemets, and work to them with mines and
countermines until you have overcome them.
Having taken a live and lufty badger, if you would
make fport, carry him home in a fack and turn Inm
out in your court-yard, or fome other inclofed place,
and there let him be hunted and worried to death by
your hounds.
There are the following profits and advantages which
accrue by killing this animal. Their flefti, blood, and
greafe, though they are not good food, yet are very
ufeful for phyficians and apothecaries for oils, oint¬
ments,
HUN L 729 J HUN
Hunting, ments, falves, and powders for diortnefs of breath, the
- * cough of the lungs, for the ftone, fprained finews,
colt-aches, See. and the fkin being well dreffed, is very-
warm and good for old people who are troubled with
paralytic diftempers.
Boar-Hunting. See Boar.
Buck-HuNTiNG. Here the fame hounds and me¬
thods are ufed as in running the flag; and, indeed,
he that can hunt a hart or flag well, will not hunt a
buck ill.
In order to facilitate the chace, the game-keeper
commonly felefts a fat buck out of the herd, which he
(hoots in order to maim him, and then he is run down
I by the hounds.
As to the method of hunting the buck. The com¬
pany generally go out very early for the benefit of the
morning. Sometimes they have a deer ready lodged ;
if not, the coverts are drawn till one is roufed : or
fometimes in a park a deer is pitched upon, and for¬
ced from the herd, then more hounds are laid on to
run the chace. If you come to be at a fault, the old
(launch hounds are only to be relied upon till you re¬
cover him again : if he be funk, and the hounds thruft
him up, it is called an imprime, and the company all
found a recheat; when he is run down, every one
drives to get in to prevent his being torn by the hounds,
fallow deer feldom or never Handing at bay.
He that firft gets in, cries hoo-up, to give notice
that he is down, and blows a death. When the com¬
pany are all come in, they paunch him, and reward
the hounds ; and generally the chief perfon of quality
amongft them takes fay, that is, cuts his belly open,
to fee how fat he is. When this is done, every one
has a chop at his neck; and the head being cut off,
is (hewed to the hounds, to encourage them to run only
at male deer, which they fee by the horns, and to
teach them to bite only at the head : then the compa¬
ny all Handing in a ring, one blows a fingle death ;
which being done, all blow a double recheat, and fo
conclude the chace with a general halloo of hoo-up,
and depart the field to their feveral homes, or to the
place of meeting; and the huntfman, or fome other,
hath the deer call crofs the buttocks of his horfe, and
fo carries him home.
Fox-Hunting makes a very pleafant exercife, and is
either above or below ground.
1. Bbove-ground. To hunt a fox with hounds,
you mud draw about groves, thickets, and bufiics near
villages. When you find one, it will be neceffary to
Hop up his earth the night before you defign to hunt,
and that about midnight; at which time he is gone
out to prey : this may be done by laying two white
Hicks acrofs in his way, which he will imagine to
be fome gin or trap laid for him ; or elfe they may be
Hopped up with black thorns and earth mixed together.
Mr Beckford is of opinion that for fox-hunting the
pack (hould confiH of 25 couple. The hour mod fa¬
vourable for the diverfion is an early one; and he thinks
that the hounds (hould be at the cover at fun-rifing.
The huntfman (hould then throw in his hounds as
quietly as he can, and let the two whippers-in keep
wide of him on either hand; fo that a fingle hound
may not efcape them ; let them be attentive to his
halloo, and let the fportfmen be ready to encourage
or rate as that directs. The fox ought on no account
Vol. VIII. Part II.
to be hallooed too foon, as in that cafe he would mod Hunting-,
certainly turn back again, and fpoil all the fport.— 1 s1,1
Two things our author particularly recommends, viz.
the making all the hounds Heady, and making them
all draw. “ Many huntfmen (fays he) are fond of
having them at their horfe's heels; but they never can
get fo well or fo foon together as when they fpread
the cover; befides, I have often known, when there
have been only a few finders, that they have found
their fox gone down the wind, and been heard of no
more that day. Much depends upon the firH finding
of your fox; for I look upon a fox well found to be
half killed. I think people are generally in too great
a hurry on this occafion. There are but few indances
where fportfmen are not too noify, and too fond of
encouraging their hounds, which feldom do their bu-
finefs fo well as when little is faid to them. The huntf¬
man ought certainly to begin with his foremoH hounds ;
and I (hould wi(h him to keep as clofe to them as he
conveniently can ; nor can any harm arife from it, un-
lefs he (hould not have common fenfe. No hounds can
then (lip down the wind and get out of his hearing ;
he will alfo fee how far they carry the feent, a necef¬
fary requifite ; for without it he never can make a caH
with any certainty.—You will find it not lefs neceffary
for your huntfman to be adlive in preffing his hounds
forward when the feent is good, than to be prudent in
not hurrying them beyond it when it is bad. It is his
bufinefs to be ready at all times to lend them that affi-
ftance which they fo frequently need, and which when
they are firH at a fault is then moH critical. A fox¬
hound at that time will exert himfelf mod ; he after¬
wards cools and becomes more indifferent about his
game. Thofe huntfmen who do not get forward enough
to take advantage of this eagernefs and impetuofity,
and diredl it properly, feldom know enough of hunt¬
ing to be of much ufe to them afterwards. Though
a huntfman cannot be too fond of hunting, a whipper-
in eafily may. His bufinefs will feldom allow him to
be forward enough with the hounds to fee much of the
fport. His only thought therefore (hould be to keep
the hounds together, and to contribute as much as he
can to the killing of the fox : keeping the hounds to¬
gether is the fureff means to make them Heady. When
left to themfelves they feldom refufe any blood they
can get; they become conceited ; learn to tie upon
the feent; and befides this they frequently get a trick
of hunting by themfelves, and are feldom good for
much afterwards.
“ Every country is foon known ; and nine foxes out
of ten, with the wind in the fame quarter, will follow
the fame track. It is eafy therefore for the whipper-
in to cut (hort, and catch the hounds again. With a
high feent you cannot pu(h on hounds too much.
Screams keep the fox forward, at the fame time that
they keep the hounds together, or let in the tail-
hounds: they alfo enliven the fport; and, if difcreetly
ufed, are always of fervice ; but in cover they (hould
be given with the greateH caution. Halloos feldom
do any hurt when you are running up the wind, for
then none but the tail-hounds can hear you : when you
are running down the wind, you (hould halloo no more
than may be neceffary te bring the tail-hounds for¬
ward ; for a hound that knows his bufinefs feldum
wants encouragement when he is upon a feent Moll
4 Y fox-
HUN
Hunting, fox-hunters wifli to fee their hounds run in 2. goodJlyle.
*" t - I confefs I myfelf am one of thofe ; I hate to fee a
firing of them ; nor can I bear to fee them creep where
they can leap. A pack of harriers, if they have time,
may kill a fox, but I defy them to kill him in the ftyle
C 73° 1
HUN
and proceed as obfervation or genius may direft. When Hunting
fuch a call is made, I like to fee fome mark of good '
fenfe and meaning in it; whether down the wind, or
towards fomc likely cover or ftrong earth. However, as
it is at beft uncertain, I always wiih to fee a regular
in which he ought to be killed; they mult hunt him call before I fee a knowing one ; which, as a laft re¬
down. If you intend to tire him out, you mull expert fource, Ihould not be called forth till it be wanted
to be tired alfo yourfelf; I never with a chace to be The letting hounds alone is but a negative goodnefs in
lefs than one hour, or to exceed two : it is fufficiently a huntfman ; whereas it is true this laft. Ihows real ge-
k>ng if properly followed : it will feldom be longer un- nius ; and to be perfect, it mult be born with him.
hfs there be
huntfman,
fault fomewhere } either in the day, the There is a fault, however, which a knowing huntfrtian
the hounds.
is too apt to commit : he will tind a frelh fox, and then
Changing from the hunted fox to a frelh one is claim the merit of having recovered the hunted one.
as bad an accident as can happen to a pack of fox¬
hounds, and requires all the ingenuity and obfervation
that man is capable of to guard againft it. Could a
fox-hound diltinguifh a hunted fox as the deer-hound
does the deer that is blown, fox-hunting would then
be perfect. A huntfman Ihould always liften to his
hounds while they are running in cover ; he Ihould be
particularly attentive to the headmoft hounds, and he
fhould be conftantly on his guard againft a Ikirter ; for
if there be two fcents, he mull be wrong. Generally
fpeaking, the beft fcent is lead likely to be that of the
hunted fox : and as a fox feldom fuffers hounds to run
»p to him as long as he is able to prevent it; fo, nine
times out of ten, when foxes are hallooed early in the
day, they are all freih foxes. The hounds molt likely
It is always dangerous to throw hounds into a cover
to retrieve a loft fcent; and unlefs they hit him in, is
not to be depended on.
“ Gentlemen, when hounds are at fault, are too apt
themfelves to prolong it. They fhould always flop
their horfes fome diftance behind the hounds; and if it
be poflible to remain filent, this is the time to be fo.
They fhould be careful not to ride before the hounds
or over the fcent; nor fhould they ever meet a hound
in the face unlefs with a defign to flop him. Should
you at any time be before tKe hounds, turn your horfe’s
head the way they are going, get out of their track,
and let them pafs by you. In dry weather, and par¬
ticularly in heathy countries, foxes will run the roads.
If gentlemen at fuch' times will ride clofe upon the
to be right are the hard running line-hunting ones ; or hounds, they may drive them miles without any fcent.
fuch as the huntfman knows had the lead before there —High mettled fox-hounds are feldom inclined te Hop
arofe any doubt of changing. With regard to the fox,
if he break over an open country, it is no fign that
whilft horfes are clofe at their heels. No one fhould
ever ride in a dire&ion which if perfifted in would
he is hard run ; for they feldom at any time will do carry him amongft the hounds, unlefs he be at a great
that unlefs they are a great way before the hounds, diftance behind them.
Alfo if he run up the wind they feldom or never do
1 The firft moment that hounds are at fault is a
that when they have been long hunted and grow weak; critical one for the fport-people, who fhould then be very
and when they run their foil, that alfo may diredt him.
All this requires a good ear and nice obfervation; and
indeed in that confitts the chief excellence of a huntf-
“ When the bounds divide and are in two parts, the
whipper-in, in flopping, mull attend to the huntfman
and wait for his halloo, before he attempts to flop
either : for want of proper management in this refpedl
I have known the hounds flopped at both places, and
attentive. Thofe who look forward may perhaps fee
the fox ; or the running of fheep, or the purfuit of
crows, may give them fothe tidings of him. Thofe
who liften may fometimes take a hint which way he
is gone from the chattering of a magpie ; or perhaps
be at a certainty from a diftant halloo : nothing that
can give any intelligence at fuch a time ought to be
negledled. Gentlemen are too apt to ride all toge¬
ther : were they to fpread more, they might fometimes
both foxes loft. If they have many fcents, and it is be of fervice ; particularly thofe who, from a know-
quite uncertain which is the hunted fox, let him Hop
thofe that are fai theft down the wind ; as they can hear
the others, and will reach them fooneft: in fuch a cafe
there will be little ufe in Hopping thofe that are up the
wind. When hounds are at a check, let every one be
filent and Hand Hill. Whippers-in are frequently at
ledge of the fport, keep down the wind : it would
then be difficult for either hounds or fox to efcape their
obfervation.—You fhould, however, be cautious how
you go to a halloo. The halloo itfelf rnuft. in a great
meafure diredt you ; and though it afford no certain
rule, yet you may frequently guefs whether it can be
this time coming on with the tail-hounds. They fhould depended upon or not. At the fowing-time, when
never halloo to them when the hounds are at fault; the
leaft thing does them harm at fuch a time, but a hal¬
loo more than any other. The huntfman, at a check,
had better let his hounds alone ; or content himfelf tainty of the matter.”
boys are keeping off the birds, you w’ill fometimes be
deceived by their halloo ; fo that it is beft, when you
doubt, to fend a whipper-in to know the cer-
with holding them forward, without taking them off
their nofes.— Should they be at a fault, after having
made their own caft (which the huntfman fhould al¬
Hounds ought not to be caft as long as they are a-
ble to hunt. It is a common, though not a very juft
idea, that a hunted fox never flops; but our author
ways firft encourage them to do), it is then his buiinefs informs us that he has known them flop even in wheel-
to affift them further; but except in fome paxticular ruts in the middle of a down, and get up in the middle
inftances, I never approve of their being call as long of the hounds. The greatefl danger of lofing a fox
as they are inclined to hunt. The firft; caft. I bid my is at the firft; finding him, and when he is finking ; at
huntfman make is generally a regular one, not choofmg both which times he frequently will run fhort, and the
to rely entirely on his judgment : if that fhould not
fucceed, he is then at liberty to follow his own opinion,
eagernefs of the hounds will frequently carry them be¬
yond the fcent. When a fox is firft found, every one
ought
HUN [ 73» ] HUN
ought to keep behind the hounds till they are well fet- where the hare fits, and upon what wind flie makes Hunting,
tied to the fcent; and when the hounds are catching her form, either upon the north or fouth wind; the ' 1
him, our author wiihes them to be as filent as pofiible ; will not willingly run into the wind, but run upon a-
and likewife to eat him eagerly after he is caught. In fide, or down the wind ; but if Ihe form in the water,
fome places they have a method of treeing him ; that it is a fign (he is foul and meafled : if yoa hunt fuch
is, throwing him acrofs the branch of a tree, and fuf. a one, have a fpecial regard all the day to the brook*
fering the hounds to bay at him for fome minutes be- fides; for there, and near plaflies, file will make all her
fore he is thrown among them; the intention of which crofiings, doublings, &c.
is to make them more eager, and to let in the tail- Some hares have been fo crafty, that as foon as
hounds ; during this interval alfo they recover their they have heard the found of a horn, they would in¬
wind, and are apt to eat him more readily. Our au- ftantly ftart out of their form, though it was at the
thor, however, advifes not to keep him too long, as diftance of a quarter of a mile, and go and fwim in fome
he fuppofes that the hounds have not any appetite to pool, and reft upon fome rufti-bed in the midft of it ;
eat him longer than while they are angry with him. and would not ftir from thence till they have heard
2. Underground. In cafe a fox does fo far e- the found of the horn again, and then have'ftarted
fcape as to earth, countrymen muft be got together out again, fwimming to land, and have flood up be-
with (hovels, fpades, mattocks, pickaxes, &c. to dig fore the hounds four hours before they could kill
him out, if they think the earth not too great. They them, fwimming and ufing all fubtilties and crofiings
make their earths as near as they can in ground that in the water. Nay, fuch is the natural craft and fub-
is hard to dig, as in clay, ftony ground, or amongft tilty of a hare, that fometimes after' (he has been
the roots of trees; and their earths have commonly but hunted three hours, (he will ftart a frefh hare, and
one hole, and that is ftraight a long way in before you fquat in the fame form. Others having been hunted
come at their couch. Sometimes craftily they take a confiderable time, will creep under the door of a
poflefiion of a badger’s old burrow, which hath a va- fheep-cot, and hide themfelves among the fheep ; or,
riety of chambers, holes, and angles. when they have been hard hunted, will run in among
Now to facilitate this way of hunting the fox, the a flock of fheep, and will by no means be gotten out
huntfman muft be provided with one or two terriers to from among them till the hounds are coupled up,
put into the earth after him, that is, to fix him into and the Iheep driven into their pens. Some of them
an angle; for the earth often confifts of many angles: (and that feems fomewhat ftrange) will take the
the ufe of the terrier is to know where he lies ; for as ground like a coney, and that is called going to the
foo'n as he finds him, he continues baying or barking, vault. Some hares will go up one fide of che hedge
fo that which way the noife is heard that way dig to and come down the other, the thicknefs of the hedge
him. Your terriers muft be garnifhed with bells hung being the only diftance between the courfes. A hare
in collars, to make the fox bolt the fooner ; befides, that has been forely hunted, has got upon a quickfet-
the collars will be fome fmall defence to the terriers. hedge, and ran a good way upon the top thereof, and
The inftruments to dig withal are thefe : a (harp- then leapt off upon the ground. And they will fre-
pointed fpade, which ferves to begin the trench where quently betake themfelves to furz buihes, and will
the ground is hardeft and broader tools will not fo well leap from one to the other, whereby the hounds are
enter ; the round hollowed fpade, which is ufeful to frequently in default.
dig among roots, having very iharp edg; s; the broad Having found where a hare hath relieved in fome
fiat fpade to dig withal, when the trend ’.asbeen pret- pafture or corn field, you muft then confider the fea-
ty well opened, and the ground fofter . mattocks and fon of the year, and what weather it is: for if it be in
pickaxes to dig in hard ground, where a ade will do the fpring-time or fummer, a hare will not then fet in
but little fervice ; the coal-rake to clean e the hole, bufiies, becaufe they are frequently infelted witl/pif-
and to keep it from flopping up ; clamps, wherewith mires, fnakes, and adders ; but _will fet in corn-fields,
you may take either fox or badger out alive to make and open places. In the winter-time, they fet near
(port with afterwards. And it would be very conve- towns and villages, in tufts of thorns and brambles,
nient to have a pail of water to refrefli your terriers efpecially when the wind is northerly or foutheily.
with, after they are come out of the earth to take According to the feafon and nature of the place where
breath. the hare is accuftomed to fit, there beat with yoqr
Hare-HuNTiNG. As, of all chafes, the hare makes hounds, and ftart her; which is much better fport
the greateft paftime, fo it gives no little pleafure to than trailing of her from her relief to her form,
fee the craft of this fmall animal for her felf-preferva- After the hare has been flarted and is on foot, then
tion. If it be rainy, the hare ufually takes to the ftep in where you faw her pafs, and halloo in your
high-ways; and if (he come to the fide of a young hounds, until they have all undertaken it and go on
grove, or fpring, fhe feldom enters, but fquats down with it in full cry : then recheat to them with your
till the hounds have over-lhot her ; and then fhe will horn, following fair and foftly at firft, making not too
return the very way fire came, for fear of the wet-and much noife either with horn or voice ; for at the firft,
dew that hangs on the boughs. In this cafe, the huntf- hounds are apt to overftioet the chace through too
man ought to (lay an hundred paces before he comes much heat. But when they have ruo the fpace of an
to the wood-fide, by which means he will perceive whe- hour, and you fee the hounds are well in with it, and
ther file return as aforefaid ; which if fhe do, he muft flick well upon it, then you may come in nearer with
halloo in his hounds ; and call them back; and that the hounds, becaufe by that time their heat will be
prefently, that the hounds may not think it the coun- cooled, and they will hunt more foberly. But above
ter file came firlt. all things, mark the firft doubling, which muft be
The next thing that is to be obferved, is the place your dirtdion for the whole day ; for all the doublings
4 Y 2 that
HUN [ 732 ] ' HUN
Hunting, that {he {hall make afterwards will be like the former ;
* and according to the policies that you {hall fee her ufe,
and the place where you hunt, you muft make your
compaffes great or little, long or Ihort, to help the de¬
faults, always feeking the moifteft and moft commo¬
dious places for the hounds to fcent in.
To conclude ; Thofe who delight in hunting the
hare mult rife early, left they be deprived of the fcent
of her foot-fteps.
Hart or Stag Hunting. Gefner, fpeaking of hart¬
hunting, obferves, that this wild-, deceitful, and fub-
tile beaft, frequently deceives its hunter by windings
and turnings. Wherefore the prudent hunter muft
train his dogs with words of art, that he may be
able to fet them on and take them off again at pleafure.
Firft of all, he Ihould encompafs the beaft in her
own layer, and fo unharbour her in the view of the
dogs, that fo they may never lofe her flot or footing.
Neither muft he fet upon every one, either of the herd
or thofe that wander folitary alone, or a little one ;
but partly by light, and partly by their footing and
fumets, make a judgment of the game, and alfo ob-
ferve the largenefs of his layer.
The huntfman, having made thefe difcoveries in or¬
der to the chace, takes off the couplings of the dogs;
and fome on horfeback, others on foot, follow the
cry, with the greateft art, obfervation, and fpeed ;
remembering and intercepting him in his fubtile turn¬
ings and headings; with all agility leaping hedges,
gates, pales, ditches; neither fearing thorns, down
hills, nor woods, but mounting frefh horfe if the firft
tire. Follow the largeft head of the whole herd, which
muft be fingled out of the chace ; which the dogs
perceiving, muft follow; not following any other.
The dogs are animated to the fport by the winding
of horns, and the voices of the huntfmen. But fome-
times the crafty beaft fends forth his little fquire to
be facrificed to the dogs and hunters, inftead of him-
felf, lying clofe the mean time. In this cafe, the
huntfman muft found a retreat, break off the dogs,
and take them in, that is, learn them again, until they
be brought to the fairer game ; which rifeth with
fear, yet ftill ftriveth by flight, until he be wearied
and breathlefs. The nobles call the beaft a wife harty
who, to avoid all his enemies, runneth into the greateft
herds, and fo brings a cloud of error on the dogs, to
obftrudt their farther purfuit; fometimes alfo bearing
fome of the herd into his footings, that fo he may the
more eafily efcape by amufing the dogs. After¬
wards he betakes himfelf to his heels again, ftill run¬
ning with the wind, not only for the fake of refrefti-
ment, but alfo becaufe by that means he can the more
eafily hear the voice of his purfuers whether they be
far from him or near to him. But at laft being a-
gain difeovered by the hunters and fagacious fcent of
the dogs, he flies into the herds of cattle, as cows,
fheep &c. leaping on a cow or ox, laying the fore¬
parts of his body thereon, that fo touching the earth
«nly with his hinder feet, he may leave a very fmall
or no fcent at all behind for the hounds to difeern.
But their ufual manner is, when they fee themfelves
^tard befet and every way intercepted, to make force
at their enemy with their horns, who firft comes upon
him, unlefs they be prevented by fpear or fword.
When the beaft is {lain, the huntfman with his horn
y*midah the fall of the beaft j and then the whole com¬
pany comes up, blowing their horns in triumph for Hunting
fueh a conqueft; among whom, the fkilfulleft opens
the beaft, and rewards the hounds with what properly
belongs to them, for their future encouragement; for
which purpofe the huntfmen dip bread in the {kin and
blood of the beaft to give to the hounds.
It is very dangerous to go in to a hart at bay ; of
which there are two forts, one on land and the other
in water. Now, if the hart be in a deep water, where
you cannot well come at him, then couple up your
dogs; for {hould they continue long in the water, it
would endanger their furbating or foundering. In
this cafe, get a boat, and fwim to him, with dagger
drawn, or elfe with rope that has a noofe, and throw
it over his horns: for if the water be fo deep that the
hart fwims, there is no danger in approaching him ;
otherwife you muft be very cautious.
As to the land bay, if a hart be burniftred, then
you muft confider the place; for if it be in a plain
and open place, where there is no wood nor covert,
it is dangerous and difficult to come in to him ; but
if he be on a hedge-fide, or in a thicket, then, while
the hart is {faring on the hounds, you may come
foftly and covertly behind him, and cut his throat.
If you mifs your aim, and the hart turn head upon
you, then take refuge at fome tree; and when the
hart is at bay, couple up your hounds; and when you
fee the hart turn head to fly, gallop in roundly to
him, and kill him with your fword.
Directions at the Death of a Hart or Buck. The
firft ceremony, when the huntfman comes in to the
death of a deer, is to cry “ ware haunch,” that the
hounds may not break in to the deer; which being
done, the next is the cutting his throat, and there
blooding the youngeft hounds, that they may the
better love a deer, and learn to leap at his throat :
then the mort having been blown, and all the com¬
pany come in, the beft perfon who hath not taken
fay before, is to take up the knife that the keeper or
huntfman is to lay acrofs the belly of the deer, fome
holding by the fore legs, and the keeper or huntfman
drawing down the pizzle, the perfon who takes fay,
is to draw the edge of the knife leifurely along the
middle of the belly, beginning near the brilket, and
drawing a little upon it, enough in the length and
depth to difeover how fat the deer is; then he that
is to break up the deer, firft flits the flein from the
cutting of the throat downwards, making the arber,
that fo the ordure may not break forth, and then he
paunches him, rewarding the hounds with it.
In the next place, he is to prefent the fame perfon
who took fay, with a drawn hanger, to cut off the
head of the deer. Which being done, and the hounds
rewarded, the concluding ceremony is, if it be a ftag,
to blow a triple mort ; and if a buck, a double one ;
and then all who have horns, blow a recheat in coot
cert, and immediately a general whoop, whoop.
Otter-HuNTiNG is performed with dogs, and alfo
with a fort of inftruments called otterfpears; with
which when they find themfelves wounded, they make
to land, and fight with the dogs, and that moft furioufly,
as if they were fenfible that cold water would annoy
their green wounds.
There is indeed craft to b®ufed in hunting them ;
but they may be catched in fnares under water, and
by river-fldes 1 but great care muff be takenj for they
bite
HUN
[
Hunting, bite forely and vencrnoufly; and if they happen to
* remain lon0 in the fnare, they will not fail to get
themfelves free by their teeth.
In hunting them, one man muft be on one fide of
the river, and another on the other, both beating the
banks with dogs; and the beaft not being able to
endure the water long, you will foon difcover if there
be an otter or not in that quarter; for he muft. come
out to make his fpraints, and in the night fometimes
to feed on grafs and herbs.
If any of the hounds finds out an otter, then view
the foft grounds and moift places, to find out which
way he bent his head : if you cannot difcover this by
the marks, you may partly perceive it by the fpraints ;.
and then follow the hounds, and lodge him as a hart
or deer. But if you do not find him quickly, you
may imagine he is gone to couch fomewhere farther
off from the river ; for fometimes they will go to feed
a confiderable way from the place of their reft, choo*
fing rather to go up the river than down it. The per-
fons that go a-hunting otters, muft carry their fpears,
to watch his vents, that being the chief advantage;
and if they perceive him fwimming under water, they
muft endeavour to ftrike him with their fpears, and
if they mifs, muft purfue him with the hounds, which,
if they be good and perfedUy entered, will go chant¬
ing and trailing along by the river-fide, and will beat
every root of a tree, and ofier-bed, and tuft of bul-
rufties; nay, they will fometimes take water, and
bait the beaft, like a fpanielwby which means he will
hardly efcape.
Roe-buck Hunting is performed divers ways, and
very eafily in the woods.
When chafed, they ufually run againft the wind,
becaufe the coolnefs of the air refrefties them in their
courfe ; therefore the huntfmen place their dogs with
the wind : they ufually, when hunted, firft take a
large ring, and afterwards hunt the hounds. They
are alfo often taken by counterfeiting their voice,
which a fkiiful huntfman knows how to do by means
of a leaf in his mouth. When they are hunted, they
turn much and often, and come back upon the dogs
dire£Uy; and when they can no longer endure, they
take foil, as the hart does, and will hang by a bough
in fuch a manner, that nothing of them fhall appear
above the water but their fnout, and they will xuffer
the dogs to come juft upon them before they will
ftir.
The venifon of a roe-buck is never out of feafon, be¬
ing never fat, and therefore they are hunted at any
time; only that fome favour ought to be fhown the
doe while (he is big with fawn, and afterwards till
her fawn is able to (hift for himfelf; but fome roe-
does have been killed with five fawns in their bellies.
He is not called, by the (kilful in the art of hunting,
a great roe-buck, but a fair roe-buck ; the herd of them
is called a bevy : and if he hath not bevy-greafe upon
his tail, when he is broken up, he is more fit to be dog’s
meat than man’s meat. The hounds muft be rewarded
with the bowels, the blood, and feet flit afunder,.and
boiled all together ; this is more properly called a dofe
than a reward.
Hunting-Match. The firft thing that is to be
confidered by one who defigns to match his horfe for
his own advantage, and his horfe’s credit, is not to flat¬
ter. himfelf with the opinion of his horfe, by fancying
733 ] . HUN
that he is a fwift, when he is but a flow gallopper j Hunting-,
and that he is a whole-running-hoife, that is, that
he will run four miles without a fob at the height of
his fpeed, when he is not able to run two or three.
Very probably fome gentlemen are led into this error,
by their being miftaken in the fpeed of their hounds,
who, for want of trying them againft other dogs that
have been really fleet, have fuppofed their own to be
fo, when in reality they are but of a middling fpeed;
and becaufe their horfe, when trained, was able to
follow them all day, and upon any hour, to command
them upon deep as well as light earths, have there¬
fore made a falfe conclufion, that their horfe is as
fwift as the beft ; but, upon trial againft a horfe that
has been rightly trained after hounds that were truly
fleet, have bought their experience perhaps full dear.
Therefore it is advifable for all lovers of hunting to
procure two or three couple of tried hounds, and once
or twice a week to follow after them at train-feent; and
when he is able to top them on all forts of earth, and
to endure heats and colds ftoutly, then he may better
rely on his fpeed and toughnefs.
That horfe which is able to perform a hare-chafe of
five Ur fix miles brilkly and courageoufly, till his body
be as it were bathed in fweat; and then, after the
hare has been killed, in a nipping frofty morning, can
endure to ftand till the fweat be frozen on his back,
fo that he can endure to be pierced with the cold as
well as the heat; and then, even in that extremity of
cold, to ride another chafe as brifldy, and with as much
courage as he did the former ; that horfe which can
thus endure heats and colds is moft valued by fportf-
men. Therefore, in order to make a judgment of the
goodnefs of a horfe, obferve him after the death of the
firft hare, if the chace has been any thing bri(k : if,
when he is cold, he (brinks up his body, and draws his
legs up together, it is an infallible fign of want of vi¬
gour and courage : the like may be done by the flack-
ening of his girths after the firft chace, and from the
dulnefs of his teeth, and the dulnefs of his counte¬
nance, all which are true tokens of faintnefs and being
tired ; and fuch a horfe is not to be relied on in cale
of a wager.
Here it will not be improper to take notice of the
way of making matches in former times, and the mo¬
dern way of deciding wagers. The old way of trial
was, by running fo many train-feents after hounds,
as was agreed upon between the parties concerned,
and a bdi-courfe, this being found not fo uncertain,
but more durable than hare hunting ; and the advan-'
tage confifted in having the trains led on earth moft
fuitable to the qualifications of the horfes. But now
others choofe to hunt the hare till- fuch an hour, and
then to run this wild-goofe chace; a method of ra¬
cing that takes its name from the manner of the flight
of wild-geefe, which is generally one after another;
fo the two horfes, after running of twelvefcore yards;
had liberty, which horfe foever could get the leading;
to ride what ground he pleafed, the hindmoft horfe
being bound to follow him, within a certain diftance
agreed on by articles, or elfe to be whipped up by
the triers or judges which rode by ; and whichever
horfe could diltance the other won the match.
But this chace, in itfelf very inhuman, was foon found
to be very dellro&ive. to good horfes, efpecially when
two good horfes were matched j for neither being, able
HUN [ 734 1 HUH
Hunting, to diftance the other till both were ready to fink under
ll their riders through weaknefs, oftentimes the match
Hunting- was fajn to drawn and left undecided, though both
ton ire. ^ jj0rfeg were qU[te fpoiled.
^ This brought up the cuftom of train-fcents, which
afterwards was changed to three heats and a ftraight
courfe ; and that the lovers of horfes might be encou¬
raged to keep good ones, plates have been erefted in
many places in Britain. The fewer of thefe before
you come to the courfe, if your horfe be fiery and
mettled, the better; and the fhorter the diftance, the
better. Alfo, above all things, be fure to make your
bargain to have the leading of the firft train ; and then
make choice of fuch grounds where your horfe may
belt Ihow his fpeed, and the fleeteft dogs you can
procure: give your hounds as much law before you
as your triers will allow, and then, making a loofe,
try to win the match with a wind ; but if you fail in
this attempt, then bear your horfe, and fave him for
the courfe ; but if your horfe be flow, but well wind¬
ed, and a true fpurred nag, then the more train fcents
you run before you come to the ftraight courfe, the
better. But here you ought to obferve to gain the
leading of the firft train ; which in this cafe you muft
lead upon fuch deep earths, that it may not end near
any light ground : for this is the rule received among
horfemen, that the next train is to begin where the
laft ends, and the laft train is to be ended at the ftart-
ing place of the courfe; therefore remember to end
your laft on deep earths, as well as the firft.
HUNTINGDON, the county-town of Hunting-
donftiire in England, feated upon an eafy afcent, on
the north fide of the river Oufe. It was made a free
borough by king John, confifting of a mayor, 12 al¬
dermen, burgeffes, &c. by whom the two members of
parliament are chofen. It had anciently 15 parifhes,
and has now but two ; in one of which, called St John's,
Oliver Cromwell was born, in 1599. Here was for¬
merly a caftle, built by William the Conqueror, which
afterwards belonged to David, a prince of Scotland,
with the title of earl; but Henry VIII. gave it to
George Haftings, with the earldom annexed, in whofe
family it ftill continues. It Hands in the great north
road ; and has a bridge built of free ftone over the
Oufe. which is made navigable for fmall veflels as high
as Bedford. It is the place where the affixes are kept,
and where the county-jail (lands. It has a good market¬
place, and feveral convenient inns, befides a grammar-
fchool; and is very populous. W. Long. c. 15. N.
Lat. 52. 23.
Huntingdonshire, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by Bedfordftiire ; on the weft by Nor-
thamptonfliire, as alfo on the north ; and by Cam-
bridgeftiire on the eaft ; extending 36 miles in length
from north to fouth, 24 in breadth from eaft to weft,
and near 67 in circumference. This county, which is
in the diocefe of Lincoln, is divided into four hundreds,
and contains 6 market towns, 29 vicarages, 78 parifhes,
279 villages, about 8220 houfes, and upwards of
41,coo inhabitants ; but fends only four members to
parliament, namely, two knights of the (hire, and two
members for Huntingdon. It is a good corn country;
and abounds in paftures, efpecially on the eaftern fide,
which is fenny. The reft is diverfified by rifing hills
and (hady groves, and the river Oufe waters the fouth-
ern part.
The air of this county ia in moft parts pleafant and Hu <j«asg
wholefome, except among the fens and meres, though ft
they are not fo bad as the hundreds of Kent and Effex. ur^ ‘es,.
The foil is fruitful, and produces great crops of corn,
and the hilly parts afford a fit pafture for fheep. They
have great numbers of cattle; and plenty of water-fowl,
filh, and turf for firing ; which laft is of great fervice
to the inhabitants, there being but little wood, though
the whole county was a foreft in the time of Henry II.
The only river befides the Oufe is the Nen, which runs
through Whittlefey Mere.
HU-QUANG, a province of the kingdom of China,
in Afia, which has a great river called Tang, and Tfe-
fhiang, which runs acrofs it from eaft to weft. It is
divided into the north and fouth parts, the former of
which contains eight cities of the firft rank, and 60 of
the fecond and third ; and the latter, feveu of the firlt
rank, and five of the fecond and third. It is a flat,
open country, watered every-where with brooks, lakes,
and rivers, in which there are great numbers of fi(h.
Here is plenty of wild-fowls ; the fields nourifh cattle
without number, and the foil produces corn, and va¬
rious kinds of fruits. There is gold found in the
fands of the rivers ; and in the mines they have iron,
tin, &c. In (hort, there is fuch a variety of all forts
of commodities, that it is called the magazine of the empire.
HURA, in botany : A genus of the monadclphia
order, belonging to the moncecia clafs of plants ; and in
the natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tri-
coccte. The amentum of the male is imbricated, the
perianthium truncated: there is no corolla ; the fila¬
ments' are cylindrical, peltated on top, and furrounded
with numerous or double antheras. The female has
neither calyx nor corolla; the ftyle is funnel-fliaped ;
the ftigma cleft in twelve parts; the capfule is twelve-
celled, with a fingle feed in each cell. There is but one
fpecies, •viz. the crepitans, a native of the Weft Indies.
It tifes with a foft ligneous ftem to the height of 24 feet,
dividing into many branches, which abound with a milky
juice, and have fears on their bark where the leaves have
fallen off. The male flowers come out from between
the leaves upon foot ftalks three inches long; and are
formed into a clofe fpikeorcolurnn, lying over each other
like the feales of fifh. The female flowers are fituated at
a diftance from them; and have a long funnel-fhaped tube
fpreading at the top, where it is cut into 12 refle&ed
parts. After the flower, the germen fwdls, and becomes
a round compreffed ligneous capfule, having 12 deep fur-
rows.each beinga diftinCl cell,containing one largeround
compreffed feed. When the pods are ripe, they burft with
violence, and throw out their feeds to a.confiderable di¬
ftance. It is propagated by feeds raifed on a hot-bed ;
and the plants muft be conftantly kept in a ftove. The
kernels are faid to be purgative, and fometimes emetic.
HURDLE, is the name of a fledge ufed to draw
traitors to the place of execution.
HURDLES, in fortification, are made of twigs of
willows or ofiers interwoven clofe together, fuftained
by long flakes. They are made in the figure of a
long fquare, the length being five or fix feet, and the
breadth three and an half. The clofer they are wattled
together, the better. They ferve to render the bat¬
teries firm, or to confolidate the paffage over muddy
d-itches ; or to cover traverfes and lodgments for the
defence of the workmen againft fire-works or (tones
thrown againft them.
The
t Treat-,fe
ort' Tropical
Difeafes,
&c. 8 vo.
H U R r 735 ] HUS
The Romans had a kind of military execution for difmal obfeurity envelopes the earth with darknefs—The Hurricane,
mutineers, called putting to death under the hurdle, fuperior regions appear rent with lightning and thun- HllJJandi
The manner of it was this : The criminal was laid at der—The earth often does and always feems to tremble ^
his length in a fhallow water, under an hurdle, upon —Terror and confternation diflradt all nature—Birds
which was heaped ftones, and fo prefied down till he are carried from the woods into the ocean ; and thofe
was drowned. whofe element is the fea, feek forrefuge on land—The
Hurdles, in hufbandry, certain frames made ei- frightened animals in the field affemble together, and
ther of fplit timber, or of hazle-rods wattled toge- are almoft fuffocated by the irnpetuofity of the wind in
thcr, to ferve for gates in inclofures, or to make Ihcep- fearching for Ihelter ; which, when found, ferves them
folds, &c. only f°r detlrudlion—The roofs of houfes are carried to
HURDS, or Hords, of flax or hemp ; the coarfer vail diitances from their walls, which are beat to the
parts feparated in the dreffings from the tear, or fine ground, burying their inhabitants under them—Large
fluff. See Flax. trees are torn up by the roots, and huge branches fhi-
'* HURL-BONE, in a horfe, a bone near the middle vered off, and driven through the air in every diredion,
of the buttock, very apt to go out of its fockets with a with immenfe velocity—Every tree and (hrub that with-
hurt or flrain. Hands the (hock, is ftripped of its boughs and foliage—
HURLERS, a number of large ftones, fet in a kind Plants and grafs are laid flat on the earth—Luxuriant
of fquare figure near St Clare in Cornwall, fo Called fpring is changed in a moment to dreary winter Thia
from an odd opinion held by the common people, that direful tragedy ended, when it happens in a town, the
they are fo many men petrified, or changed into ftones, devaftation is furveyed with accumulated horror: the har-
for profaning tire fabbath-day by hurling the ball, an hour is covered with wrecks of boats and veffels ; and
exercife for which the people of that country have been the Ihore has not a veftige of its former ftate remaining,
always famous. Mounds of rubbilh and rafters in one place, heaps of
The hurlers are oblong, rude, and unhewed. Many earth and trunks of trees in another, deep gullies from
authors fuppofe them to have been trophies erefted in torrents of water, and the dead and dying bodies of
memory of fome battle ; others take them for bounda- men, women, and children, half buried, and fcattered-
ries to (Uftinguifh lands. Laftly, others, with more about, where ftreets but a few hours before were, pre¬
probability, hold them to have been fepulchral monu- fent the mifcrable furvivors with a Ihocking conclufion
ments. of a fpe&acle to be followed by famine, and when ac-
HURLY-burly, in vulgar language, denotes con- companied by an earthquake, by mortal difeafes.
fufion or tumult, and is faid to owe its origin to two Thefe deftrudtive phaenomena are now thought to
neighbouring families, Hurleigh and Burleigh, which arife from electricity, though the manner in which it
filled their part of the kingdom with conteft and vio- acts in this cafe is by no means known. It feems pro-
lence. bable, indeed, that not only hurricanes, but even the
HURON, a vaft lake of North-America, fituated moft gentle gales of wind, are produced by the action
between 84° and 89° W. Long, and between 430 and of the electric fluid; for which fee the articles Wind,
46° of N. Lat. from whence the country contiguous Whirlwind, &c.
to it is called the country of the Hurons, whofe language HURST, Hyrst, or Herst, are derived from
is fpoken over a great extent in the fouthern parts of the Saxon hyrji, i. e. a ivood, or grove of trees. There
America. are many places in Kent, Suffex, and Hamplhire,,
HURRICANE, a general name for any violent which begin and end with this fyllable ; and the reafon
florm of wind ; but which is commonly applied to thofe may be, becaufe the great wood called Andref<wald t'/.*
ftorms which happen in the warmer climates, and tended through thofe countries.
which greatly exceed the moft violent ftorms known Hurst- Caftle, a fortrefs of Hampfliire in England,.,
in this country. The ruin and defolation accompany- not far from Limington. It is feated on the extreme
ing a hurricane (fays Dr Mofely f) cannot be deferibed. point of a neck of land which fhoots into the fea, to-
Like fire, its refiftlefs force confumes every thing in its wards the ifle of Wight, from which it is diftant two.
track, in the moft terrible and rapid manner. It is ge- miles.
nerally preceded by an awful ftillnefs of the elements, HUSBAND, a man joined or contraded with a
and a clofenefs and miftinefs in the atmofphere, which woman in marriage. See Marriage.
makes the fun appear red, and the ftars larger. But a Husband-Land, & term xxfeA in Scotland for a por-
dreadful reverfe fucceeding—The Iky is fuddenly over- tion of land containing fix acres of lock and fey the land;
call and wild—The fea rifes at once from a profound that is, of land that may be tilled with a plough, and
calm into mountains—The wind rages and roars like mowen with a feythe.
the noife of cannon—The rain defeends in deluges—A
HUSBANDRY,
THE bufinefs of a farmer, or of one who lives by ber of other articles which it is difficult to enumerate
cultivating the ground. In this view it includes particularly. 7
not only agriculture, but feveral other branches connec- Agriculture, properly fo called, treats, only of the Difference:
ted with it, fuch as the rearing of cattle, the manage- cultivation of different foils, and preparing them for betwixt
tnent of the dairy, making butter and cheefe, raifing yielding the largeft crop of any kind of vegetable ;
flax, timber, &c. the management of bees, and a num- it belongs to hulbandry to make choice of the foil moft ^nd^y.
5 proper
736 H U S B
proper for each different vegetable, and to manage mat¬
ters fo that each foil may carry what it is heft adapted
for, fo that on the whole the produce of the farm
may be as advantageous as poffible. I-n like manner,
the hufbandman mult know what crops are moft pro¬
per to be raifed in the country where he lives, either
with a view to fale or to provender for cattle. The
rearing of thefe, indeed, conftitutes one of the moft ef-
fential articles of hulbandry ; it being requifite that the
hufbandman (hould know not only how to feed them pro¬
perly, but how to keep them free from difeafes, and to
diftinguifh the beft breeds, fo that fuch as are defigned
for work may be capable of doing the moft at leaft ex¬
pence, and thofe defigned for fale may with the leaft
trouble be brought in good condition to market, and
afford the greateft profit to himfelf as well as the beft
a bargain to the purchafer.
It is the in- It is by means of the hufbandman only that all the
tereft of a inhabitants of a country are enabled to live ; whence it
hulband- ought to be a confideration with him to cultivate the
render*pro- ground in fuch a manner, as may enable him to afford
vifions as the produce at the loweft price. Thus he will alfo
cheap as confult his own intereft : for cheapnefs of provifions is
poffible. the on]y true means by which the population of any
country can be advanced ; and the greater the number
of inhabitants, the greater market will the hufbandman
have for his goods. Indeed, by a certain mode of ar¬
guing, it may be imagined, that it would be more ad¬
vantageous to keep up provifions at as high a price as
poffible, rather than to lower them : but however this
may apply to manufadfures of various kinds, it never
can apply to hufbandry; for by raifing the price of
provifions, the price of every other thing alfo is raifed,
and it becomes more difficult for the hufbandman him-
3 felf to live, as well as others.
©ffocieties Thus the bufinefs of an hufbandman is not only ex-
for encou tremely complicated and difficult, but important alfo ;
raging va- JnfotmiCh, thatfocieties have beenlately inftitutedinmany
branches of different parts of the kingdom for its advancement, and
hufbandry. premiums offered to thofe who excelled in any particu¬
lar branch. Some of thefe premiums are held out for
raifing the greateft quantity of particular kinds of ve¬
getables ; others for gaining the greateft extent of
ground from the fea : fome for improving wafte ground;
others for the invention of the moft ufeful machines for
harrowing, fowing, and various operations in agricul¬
ture. But though the intention of thefe focieties is
undoubtedly laudable and patriotic, and though the in¬
vention of man has in a manner been exhaufted to ac-
4 compliih the purpofes for which they were inftituted ;
Doubtful it remains yet a matter of great doubt and uncertainty
bow far whether they have really been produ&ive of any pub-
b£nhaVll lic g°od or not. It does not clearly appear, that
■ufefuirea ^ the means of fubfiftence are rendered more generally
eafy, or that the lives of mankind are more happy and
. comfortable, than before any focieties were inftituted,
or before any confiderable improvements in hufbandry
were made. On the contrary, provifions of all kinds,
inftead of becoming cheaper, have gradually become
^ dearer, and their price on the whole is fenfibly augment-
Improve- ed every four or five years. Hence it is impoffible to
ments in avoid concluding, that, notwithftanding the apparent
bulb an dry improvements which have been made in fuch numbers,
parent tiianthere *s not yet anY rea^ one in t^ie wllo^c art-—Some-
real. • thing of this kind has been taken notice of even by the
N° 159.
A N D R Y.
members of thefe focieties themfelves; and on this fub- Pa-
jeft Mr Wimpey expreffes himfelf as follows : />«-*,voi. iii.
“ It is certainly clear from the average prices of corn P I71‘
and provifions of all kinds for 20 years paft, that there 6
is not too much land in cultivation. Prices have ad- Opinion of
vanced confiderably above what has been deemed, and Wim-
that juftly too, the medium ftandard. As a manufac- pejr'
turing and commercial country, it is properly the duty
of legiflature to provide, as far as may be confidently
with the liberty of the fubjed, that the price of provi¬
fions may be kept as near as poffible to their medium
value. This is conceived to be very practicable, even fo
as to be a convenience to the grower as well as the
confumer. Some waiters (Locke, Montefquieu, &c.)
have fuppofed, that the advance of commodities in price
is rather apparent and nominal than real. Things are
not fo much, if at all (fay they), advanced in price, as
it is imagined. The precious metals are exceedingly
increafed in quantity, and proportionably fallen in va¬
lue. Poffibly there may be fome truth in this obfer-
vation, if we go back fome hundreds of years ; and if
taken upon a fcale that comprehends all Europe : but
from the term of 40 or 50 years, or even from the time
that Mr Locke wrote to the prefent hour, there is little
difference in the value of gold and filver; an ounce of
either being of much the fame value now as then. The
frequent and fudden changes that take place in the price
of corn and other commodities, which are fometimes at
double the price one year they were the foregoing, muft
be owing to fome other caufe than that above-men¬
tioned, which operates flowly, if at all, and is not per¬
ceptible in lefs than a century.
“ If the quantity of corn and provifions at market
always has borne the fame proportion to the demand
there is for them, the price would be always invariably
and unchangeably the fame. The variation of the pri¬
ces, therefore, is governed by the variation of the faid
proportion. If the demand be greater and the quan¬
tity the fame, or the demand the fame and the quan¬
tity lefs, the price muft neceffarily advance ; and vice
verfa, if the quantity ffould increafe, and the demand
remain the fame, the price muft as neceffatily fall; and
it is not in the power of man to make it otherwife.
But though this immutable relation is beyond our
power to alter, we can by art and induftry augment
the quantity, and thereby lower the price ; cheapnefs
being an infallible confequence of plenty, which is the
direft objeft of an improving cultivation. This is a
matter of great confequence to the poor labourer, the
manufa&urer, and the merchant; and no difadvantage
to the grower; becaufe, what he would lofe by the fall
of price, he would gain by the increafed confumpt. 7
“ It is not eafy to conceive how many and how great Why thofe
the improvements are which have been made in this wh° have
moft important of all arts in the courfe of the prefent prt>
century. A patriotic fpirit of uncommon ardour hath fronvfocie*
gone forth ; and the nobility and gentry, like the fe- ties have
nators of Rome, have fet, as it were, their hands to the ””ta^eer”aj
plough, and excited their tenants and neighbours to *0
pradices of which they had no idea before. Yea, they the Coun-
have done more; they have inftituted focieties, and try.
made them receptacles and-diftributors of ufeful know¬
ledge ; they have raifed fupferiptions, and added marks
of honour and pecuniary advantages to the rewards
which naturally refult from the attention and induftry
of
in
HUSBANDRY*
ftie ingenious artiil. But it mud be allowed, that
'though much has been done* there ftill remains much
more to be done. Experimenters have not always
(perhaps but feldom) entered into the views, and ably
Seconded the intentions, of thofc valuable inftitutions.
Animated with the hope of obtaining the premiums
l«eld out by dint of extraordinary exertions, expenfive
manures, and a concurrence of fortunate circumftances,
more the effe& of chance than of defign, they often
have been the fuecefsful adventurers, though at the fame
time entirely ignorant to what caufes they owed their
fuceefs. We too often indeed afcribe effefts to caufes
which are no way conne&ed with them. The practice
of fuch men is more like the noftrums of quacks, than
the recipes of a regular phyficran. The medicine may
be good ; but, being ignorant of principles, they know
not how to accommodate it as circumllances may re¬
quire.”
Confiderations of this kind muft certainly lead us to
- n:ade fuppofe, that moft, if not ail, the improvements made in
hutban- huftandry for a long time pall, are too expenfive; and
Iry hither that, though by their means larger crops are now ob-
o attends ta;ne(j fornn^rly, the profits are more than fwal-
lowed up by the enormous fums required to produce
them. Hence we have as yet obtained only larger or
more elegantly formed beafls of different kinds; and
whether this acquifition is ultimately to be confidered
as profitable, remains yet to be determined. Unfortu¬
nately this fentiment feems to be confirmed by taking a
review of the agricultural improvements made during
the laft half-century. Thefe are :
i. Improvements in the Art of Tillage. Improvements
of this kind confift in more perfe&ly breaking andpul-
veiifing the foil, and keeping it more free from weeds
ttheTm-1 t^’an formerty- Mr Jethro Tull was the author of thefe,
provementf and (howed the advantages thence arifing. By fre-
-igricul- quent turning over and pulverifing the foil, we not only
-fc^hedeftroy t^ie weeds very efTe£tuall)r, but likewife grubs,
a beetles worms, and maggots of many different kinds.
“ Nothing (fays Mr Wimpey) fo effedhially prevents
the ravages of the feveral tribes of fubterraneous infe&s
as the frequent ftirring and crumbling the ground : I
have had large patches of feveral poles fquare in a field
of beans deftroyed by the grub of the cock-chaffer ; and
many hundreds of cabbage-plants by a grey grub of
fmaller fixe. Both thefe execute their mifchief under¬
ground. The former eat the roots of the beans even
when in kid ; and then they wither, fall, and die: the
latter bites off the ftem of the plant juft under the fur-
face, and does infinite mifchief: but I have always
found tillage, duly performed, capable of deftroyitig the
whole race.”
2. Invention of new Implements of Hujlandry, or im¬
provements of the old. This clafs includes all the new
invented ploughs, harrows, horfe and hand hoes, &c.
by means of which it is generally fuppofed that the
Work of tillage can be performed at much lefs expence,
as well as more effectually, than formerly.
3. Saving a great quantity of Seed in fowing, and the
production of bctterCrops, by the more regular diflriltition oj
what is foton This improvement chiefly confiits in
drilling, in (lead of lowing in the broad-caft way as for¬
merly. The gain is here evident} and Mr Wimpey
calculates it at a tenth or twelfth part of the whole
produce : and if the community are not yet fenfible of
VOir. VIII. Part II.
‘S
improve -
Pa-
pers, vol. y
Jaft half
any advantage from fuch a eonfiderable laving, it muff
be 'becaufe the drilling hufoandry has not yet become
very general.
4. Suiting the Crop to the Nature and Condition of the
SoA. The fanner is now enabled to this better than
formerly, by the introduction of a number of new ve¬
getables formerly unknown. Thus, as there are many
grounds very unfit for the production of wheat, there
is now no occafion for reaping fcanty crops of it from
fuch as are little adapted to the raifing of that grain $
becaufe another article, for which perhaps there was for¬
merly no demand, may now be raifed with confiderable
profit on a foil where wheal will not grow to any ad¬
vantage.
5. The Rotation of Crops. Thus a very confiderable
addition is made to the produce of the ground by-
keeping it perpetually fertile; whereas formerly it was
often worn out and rendered barren by too frequent
cropping, when a proper rotation was not known.
6. The Introduction of new Manures. Thefe are
principally lime and marie 5 of the aCrion of which
an account is given under the article Agriculture,
n° 20.
7. The Introduction of many new Articles into Field*
Culture. Thefe, whatever profit they may yield to the
farmer, confift principally of provender for cattle. They
ought, however, to have a confiderable effeCt in pro¬
ducing plentiful harvefts, as hereby the cattle may be
fuppofed to do their work more perfectly, and to be
maintained at lefs expence than before.
8. The Application of thefe to the rearing and fattening nf
Cattle. The good effeCts of this ought to be felt partly
in the manner mentioned in the former article, and
partly in lowering the price of fldh-meat, and confe-
quently of all other kinds of provifions.
Thus we fee, that in the courfe of half a century, Little ad-
methods have been found of eradicating weeds, deftfoy-
ing infeCts, faving vaft quantities of feed-corn, of fuit- [hJwhole.
ing the crops to the foil, of ufing new manures, raifing
new plants; and all this, together with multitudes of new
machines for performing in a better mannet the opera¬
tions of agriculture, has apparently amounted to mere
nothing. The price of provifions feems to have begun
to rife with the improvements, and to be continually ad¬
vancing. It is by no means in our power to point out
particularly the caufes of fo difagreeable an event. Itr . dt
muft, however, undoubtedly depend on fome mifcalcu- concerning
lation, or over-rating the profits which have arifen from the caufe*,
thofe improvements : whence the landholders have uni¬
formly been induced to raife their rents, while the far¬
mers, finding their expences greatly augmented, not only
on account of the advance of rent, but likewife from
the more coftly modesof tillage, have been obliged to aug¬
ment the prices of their grain beyond what the increafed
influx of money into the kingdom would bear.—Such
mifcalculations are not uncommon in every bufinefs. A
manufaCiurer is apt to be enticed by a certainty of ha¬
ving an increafe of his goods in a given time : but fre¬
quently, when improvements are tried, it is found that
the abfolute expence, or the quantity of labour requifite
to produce the increafe, is greater than the augmenta¬
tion of profit can bear; and he is afterwards, with regret
and lofs, obliged to lay afide the improvements from
which he had once fuch hopes. In like manner, we fear*
it has fared with the hufbandman. The improvements
4 Z in
73s
HUSBANDRY.
in hufbandry originated principally among the land- made of late in the affairs of agriculture and hufhandry,
holders; whofe principal view, we may fuppofe, was an If experiments are now to be made, it is plain that they
augmentation of rent. The tenants were obliged to ought to be with a view to determine that medium of
attempt improvements in order to pay the advance, as culture which the ground can bear with the greateil
well as by the exprefs order of their landlords. Hence profit, comparing the expence and produce of the two
they were induced to keep a great number of horfes, different modes together; and that mode which is the
that their lands might be tilled with fufficient expedi- leaft expenfive ought undoubtedly to be chofen, even
tion, and in a more perfedf manner than before. The though attended with no more profit than that which
oxen, formerly made ufe of, and which anfwered the
purpofes both of provifion and labour, were difcarded.
©f the n
ing of
cattle.
©Ftbeo-
ther im¬
provement
in hufban-
*y.
executed at a greater expence. Thus, if a farmer,
by laying out 5 /. can produce a crop equivalent [owing far-
and a fet of moll expenfive animals, ufelefs except for to 7/. he ought undoubtedly to prefer that to amerstoex-
the purpofes of labour or pleafure, introduced in their mode of cultivation by which he lays out feven to pro- peud large
flead. A valt quantity of grain, which ought to have cure nine. Nay, though by his new method he lunis .on a*
fullained the human fpecies, was thus bellowed on the Ihould procure 9/. tor. by laying out 7/. it would Hill fnr ordert®
brute creation : and though this might in fome meafure be evidently for the good of the community that the enrich
be fuppofed to be countera&ed by the increafe of crop former method were followed. The reafon of this is, themfelve®
in confequence of employing horfes, it is evident that that every expence of the hulbandman, as well as 0fbyafmal1
it has not anfwered the general expedlation ; fince we every other, mult ultimately be defrayed by the com- of^ofit°a
may fay, that the farmers have not been able to pay munity at large. Thus if the hufbandman employs a
one penny of advanced rent without advancing alfo the greater number of hands than would otherwife be ne-
price of their grain. ceffary, it is plain that the expence of thefe mull be de-
With regard to the rearing of cattle, the cafe is equal- frayed by the community, not only becaufe of the pro-
”ly doubtful. The moll extravagant prices have been vifions they mull neceffarily confume, but becaufe each
given for the bell breeds as they are called ; but it re- of thefe, were he not employed in that particular way,
mains yet to be proved, that thefe breeds are really more might contribute in fome other towards his own fup-
ufeful to the country than the fmaller ones. The ex- port and that of others: and the very fame may be faid
pence of keeping them is undoubtedly greater, and this of the farmer who employs a greater number of horfes
expence is enhanced by the large cattle being generally than would otherwife be neceffary. Now, in the ex-
lefs hardy than the fmaller. It feems, befides, impoffible ample juft given, the farmer, or the community at large,
that one large horfe- for inftance, can be equally ufeful by laying out 5/. gain 40J. which is 40 per cent.; but
with two fmall ones, even though he Ihould be as ftrong in the other cafe, vi%. that of expending 7/. for a re-
as both ; for this plain reafon, that two horfes, though turn of 9/. tor. the farmer indeed gets jox. inftead of
ever fo fmall, can be put to two different kinds of work 40^. but the community do not gain equally, having
at once, which cannot be done with the largeft fingle now not quite 36 per cent, inftead of 40 which they
horfe imaginable. The like is applicable to black had before.
cattle : We cannot fuppofe the largeft fingle ox to be Hence it becomes evident, that by encouraging in¬
equal to two ordinary oxen, though he may perhaps dividuals to expend large fums on agriculture, and thus
i-equire more to fatten him than would bring to mar- diminifti the proportion of their own profits, the com-
ket three or four of an ordinary quality; and fo of other munity muft always fuffer, and a rife of provifions will
animals. infallibly take place, whether the individuals enrich
It is much to be feared that the fame reafoningextends themfelves or not. Evils of this nature can be reme-
to moft of the improvements hitherto made in hufbandry. died only by the legiflature : but it is to be feared that
The vegetative powers of the earth cannot be made al- the time is yet very diftant when any certain mode of
way's to exert themfelves to the utmoft, without an ex- culture will be eftablifhed by law; and until this happen,
pence which the increafe of produce can by no means it is vain to think that either the fpeculations or expe-
balance. By a total negledl of culture, indeed, the foil riments of individuals or of focieties will be attended
will produce little or nothing ; by a moderate degree of with much benefit to the community, whatever advan-
culture the product will be greatly augmented, the far- tage particular perfons may fometimes derive from
mer will be enabled to pay his rent, and at the fame them.—Leaving this fubjeft, therefore, we fhall now
time to afford his grain at fuch a price as can allow the proceed to thofe which more immediately relate to the *5
, . i- c :r wjtjj cx_ bufinefs of hufbandry in its prefent ftate. hufbandry
In confidering this fubjedl in its full extent, it evi- ;nto thrss
dentlydividesitfelf into three parts: thefirjl. Relating to parts
the cultivation of fuch vegetables as are proper for the
fubfiftence of mankind or the rearing of cattle; as grain,
grafs, cabbage, turnips, and other vegetables of that
kind : the fecond. Such as belong more particularly to*
trade and commerce ; as flax, hemp, hops, bees, tim-
kbourers to live comfortably : but if we go
traordinary methods of culture, expedling to increafe
the produce of the foil, and to be able to exadl an aug¬
mentation of rent ad infinitum, we will certainly be de¬
ceived ; for thus the price of provifions mull be infinite¬
ly increafed alfo. Thus, indeed, the produce of the
ground will be fomewhat increafed, but the farmer w'iil
ultimately be a lofer; fo that, to fave himfelf from ruin,
he muft at laft burthen the public both with his advan- ber, &c. Under both thefe are included the know-
ced rent and the expence of moft of his improvements, ledge of various manures, of the nature of different
by advancing the price of grain and of all kinds of pro- foils, &c. The third part includes, the raifing and ma-
vifions. nagement of cattle, poultry, of the dairy, with other
Such feem in general to be the reafons why the coun- adventitious articles, lefs conne&ed with agriculture j •
try has reaped fo little advantage by the improvements of all which we fhall now treat in order.
HUSBANDRY.
739
Part I. Of the Vegetables mod proper to be mifcd for the ufe of the Human
Species, or as Food for Cattle.
AMONG thofe raifcd for the ufe of mankind, Wheat
has univerfally been fuppofed to hold the firft
place, and other kinds of grain to be the next to it;
but in modern times, an author of no mean reputation
has arifen, who endeavours to prove that wheat ought
not to be cultivated, nor bread to be eaten. This is
M. Linguet, who has written a treatife exprefsly upon
the fubjeft; and, ridiculous as the aflertion may feem,
has been thought worthy of a formal refutation by Dr
Tiffot.—One of M. X-inguet’s arguments is, that wheat
impoverifhes the ground on which it grows : but in
oppofition to this, Dr Tiffot urges, that corn is more
ealily cultivated than grafs; and that confequently, in
the country he fpeaks of (Switzerland), the beft fields
are appropriated to hay, and the word to corn. “ If
there are fome diftri&s of very poor land (fays he) al-
moft entirely fown with corn, they are not poor be-
caufe they produce only corn, but becaufe they are not
fit to produce any thing elfe. Their foil is fo bad, that
they can grow but very little fodder : confequently they
maintain only fuch cattle as are abfolutely neceffary for
labour; and thofe are ill fed, and frequently periih.
They have but little manure, and their crops are
fmall; for large crops of all forts can only be expefted
from lands naturally rich or ftrongly manured. Thus
the poverty of the inhabitants is only owing to their
poffeffing an ungrateful foil.—What proves evidently
that it is the natural foil which is in the fault, and not
the corn which impoverifhes, is, that where there is
meadow and arable land, the price of the meadow-land
is much more confiderable than that of the arable. In
moft parts of this country the proportion is nearly ten
to one ; and there are even fome meadows, for one part
of which they would give 30 of field-lands; and fome
of vines, for which xoo of arable would be given.
Thofe diftrifts where the foil will produce nothing but
corn, are poor; but in thofe which furnifh fodder, and
alfo fine crops of grain, the inhabitants are wealthy
and happy, unlefs they are oppreffed by taxes.”
M. Linguet draws another objection from the length
of time required to cultivate-wheat; but Tiffot, by
another calculation, fhows, that 48 days work through¬
out the year would cultivate more wheat than is fuffi-
cient for a family of fix perfons. The time neceffary
for cultivation of arable land alfo does not increafe in
proportion to its extent ; but in cafe more is cultiva¬
ted than is requifite for the fubfirtence of the family, a
trade is formed, which might be increafed to an unli¬
mited extent. He then compares the time requifite
for the cultivation of vines which are recommended by
M. Linguet, and finds it to be much longer than that
required for wheat. “ I know very well (fays he) that
the one requires cattle, and the other does not: but
thefe cattle, far from being expenfive, will, if properly
managed, increafe the gain of the farmer; therefore
they muft not be looked upon as any expence. Corn
is fubjefit to many accidents, but vines are fubjeft to
many more: thofe which the vines luffer, fometimes
fpoil the vintage for feveral years ; whereas thofe which
happen to arable land, only fpoil the crop for the fea-
fon : and as the expence of cultivating vines, for which
only manual labour can be employed, is much more
confiderable; therefore the vigneron (or perfon who
cultivates vines), who engages more largely than the
farmer, will confequently be a much greater lofer if un-
fuccefsful.—Hay is alfo fubjeA to frequent and very
difagreeable accidents ; the fecuringit is fometimes very
difficult ; and, when it is badly made, it is very hurtful
to cattle.—A fingle faft will be fufficient to prove the
cafualties to which hay is fubjedff; viz. that it varies in
price as much as grain. Accidents of hay-mows taking
fire are but too frequent; and this is not to be feared in
corn-mows.”
The other objeftions of M. Linguet to wheat appear
to be quite frivolous; fo that concerning the cultivation
of this grain, Dr Tiffot draws the following conclufions;
‘‘ It appears then, from what has been faid, that wheat
is not a commodity that is impoveriffiing in itfelf; and
that this grain will grow indifferently at leaft in lands
and fituations which are unfavourable to other plants.
This grain is likewife adapted to moft climates; and
if there are diftridls almoit entirely fown with wheat,
and yet poor, it is the fault of the foil, and not of this
ufeful grain.”
But the moft extraordinary argument perhaps ever
thought of on this fubjedt is M. Linguet’s affertion,
that the ufe of wheat, or bread made from it, is detri¬
mental to population; and that the countries where this
grain is cultivated are poor and thinly inhabited, where¬
as thofe which abound with vineyards and pafture-lands
are rich and populous. But this, in Dr Tiffot’s opi¬
nion, ffiows only that one foil is more rich than an¬
other, and that a fertile foil will maintain moft inhabi¬
tants. “ No perfon (fays he) is more capable of af-
figning the caufe of the fubje&ion of the Roman em¬
pire to the northern powers, than M. Linguet; but he
cannot furely be ferious when he fays, that they were
enabled to conquer them becaufe thofe northern coun-
tr;es produced no corn, and that population decreafed
fince the introdudlion of grain. I ftiall make three
obfervations on this paffage : Firft, the armies of
Guftavus Adolphus, Charles XII. and the king of
Pruffia, whofe food was bread, would be as formidable
againft the Italians of thofe times, who eat lefs than
was eaten in the days of Scipio, as their ancefiors were
<400 years ago againft the Romans : and M. Linguet
muft certainly know, that thofe Greeks who fubfifted
on bread, thofe Romans who eat nothing but bread
and vegetables in pottage, fubdued all the known
world, among whom were many nations who are lefs
bread than themfelves. A Roman foldier’s allowance
of bread was much greater than what foldiers have at
prefent ; and by the ufe of this food they had much
more ftrength than our modern foldiers can boaft of.
The allowance to a Roman foldier was 64 pounds of
wheat per month ; and this he was ftri&ly forbidden
4 Z 2 either
PartH
740 HUSBANDRY.
either to fell or exchange. Their foldters had very
feldom any cheefe, bacon, or pulfe; fo that wheat was
altnoil their only food, and the proportion was double
what is allowed foldiers in our days. They ate it in
bread, in flour-milk, and in thin cakes; and they were
not fubjeft to epidemic or putrid diforders, which is
too much the cafe with our modern armies. We may
eafily judge from the weight of their accoutremenis,
that the Roman foldiers were not poflefled of let's per-
fonal ftrength than thofe which compofe the armies at
this day; they were not lefs brave, nor did their food
render them in any way unhealthy: on the contrary,
where there is fuch difficulty in procuring a fupply of
good animal food to an army, as is often the cafe in
modern times, it is probable that reducing them to the
Ample diet of a Roman foldier would be the moil
proper method of preventing epidemic difeafes among
them. Secondly, it is very doubtful whether thofe
countries were more populous formerly than they are
at this time; it is even probable that they were lefs fo.
Taftly, the people of thefe northern countries were not
without wheat; it was the bafis of their food and
drink: without quoting other authors who atteft it,
fuffice it to fay, ihat Tacitus affirms it,” &c.
In this laft particular, however, cur author appears
to be miftaken ; but whatever may be in this, we ap¬
prehend that few of our readers will entertain any
doubt concerning the wholefomenefs of wheat, or the
propriety of making it into bread after once it is cul¬
tivated. The truly important matter is to determine,
whether it be a profitable crop or not for the perfon
who cultivates it ? In this refpe<R indeed it has been
condemned by the generality of farmers, and dairy-
farms are univerfally fuppofed to be more profitable
than fuch as produce corn. The vaft fuperiority of
the former is fet forth by Thomas Davis, Etq; of Long-
Batb Pa- kat» t^ie f0H°w*ng words. “ Experience fufficient-
ftn.,vol. hi. ty evinces the extreme difficulty of perfuading tenants
that they get more (generally fpeaking) by feeding
their lands, than by ploughing them ; yet it requires
very few arguments to convince a landlord, that, in
cold wet lands efpecially, the lefs ploughed land you
have, the lefs you put it in a tenant’s power to ruin
your eftate. That a tenant of 601. per annum on a
dairy-farm will get money, while a corn farm of the
fame fize will ftarve its occupier (though perhaps the
former gives 15 s. per acre for his land, and the
latter only 10 s.), is felf-evident. The plough is a
friend of every body’s, though its advantages are
very far from being particularly and locally felt;
corn being an article that will bear keeping till
the whim or caprice, or fuppofed advantage of its pof-
feffor, call it forth. But the produce of the cow is
far otherwife. Cheefe muft necelfarily be fold at a
certain period : it is a ponderous article ; and one-
twelfth, or at leaft one-fifteenth, of its value, is often
aid for carrying it to a fair 50 miles off; and the
utter and fkimmed milk find their way no great di-
ftance from home, as is evident by the price of butter
varying frequently one-third in 20 or 30 miles. Every
inhabitant of Bath mufl be fenfible, that butter and
cbeefe have rifen one-third or more in price within 20
years. Is not this owing to the great encouragement
given to the plough and to grazing, at a time when,
on account of the increafed demand for milk, creaatj
butter, and cheefe, every exertion on behalf of the
dairy fhould have been encouraged ?” Sec.
In fome remarks on this letter by Mr Billingfley,.
the fame fuperiority of dairy-farms to the arable kind,
is affirrted in the moft pofitive terms. “ Perhaps (fays,
he) there cannot be a itronger proof, of the inferiority
of the plough with refpeip to profit, than the fuperior
pundluality of the dairy-farmer in the payment of his
rent. This obfervatiou, I believe, moft lie wards who.
fuperintend manors devoted partly to corn and partly
to dairy-farms, will verify; at leaft I have never met
with one who controverts it. But perhaps the advo.
cate for the plough will defire me not to confound
the abufe of a thing with its intrinfic excellence; and
fay, that the generality of corn farmers are moft egre¬
gious flovens; that lands devoted to the plough are
not confined to fuch a mediocrity of profit as 20s. per
acre; that the produce of artificial graffes (without
which a well managed arable farm, cannot exift;, far
exceeds that of natural grafs both in refpeeft of quatw.
tity and, nutrition ; that the liraw-yard is a moft con¬
venient receptacle for the cow when freed from the
pail. Thefe, and many other reafons, may be addu¬
ced to ffiow the propriety of walking in the middle-
path, and of judicioufly blending with pajlure, in
the proportion perhaps of three of the latter to one of.
the former.”
On thefe letters we Ihall only remark, that for the
good of mankind we hope the opinions they contaim,
will never come into general pra&ice ; as thus the
price of bread muft be railed fo high, that the lower
daffies of people would be entirely deprived of it.
In the Bath Papers, vol. v. p. 43. we have a method,
propofed by Mr Wimpey of improving final! arable
farms in fuch a manner as to make them yield as much
milk, butter, and cheefe, as thofe which are kept con¬
tinually in paiture. He agrees with the maxim al-
ready mentioned, that fmall arable farms do not afford
the occupier fo good a maintenance as daiT farms
the fame value ; and that the poffeffor of a dairy farm
will do well and fave money, while the former, with
much toil and trouble, is Itarving himfelf and family.
Notwithftanding this, he maintains, tfiat there is an
effential difference between ground that is naturally
arable, and fuch as is by nature adapted, for pafture.
Land which is naturally arable, according to him, can
by no means be converted into pafture of any dura¬
tion. “ Such as, from a wild ftate of nature, over run
with furze, fern, bufhes and brambles, has been ren¬
dered fertile by means of the plough, muft be kept in
that improved ftate by its frequent ufe; otherwife it
would foon revert to that wild barren ftate which was
its original condition. A. farm, therefore, which con-
fifts wholly, or almoft fo, of land that is properly ara¬
ble, muft ever continue arable 5 for it is not practi¬
cable to render it in any degree fertile hut by mean*
of the plough, or to keep it long in that ftate even
when it is made fo.” He is of opinion, however, that
by railing crops proper for feeding cattle, the poffef¬
for of an arable farm may raife as great a number of
horned cattle as one who has a pafture farm ; the on¬
ly queftion is, Whether he can be reimburfed of hi»-
expences by the produce ? “ To afeertain this fa&
(fay*
Hart T.
HUS B A
(fays'lieji we muft inquire what may be the average
expences of keeping a milch-cow on a dairy-farm for
any given time. It is faid, upon very good authority,
that the expence is generally from 3 1. to * 1. tos. per
annum. Two acres and an half of pafture fit for this
ufe is fufficient to keep a cow the whole year through,
and fuch land is valued at from 25s. to 30s. per acre.
At 25 s. the keeping of each cow would amount to
31. 2 8. 6 d. per annum. A dairy-farm, therefore,
eonfifting of 48 acres, at 25 s. per annum, would
amount to 60 1. rent; and the number of cows that
might be kept on fuch a farm would be about 20. In
the next place, with regard to the expence of keeping
a cow upon food raifed in arable land as a fuccedaneum
for grafs, we are allured by unqueftionable authority,
that a bulhel of potatoes given half at night and half
in the morning, with a fmall allowance of hay, is fuf¬
ficient to keep three cows a-day ; by which allowance
their milk will be as rich and as good as in the futn-
mer months when the cows are in pafture. An acre
of land, properly cultivated with potatoes, will yield
3.37 bufhels ; and the total expence of cultivation, rent
and tithe included, will not exceed 61. 13 s. If three
cows eat feven bulhels per week, then they would eat
364 bulhels in a year ; and 20 cows would confume
2433 bufhels So that, according to this calculation,
feven acres and a quarter would nearly maintain as
many cows as on the arable farm could be maintained
by 48 acres. If then the cultivation of one acre of
ground cofts 61 13 s. the cultivation of feven acres
and a quarter will coft about 48 1. We have feen,
however, that the rent of a dairy-farm capable of
maintaining 20 milch-cows, is not lefs than 601. fo
that the calculation is thus entirely in favour of the
arable farm ; feven or eight acres of the arable farm
being fuperior by 12 1. in value, when cultivated with
potatoes, to 48 acres of meadow or pafture-ground.”
** It muft indeed be obferved (adds our author), that
in this ftatement no allowance is made for the fmall
quantity of hay given to the cows with the potatoes.
It muft be noted alfo, that the account of cultivation
is charged with 40 s. an acre for manure, and fome
expence for ploughing, which of right is chargeable
to the crop of wheat that is to follow. Now, if we
deduft 40 s. an acre from the expence of cultivating
the potatoes, it reduces the fum to 4I. 13 s. and the
whole expence upon feven acres and a quarter is thus
kfs than 341. and confequently the keep of 20 cows is
little more than half to the occupier of the arable farm
what it is to the occupier of the grazing farm. If
this conclufion be fairly drawn, and the calculation
free from errors, it is matter of the greateft impor¬
tance, efpecially to the little arable farmer. It plain¬
ly raifes him from a ftate of acknowledged inferiority
to one greatly fiiperior.”
16 Our author next proceeds to obviate an obje&ion,
©bje&imi that the whole of his reafoning muft be indecifive, as
from'an*1 relating only to potatoes.” In opposition to this, he
experiment adduces an experiment made on a pretty large fcale by
of Mr, Mr Vagg; from which it appears, that cabbages, when
y^es- raifed upon arable ground, are nearly as much fuperior
to a natural crop as potatoes are. Twelve acres were
employed in this experiment, and thofe of an indiffe¬
rent quality. The rent was 30 s. per acre, and the
3
N D R Y. 741
whole expence of culture and carting off the crop >7
amounted only to 11. 14 s. fo that all the coft of the
twelve acres was 38 1 9 s. From the produce were from
fed 45 oxen and upwards of 60 fheep ; and he was acres of
affured that they improved as faft upon it as they do cabbages*
in the heft pafture months, May, June, and July.
“ Now (fays Mr Wimpey), if inftead of 60 (beep we
reckon 15 oxen, or that four Iheep are equal to about
one ox, in which we cannot err much; then 60 oxen
were kept well for three months, or, which is the
fame thing, 15 For a whole year, for 38 1. 93.; and
confequently 20 oxen would coft 51 1. 5 s. 4d. which
is not quite 3.1. . more than the keeping of 20 cows
would coft in potatoes. Turnips, turnip-rooted cab¬
bage, carrots, parfnips, and fome other articles, by
many experiments often repeated, have been found
quite adequate to the fame valuable purpofes ; at leaft
fo far as to be more lucrative than meadow or pafture.
Clover and rye-grafs are omitted, as having been long
in general pra&ice ; but are in common very ftiort of
the advantages which may be derived from the culti¬
vation of the other articles recommended.” Sainfoin
is greatly recommended: but our author acknowledges
that it makes but a miferable appearance the firtt year,
though afterwards he is of opinion that one acre of
fainfoin is equal to two of middling pafture-ground 5
for which realon he accufes the faimer of intolerable
indolence who does not cultivate fo ufeful a plant.
On this fubjeft, however, we muft remember, that the
culture of fainfoin is clogged with the lofs of one if
not two crops; which may fometimes be inconvenient,
though afterwards it remains in perfection for no lefs
than 20 years. The moll advantageous method of
railing it he fuppofes to be after potatoes. Thus it
will thrive even upon very poor ground; as the cul¬
ture and manure neceffary for the potatoes both pul-
verife the foil and enrich it to a fuffieient degree.
From thefe experiments and obfervations, therefore, Greatquass*’-
it appears very probable at leaft, that it is by no means 111 °f
againft the intereft of a farmer to cultivate large quan- f^advan^
titles of grain; and that he may even do this in a con- ,atjeoUfly-
fiftcncy with railing as many cattle as he can have oc- raifed.
calion for. Some grounds, no doubt, are naturally fo
fitted for pafture, that it would be too expenlive to
force them into arable ground; but wherever this can
be done, it feems proper always to have as much arable
as poflible, inftead of as little, which Meffrs Davis and
Biliingfley advife. Grain of different kinds, therefore,
and particularly wheat, ought to be cultivated by a
farmer to as great an extent as pollible ; though thefe
different kinds can be determined only from the nature
of the foil, and certain circumftances ariling from the
fituation of the place; for which no particular rules
can be given. A view of the general pra&ice of fome
of the principal counties in England, however, may
perhaps be of fome ufe to furnilh general directions *
for the farmer.
Sect. I. Of the Cultivation of Wheat 1 ■
. . . W
There is perhaps no part of Great Britain where this Culture-of *
fpecies of grain is cultivated to more perfection than in wh at ia
Norfolk. Mr Marlhal informs us, that the fpecies Norfolk»
raifed in that county is called, the Norfolk, red, and
weighs--
Sticceflion
©f crops,
$cc*
Rice-balk¬
ing, a par¬
ticular
mode of
culture ex¬
plained.
HUSBANDRY. Sea. I
weighs heavier tlian any other which has yet been in- When wheat is cultivated after the firft year’s lay, Wheat.
; troduced, though he owns that its appearance is much the feed is generally fown upon the flag or furrow
againft the aflertion, it being a long thin grain, re- turned over. After peafe, one or two plowings are
fembling rye more than well bodied wheat. About 15 given; the other parts of the management being the
or 20 years ago a new fpecies was introduced, named fame with that after the fecond year’s lay already men-
the Kenti/h cojh; againil which the millers were at firft tioned. After buck harvefted he feldom gives more
very much prejudiced, though this prejudice is now got than two, and fometimes but one, plowing. In the for-
over. A remarkable circumftance refpe&ing this grain mer cafe he fpreads his manure on the ftubble, and plows
is, that though upon its introdu&ion into the county it in with a fhallow furrow ; harrows, rolls, fows, and
the cojh or hulk be perfectly white, yet fuch is the gathers up the foil into narrow work. The manure
power either of the foil or of the mode of cultivation is in like manner fpread on the ftubble after once plow-
to produce what the botanills call varieties, that the ing, and the feed is then fown among the manure ;
grain in queftion is faid to lofe every year fomewhat of the whole plowed in together, and the foil gathered
the whitenefs of its hulks, until they become at laft up into narrow ridges, as if it had undergone the ope-
equally red with thofe of the former kind. The rations of a fallow. An inconvenience attending this
fouthern and foutheaftern parts of the county generally pra&ice is, that the buck which is neceffarily Ihed
enjoy a ftronger and richer foil than the more norther- in harvefting fprings up among the wheat, and be-
ly, and therefore are more proper for the cultiva- comes a weed to it, at the fame time that the rooks,
tion of that fpecies of grain. In the northern parts if numerous, pull up both buck and wheat, leaving fe-
are fome farms of very light foil, where the farmers fow veral patches quite bare. This is obviated in a great
only a fmall quantity of wheat; and thefe light lands meafure by firft plowing in the manure and felf-fown
are called barley farms. buck with a lhallow furrow ; in confequence of which
The greateft part of the wheat in Norfolk is fown the buck vegetates before the wheat,
upon a fecond year’s lay ; fometimes it is fown upon It is likewife a favourite praftice with the Norfolk
a firft year’s lay ; fometimes on a fummer-fallow; af- farmers to raife wheat after buck plowed under. They
ter peas, turnips, or buck harvefted or plowed under, plow under the buck by means of a broom - made of
The practice adopted by thofe who are looked upon rough bulhes fixed to the fore tackle of the plow be-
as fuperior hufbandmen in the county of Norfolk is as tween the wheels, which bears down the plant with-
follows. The fecond year’s lays having finilhed the out lifting the wheels from the ground. Sometimes,
bullocks, and brought the ftock-cattle and horfes thro’ when the buck is ftrong, they firft break it down with
the fore part of fummer, and the firft year’s lays ha- a roller going the fame way that the plow is intended
ving been made ready to receive his ftock, the farmer to go ; afterwards a good plowman will cover it fo ef-
begins to break up his old land or lay-ground by a pe- fedtually that fcarce a ftalk can be feen. Sometimes
culiar mode of cultivation named rice-balking, in which the furface of the ground is left rough, but it is more
the furrow is always turned toward the unplowed eligible to harrow and roll it. The practice of fum-
ground, the edge of the coulter palling always clofe mer fallowing feldom occurs in Norfolk; though fome-
by the edge of the flag laft turned. This is done at times, when the foil has been much worn down by
firft with an even regular furrow; opportunity being cropping, and over run by weeds, it is efteemedaju-
taken for performing the operation after the furface dicious pratiice by many excellent hufbandmen, and
has been moiftened by a fummer-fhower. In this ftate the practice feems to be daily gaining ground. After
his fummer-lays remain until towards the end ofharveft, turnips the foil is plowed to a moderate depth, and the
when he harrows and afterwards plows them acrofs the feed fown over the firft plowing : but if the turnips
balks of the former plowing, bringing them now up be got in early, the weeds are fometimes firft plowed in
to the full depth of the foil. On this plowing he im- with a fhallow furrow, and the feed plowed under
mediately harrows the manure, and plows it in with with a fecond plowing, gathering the foil into narrow
a fhallow furrow. The effe&s of this third plowing ridges. 2S
are to mix and effe&ually pulverife the foil and ma- With regard to the manuring of the ground for Manuring-
nure 5 to cut off and pulverife the upper furfaces of the wheat in Norfolk, that which has been recently clayed the ground
furrows of the fecond plowing; and thus, in the moft or marled is fuppofed to need no other preparation5n No“0-
effe&ual manner, to eradicate or fmother the weeds any more than that which has received 15 or 20 loads
which had efcaped the two former ones. Thus it lies of dung and mould for turnips ; the firft year’s lay
until the feed time, when it is harrowed, rolled, fown, having been teathed in autumn, and the fecond fed
and gathered up into ridges of fuch width as the far- off. Where the foil is good, and the wheat apt to
mer thinks moft proper. Thofe of fix furrows are run too much to ftraw, it is the pra&ice of fomejudi-
moit common, though fome very good farmers lay clous farmers to fet their manure upon the young clo-
their wheat-land into four-furrow, and others into ten- ver, thereby depriving the wheat in fome degree of its
furrow ridges; “which laft (fays our author) they ranknefs; but it is moft common to fpread it upon
execute in a ftyle much fuperior to what might be ex the broken ground; or if the feed be fown upon the
pedfted from wheel-plows.” They excel, however, in turned furrow, to fpread it on the turf and plow it
the fix-furrow plowing; of which Mr Marfhal gives a under; or to fpread it on the plowed furface, and
particular account. When plowing in this manner, harrow it in with the feed as a top drefling. A
they carry very narrow furrows; fo that a fix furrow fmailer quantity of manure is generally made ufe of
ridge, fet out by letting the off-horfe return in the firft- for wheat than for turnips. From eight to ten cart-
made furrow, does net meafure more than three feet loads (as much as three horfes can conveniently
eight or nine inches. draw) are reckoned fuflicient for an acre j three or
four
Of prepa-
srhe
HUSBANDRY. 743,
four chaldrons of lime to one acre, or 40 buftiels of perfeft unlefs the dibbles come out clean and wear Wheat.
; foot to the fame quantity of ground ; or about a ton bright. It is fomewhat difficult to make the holes at—v—^
of rape-cake to three acres. equal diftances; bift more efpecially to keep the two
In this county they never begin to fow wheat till ftraight and parallel to each other, fome praftice being
after the 17th of Oftober, and continue till the be- required to guide the inflruments in fuch a manner as
ginning of December, fometimes even till Chriftmas. to correfpond exadtly with each other; but though
They give as a reafon for this late lowing, that the couples have been invented to remedy this inconve-
wheat treated in this manner is lefs apt to run to ftraw nience to keep them at a proper diftance, the other
than when fown earlier. The feed is generally pre- method is ftill found to be preferable. A middling
pared with brine, and candied in the ufual manner with workman will make four holes in a fecond. One dib -
lime. The following method of preparing it is faid bier is fufficient for three droppers ; whence one man
to be effeftual in preventing the fmut. “ The fait is and three children are called a fet. The dibbler car-
diffolved in a very fmall quantity of water, barely fuf- ries on three flags or tarned furrows; going on fome
ficient for the purpofe. The lime is flaked with this yards upon one of the outfide furrows, and returning
folution, and the wheat candied with it in its hottefl: upon the other, after which he takes the middle one ;
ftate, having been previoufly moiftened with pure and thus keeps his three dibblers conftantly employed,-
water.” According to our author’s obfervation, the and at the fame time is in no danger of filling up the
crops of thofe fanners who ufe this preparation are in holes with his feet. The droppers put in two or three
general more free from fmut than thofe who make ufe grains of wheat into each hole ; but much time and
of any other.
Method of The pra&ice of dibbling or fetting of wheat has not
lowing. as yet become general throughout Norfolk, the com¬
mon broad-caft method being ufually followed, except
on the Suffolk fide of the county. Some few make
ufe of dibbling and fluting rollers ; but drilling is al-
patience is neceffary to teach them to perform the bu-
finefs properly and quickly. An expert dibbler will
hole half an acre in a day; though one third of an
acre is ufually reckoned a good day’s work. The feed
is covered by means of a bulh-harrow ; and from one^
bufhel to fix pecks is the ufual quantity for 2
moft entirely unknown, notwithftanding the great ap- Notwithflanding the advantages of faring feed, as well
a6
Plowing
the feed
under fur-
ow de-
fcribcd.
titude of foil for the pra&ice. Plowing in the feed
under furrow is the favourite mode of the Norfolk far¬
mers, and is performed in the following manner:
“ The land having been harrowed down level, and the
furface rendered fmooth by the roller, the head-plow-
as fome others which are generally reckoned unde¬
niable, it is afferted by fome very judicious farmers,
that dibbling of wheat on the whole is not really a pro¬
fitable practice. It is particularly faid to be produc¬
tive of weeds unlefs dibbled very thick ; which indeed
(if at leifure) marks out the whole piece in nar- may probably be the cafe, as the weeds are thus al-
row flips of about a llatute rod in width. This he
does by hanging up the plough in fuch a manner, that
lowed a greater fpace to vegetate in. Mr Marfliall him- Wadticeof
felf is of opinion, that “the dibbling of wheat ap-dibbling.
no part of it except the heal touches the ground; and pears to be peculiarly adapted to rich, deep foils, on
this makes a fure mark for the feedfman, which he which three or four pecks dibbled early may fpread
cannot by any means miftake. In cafe the ploughs fufficiently for a full crop ; whereas light, weak, flial-
are all employed, the feedfman himfelf marks the low foils, which have lain two or three years, and have
ground, by drawing a piece of wood or other heavy become graffy, require an additional quantity of feed,
body behind him.” Mr Marfliall prefers this to the and confequently an addition of labour, otherwife the
Kentifli method of fetting up flicks in the form of a plants are not able to reach each other, and the graf-
27 lane, as being lefs liable to produce miftakes. fes of courfe find their way up between them, by
tkole places where wheat is dibbled, they make which means the crop is injured and the foil rendered
wheat de-^ u^e *ron >nHruments l"or the purpofe. The a&ing foul.”
ied. Part *s an egg-fhaped knob, fomewhat larger than a The fame author has likewife given an account of Culture or
pigeon’s egg; the fmaller end is the point of the the method of cultivating wheat pradtifed in other.En-vylleaJin
dibble, the larger having a rod of iron rifing from it glifti counties. In the Midland diftridt, including part^™^Ian*
about half an inch fquare, and two feet and an half of Staffordflu’re, Derbylhire, Warwick, and Leicefter-
long ; the head being received into a crofs piece of fliire, we are informed that the fpecies ufually fown is
wood refembling the crutch of a fpade or (hovel, which that called Red lammas, the ordinary red wheat of
forms the handle. The dibbler ufes two of thefe in- the kingdom ; but of lats a fpecies named the EJfex.
liniments, one in each hand ; and, bending over them, dun, fimilar to the Kenti/h while cojh of Norfolk, and
walks backward upon the turned furrows, making two the Hertfordjhirehrown of Yorklhire, have been coming
rows of holes in each of them. Thefe rows are ufually into vogue. Cone-wheat, formerly in ufe in this di-
made at the diflance of four inches from each other; ftridt, is now out offafliion. Spring wheat is cultiva-
the holes being two and an half or three inches diftant, ted with remarkable fuccefs, owing principally to t'»e
viz. four in each length of the foot of the dibbler. The time of fowing ; viz. the clofe of April. Our author
great art in making thefe lies in leaving them firm and was informed by an excellent farmer in thefe parts,
fmooth in the fides, fo that the loofe mould may not run that by fowing early, as in the beginning of March,
in to fill them up before the feeds are depofited. This is the grain was liable to be ihrivelled, and the ftraw to
done by a circular motion of the hand and wrift; making be blighted ; while that which was fown towards the
a femi-revolution every ftroke ; the circular motion be- end of April, or even in the beginning of May, pro-
ginning as the bit enters, and continuing until it is en- duced clean plump corn. At the time he vifited this,
iirely difengaged from the mould. The operation is not country, however, it feemed to be falling into difre-
ptne.3;
744 HUSBANDRY. Sea.
Wheat, pute;? though he looks upon it, in fome fituations,
"Y—'-J efpecially in a turnip-country, to be eligible. In the
ordinary fucceffion in this part of the kingdom, wheat
comes after oats; and there is perhaps nine*tenths of
the wheat in this diftrift fown upon oat-ftubble. Our
author has alfo feen a few examples of wheat being
fown upon turf of fix or feven year’s laying; and fe-
veral others on clover ley once plowed, as well as fonre
after turnips. The beft crops, however, produced in
this, or perhaps in any other diftrift, are after fum-
mer fallow. The time of lowing is the month of Oc¬
tober, little being fown before Michaelmas ; and in a
favourable feafon, little after the clofe of the month.
Much feed is fown here without preparation. When
any is made ufe of, it is the common one of brine can¬
died with lime. The produce is very great, the me¬
dium being full three quarters per acre, fometimes
four or,five; and one farmer, in the year 1784, had,
on 50 acres of land together, no lefs than 45 bufhels
30 per acre.
'In the Vale In the Vale of Gloucefter, the cone wheat, a variety
«f Glouce- Gf the tnticum turgidum, is cultivated, as well as the 1am-
mas and fprkig wheats. It is not, however, the true
f cone wheat which is cultivated here, the ears being
; nearly cylindrical; ’but our author met with the true
'fpecies in North-Wiltfhire. Beans in this country are
the common predeceflors of wheat, and fometimes
peafe ; but here the farmers cultivate wheat upon every
fpecies of foil. The time of fowing is in November
, and December, and the feed is thought to be fown in
fufficient time if it is done before Chriftmas. In this
country it is thought that late fown crops always pro¬
duce better than thofe which are fown early ; but Mr
Marlhall accounts for this by the vaft quantity of weeds
the latter have to encounter, and which the late fown
crops efcape by reafon of the weaknefs of vegetation
at that time of the year. The produce, however,
throughout the Vale of Gloucefter, is but very indiffe¬
rent.— Setting of wheat is not pra&ifed, but hoeing
tiniverfally.—In harvefting, Mr Marfhall obferves, that
the grain is allowed to ftand until it be unreafonably
ripe, and that it is bound up into very fmall (heaves.
The praftice of making double bands is unknown in
71* this diftrift ; ffo that the (heaves are no bigger than can
SRemavk- be contained in the length of fingle draw. The in-
£il>ly fma.l convenjences of this method are, that the crop re¬
quires more time to ftook, load and unload, and (lack:
the advantages are, that the trouble of making bands
is avoided ; and that if rainy weather happens to inter¬
vene, the fmall (heaves dry much fooner than the large
ones. Here the crop is cut very high, the ftubble and
weeds being mown off in fwaths for litter foon after
the crop is cut; and fometimes fold as high as 53. per
acre.— Mr Marfhall is at a lofs to account for the little
quantity produced in this country; it being hardly
p • Jible to derive it from the nature of the foil, almoft
all of it being proper for the cultivation of the grain.
3* Among the Cotfwold hills of Gloucefter the 1am-
SoIcTmU^ mas an<^ ccne w^eats are f°wn 5 and a new variety of
the latter was raffed not long ago by picking out a
fingle grain of feed from among 3 parcel. The body
is very long and large, but not fightly.—The Cotf¬
wold hills,, are almoft proverbial for early fowing of
wheat. The general rule is to begin plowing in July,
and fowing the firft wet weather in Auguft; fo that here
IJ9-
the feed-lime and harveft of wheat coincide. If in Wheat,
confequence of this early'fowing the^dade becomes v-1
rank in autumn, it is fuppofed to be proper to eat it
down by putting a large flock of fheep upon it at once.
Eating it in fpring is confidered as pernicious. It is |
ufually weeded with fpud-hooks ; not hoed, as in the Infhnce of>
Vale. One inftance, however, is mentioned by our good efc
author, in which a very thin crop full of feed-weeds '
was hoed in autumn with uncommon fuccefs, occurred whcaf
in the praftice of a fuperior manager in this diftriift ;
as well as others in which wheat has been weeded in
autumn with great advantage. He alfo met with an¬
other well authenticated inftance of the good effedt of ^
cutting mildewed wheat while very green. “ A fine of cutting,
piece of wheat being lodged by heavy rains, and be- mildewed
ing (oon after perceived to be infe&ed with the mil- 'vvheat very
dew, was cut, though ftill in a perfectly green ftate : £reeB'
namely, about three weeks before the ufual time of cut¬
ting. It lay fpread abroad upon the ftubble until it
became dry enough to prevent its caking in the (heaf;
when it was bound and fet up in (hocks. The refult
of this treatment was, that the grain, though fmall,
was of a fine colour, and the heavieft wheat which
grew upon the fame farm that feafon; owing, no doubt,
to the thinnefs of its (kin. What appears much more
remarkable, the draw was perfedUy bright, not a
fpeck upon it.—In this part of the country, the pro¬
duce of wheat is fuperior to that in the Vale ; but Mr
Marfhall is of opinion, that the foil is much more fit
for barley than wheat. ^
In Yorkfhire, though generally a grafs-land coun- CultimfoJi
try, and whereof confequence corn is only a fecon-of wheat i*'
dary concern, yet feveral kinds of wheat are culti-YorJt^lirc* 1
vated, particularly Zealand, Downy Kent, Common
White, Hertfordjhire Brown, Yellow Kent, Common
Red. All thefe are varieties of winter wheat ; befides
which they cultivate alfo the fpring or fummer wheat.
Here our author makes feveral curious obfervations 1
concerning the railing of •varieties of plants. “ It *s'0bfcrva I
probable (fays he), that time has the fame effodt up-£;0II90n ra-
on the varieties of wheat and other grains as it has on fing va- j
thofe of cultivated fruits, potatoes, and other vegeta- rieties of j
ble produdtions. Thus, to produce an early pea, tire P'ants*
gardener marks the plants which open firft into bloffom
among the moft early kind he has in cultivation. Next
year he fows the produce of thofe plants, and goes o-
ver the coming crop in the manner he had done the
preceding year, marking the earlier of this early kind.
In a fimilar manner new varieties of apples are railed,
by choofing the broadeft leaved plants among a bed of
feedlings rifing promifeuoufly from pippins. Hulband-
men, it is probable, have heretofore been equally in-
duftrious in producing frefh varieties of corn ; or
whence the endlefs variety of winter wheats ? If they
be naturally of one fpecies, as Linnaeus has deemed
them, they muft have, been produced by climature,
foil, or induftry; for although nature fports with in¬
dividuals, the induftry of man is requifite to raife, efta-
blifh, and continue a permanent variety. The only
inftance in which I have had an opportunity of tracing
the variety down to the parent individual, has occurred
to me in this diftriift,—A man of acute obfervation,
having, in a piece of wheat, perceived a plant of un¬
common ftrength and luxuriance, diffufing its branches
on every fide, and fetting its clofely-furrounding neigh¬
bours
Sea. I. H U S B
Wheat, hours at defiance ; marked it, and at harveft removed
it feparately. The produce was 15 ears, yielding 604
grains of a ftrong-bodied liver-coloured wheat, diffe¬
rent, in general appearance, from every other variety he
had feen. The chaff was fmooth, without av^ns, and
of the colour of the grain ; the ftraw flout and reedy.
Thefe 604 grains were planted fingly, nine inches a-
funder, filling about 40 fquare yards of ground, on a
clover ftubble, the remainder of the ground being
fown with wheat in the ordinary way ; by which means
extraordinary trouble and deflrudlion by birds were a-
voided. The produce was two gallons and an half,
weighing 204 lb. of prime grain for feed, befides fome
pounds of feconds. One grain produced 35 ears, yield-
ing 1235 grains; fo that the fecond years produce was
fufficient to plant an acre of ground.—What deters far¬
mers from improvements of this nature is probably the
mifchievoufnefs of birds ; from which at harveft it is
fcarcely poffible to preferve a fmall patch of corn, ef-
pecially in a garden or other ground fituated near an
habitation ; but by carrying on the improvement in a
field of corn of the fame nature, that inconvenience is
got rid of. In this fituation, however, the botanifl
will be apprehenfive of danger from the floral farina
of the furrounding crop. But from what obfervations
I have made, I am of opinion his fears will be ground-
lefs. No evil of this kind occurred, though the cul¬
tivation of the above variety was carried on among
•white wheat. But this need not be brought as an evi¬
dence : it is not uncommon here to fow a mixture of
red and white wheats together ; and this, it is confi¬
dently afferted, without impairing even the colour of
either of them. The fame mode of culture is appli¬
cable to the improvement of varieties ; which perhaps
would be more profitable to the hulbandman than rai¬
ling new ones, and more expeditious.”
In Yorklhire a very Angular preparation of feed-
wheat prevails, wz. the fteeping it in a folution of arfe-
•wkh arfe- n[c^ as a preventative of fmut. Marlhall was informed
by one farmer, that he had made ufe of this prepara¬
tion for 20 years with fuccefs, having never during
that long fpace of time fuffered any fenfible injury
from fmut. Our author feems inclined to believe the
efficacy of this preparation ; but thinks there may be
fome reafon to apprehend danger^in the ufe of fuch a
pernicious mineral, either through the careleflhefs of
fervants, or handling of the feed by the perfon who
fows it. The farmer above mentioned, however,
during all the time he ufed it, never experienced any
inconvenience either to himfelf, the feedlman, or even
to the poultry ; though thefe laft, we Ihould have
thought, would have been peculiarly liable to accidents
from arfenicated feed.—The preparation is made by
A N D R Y. 7+J
manner as to faturate effe&ually the downy end of each Barley,
grain.—This done, and the liquor drawn off, the feed *—^r1^,
is confidered as fit for the feed-balket, without being
candied with lime, or any other preparation.—A
bulhel of wheat has been obferved to take up about a
gallon of liquor. The price of arfenic is about 6d.
per pound ; which on this calculation will cure four
quarters of feed. If no more than three quarters
be prepared with it, the coft. will be only a farthing
per bulhel ; but to this mull be added the labour
of pounding and boiling. Neverthelefs, it is by much
the cheapeft, and perhaps, upon the whole (adds Mr
Marlhall), the bell preparation we are at prefent ac¬
quainted with.—In this county it is believed that a
mixture of wheat and rye, formerly a very common
crop in thefe part?, is never affedted with mildew ; but
our author does not vouch for the truth of this afler-
37 t"
if wheat
: preparation is made by
pounding the arfenic extremely fine, boiling it in wa¬
ter, and drenching the feed with the decodlion. “ In
ilriftnefs (fays Mr Marlhall), the arfenic Ihould be
levigated fufficiently fine, to be taken up and walhed
over with water, reducing the fediment until it be fine
enough to be carried over in the fame manner. —The
ufual method of preparing the liquor is to boil one
ounce of white aifenic, finely powdered, in a gallon
of water, from one to two hours; and to add to the
deco&ion as much water or Hale urine as will increafe
the liquor to two gallons.—In this liquor the feed is,
or ought to be, immerged, ftiiring it about in fuch a
Voc. VIII. Part II.
Sect. II. Barley.
The county of Norfolk, according to Mr Marlhall, Cultivation
is peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of this grain, of barley in
the Itrongell foil not being too heavy, and the lighted. Norfolk,
being able to bear it; and fo well verfed are the Nor¬
folk farmers in the cultivation of it, that the barley
of this county is defired for feed throughout the whole
kingdom.—It is here fown after wheat or turnips ; and
in fome very light lands it is fown after the fecond
year’s lay.—After wheat, the feed-time of the latter
being finilhed, and the ftubble trampled down with
bullocks, the land is ploughed with a lhallow furrow
for a winter-fallow for barley. In the beginning of
March the land is harrowed and crofs-ploughed ; or if it
be wet, the ridges are reverfed. In April it receives an¬
other ploughing lengthways; and at feed-time it is har-
towed, rolled, fo wed, and the furface rendered as fmooth
and level as poffible.—After turnips the foil isbrokenup
as fall as the turnips are taken off; if early in winter
by rice-balking, a pra&ice already explained*; but if *Seen°it:
late, by a plain plowing. It is common, if time will
permit, to plough three times ; the firft ffiallow, the fe¬
cond full, and the third a mean depth ; with which
laft the feed is plowed in. Sometimes, however, the
ground is ploughed only once, and the feed fown above;
but more frequently by threeploughings, though perhaps
the farmer has not above a week to perform them in.
—After lay, the turf is generally broken by a winter
fallow, and the foil treated as after wheat.
This grain is feldom manured for, except when fown
after lay, when it is treated as wheat. No manure is
requifite after turnips or wheat, if the latter has been
manured for. If not, the turnip-crop following im¬
mediately, the barley is left to take its chance, unlefs
the opportunity be embraced for winter-marling. j
Little barley is fown by the Norfolk farmers be¬
fore the middle of April, and the feed-time generally
continues till the middle of May ; though this muft in
fome meafure depend on the feafon ; “ which (fays
Mr Marffiall) is more attended to in Norfolk than per¬
haps in all the world befide.” In the very backward
fpring of 1782, barley was fown in June with fuccefs.'
No preparation is ufed. It is all fown broad-caft, and
almoft all under furrow; that is, the furface having
been fmoothed by the harrow and roller, the feed is
5 ^ fown
746
H U S B A
Barky, fowfl and plowed under with a (hallow furrow ; but if
——  1 the feafon be wet, and the foil cold and heavy, it is
fometimes fown above ; but if the fpring be forward,
and the laft piece of turnips eaten off late, the ground
is fometimes obliged to be plowed only once, and to
be fown above; though in this cafe Mr Marfhall thinks
it the moft eligible management, inftead of turning
over the whole thicknefs of the foil, to two-furrow it,
and fow between. This is done by only (kimming the
furface with the firft plough, fowing the feed upon
this, and then covering it with the bottom-furrow
brought up by the fecond plough. Three bufhels are
ufually fufficient for an acre.
The barley, as well as the wheat, in Norfolk, is al¬
lowed to (land till very ripe. It is univerfally mown
into fwath, with a fmall bow fixed at the heel of the
fcythe. If it receive wet in the fwath in this country,
it is not turned, but lifted; that is, the heads or ears
are raifed from the ground, either with a fork or the
teeth of a rake, thereby admitting the air underneath
the fwaths ; which will not fall down again to the
ground fo clofe as before, fo that the air has free ac-
cefs to the under fide : and this method of lifting is
fuppofed not to be inferior to that of turning, which
requires more labour, befides breaking and ruffling the
fwaths.
In the Vale I" the Vale of Gloucefter the quantity of barley cul-
»f Gloucef tivated is very inconfiderable ; the only fpecies is the
*r. common long-eared barley, hordeum vkocriton. In this
county the grain we fpeak of is ufed, on the every
year’s lands, as a cleanfing crop. It is fown very late,
viz. in the middle or end of May; fometimes the be¬
ginning or even the middle of June. The reafon of
this is, that the people of the Vale think, that if a week
or ten days of fine weather can be had for the opera¬
tion of harrowing out couch,’ and if after this a full
crop of barley fucceed, efpecially if it (hould fortunate¬
ly take a reclining pofture, the bufinefs of fallowing is
efteftually done, infomuch that the foil is cleaned to a
fufficient degree to laft for a number of years. A great
quantity of feed is made ufe of, viz. from three to
four bufhels to an acre; under the idea, that a full
crop of barley, elpecially if it lodge, fmothers all kinds
of weeds, couch-grafs itfelf not excepted. Our author
acknowledges this efftft in fome degree, but does not
recommend the pra&ice. “ If the land (fays he) be
tolerably clean, and the feafon favourable, a barley
fallow may no doubt be of effential fervice. But there
is not one year in five in which even land which is to¬
lerably clean can be fown in feafon, and at the fame
time be much benefited by it for future crops.” The
barley in this county is all hand-weeded. It is harveft
ed loofe, mown with the naked fcyihe, lies in fwath
till the day of carrying,, and is, cocked with common
hay forks. The medium produce is three quarters per
acre. Its quality is preferable to that of the hill-
barley.
f^0. The common long eared fpecies is fown among the
wold?1 Cotfwold hills. It is fown in the latter end of March
and beginning of April, in the quantity of three bufhels
to an acre, producing from 20 buffiels to four quarters
to an acre; “ which (fays our author) is a low pro¬
duce. It muft be obferved, however, that this produce
is (rom land deficient in tillage ; and that bailey de¬
lights in a fine pulverous tilth.”
N D R Y.
Part I.
In the Midland diftrift they cultivate two fpecies of Barley.
barley, viz. the zeocriton or common long eared, and ' v '■*
the dijlichon or fprat barley; the latter not being of [n ^MiaU
more than 50 years (landing, but the former of much land di¬
dder date. The fprat is the more hardy, and requireslhi#.
to be more early fown; but the long ear yields the
better produce. It fucceeds wheat and turnips ; but
on the ftrong lands of this diftridl, the crop after wheat
is much lefs produftive, as well as lefs certain, than af¬
ter turnips; which circumftance is likewife obftrved in
Norfolk. It is fometimes alfo fown with fuccefs upon
turf. When fown after wheat, the foil is winter-fal¬
lowed by three ploughings; the firft lengthways in No¬
vember ; the fecond acrofs in March; the laft, which
is the feed-plowing, lengthways. Between the two
laft ploughings the foil is harrowed, and the twitch (ha-
ken out with forks; after which it is left loofe and
light to die upon the furface, without being either
burnt or carried off. After turnips the foil has com¬
monly three ploughings; the reafon of which is, that
the turnips being commonly folded off with (heep, the
foil, naturally of a clofe texture, receives a (till greater
degree of compa&nefs, which it is proper to break
down, and render it porous. The feed-time is the
two laft weeks of April and the firft of May; from
two buffiels and a half to three buffiels an acre, fome-
times even as much as four buffiels ; the produce very
great, fometimes as high as feven or even eight quar¬
ters an acre ; but the medium may be reckoned from
four to four and an half quarters. Mr Marffiall re-p ,42
marks, that the culture of barley is extremely diffi- baHeydifi^-
cuk. “ Something (fays he) depends on the naturecult.
of the foil, much on the preparation, much on the fea-
fon of fowing, and much on harvefting. Upon the
whole, it may be deemed, of corn-crops, the moft,diffi¬
cult to be cultivated with certainty.”
In Yorkffiire there are four kinds of barley culti- [n ytak-
vated, viz. the zeocriton or long-eared ; the d'flichon (hire,
or fprat; the vulgare, big, four-rowed or fpring-
barley ; and the bexajlichon, fix-rowed or fpring-bar¬
ley. The firft and third forts are principally cultiva¬
ted ; the winter-bat ley is as ye* new to the diftridl.
Battledoor-barky was formerly very common, but is
now aknoft entirely difufed. Mr Marffiall obferves,..
that lefs than a century ago, barley was not faleable
until it was malted; there were neither maltfters nor.
public houfes, but every farmers;malted his own grain,
or fold it to a neighbour who had a malt-kiln. Brakes
cut from the neighbouring commons were the fuel
commonly ufed upon this occafion, and a certain day
for cutting them was fixed, in order to prevent any
one from taking more than his (hare. The cafe is now
totally reverfed; even public malt-houfes being unr
known, and the bufinefs of malting entirely performed:,
by maltfters, who buy the barley from the farmer, and
fell him what malt he may want for his family.
Sect. III. Oats.
In Norfolk this kind of grain is much lefs cultiva- Norbik
ted than barley; and the only fpecies obferved by culti va»
Mr Marffiall is a kind of white oat, which grows quick- tion of:
ly, and feems to be of Dutch extraftion. They areoat8,
cultivated occafionally on all kinds of foils; but more
dpecially on cold heavy land, or on very light, unpro-.
dufti.ve^
Sea. III. HUSBANDRY. 747
Oats, du&ive, heathy, foils. They moft frequently fucceed ning of April, from four to feven bufhels an acre ; Peafe.
wheat or lay-ground barley: “ but (fays our author) the produce is in proportion to the feed, the medium
there are no eftablifhed rules refpefting any part of the being about fix quarters.
culture of this time-ferving crop.” The culture of
the ground is ufually the fame with that of barley; the
ground generally undergoing a winter fallow of three
or four ploughings, though fometimes they are fown
after one ploughing. They are more commonly fc
In York (hi re the Friezeland oats are likewife pre- InYork-
ferred to the Poland, as affording more draw, and be-
ing thinner fkinned than the latter. Tho Siberian, or
Tartarian oat, a fpecies unnoticed by Linnaeus, is
likewife cultivated in this country : the reed oat is
above furrow than barley. The feed-time is made known, but has not yet come into any great eftima-
46
Wild o
fubfervient to that of barley, being fometimes fooner
and fometimes later than barley feed-time : and Mr
Marfhall obferves, that he has fometimes feen them
fown in June ; it being obfervable, that oats fown late
ripen earlier than barley fown at the fame time. The
quantity of feed in Norfolk is from four to five bufhels
per acre ; but he does not acquaint us with the pro-
Method of duce. He mentions a very Angular method of culture
ploughing fometimes praftifcd in this county, vi%. ploughing down
down oats, the oats after they begin to vegetate, but before they
have got above ground ; which is attended with great
fuccefs, even though the ground is turned over with a
full furrow. By this method weeds of every kind are
deftroyed, or at leaft checked in fuch a manner as to
give the crop an opportunity of getting above them;
and the porofity communicated to the foil is excellent¬
ly well adapted to the infant-plants of barley; which
probably might frequently receive benefit from this
operation.
In the Vale of Gloucefter, Mr Marlhall obferves,
that the wild oat is a very troublefome weed, as well
the Va!e . fas ;n Yorklhire; and he is of opinion, that it is as
iouce er. trujy. a nat;ve Qf Great Britain as any other arable
weed, and is perhaps the molt difficult to be extir¬
pated. It will lie a century in the foil without lofing
its vegetative quality. Ground which has lain in a
ftate of grafstime immemorial, both in Gloucefter and
Yorkftiire, has produced it in abundance on being
broken up. It is alfo endowed with the fame feem-
ingly inftin&ive choice of feafons and ftate of the foil
as other feeds of weeds appear to have. Hence it is
exceffively difficult to be overcome; for as it ripens
Before any crop of grain, it (beds its feed on the foil,
where the roughnefs of its coat probably fecures it
from birds. The only methods of extirpating this
plant are fallowing, hoeing, and handweeding, where
the laft is pra&icable, after it has Ihot its panicle,
©at^nnt No oats are cultivated in the Vale of Gloucefter;
cultivated though the wild oat grows every where as already faid.
ir the Vale Mr Marftiall is of opinion that it is better adapted to
ofGloucef-oats thgn t0 barley. The reafon he affigns for the
tcr' preference given to the latter is, that in this part of
the country the monks were formerly very numerous,
who probably preferred ale to oaten cake.—He now,
however, recommends a trial of the grain on the ftrong-
tion. The grain is light, and the ftraw too ready to
be affe&ed by cattle.
Oats are particularly cultivated in the weftern divi-
fion of the Vale of Yorklhire ; where the foil is chiefly
a rich fandy loam, unprodudliVe of wheat. Five or
fix bufhels, or even a quarter of oats, are fometimes
fown upon an acre ; the produce from feven to ten
quarters.—In this country they are threfhed in the singular
open air, and frequently even upon the bare ground, method of
without even the ceremony of interpofing a cloth. The dirdhing,
reafons affigned for this feemingly ftrange pradtice are,
that if pigs and poultry be employed to eat up the
grain which efcapes the broom, there will be little or
no wafte. Here the market is always very great for
new oats, the manufafturing parts of Weft Yorkfhire
ufing principally oat-bread. The only objedkion to
this pradtice is the chance of bad weather; but there
is always plenty of ftraw to cover up the threftred corn,
and it is found that a little rain upon the ftraw does
not make it lefs agreeable to cattle.
In an experiment made by Mr Bartley near Briftol, £«/£ Pa-
upon black oats, we are informed that he had the pro-/*”* v°h
digious increafe of 98J Winchefter bufhels from fourP"*81’
on the acre : the land was a deep, mellow, fandy Experiment
loam. It had carried potatoes the former year, and on black
received one ploughing for a winter fallow. Another
ploughing was given it in February, and the feed was
fown on the 27th and 28th of the month. The fuccefs
of the experiment was fuppofed to be owing partly to
the early|fowing and partly to a good deep tillage.
Sect. IV. Peafe.
In the Bath Papers, vol. i. p. 148. we have an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of an experiment by Mr Pavier
near Taunton, on fowing pcafe in drills, a method men¬
tioned under the article AgricCi.ture, n° 150. The 5*
fcale on which this experiment was made, however,0n fettiag
being fo fmall, it would perhaps be rafh to infer from in
it what might be the event of planting a large piece ”
of ground in the fame manner. The fpace was only
16 fquare yards, but the produce fo great, that by cal¬
culating from it, a ftatute acre would yield 600, or at
the leaft yco pecks of green peafe at the firft gathering;
which, at the high price they bore at that time in the
er cold lands in the area of the Vale, as they feldom county about Taunton, viz. i6d. per peck, would
can be got fufficiently fine for barley. The fodder
from oats he accounts much more valuable than that
from barley to a dairy country ; and the grain would
more than balance in quantity the comparative diffe¬
rence in price.
In the midland diftrift the Poland oat, which was
In the Mid- formerly in vogue, has now given place to the Dutch
(and di orkind. It is conftantly fown after turf;
one ploughing being'given in February, March, or April.
The feed-time is the latter end of March and begin-
<»•■
have amounted to 33I. 6s. 8d. On this the Society
obferve, that though they doubt not the truth of the
calculation, they are of opinion, that fuch a quanti¬
ty as 500 or 600 pecks of green peafe would immedi¬
ately reduce the price in any country maiket. “ If
the above-mentioned crop (fay they) were fold only at
nipe pence per peck, the farmer would be well paid
for his trouble.” In a letter on the drill hufbandry by
Mr Whitmore, for which the thanks of the fociety
were returned, he informs us, that drilled peafe muft
5 A 2 not
'748
Peafe muft
it be
fown too
often on
the lame
fpot.
f See Agri-
Mr Mar-
fcall’s ob-
ffexvations.
H U S B A
not be fown too thin, or they will always be foul; and
in an experiment of this kind, notwithtlanding careful
hoeing, they turned out fo foul, that the produce was
only eight bufhels to the acre.—From an experiment
related in the 5th volume of the fame work, it appears
that peafe, however meliorating they may be to the
ground at firft, will at the laft totally exhauft it, at
leaft with regard to themfelves. In this experiment
they were fown on the fame fpot for ten years running.
After the firft two years the crop became gradually
lefs and lefs, until at laft the feed would not vegetate,
but became putrid. Strawberries were then planted
without any manure, and yielded an excellent crop.
On the Norfolk culture of peafe*, Mr Marlhall
makes two obfervations. “ Lays are feldom ploughed
more than once for peafe ; and the feed is in general
dibbled in upon the flag of this one ploughing. But
ftubbles are in general broken by a winter fallow of
three or four ploughings; the feed being fown broad-
caft, and ploughed in about three inches deep with the
laft ploughing.”—In the Vale of Gloucefter they are
planted by women, and hoed by women and children,
once, twice, and fometimes thrice; which gives the
crop, when the foil is fufficiently free from root-weeds,
the appearance of a garden in the fummer time, and
produces a plentiful crop in harveft. The diftance
between the rows varies from to to 14 inches, but r2
may be confidered as the medium ; the diftance in the
rows two inches. In the Cheltenham quarter of the
diftrift, they fet the peas not in continued lines, but
in clumps; making the holes eight or ten inches di-
ftant from one another, putting a number of peafe in¬
to each hole. Thus the hoe has undoubtedly greater
freedom ; all the difadvantage is, that in this cafe
the foil is not fo evenly and fully occupied by the roots
as when they are difpofed in continued lines.—In
Yerklhire it is common to fow beans and grey peafe
together, under the name of blendings ; and fometimes
fitches (probably, fays Mr Marlhall, a gigantic varie¬
ty of the ervum lens) are fown among beans. Such
mixtures are found to augment the crop, and the dif¬
ferent fpecies are eafily feparated by the fieve.
Thefe are the moft remarkable particulars concern¬
ing the culture of corn not taken notice of under Agri¬
culture : but befides that kind of vegetables called
Grain, there is a number of others very important
both for the ufe of men and cattle, of which we muft
now treat particularly.
N D R Y.
Sect. V. Potatoes.
Are not
prejudicial
to man¬
kind.
neral ufe of potatoes in our own country has at all itn- Potato*
paired either the health of body or vigour of mind of —v”“
its inhabitants. The queftion then, as they have al¬
ready been fliown to be an excellent food for cattle,
comes to be merely with regard to the profit of culti¬
vating them; and this feems already to be fo well de¬
termined by innumerable experiments, as well as by
the general praftice of the country, that no room ap¬
pears left for doubt. In the Tranfaftions of the Socie¬
ty for the encouragement of Arts, a number of experi- Mr
ments are related by Mr Young on that kind called the Young’s
dujlered or hog potato, which he ftrongly recommends experi-
These, next to the different kinds of grain, may
be looked upon as the crop moft generally ufeful for
the hufbandman ; affording not only a moft excellent
food for cattle, but for the human fpecies alfo ; and
are perhaps the only fubftitute that could be ufed for
bread with any probability of fuccefs. In the anfwer
by Dr Tiffot to M. Linguet already mentioned, the
former obje&s to the conftant ufe of them as food ;
not becaufe they are pernicious to the body, but he-
caufe they hurt the faculties of the mind. He owns,
that thofe who eat maize, potatoes, or even millet, may
grow tall and acquire a large fize ; but doubts if any
fuch ever produced a literary work of merit. It does
not, however, by any means appear, that the very ge-
or other more expenfive kinds. The following is the
refult of the moft remarkable of his experiments. tato.
In the firft week of March 1780, two acres and a
quarter of barley ftubble were fown with the duller
potatoe, which appeared on the 23d of May. A lharp
froft on the 7th of June turned them as black as they
ufually arc by the frofts of November and December.
In time, however, they recovered; and by the end of
October produced 876 bulhels from the 2|- acres ;
which, when cleaned, were reduced to 780, or 350
bulhels per acre ; thus affording, when valued only at
6d. per bufhel, a clear profit of 7 1. 14s. 4d. per acre.
The experiment, however, in his opinion, would have
been ftill more profitable, had it not been for the fol¬
lowing circumftances. 1. The foil was not altogether
proper. 2. The crop was grievoufly injured by the
froft already mentioned, which, in our author’s opi¬
nion, retarded the growth for about fix weeks. 3. The
dung was not of his own raifing, but purchafed; which
cannot but be fuppofed to make a great difference, not
only on account of the price, but likewife of the qua¬
lity, as happened to be the cafe at prefent. He is of
opinion, however, that potatoes, at leaft this kind of
them, are an exhaufting crop. Having fown the field
after this large crop of potatoes with wheat, his neigh¬
bours were of opinion that it would be too rank ; but
fo far was this from being the cafe, that the wheat
fhowed not the leaft fign of luxuriance, nor the leaft
fuperiority over the parts adjacent which were fown
without dung. He was willing to account for this by
the poverty of the dung, and the fevere cropping which
the ground had undergone while in the poffeffion of
the former tenant. In another experiment, however,
in which the ground had been likewife exhaufted by
fevere cropping, the fucceeding crop of wheat Ihowed
no luxuriance ; fo that the former fufpicion of the ex¬
haufting quality of the clufter-potato was rather con¬
firmed. The ground was a fine turnip loam ; but
though the produce was even greater than in the for¬
mer cafe, viz. jybbulhels from an acre, the profit was
much lefs, viz. only 4I. 15s. 6d. An acre of ley-
ground was fown at the fame time with the turnip-
loam, but the produce from it was only 200 bufliels.
Mr Young fuppofes that the produce would have been
greater if the potatoes had been planted with an iron
dibble, as the turf, in ploughing, lay too heavy upon
the feed. A few rows of other potatoes, planted a-
long with tile cluftered kind, did not vegetate at all;
which ftiows that the latter have a more powerful ve¬
getative faculty,
Having fucceeded fo well with his experiments on
this kind of potato hitherto, Mr Young determined to a laruer
try fcate.
Sea.V. HUSBANDRY. 749
Potatoes, try the culture of them upon a larger fcale; and there- to that difeafe.” Our author, however, does not look Potatoes.
fore, in the year 1782, fowed 11 acres: but beingob- upon this to be a fa& abfolutely eftabliflied ; though y~”"j
liged to commit the care of fowing them to an ignorant one inftance fell under his obfervation, in which its
labourer, his unikilfulnefs, together with the exceflive removal was in all probability owing to the introduc-
cold and moifture of that feafon, fo diminifhed the pro- tion of new varieties. It made its appearance between
duce, that he had only a Angle acre out of the whole. 40 and 50 years ago, and fpread in fome degre
This produced 180 bulhels, which yielded of clear
profit 41. 2s. 6d. From this experiment he draws the
following conclufions : 1. “ That the poor loam, on
„ over
the whole kingdom. In fome places it continued but
a fhort time, To that its effedls are aim oft forgotten.
It is feldom obvious at the firft coming up of the
which thefe potatoes were fown, will yield a crop of plant, but attacks them as they increafe in fize ; the
clufter-potatoes, though not of any other kind. 2. That entire top becoming dwarfiih and fhrivelled as if affefted
the manure for potatoes ought to be carted and fpread by drought or loaded with infects : they neverthelefs
upon all foils inclinable to wet before the planting fea- live and increafe, though flowly, in fize ; but the
fon, either in autumn preceding, or elfe during a roots are nnproduftive. Some crops have been almoft
hardfroft.” In 1783 he fucceeded ftill worfe; for ha- wholly deftroyed by this difeafe. In Yorkfhire the
ving that year fown three acres and a half, the profit Morelands are in a manner free from it, but the
did not exceed 1 ts.4d. per acre. The produce was about Vale is in fome meafure infedted. Plants procured
224 bulhels per acre. He gives tw'o reafons for the from the Morelands remain free from it in the Vale the
failure of this crop : 1. The cluftered-potato thrives firft year ; but, being continued, become liable to the
beft in wet years; but the fummer of 1783 was dry difeaCe. Where the attack has been partial, weeding
and hot. 2. The fpring froft, by interrupting the out the difeafed plants as they failed, is faid to have
hoeing, not only greatly raifed the expences, but ve- had a good effeft; and it is faid the Morelanders got
ry much injured the crop by encouraging the growth rid of the difeafe by this means. ^
of weeds. Barley was fown after the laft crop, and In Yorkfhire, fome intelligent hufbandmen are ac-Meth. d of
produced well: fo that our author thinks the potatoes quainted with the method of rafting potatoes from raifing va-
feem to be a better preparation for fpring corn than feed; which is as follows. “ In autumn, when the
wheat. His experiment in 1784 produced a clear apples are beginning to fall fpontaneoufly, they are 66 *
profit of 2 1. os. 4d. ; the produce being 250 bufhels gathered by hand, and preferved among fand until the
per acre. Still, however, an error was committed, by fp.ring, when they are mafiied among the fand or among
iploying an old man and woman to cut the fets ; by frefh mould ; feparating the feeds and mixing them
' ^ ’ ‘ evenly with the mould. As foon as the fpring froft s
are judged to be over, they are fown in fine garden
mould ; and as fall as the plants get into rough leaf,
and are ftrong enough to be handled without injury,
they are tranTplanted into another bed of rich mould
in rows, which are kept clean during fummer. In au-
whofe unfitilfulnefs there were many great gaps among
the potatoes as they came up ; fo that, on the whole,
g heteckons that he thus loft from 500 to 800 bufhels.
Conclufion On the whole, however, his opinion is favourable to
favourable the clufter-potato. “ With fmall crops (fays he),
to the cul- an(j at the iow rate 0f value which is produced by
fuming them at home, they are clearly proved to be a tumn, bunches of fmall potatoes are found at the roots
crop which will pay the expence of manuring, and ve- of thefe plants ; varying in fize, the firft year from an
ry ample tillage and hoeing. This is, after all, the hazel-nut to that of a crab. Thefe being planted next
chief objed of modern hulbandry; for if a man can fpring, produce potatoes of the middle fize; but
rely upon this potato for the winter confumption of they do not arrive at their fulleft bulk until the
his yard in fattening or keeping hogs, in feeding his third or fourth year. Where the ufe of the ftove or
horfes, and fattening his bullocks, he has made one of the garden frame can be had, this procefs may be
the greateft acquifitions that can be defired ; finee he fliortened. The feeds being fown within either of
can do all this upon land much too ftiff and wet for thefe early in the fpring, the plants will be fit to
turnips ; houfes his crops before the winter rains come
on ; and confequently without doing any of that inju¬
ry to his land which the turnip culture is known to en¬
tail, and from which even cabbages are not free.
Thofe who know the importance of winter-food on a
Mr Mar-
ihall’s re¬
marks.
be planted out as foon as the frofts are gone ; by
which means the fize of the roots will be much in-
creafed the firft year, and will in the fecond rife early
to perfe&ion.” ^
In the 4th volume of the Bath Papers, Dr AnderfonDr Amfer*
turnip farm, cannot but admit the magnitude of this relates fome experiments made on potatoes raifed fromfon’s ext’8->
objedl on wet foils.” feed. The firft year they were of different fizes, from riments*
Mr Marflrall, in his Rural Economy of Yorkftrire, a pigeon’s egg to that of a fmall pea. On planting
thefe next year, it was invariably found, that the lar-
geft potatoes yielded the largeft cyop ; and the fame
happened the third, when a few {bowed bloflbm ; but
not even thefe had bulbs equal to what would have
has feveral very interefting remarks on the potato. Its
varieties, he fays, are endlefs and tranfitory. The
rough-fltinned Ruflia potato, which was long a favour¬
ite of the Yorkfhire farmers, he is of opinion, has now
no longer an exiftence more than many others which been produced by very large potatoes. Whence he
flouriftied for a time. “ There is fome reafon to be- concludes, that it is impoffible to aflign any time in
lieve (fays he) that the difeafe which has of late years which thefe feedling potatoes will arrive at what is
been fatal to the potato crop in this and in other di- perfeBion; but that it muft depend very much
ftridta, under the name of Curlf.d tops, has arifen on the nature of the foil and the culture beftowed up-
from too long a continuance of declining varieties. Be on them. From the praftice of the Yorkftiire far-
this as it may, it appears to be an eftablifiied opinion mers, however, and even from the experiments of the-
here, that frejh •varieties, raifed from feed, are not liable Doctor himfelf, it is evident, that potatoes raifed fn
this.
75°
HUSBANDRY.
Part I.
_ Potatoes, this way will at laft grow to the ufual fize, as during inferior. The profit attending the cultivation of them, Carrot?.
J the three years in which his experiments were conti- however, appears to be much more doubtful than that v-
Whether nued they conftantly increafed in. bulk. Dr Ander- of potatoes. Mr Arthur Young informs us, that from 5ai;6
fbn likeun’fe rontenrla. that there ia no reafnn for fun. Wnnlen's Riim-H-unr'* T')',rk^,l . c __ /erj, VOl. U.
^otatoesde-fbn likewife contends, that there is no reafon for fup- Norderis Surveyor's Dialogue, pubhfhed in 1600, it ap-p^i
generates, pofing that potatoes raifed from bulbs in the ordinary pears, that carrots were commonly cultivated at that 64
way degenerate, or require to be renewed by feminal time about Orford in Suffolk, and Norwich in Nor- Much cul*
vacieties; and he inftances the univerfal pra&ice of Bri- folk ; and he remarks, that the trad of land between m,,
tain and Ireland for a great number of years paft. But Orford, Woodbridge, and Saxmundam, has probably part°of ^
this may be accounted for from an obfervation of Mr more carrots in it thart all the reft of the kingdom put Norfolk.
Marfliall’s, that varieties of potatoes, like thofe of corn, together.’' In 1779, few farmers in thefe parts had
are partial to particular foils and fituations. Hence, lefs than five or fix acres; many from 10 to 20 ; and
by tranfplanting all the different varieties of potatoes one had 3 6 acres: the ftraight, handfome, and clean roots
into all pofiible foils and fituations, as has been done were fent at 6d. J>er bafhtl to London ; the reft being
within this laft century in the iflands of Britain and ufed at home, principally as food for horfes. In other Why'the
Ireland, thefe varieties have continued for a much counties, he obferves, the culture of carrots has notcjlt«re has
longer time than they would otherwife have done. In extended itfelf; that fome have begun to cultivateuot.f end*
Yorkfhire, Mr Marftiall tells us, that “ the old favourite them in place of turnips, but have foon defifted ; fo that*4
forts were driven until fome of the individual plants the culture feems in a manner ftill confined to the angle
barely produced their feed again.” It is evident, of Suffolk, where it firft began. In attempting to in-
tberefore, that there is a neceffity from time to time veftigate the caufe of this general neglect, he obferves,
ef renewing them from feed ; though it deferves well that “ the charge of cultivation is not fo great as is
to be confidered whether it would not be more eligible commonly imagined, when managed with an eye to an
to choofe the feed from a plant in full vigour than from
that which is fo far degenerated that it can fcarce pro¬
duce its feed. “ Potatoes raifed from feed (fays
Mr Marlhall) are a mifcellany of endlefs varieties.
Sometimes thefe varieties are planted mifcellaneoufly ;
extenfive culture, and not a confined one for one or two
particular objedts.” Two acres which our author had
in carrots coft L. 3 : 17:6 per acre, including every
expence ; but had not the fummer been dry, he ob-
      r j , ferves, that his expences might have been much higher;
fometimes particular varieties are fele&ed. In felec- and when he tried the experiment 15 years before, his
ting varieties from feedling potatoes, two things are expences, through inadvertence, ran much higher. His
to be attended to ; the intrinfic quality of the pota- difficulty this year arofe chiefly from the polygonum avi-
to, and its produdlivenefs. If thefe two defirable culare, the predominant weed, which is fo tough that
properties xan be found in one plant, the choice is de- fcarcely any hoe can cut it. Some acres of turnip*
termined. To this fpecies of attention and induftry we which he cultivated along with the carrots were all
are indebted for the many valuable kinds which have eaten by the fly ; but had they fucCeeded, the expence
been and now are diftributed throughout the ifland. of the crop would have been 18s. 5d. iefs per acre than
It is obfervable, however, that varieties of potatoes, the carrots. “ But (adds our author) if we call the
like thofe of corn, are partial to particular foils and fuperiority of expence 20s. an acre, I believe we fhall
fituations. Hence the propriety of hufbandmen rai- be very near the truth: and it muft at once be apparent
fing potatoes from feed ; as by this means they ob- that the expence of 20s./>rr acre cannot be the caufe of
tain, with a degree of moral certainty, a fort adap- the culture fpreading fo little ; for, to anfwer this ex-
ted to their own particular foils and fituations. Who- pence, there are favourable circumftances, which muft
ever has attended clofely to the work of taking up po- not be^ forgotten. 1. They (the carrots) are much Infer^rjt
tatoes, muft have obferved the great inequality in the more impenetrable to froft, which frequently deftroysof carretf
produ&ivenefs of individual plants. The difference in turnips. 2. They are not fubjeft to the diltempers and to turnips,
the produce of adjoining roots, where ho difparity of accidents which frequently affe6t turnips ; and they are
foil can influence, will fometimes be three or four fold, fown at a feafon when they cannot be affe&ed by
Hence it is evident, that each variety has its/a^-wfl- drought,whichfrequently alfo deftroys turnips. 3. They
rieties; through whofe means it can hardly be doubted laft to April, when ftock, and efpecially fheep-farmers
the parent variety may be improved, and its continu- are fo diftreffed, that they know not what refource to
ance be prolonged. Thus the farmer has another provide. 4. The culture requifite for turnips on a fan-
mean in his power of improving the quality and pro- dy foil, in order to deftroy the weeds, deftroys alfo its
du&ivenefs of his potatoe-crop, by improving varieties'; tenacity, fo that the crop cannot thrive ; but with car¬
er, in other words, felefling fub-varieties, fuperiorly rots the cafe is otherwife.—Hence it appears, that the
adapted to his foil and fituation.” reafon why the cultivation of carrots is ftill fo limited,
With regard to the proper mode of cultivating this does not arife from the expence, but becaufe the value
valuable root, it is fo fully explained under the article not afcertained. In places where thefe roots can be^u-67.
Agriculture, n° 158 ye$r. that nothing farther fent to London, or fold at a good price, the tops being
feems requifite to be faid upon it in this place. We ufed as food for cattle, there is not the leaft doubt that ing the va-
Ihall therefore proceed to they are profitable; and therefore in fuch places they are lue*
generally cultivated : but from the experiments as yet
Sect. VI. Of Carrots. laid before the public, a fatisfa&ory decifive knowledge
of the value is not to be gained. The moft confider-
These have been greatly recommended as food for able pra&ice, and the only one of common farmers
cattle, and in this refpedt bid fair to rival the potato ; upon a large fcale. is that of the fands of Woodbridge:
though, with regard to the human fpecies, they are far but here they have the benefit of a London mar .u, <13
4 already
Sea. VI. H U S B
Carrots, already mentioned. Amongft thofe whofe experiments
*ij,j arepubliftied,Mr Billingfley ranks foremoft. Herejagain
the value of carrots is rather depreciated than advan¬
ced ; for he railed great crops, had repeated experience
upon a large fcale of their excellence in fattening oxen
and flieep ; feeding cows, horfes, and hogs; and keep¬
ing ewes and lambs in a very fuperior manner, late in
the fpring, after turnips were gone : but notwithftand-
ing thefe great advantages, he gave the culture up;
from which we may conclude a deficiency in value. “ In
feveralexperiments(though notaltogetber determinate),
I found the value, upon an average of all applications,
to be 13d a bulhel, heaped meafure; eftimating which
at 70 lb. weight, the ton is L. 1, 148.” The following
A N D R Y. 7S,
put up, they will be completely fattened in too Carrots
days. At this rate, 20 wethers will, in too days,
eat 11 tons, or very little more than'one moderate acre.
Now, let it be remembered, that it is a good acre of
turnips which will fatten eight fuch wethers, the com¬
mon Norfolk calculation : from which it appears, that
one acre of carrots are, for this purpofe, of more value
than two of turnips.—Further, let us fuppofe horfes fed
with them inftead of oats: to top, cart, and pack up,
10 tons of carrots, I know may be done for 20s.—an
acre, therefore (other expences included )cofts L.5 Fif¬
ty pounds weight of carrots are an ample allowance for a
horfeaday: ten tons, at that rate, lafl three horfes
for five months. But this L. 5 laid out in oats at
are. the valuations of feveral gentlemen of the value of 16s. per quarter, will purchafe little more than fix
carrots in the way of fattening cattle 1
Mr Mellilh of Blyth, a general valuation of
horfes, cows, and hogs, L. 1
Mr Stovin of Doncafter, hogs bought lean,
fatted, and fold off, - 4
Mr Moody of Rat ford, oxen fatted, and the
account accurate, - - i
Mr Taylor of Bifrons, faving of hay and
corn in feeding horfes, - - 1
Mr Le Grand of Afh, fattening wethers, c
Sir John Hoby Mill of Bifham, fattening
hogs, - - . . ]
Mr Billingfley, for fattening hogs, - ]
quarters; which will laft three horfes, at two buflicls
per ton. each per week, no more than two months j a moft enor¬
mous inferiority to the carrots.” 69
00 In the fame volume, p. 187. Mr Young gives an ac- Experimen®
count of another experiment made by himfelf on the
o o feeding of lambs with carrots. The quantities they eat thTmlWlt<*
varied exceflively at different times; thirty-fix of them
o o confumed from five to ten bufhelsper day ; but on an
average, he rates them at four bufhels of 56 pounds per
o o day. In all they confumed 407 bufhels fronj Novem-
13 9 ber to April, when they were fold and killed fat. At
putting upon the carrots, the lambs were valued only at
6 o L. 18, but were fold in April at L.25, 4s. ; fo that the
13 6 value of the carrots was exaftly L.7,4s. or about 4d.
per bufhel. This price he fuppofes to be fufficient to
induce any one to attempt the culture of carrots, as
thus he would have a clear profit of 40s. per acre
“ which (fays he) is greater than can attend the befl
wheat crops in this kingdom.” The land on which the
carrots grew was fown next year with barley, and pro¬
duced the cleaneft in the parifh ; which contradi&s an
affertion our author had heard, that carrots make land'
foul. The grafs upon which the fheep were fed with
the carrots, and which amounted to about an acre, was
very little improved for the crop of hay in 1781, owing
to the drynefs of the feafon ; but in 1782 was greatly
fuperior to the reft of the field, and more improved in
Some other gentlemen whom our author con fulled,
could not make their carrots worth any thing : fo that,
on the whole, it appears a matter of the utmoft doubt,
fo contradidory are the accounts, whether the culture
of carrots be really attended with any profit or not.
Thus Sir John Mill, by fattening hogs, makes L. 1, 6s.
and Mr Stovin L.4; but others could not fatten hogs
upon them at all: and fome of Mr Young’s neighbours
told him, that carrots were good for nothing except to
Jcour hogs to death. The experiment of Mr Le Grand
upon wethers appeared to be made with the greateft ac¬
curacy yet two circumftances feem to militate againft
it. 1. The fheep were put lean to them; whereas it is. quantity : “ for, inftead of an indifferent vegetation,
a fad will known, that if they are not half fat when put fcatiered thick with the centaurea fcabiofa, filago,
to turnips, no profit will refult; and it is poflihle that rhinanthus,. crifta galli, and linum catharticum, with
the cafe may be the fame with carrots, 2. He gave other plants of little value, it encouraged a very beau-
them alfo as much fine hay as they would eat. tiful fheet of the bed plants that can appear in a
New expe- In this uncertain flate of the matter, the only thing meadow, viz. the lathyrus pratenfis, achillea millefo-
Jriruents re- that can be done is to. make a number of experiments lium, trifolium repens, trifolium ochroleucrum, trifo-
commend- wJth as much accuracy as poffible, in order to afeertain lium alpeftie, and the plantago lanceolata.
’ the real value per ton : and our author endeavours to - - • - . _ . _
fliow, that there is no danger of lofing much by expe¬
riments of this kind. “ I have ftiown (fays he), that
they are to be cultivated for L.4 per acre, left on the
ground for fheep. Suppofe the crop only two bufhels
at 70 lb. each,/>er rod, 320 per acre, or ten tons
In the fame volume of the Bith Papers, p. 227, Mr Carrots
Billingfley gives an account of the comparative profit comPare^*
of carrots and cabbages. Of the formerj however, he^lth.ca45*
obtained only feven tons 15 cwt.^er acre ; .the cabbages ®
produced 36 tons: neverthelefs, according to him, the
profit of the former was L.5, 8s. ; of the latter, only
will readily be agreed, that fuch a produce is very low L.3, ns. In a paper on the culture of carrots by Mr
to calculate upon, fince 20 tons are common among Kirby.of Ipfwich, vol. 3. p 8ij.. he informs us, that he
carrot-cultivators. It appears from Mt Le Grand’s   J''*“—;““'1 -t---L- -£    1~— —1 
experiments, that a wether worth L.2, 5s. eats 16 lb.
of carrots, and four pounds of hay per' day : dropping
the hay, and calculating for flieep of lefsthan half that
fize (which arc much more common), it will be perhaps
an ample allowance to aflign them 12 lb. of carrots a
(day. If they are, as they ought to be, half fat when
never determined the weight of an acre, but reckons
the produce from 200 to 500 bufhels; which, at
56 lb. to the bufhel, is from five to ten tons and an
half. In the fame volume, p. 320, the Rev. Mr .On-
ley feems to prefer the culture of carrots to potatoes. Culture oil-
” However valuable (fays he), from eafe of culture, and carrots prs»
greatneis of produce to the poor, efpecialiy in all fmallferred to
{pots, potatoes*-
752
HUSBANDRY.
Parti.
Corots, fpots, I doubt, unlefs near great towns, whether, on a
 1 fanning plan, potatoes be fo eligible as other herbage
or roots ; efpecially as carrots, which I cannot but fur-
mife (for my trials are too trivial to venture bolder lan¬
guage), deferve every encouragement, even on foils hi¬
therto thought too heavy for them.—I am from expe¬
rience convinced, that an acre of carrots will double in
the quantum, of equally hearty provender, the produft
ol*an acre of oats; and from the nature of their vege¬
tation, the nice mode of cultivation, and even of taking
them up (all of which, expenfive as they are, bear a
very inferior proportion to the value of a medium crop),
muit leave the land, efpecially if taken off it in an early
period, fo mellow for the plough, as to form a feed-bed
for barley equal to any fallow-tilth.”
Mr Onley’s defideratum was a fubftitute for oats to
feed horfes ; of which great numbers are kept in his
county (Eflex). Potatoes, he obferves, are excellent for
fmall pork, when baked or boiled, mixed with a little
barley-meal; but for large hogs, they are moll profi¬
tably given raw, if thefe have at the fame time the
fhack of the barn door in threlhing feafon, &c. In
the 5 th volume he refumes the fubjeft, and acquaints us,
that he applied a fingle acre in his bean-field to the cul¬
ture of carrots, which generally produced 400 bufhels;
and this he confiders as a fmall produce. “ I am, how¬
ever, fenfible (fays he) that they will amply repay every
expence of the fineft culture ; and Ihould, from their ex-
tenfive utility on found, deep, and friable land, be eve¬
ry where attempted. Some of my neighbours, who
have been induced to try them on rather a larger fcale,
with finer culture, and frelher foil, have raifed from 600
to 900 bulhels/er acre, and applied them more profi¬
tably, as well as more generally, than any other winter-
7a herbage, to deer, fheep, bullocks, cows, and horfes.
Superior to ^ loweft calculation, from our little trials, they are
^“computed to exceed turnips in value one-third, as to
quantity of food ; but are far fuperior in what arifes
from convenience for the liable ; where to us they feem
to be a fubftitute for corn to all horfes, at leaft fuch as
are not ufed in any quick work; and partially fo with
corn for thofe that are.”
In making a comparifon betwixt the profit on oats
and carrots, Mr -Onley finds the latter exceed by no lefs
than L-2 : 15 : 8 per acre. His method of cultivation
is to fow them in March or April; to hoe them three
times, harrowing after each hoeing. Sometimes he
leaves them in the ground till after Chriftmas, taking
; them up as wanted ; but of late he takes them up in
jO&ober, in dry daysr putting them dire&ly into fmall
upright cocks of 10 bulhels each, covered entirely with
the tops cut off.—Thus they appear to dry better than
in any other way, and bear the weather with very little
lofs. If, after being thus dried, they are carried into
any barn or filed, it will be better, if they are in large
quantities, not to pack them clofe, on account of the
danger of heating, but rather to throw them promifcu-
oufly intp heaps, .with a little ftraw over them. When
perfedlly dry, they do not in general require any wafh-
ing, except for horfes regularly kept in the ftable.
Sect. VII. Turnips.
These have long been in fuch general ufe as food
for cattle, that the profit on raifing them might be re'a-
fonably thought to be altogether certain ; neverthelefs, Turnips.
Mr Young, in the paper already quoted, informs us,'■“■"'v'—-*'
that “ turnips dunged for are univerfally a lofing crop; The?3cuj
for if they are Hated from 30s. to 40s. an acre, ture gene.
their value does not amount to the dung alone which rallyattend-
is fpread for potatoes ; yet the latter pays that dung, allecl with
other expences, and leaves a profit fometimes confider-1,0
able. I admit that turnips fed upon the land will pre¬
pare better for corn ; but that is by no means the quef-
tion. Would not the dung raifed in the farm-yard by
the confumption of the potatoes, fuppofing it fpread on
the potato-acre, make that produce more than the tur¬
nip one ? I have no doubt but it would give a fuperi-
ority. But turnips are liable to great failures, and can¬
not be relied on late in the fpring; potatoes may ; and
are applicable to ufes to which the other root cannot be
applied.”—In the fecond volume of the Bath Papers* Compared
p. 1 o i. we have a comparative account of the value ofwith otljier
turnips, turnip-rooted cabbage, and lucerne, as food for
cattle. The refult of this writer’s obfervations is, that cattle.
“ when fheep are allowed as many turnips as they can
eat (which fhould always be the cafe when they are fat¬
tening), they will, on an average, eat near 20 pounds
each in 24 hours.—An acre of turnips twice hoed, will,
if the land be good, produce about 50 tons; which
will, on the above calculation, maintain 100 fheep 52
days. The fheep mentioned weigh 20 pounds/er quar¬
ter—An acre of turnip-rooted cabbage will maintain
100 fheep for a month, and fometimes five weeks ; but
an acre of Scots cabbages will maintain 200 fheep a
full month.” The number fed by lucerne is not deter¬
mined. ^
The greateft difadvantage which attends a crop ofThe fly oc-
turnips, is their being fo ready to be damaged by the cafion? the
fly, which fometimes deftroys them fo completely, thatgreat ,n'l
1 /xi/* • conveni-
tney mult be lown over again two or three times theencein tur-
fame feafon, and even this without any certainty of fuc- nip culture,
cefs. Innumerable methods of avoiding this evil have
been projefted, which may all be reduced to the fol¬
lowing claffes : 1. Steeping the feed in certain liquids.
2. Fumigation of the fields with the fmoke of certain
herbs. 3. Roiling. 4. Strewing foot, lime, afhes, &c.
on the furface of the ground. It is very difficult, how¬
ever, to determine, with any degree of certainty, whe¬
ther remedies of this kind are effeftual or not; becaufe
fometimes the turnips are not injured though no pre¬
caution has been made ufe of; and when this happens
to be the cafe, after the ufe of any fuppofed preven¬
tative, the prefervation of the crop is afcribed to the
ufe of that preventative, whether it be really efficacious 76
or not.—The virtues of fteeps feem to have been fully Whether
afcertained by Mr Winter Charlton near Briftol, of^eePsfor
whofe experiments an account is given in the Hanfac-
tions of the Society for Encouraging Arts, vol. 5. Theufe" any
feeds were of the Dutch kind, fowed on beds in the
kitchen-garden in drills about 12 inches diftant, an
inch and a half deep, on the 1 ith of May 1786. The
beds had been prepared with rotten dung in May 1785,
and afterwards fown with cabbages. The quality of the
turnips is exhibited in the following table ; the beft be¬
ing marked 1 ; and thofe of inferior quality, 2, 3, &c.
The obfervations were taken on the 26th of June.
Seed without any preparation,
fteeped in train-oil, flouriffied extremely,
fteeped in linfeed-oil, fomewhat inferior,
6
Seed
Sea. VII.
HUSBANDR Y.
751
Turnips. Seed mixed with foot and water, - - 2
1 v' - with drainings of a dunghil, - 2
with elder and barton draining, • 2
with foot, .... 3
with elder leaf juice, - - 3
with elder and barton draining, foot
being fowed over the covered drills, 3
with ditto, and lime fowed over the
drills, ... - 3
fowed with foot fcattered over, and then
covered, .... 3
with barton-draining, - - 4
an elder-bulh drawn over when the
plants appeared, - - 4
with ftale human urine, very few
plants appeared,
with flacked lime fcattered over, and then
covered, very few plants appeared,
with elder, barton-draining, and
flacked lime, very few plants ap¬
peared,
with lime and barton-draining did
not vegetate.
Another fet of experiments was made with the
green Norfolk turnip, drilled an inch and an half deep,
the rows one foot diftant, on beds eight feet three inches
long, and two feet wide ; half a drachm of feed allowed
for each bed, fteeped and mixed with various fubftances
like the former. The feeds were drilled upon un¬
manured ground on the 20th of June 1786, and the
obfervation made on the 17th of July. None of the
beds were found free from the ravages of the fly ; but
the feeds which had been fteeped in train-oil and lin-
feed-oil were much more free from this injury than the
others. The linfeed-oil, as in the former experiment,
was found inferior to the train-oil, which was fuppofed
to have been owing to its being kept in a bottle that
had formerly held oil of turpentine. The leaves of the
fteeped feeds were of a much darker green than the
others, appeared twice as thick in bulk and luxuriancy,
and the plants were confiderably larger than thofe of
the other kinds. The fubftances mixed with the reft
were foaper’s a flies, wood-afties, pounded gun-powder,
brimftone, flacked lime, foot, barton-draining; fome-
times mixed together in various proportions, and fome-
times with the addition of a portion of fifted mould.
Thefe experiments fliow, that no dependence can be
had on fteeps or mixtures of any kind with the turnip-
feed ; though the train-oil and linfeed-oil feem greatly
to have forwarded the vegetation of the plant. It does
, . not appear that fumigation f has ever b«en tried ; nor
tubule ^ does it feem eafy to be tried in fuch a manner
no 7g ’ as might enfure fuccefs.—In the fourth volume of the
77 Bath Papers, Mr Gullet of Devonfliire gives fuch di-
Mr Gul- reaions for performing the operation as he thinks would
tioni for*" produ&ive of fuccefs.—In a preceding paper he had
fumigation, explained the good effefts of fumigating orchards; but
the cafe with thefe muft be very confiderably different
from a field of turnips. The trees in an orchard are
elevated above the ground, and the fmoke naturally a-
fcends, and is blown along their tops : but in fumigating
a large field of turnips, it muft creep along the ground
in fuch a manner as is by no means agreeable to its na-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
ture ; and without an exceffive degree of labour, as well Turnips,
as a vaft quantity of burning materials, there cannot be J
the leaft hope of fuccefs. Mr Gullet’s direftions are as
follow : “ If the turnip-ground be fpaded and burnt, or
the weeds, &c. burnt without fpading, the fumigation
thereby may fuffice to chafe fuch of the winged tribe
from thence as are then there ; but in all cafes, when the
field is ploughed and ready for flowing, let heaps be
made at different places and intervals round by the
hedges and boundaries of the turnip-ground, and fome
few fcattered through the field ; then, as foon as the
feed is fown, let the heaps on the windward fide and
the fcattered ones be lighted and kept fmothering du¬
ring the continuance of the wind in that quarter ; the
lefs the fire, and the more the fmoke, the better. Should
the wind happen to Ihift, thofe heaps on the quarter it
ftiifts to muft then be lighted and kept fmothering in
like manner; fo that, during the growth of the tender
turnip leaf, and until it becomes rough and out of all
danger, this fumigation and fmoke, over and acrofs the
field, muft be continued from one quarter to the other;
which, I venture to affert, will effeftually deter and pre-
ventany winged infeft-tribe from approaching|the turnip-
ground ; nay more, if there already, it would moft com¬
pletely drive them from thence, as fuch delicately formed
infe&s (which can only feed on the moft tender leaf)
would be ill able to continue long in. fuch a fmother of
fire and fmoke. The confequence is obvious and cer¬
tain, that if the fly be kept from approaching the field,
the turnip-crop is fafe ; and few, I believe, will difagrec
with me, that prevention is better than remedy.”
Our author does not fay that he has ever tried this
method with turnips; but lays great ftrefs upon his fuc¬
cefs inafimilar experiment with cabbages, in order to pre-
ferve them from the caterpillar. To make the matter more
fure, however, he recommends the trailing of a buflr of
elder over the turnip field at the time of harrowing or
bruftiing in the feed : but this remedy has by numberlefs
experiments been found infignificant, and by thofe
above related leems even to be pernicious: fo that
whatever good effeds we can exped from this method,
muft depend on the fumigation alone ; and even this is
attended with very great uncertainties, as has already
been obferved.
. 7®
Rolling promifes to be of fervice when the young Of rolling,
turnips are attacked by fnails, who frequently deftroy
them ; but it cannot be fuppofed to have much effe£l
in deftroying flies, thefe being too numerous and too
minute to be effedually cruftied by the roller ; and in¬
deed, though this has been frequently recommended, we
have no decifive proofs of its having ever been attended
with any good effed.
The ftrewing of foot, lime, afties, &c. upon the
ground, have been determined ineffedtual by the expe¬
riments already related, at leaft when applied before
the turnips come up ; and there feems to be little hope
of their proving more effeftual even when applied after
the crop has appeared above-ground. We may argue
indeed a priori about the tafte or fmell of foot, lime,
&c. being difagreeable to infe&s ; but of this we have
no proof: and even though this were the cafe, the leaf
foon emerges from under this covering, or the infeds
will feed on the under part of the leaves, where thefe
fubftances cannot lie. It is evident, therefore, that very
5 B little
H U S B A
little can be expedled from any of the methods hitherto
propofed either by way of cure or prevention. The
more probable methods are,
x. To fow the turnips at fuch a feafon of the year
that they may be well grown before the fly makes its
.. appearance. In the Bath Papers, vol. iv. p. 132. Mr
Wimpey obferves, that, in order to procure food for
■ their cattle in the fpring before the grafs is grown, far¬
mers are obliged to poftpone the fowing of turnips be¬
yond the natural time of vegetation ; but were turnips
N D R Y.
Part I
of fowing four acres unmanured. The effedt was, that Turnipf.
the turnips on the manured part of the land were —v—*
moftly eaten off by the fly, while four acres unmanured
efcaped without injury.” In confequence of having
obferved this, the gentleman made a fimilar experi¬
ment, by manuring five acres well for turnips, and tilling
three acres and an half in the ufual way without any
manure. The manured crops were almoft all dellroyed
by the fly, fo that he was obliged to fow moll of the
land over again. The three acres and an half which
to be fown in April, as foon as the feafon would per- had no manure were entirely free from injury, though
mit, it is very probable that there would be as great a
crop of them as of other vegetables ufually fown in thefe
months. On account of the delay in fowing, however,
for the reafon already mentioned, the fuccefs of the far¬
mer becomes exceedingly precarious, unlefs he is fo for¬
tunate as to have a few rainy days, or cloudy weather
and frequent Ihowers, foon after the feed is fown : and
this our author fuppofes to be the true reafon why the
the plants were much fmaller than thofe of the manu¬
red ground which came up. Not content with this
trial, however, he repeated the experiment, by manu¬
ring fix acres of wheat tlubble in autumn, ploughing it
in immediately, and leaving it to incorporate with the
earth during the winter : the turnips which grew upon
this were as large as if the ground had been .manured
in the fpring. This experiment was repeated with fur-
turnip is a more uncertain article than any other. But prifing fuccefs in two fucceeding years; whence he in-
though fpeculations of this kind have a great Ihow of
probability, there is not any experiment hitherto pub-
lilhed, even by our author himfelf, by which the truth
of them can be abfolutely afcertained. Our author,
however, is of opinion, that none of the common me¬
thods propofed can anfwer any good purpofe, farther
than as by means of them the vegetation of the plant
may be invigorated. Mr Wimpey recommends alhes,
foot, or a rich compott of lime and dung, ufed in fuffi-
fers, that the fly is either engendered in the new dung
or enticed by it. But when the manure is laid on in
autumn it lofes its noxious qualities, though it Hill re¬
tains its nutritive ones.—This conclufion, however,
does not appear to be well founded ; for it is certain
from undoubted experience, that turnips which have
been well manured in the common way, have fome-
times efcaped any jnjury; while others, which have got
no manure at all, have been almoli totally deftroyed.
cient quantities ; but the method of ufing them is, either Another material advantage, however, which this cor-
So
Bowing a
great quan-
Sity of feed.
to fow them with the feed, or rather by themfelves im¬
mediately before, and to harrow them well in, that they
may be completely incorporated with the foil. This
for the moll part would fo invigorate and encourage the
growth of the plants, as to be an overmatch for the moft
vigorous attacks of the fly.
2. Another method propofed for fecuring turnips
from the fly, is by fowing fuch a quantity of feed as
will be more than fufficient for the confumpt of the in-
fedts. This we find recommended in a letter to the
Bath fociety by a gentleman-farmer in Efiex, vol. ii.
p. 238. His method is to make the land clean and
fine as Toon as the feafori will permit, and to fow four
pints jter acre. It may be objedled, that if the fly does
refpondent obferves is to be derived from manuring ii
autumn is, that all the feeds contained in the manure,
and which are of courfe carried on the land with it,
vegetate almoft immediately, and are moftly killed by
the cold of the fucceeding winter, while the few that
remain can fcarce efcape deftruftion from the plough-
flrare. ^
Mr Wimpey is alfo of opinion, that it is proper to Mr
fow a large quantity of feed; but thinks two pounds will pey’s opi-
be fufficient for an acre. .A few ounces indeed would »ion of
be fufficient to flock the land ; but as the article is f°
precarious, he thinks it by far the fafeft way to al- fity'offeed!
low feed in plenty, and reduce the plants afterwards
by harrowing. He obferves alfo, that it is of great
not take them, the plants will ftand fo thick, that they confequence to have feed both good in quality and of
cannot eafily be hoed ; but this may be obviated by har¬
rowing them firft, which will make them fit for the
hoe. There can be no expe&ation of a crop if the fly
takes them when only a pint of feed is fown per acre ;
but this gentleman remarks, that he has not in any one
ihftance miffed of a crop when he fowed four pints ; be-
caufe, though the fly has fometimes deftroyed more
the belt fpecies. He prefers the large and green top¬
ped, as being the moft fweet and juicy; others give
the preference to the red or purple-topped, as being
hardier : but at any rate, the feed from the largeft and gj
fineft tranfplanted turnips, of whatever fort, is greatly Of the
to be preferred, even though if fhould coil double or'l118'1^
treble the price. Such as is fold by the feedfmen inthe ee *
than one half, and much damaged the other, Hill there London he found generally of a mixed kind, and often
was a fufficient number left behind. He alfo agrees in great part not worth cultivating. “ Whether plants
with other of the Society’s correfpondents, that the from new or old feed are moft fecure from the depre-
greund fhould be well dunged and manured previous to dations of the fly (fays he), is perhaps a queftion which
St
Manuring
in autumn
preferable
to fpnng
the fowing of turnips, as this makes them grow vigo-
roufly, fo that they quickly get into the rough leaf, in
which ftate the fly will not touch them.
In the fame volume, a gentleman of Norfolk remarks,
that manuring the ground in autumn for turnips is pre¬
ferable to the doing fo in fpring. This difcovery be
made in confequence of the following accident.—-“ A
cannot be eafily determined even by experiments; for
concomitant circumftances are frequently fo much more
operative and powerful, as'to render the difference be¬
tween them, if there be any, imperceptible. It is, how¬
ever, known to every practical man, that new feed
fprouts or vegetates feveral days before old ; and I
think more vigoroufly : and it is equally well known,.
neighbouring farmer, not having a fufficient quantity of that the healthy and vigorous plants efcape the fly.
manure for all his turnip land, was under the neceffity
when the Hinted and fickly feldom or never efcape them.
It
Sea.Vil.
Turripf. It (hould feem then, that new feed, extent paribus, is
-—■/— more fecure frotn the fly than old} and for my own
ufe I would always prefer it.”
84. 3. The flowing of turnips along with other grain,
tutrups”^ —This, of all others, feems to be the mo ft eligible and
with other efficacious. In the fecond volume of Bath Papers,
HUSBANDRY. 7SS
as to have it expofed to frofta and fnoW by being laid Turnips,
up in high ridges in January and February ; but, on » '
Mr Anderdon’s plan, this cannot be done, unlefs the
turnips are leflened in value by being fed off in au¬
tumn. gg
Thefe ftrictures were fent to Mr Anderdon before Mr Ander-
the papers were printed, but did not make any altera- don’s reply.
p. 2xo. an Hertfordfhire correApcKident gives an ac¬
count of the fuccefs of an experiment of drilling tur- tion in his opinion ; and he replied to the following
nips with wheat. A fmall field of fpring-wheat was purpefe :
*5
With
wheat.
drilled in rows two feet apart; and in the month of
May turnips were flown by hand-in the intervals.
They came up very well, and were thinned once by the
hoe. The crop of wheat turned out better than ano¬
ther field of the flame foil flown broadcaft in autumn,
though it ripened fomewhat later. The turnips were no
other way injured by cutting it, than having fome of the
large leaves trodden down by the reapers. After har-
veft the weeds were cut up round the turnips with a
hand-hoe, and they grew very large and vigorous.
They were of the purple and white long kind, and the
crop proved nearly as good as the fame land produced
1. The fame foil cannot be proper for beans and turnips,
&c.—Granted. — But had Mr Anderdon adhered rigo-
roufly to this rule, he would have flowed no turnips at
all, not having on his farm any foil altogether proper
for that crop ; “ but (fays he) while I can get in
Angle rows, four feet afunder or more, from half a do¬
zen to half a fcore tons of turnips per acre, after, or ra¬
ther between, a crop of beans in my heavy lands, I (hall
feel that product here more beneficial than to drop
the mode. I believe the medium of the two, fo far
as I can judge by the eye or get information, to be
fuperior to the average produce of prepared fallow tur-
in common. An excellent crop of barley and clover nip crops in 10 miles round me.”—On this the Society
was got from the fame field afterwards.
I Mr Ander- In the thiid volume of the fame work we find an ac-
don’s expe- count of feveral fuccefsful experiments in flawing tur-
riments of njpS between rows Qf beans. The advantages of this crop would not have exceeded
them with method are ftrongly fet forth by R. P. Anderdon, Efq; nips ? We think they would,
beans. who made fome of the experiments, and are as follow:
“ 1. You may have a crop of beans and turnips on the
fame field the fame year. 2. The bean-crop being
make the following remark: “ The queftion here is.
Whether, if infteadof turnips, Mr Anderdon had planted
his beans two feet diftant only, the extra produce of his
value that of his tur-
thefe intervals would
freely admit his horfe-hoe between the beans.”
Mr Anderdon then proceeds to acquaint the com¬
mittee, that he had tried the experiment as they wifh-
well horfe-hoed, no ploughing is wanted for turnips, ed with Scotch cabbages inftead of turnips betwixt
for which the beft Norfolk farmers give five plough- the rows of beans ; but the crop of the turnips was fo
ings. 3. It is hoed cheaper, more effectually, and con- -much preferable, that he found himfelf inclined to fup-
fequently more profitably, than in any other way.
4. The ground is kept clean from weeds. 5. It is in
order for a Lent crop the fucceeding year with, one
earth. 6. The ground is kept in heart, if not impro¬
ved, by fallowing your alleys. 7. It brings the plant
to perfection in poor ground, where it would not be¬
come fo otherwife. 8. It doubles the crop in any
ground which Mr Anderdon has had experience of.
9. You have the crops more within your own power in
this than in any other method, let the feafons turn out
as they will. 10. You may have on the fame ground
a bean and turnip crop annually, if the land be fuit-
able, and you think proper. 11. The clay farmer, by
pofe the cabbage would not get to fo great perfection
there as to be profitably introduced on a large fcale,
for want of the great quantity of dung neceffary for
that crop, and which could not be procured in that
part of the country. He further remarks in favour
of turnips, that they have an abundance of very fmall
lateral fibrous roots, which run fo far in fearch of
food, and feed as ravenoufly where they can penetrate,
as thofe of almoft any other vegetable ; and the plant
certainly derives more nourilhment from thofe than
from its tap-root (a). Thofe fine fibrous roots, almoft
imperceptible to the eye, iffue chiefly from the apple
or body of the turnip, and get into the richeft part of
this mode, renders land which is naturally unfit for the foil near the furface, and will bring the plants to
turnips, fo free and open by feafonable horfe-hoeings,
„ that it will bring this ufeful plant to great perfection.”
Objections On this paper the fociety made fome remarks, and
by the Bath ftated the following objections : x. The fame foil can-
Society. not be proper for both crops. Scotch cabbages are
more adapted for a bean foil ; and they wifhed him to
repeat the experiment with cabbages inftead of turnips
betwixt his beans. 2. The Norfolk farmers rarely ufe
more than three ploughings for turnips, inftead of five,
as M3- Anderdon reprefents, unlefs the ground be full
of couch-grafs. 3. They think him too fanguine in
his expectations of having double crops on the fame
field. 4. Nothing renders a clay foil fo free and open
a confiderable magnitude in heavy lands adapted to
beans, when mellowed by the horfe-hoe. Some of his
turnips weighed ten pounds each : and if he could have
only two fuch turnips on every fquare yard, it would
be at the rate of 43 tons per acre.
2. The Committee doubt of the pojfbility of doubling the'
crop. Mr Anderdon gives the following explanation.
“ I have made many comparative trials on turnips be¬
tween this mode and broad call flowing, and always
found on my ground the horfe hoed crops the belt.
But here, in denoting the benefits of the horfe-hoe
by its doubling a crop, I wifti to be underftood, that if,
in foils like mine, a crop be drilled, leaving proper in-
5 B 2 tervals
(a) Here the Society remark, that this is not the cafe with thofe kinds of turnips which grow chiefly
above ground, and which are generally the beft crops, and moft capable of refilling the frofts.
HUSBANDRY. Partll,
tervala for horfe-hoeing, and one part be horfe-hoed with another, fu^ pofed to be as valuable as the quan- Turnipf.
the other not, the horfe-hoed part will double the tity of turnips that might be reafonably expe&ed in y*”—*
other in produdl.” the broad-caft method more than in the other, I fliould
Mr Anderdon, in the courfe of his reply to the not hefitate to declare in favour of drilling between the
committee, gives an account of another experiment beans.”
he made in confequence of being deficient in winter Thus far the argument feems to be carried on a
fodder for his cattle. By this neceffity he was induced priori. Mr Wimpey, in the letter already quoted,
to fow turnips wherever he could; and on the 18th inclines to the pradlice of fowing turnips between beans
of July drilled a fingle row between his drilled wheat, planted in rows. “ It exaftly correfponds (fays he)
On the 20th and 2zd of Auguft he drilled four rows with all my obfervations on the fuccefsful vegetation
of winter vetches in each interval between the turnips, of that root. A confiderable degree of moifture is-
at the rate of lefs than one peck and three quarters of neceffary to the rapid vegetation of that very juicy
feed to an acre. “ The turnip crop (fays he) is root, and nothing retains moifture equal to lhade ;
very acceptable, and my vetches fucceed beyond my and fhade can be obtained and fecured by no means
warmeft expeftation; are thick enough, and give me fo effeftually on a large fcale as in the intervals
the pleafing profpeft and hope, that I ftiall not, when of tall growing plants, as beans or wheat planted
my dry meat is gone, want a feafonable fupply of ear- in drills.” The fuccefs of Mr Bult of Kingfton
ly green fodder that will laft me till my lucerne comes near Taunton, leaves little room to doubt of the
on.” propriety of the method, and its fuccefs in preventing
This fubjedl is further confidered in the fame vo- the fly. The beans were planted in drills not quite two
• lume by Mr Pavier, who viewed Mr Anderdon’s tur- feet afunder, on two plowings, horfe-hoed three times,
nips, and gave in a report of them to the comrhittee. and the turnips fown in the intervals at the laft hoeing.
He fuppofes-a crop of beans drilled in fingle rows at The field meafured fix acres and a quarter, and was a
four feet diilance, and the turnips drilled in the inter- very good clayey foil, but had not been manured, nor
vals, according to Mr Anderdon’s method, there will had any drefling laid upon it for fix years before. It
then be four rows of 17 feet in length to make a fquare produced this year three quarters of beans per acre,
perch; whereas Mr Anderdon’s rows were only 15 and 37 tons 5 cwt. of turnips. This field was alfo
feet 8 inches in length ; and this difparity in length viewed by Mr Pavier, who makes the following ob-
will make a difference of weight on a perch from 230 fervations upon it. 1. The turnips were fown promif-
to 249 pounds, and on an acre from 16 tons 8 cwt. cuoufly among the beans at the laft hoeing, which
2 qrs. 8 1b. Mr Anderdon’s produce, to 17 tons 15 was given about midfummer ; from w'hich time nothing
cwt. 2 qrs. 24 lb.—Each turnip at this diftance (wz. was done but drawing off the beans and carrying them
four feet from row to row, and nine inches in the rows) off the land. 2. The crop of beans was believed to.
muft occupy a fpace of three fquare feet ; confequent- be confiderably above 20 bulhels per acre, which is
ly^the grtateft number produced on an acre muft be much more than were produced by any other method
14,520; but if fown in broadcaft, twice hoed, and the that feafon in the neighbouring part of the country:
diftance on an average 15 inches, each turnip will then and as Mr Pavier had this account before he faw the
occupy little more than one foot and an half, and the turnip ciop, he did not expedf any thing confiderable
number produced on an acre may be about 27,920 ; an from the latter ; but as it turned out, the produce muft'
excefs which may reafonably be fuppofed to overba- be accounted highly profitable, when we confider that,
lance the value of the beans, let us fuppofe the crop there was no crop loft, no preparati, n, drefting, nor
as great as we can reafonably do. Thus far the argu- any expence whatever, excepting the price of the feed-
ment feems to lie againll this method of cultivating and fowing it. 4. This he confiders as one of the
beans and turnips together : but on the other hand, Mr ftrongeft recommendations of the drill hufhandry he
Pavier confiders it probable that the expence of drillihg ever knew or heard of ; but he is of opinion that it
and horfe-hoeing the beans, together with drilling the never can anfwer except where the ground is perfe&ly-
turnips in the manner Mr Anderdon did, muft be con- clean and free from weeds, by the crops having been
fiderably lefs than that of fallowing and preparing the horfe-hoed for a few years before. 5. He thinks the
ground, and fowing the turnips in broad-caft; to beans ought to have been planted at wider intervals, by
which we muft likewife add the facility of hoeing which the fun and air would be freely admitted, and
the drills in comparifon of the broad caft. But be- the plants would alfo be lefs damaged by the operation
fides thefe, the great advantage arifing from this me- of the hoe. _ _
thod, and which, if certain, gives it a decided fupe- Mr Pavier likewife informs the Society of two other 0ther ex.,
riority, is, “ ihe great chance, if not an almoft cer- experiments on a fimilar plan; but with this difference, p*rimei.ts
tainty, of pt^ferving the turnips from the depredations that the turnips were fown among the beans at the fe- 6n fow,ng
of the fly.” Mr Pavier was inclined to think that this cond horfe-hoeing. The turnip crops were yery good, a'
muft be the cafe,, as Mr Anderdon had fuch crops re- and the beans more than double the value of thofe raj- beans,
peatedly without any damage of that kind: but the fed iirthe ufual mode of hufbandry. “ I think it is
committee differ from him, and think that this muft very evident (fays he)., that the beans preferve thetur-
bave proceeded from fome other caufe ; though they nips from the fly ; and as no expence or trouble attends
do not aflign any reafon for this opinion. “ The the prafiice, I apprehend it will foon become more
principal point (fays Mr Pavier), in determining general.” The Society own, that the uncommon fuccefs
this queftion, feems to me to be this : if. the crop of of Mr Bull’s experiment feems to militate at kaft againit
beans drilled as above, after deducing the feed, and what they faid on Mr Andtrdon’s letter; but they
fome additional expence in taking the crop off the infill that the cafes are by no means fimilar. “ 1 hough
ground without injuring the turnips, can be, one year the land (fay they), in both inftances, is calkd a heavj
1 day,
; Sedl. VII. H U S B A
Turnips, they are very different. Mr Anderdon’s is poor,
* wet, and cold ; the other a good rich clay; and we
apprehend naturally mixed with a kind of marie,
which is called clay by perfons not thoroughly ac¬
quainted with the nice diltinftion of foils apparently
alike, but very different in their nature. Our prin¬
ciple therefore, that cold wet clay lands are unfuitable
for turnips, remains unaffe&ed by this experiment;
and general pra&ice confirms the truth of the theo-
_ ry.”
In another letter, Mr Pavier gives a more particular
account of the two other crops of beans and turnips
raifed upon Mr Bull’s plan. The beans were drilled
in rows about 22 inches diftance, twice horfe-hoed,
and the produce from about 25 to jobufhelsthe com¬
puted acre, or from 30 to 36 bufhels the flatute acre.
The preceding fummer had been very unfavourable to
beans, and the produce per acre in the common hufban-
dry did not, on an average, equal a third part of this
quantity. One of thefe crops was fuperior to that of
Mr Bull : they were fown upon a field of nine com¬
puted acres on the 10th of June, after the fecond
horfe-hoeing ; but whether the fecond hoeing was per¬
formed too foon, the ground not clean, or whatever
might be the caufe, the beans were weeded twice by
hand afterwards ; and he is of opinion, that the turnips
were fomewhat benefited by it. Mr Pavier was affured
by a very intelligent farmer, that this was the beft
crop of turnips he had ever feen. The turnip-feed in
the other crop was put in between the rows of beans
by a hand-drill ; but the work was badly performed,
the plants coming up in fome places vaftly too thick,
and in others as much too thin ; but wherever they
j happened to be of a proper thicknefs, the farmer told
him it was one of the moft profitable crops he ever had.
The foil was wet, heavy, and not very favourable for
turnips. Hence Mr Pavier deduces the following con-
clufions. 1. That with refpedt to beans in particular,
the drilling and horfe-hoeing is vaftly fuperior to the
common mode of hufbandry. 2. That the beans are
undoubtedly a good prefervative of the turnips from
the depredations of the fly. 3. That as by this me¬
thod no crop is loft, and conftquently no rent, but a
mere trifle of expence (if any) chargeable to the tur¬
nip crop, it muft be one of the moft profitable as well
as the moft certain method of propagating that ufeful
root ever yet pra&ifed.-^-He ftill infifts, however, that
if he had an opportunity of trying this method, he
would drill the beans in rows at a greater diftance, that
the turnips might be hand-hoed eafily ; and that he
ftiould pi cfer the London tick-bean to any other, by
reafon of their fhortnefs and being fuch bearers ; that
he fliould alfo take off their tops as foon as the under
bloffoms began to decay ; which, he fuppofes, would
be of great fervice.
Ihftrument ^C fhall clofe this differtation on the lifes and cul-
for tranf- t'ure tuin‘Ps with an account of an inftrument uffd
planting in Norfolk for tranfplanting them, and thus filling up
turnips. the gaps which frequently happen in fields from the
'Bath Pa fa'lure t'le plalUs in particular fpots. It is repre-
pfrs, vohiv on the margin ; and the ccnllruftion and mode
p. J26. of ufing is obvious from the figure.-—When the tur¬
nips are to be tranfplanted, the workman holds the
long handle with the left hand, and the ftiort one with
the right hand drawn up. Tut the inftrument then
N D R Y. 75-
over the plant that is to be taken up, and with your Turnips,
foot force it into the ground; then give it a twift
round, and by drawing it gently up, the earth will
adhere to the roots of the plant in a folid body ; then
with another inftrument of the fame fize take the
' earth out where the plant is to be put, and bringing
the inftrument with the plant in it, put it into the hole
which has been made by the other; then keep your
right hand fteady, and draw up your left, and the
earth and plant will be left in the hole with the roots
undifturbed. In this operation two men muft be em¬
ployed, each of them having an inftrument of the form
reprefented on the margin. One man takes up a plant
while the other fills his inftrument with earth only,
thereby making room for the depofition of the plant;
fo that the hole which is made by taking up the plant
is filled with the earth taken out where the plant is to
be put; which being depofited, he takes up a plant,
and returns to the place he firft fet out from, the
former man at the fame time returning with the earth
only ; fo that each man is alternately the planter, and
each being employed both ways, the work goes on
brilkly.—This inftrument was the invention of Mr
Cubitt Gray of Southrepps, Norfolk.
Turnips being the grand bafis of the Norfolk huf¬
bandry, Mr Marfhall gives a very particular account
of their culture in that county.—The fpecies cultiva¬
ted are, 1. The common white Jloci, called in many
places the Norfolk turnip. 2. The purple Jloch is fimi-
lar to the former, but its rind is of a dark red or pur¬
ple colour ; its fize in general fmaller, and its texture Norfolk
clofer and firmer than that of the common white-ftock ; cultivation
it alfo Hands the winter better, and is more fucculentof turniP»»
in the fpring, but it is not fo well relilhed by cattle
as the former ; whence it is lefs generally cultivated.
3. The pudding Jlock, the tankard-turnip of the Mid¬
land counties, is in ftiape fo perfe&ly different from
the common fort, that it might be ranked as a diftindt
fpecies. It rifes in a cylindrical form, eight, ten, or
twelve inches high, (landing in a manner wholly above
ground ; generally taking a rough irregular outline,
and a fomewhat reclining pofture. It very much re-
fembles the common turnip, and is by much its moft
formidable rival. In many refpe&s it feems to be fu¬
perior, particularly in being readily drawn, and eaten
off by fheep with much lefs wafte than the common
turnip.—The difadvantage is, that they are liable to
the attacks of froft, by reafon of their Handing fo
high above the furface of the ground 5 fothat on the
whole, Mr Marfhall concludes, that the common white
turnip is to he preferred to every other.
In Norfolk, turnips are fown upon every fpecies of 93
arable land. Marl is found to be highly beneficial; ^
and by means of this manure, a foil naturally unfit mari.
for turnips may be rendered proper for it. They fuc-
ceed barley rather than any other crop ; fome few are
fown on wheat or pea Rubble after bar veil ; but this
is not a general pra&ice. The manures in greateft Manures
reputation for turnips are dung, with a greater or°fdifl’erent•
fmaller admixture of mould; malt-coombs are alfo in’110'18,
good repute, and oil-cake is ufed by a few individuals ;
“ but it may be faid, that nine acres of ten of the
turnips grown in eaft Noifolk are manured with
muck.”—The quantity of dung fet on for a crop of
turnips generally depends on the quantity ou hand,.
and ■
75 8 HUSBANDRY. Part I.
Turnip?, gpd the quantity of turmp-ground to be manured.
—v—- From xo to 15 cart-loads of muck are confidered as a
good dreffing ; and about a ton of oil cake to three
acres; 50 or 6o bufhels of malt-coombs, and 40 or
[94] 5° bufhels of foot, to an acre.
Cultivation When the turnips are intended for early confump.
of turnips tion, the fooner they can be got into the ground the
for early better ; but when they are intended to hand the win-
tion. ^ ter, the beginning of July is thought foon enough.
The moft general rule is to begin fowing about a week
before mid-fummer, and continue till about a fortnight
after, m%. from the 1 7th or 18th of June to the 7th or
95 8thof July.—Broad-caftfowing isuniverfal,in the quan-
Methodof tjty 0p two pint8 to an acre. The feed is covered by
and culture.tw0 bnes of a pair of light harrows drawn backward,
in order to prevent the lines, which ufually point fome-
thing forward, from tearing up the clods, and burying
the feed too deep. The horfes are univerfally walked
■one way, and trotted back again in the fame place.
This is an excellent cuftom ; the quick zig-zag motion
of the harrows at once affifting to level the furface,
and to diftribute the feeds more evenly.—They aie
univerfally hoed; and unlefs they be fown very late,
are generally hoed twice. The diftance of time be¬
tween the fowing and the firft hoeing depends upon
the foil and feafon ; the f ze of the plants being the
only guide. When turnips are fuffered to grow too
large before they are hoed, the plants are difficult to
be fet out fingly, and are liable to be drawn up by
weeds, thereby acquiring a flender upright tendency ;
whereas their natural growth, in their infant ftate, is
procumbent, fpreading their firft leaves on the ground,
and taking the form of a rofe.—If the hoe be put in
too foon, the plants which are fet out are liable to be
buried, and their tender roots difturbed in the aft of
fetting out the neighbouring plants. The time for
hoeing, as direfted by the moft judicious hufbandmen,
is when the plants, as they lie fpread upon the ground,
are about the fize of the palm of the hand : if, how¬
ever, feed-weeds be numerous and luxuriant, they
ought to be checked before the turnip’s arrive at that
fize, left by being drawn up tall and llender they
Ihould acquire a weak and fickly habit. The proper
diftance depends upon the nature of the foil and the
time of fowing ; fuch as are fown early, in a rich pro-
duftive foil, require to be fet out wider than thofe
fown late on a foil of a contrary nature. If the foil
be at par, the diftance ought to be regulated by the
time of fowing : if this be at par, the nature or ftate
of the foil ftiould be the regulator—Mr Marftiall com¬
plains of the conduft of the Norfolk farmers in gene¬
ral in this refpeft, who “ hack out their turnips 14,
15, or perhaps 18 inches afunder, without any re¬
gard to the ftate of the foil, or time of fowing.
This praftice was eftablifhed while the Norfolk foil was
full of marl, and new to turnips; and when, it is
probable, 11 or 12 inches in diameter was no un¬
common fize, with tops proportionally large and
fpreading ; and 14 or 15 inches might then be a pro¬
per diftance. But now, when the efficacy of marl is
leflened, and the foil no longer the favourite of tur¬
nips, which feldom reach more than feven or eight
inches in diameter, it is ruinous and abfurd.to continue
the pra&ice.”
Turnips are cultivated either for feed, for fale, or
for confumption. When cultivated for feed, it is fup-
pofed in moft parts of the kingdom that it Ought al- Trunjp*,
ways to be taken from tranfplanted roots ; but in Nor- -—v"—*
folk they are frequently raifed from fuch as are untranf- 6
planted. “ It is a fa& (fays Mr Marfhall) well un-Cultivation
derftood by every hufbandman here, that if the feed be of turnips
gathered repeatedly from untranfplanted roots, the^Jr ^ee^‘
plants from this feed will become coarfe-necked and
foul-rooted; and the flefh of the root itfelf will be¬
come rigid and impalatable. On the contrary, if it be
gathered year after year from tranfplanted roots, the
necks will become too fine, and the fibres too few; the
entire plant acquiring a weak delicate habit, and the
produce, though fweet, will be fmall. For the neck,
or onfet of the leaves, being reduced to the fize of
the finger (for inftance), the number and fize of the
leaves will be reduced in proportion ; and in a fimilar
proportion will the number and fize of the fibrils be
reduced. From a parity of reafoning, it may perhaps
be inferred, that when the neck acquires a thicknefs
equal to that of the wrift, the fize of the root will be
in proportion.
“ With refpeft to the fibres or rootlings, this is a
juft inference; but with refpeft to the bulb, it is in
a great meafure erroneous. For a few generations the
fize of the bulb will keep pace with the increafe of
leaves and fibres; but after having once reached the limits
which nature has fet to its magnitude, it begins to
revert to its original ftate of wildnefs, from which to
its prefent ftate it has undoubtedly been raifed by
tranfplantation. The farmer has therefore two ex¬
tremes to avoid. The one is difcoverable by the thick¬
nefs and coarfenefs of the neck, the fcaly roughnefs
of the bulb, the thicknefs of the rind in general, the
foulnefs of its bottom, and the forkednefs of its main
or tap-root : the other, by the flendernefs of the neck,
the finenefs of the leaf, and the delicacy of the root.
The former are unpalatable to cattle, and are therefore
creative of wafte : the latter are unprodu&ive, are dif¬
ficult to be drawn, and do not throw out fuch ample
tops in the fpring, as do thofe which are, by conlli-
tution or habit, in a middle ftate between thefe two
extremes. There is not, however, any general rule
refpe&ing how many years turnips ought to be tranf¬
planted iucceffively, and how often they ought to be
fuffered to run up from the feed-bed : the foil and fi-
tuation have, and other circumftances may have, in¬
fluence on the habit and conftitution of vegetables as
of animals ; and the farmer mull attend alone to- the
ftate of the turnips themfelves. Whenever he judges,
that, by repeated tranfplantation, they have pafted the
acme of perfeftion, then it is his duty and intereft. to
let them run up to feed without tranfplantation. In
Norfolk it has been found, by long experience, that
tranfplanting two, three, or four years, and letting
the plants run up the third, fourth, or fifth, will keep
the ftock in the defired ftate. The time of tranfplant-
ing is from Old Chriftmas to Old Candlemas, In the
choice of plants, the farmer is not guided by fize, but
picks the cleaneft plants without regard to fize ; or,
more accurately fpeaking, he makes choice of fuch
as are near, but not at or above, the ftate ofpeifec-
tion. In almoft every turnip-field there are plants
in various ftates: much judgment, therefore, is re-
quifite in the choice of plants. A piece of good Method of
ground near a habitation is generally chofen for thi8PlaminS-
purpofe; but the method of planting is various: the
5 - plants
,3ecl. VI r, HUSBANDRY. 759
\ Turnips, plants are generally fet in rows, at uncertain diftances ofF their tops with a fpade, he gave them to his cows, Tumip-
,» v—y—~ from one another.” Thefe diftances our author has and carried the bulbs to a new-made ditch, into which he rro,°hte<1
obferved to be 16 or 18 inches, and the diftan'ce of threw them, and then covered them up with ftraw, a iagc‘,
the plants in them nine or ten inches; but the practice laying over it a quantity of bramble kids. Here they
of a man who, he tells us, is indifputably near the lay until wanted in a froft. They were then again
head of his profeffion, is to plant them in rows two carted by means of a fork, and given to the cattle,
feet afunder, the plants in the rows being contiguous, who eat them as well, or rather better than frefh drawn
The only culture acquired, is to keep the intervals turnips; and'in general they came out as frefh as they
clean-hoed ; but when the feed begins to ripen, much went in. Our author is of opinion, that this method
care is requifite to keep it from birds. If the plot be large, might be extended to the prefervation of turnips till
it, is neceffary to employ a boy to fcare them ; but if the fpring.
s kbefmall, and near the houfe, Mr Marfhall has known
t Method of the following expedient ufe^ with fuccefs. “ On a Sect. VIII. Turnip-rooted Cabbage.
I fearing flender poll, riling in the midft of the patch of feed, io
! away birds. was fixe<i a fiell; from which a line paffed into the This plant may defervedly be reckoned next in value Adv^*age9
kitchen ; in the moll frequented part of this hung the to the turnip itfelf. Its advantages, according to Sir attending
pull. Whoever palfed the pull, rung the bell; fo that, Thomas Beevor, are, that it affords food for cattle the cultiva-
in a farm-houfe-kitchen, where a miftrefs and two or late in the fpring, and refifts mildew and frofl, which tion
three maids were fome of them almoft always on the fometimes deflroy the common turnip ; whence he isro° *
foot, an inceffant peal was kept up ; and the birds, of opinion that every farmer who cultivates the com-
having no refpite from alarms, forfook their prey.” mon turnip fhould always have part of his farm laid
I Of drawing The time of drawing commences about Michaelmas, out in the cultivation of this root. For his mode of
I the turnips. an<i cont;nues until the plants be in blow. The pro- culture, &c. See Agriculture, n° 170 ; and under
cefs of drawing, he fays, “ in fevere weather, is an n° 173 of the fame article is given an account of Mr
employment which nothing but cuftom could reconcile Robins’s method of raifing them. In another letter
to thofe whofe lot it is to go through it, namely, flout from Sir Thomas Beevor, Bath Papers, vol. iii. p. 489.
lads and youths; whofe hands are frequently fwelled he expreffes his hope that the turnip-rooted cabbages
until the joints are difcernible only by the dimples they he had would lalt until he fhould have plenty of grafs
form;” neverthelefs he never heard of any inflance of for all his flock. To make a comparative eflimation Id3.
bad effedls from this circumflance. When the tops will of the quantity of food yielded by the turnip-rooted
bear it, their method of pulling is very expeditious: cabbage and the common turnip, he feledted fome of quantity o£'
they pull with both hands at once; and having filled each kind, and having girted them with as much ac- feed in this,
each hand, they bring the two together with a fmart curacy as pofiible, he found, that a turnip-rooted cab-ancl in tha
blow to difengage the foil from the roots, and with bage of 18 inches circumference weighed 5^ lb. and turnip01*
the fame motion throw them into the cart. If the a common turnip of the fame fize only 3I- lb ; on trying
tops be cut off by the frofl, or if this be in the ground, others, the general refult was found to be in that pro-
the turnips are raifed with two tined forks named portion. Had they been weighed with the tops, the
crooms. If the roots are buried under deep fnow, it is fuperiority of the turnip-rooted cabbage would have
removed by means of an implement called the /now been greater, the tops of them being remarkably bufhy.
Jledge. This confifls of three deal-boards from one to They were weighed in the month of March ; but had
two inches thick, 10 or 12 inches deep, and from this been done at Chriflmas, our author is of opinion
feven to nine feet long, fet upon their edges in the that the difference would not have been fo great; tho”
form of an equilateral triangle, and flrongly united with he reckons this very circumflance of their continuing
nails or flraps of iron at the angles ; at one of which fo long to afford a nourifhing food, an inftance of their
is faftened, by means of a double flrap, a hook or an excellency above almoll every other vegetable whatr
eye, to fallen the horfes to. This being drawn over a ever.
piece of turnips covered with fnow, forces up the latter In the fourth volume of the fame work, Sir Tho- Other°ex>.
into a ridge on each fide, while between the ridges a mas gives an account of another experiment on five perinu-nss*.
flripe of turnips is left bare, without having received acres of turnip-rooted cabbage, four of which were
any material injury from the operation. Though it is eaten upon the field, the other was pulled up and
cuflomary, in drawing, to clear the ground entirely, carried to the flables and ox-houfes. They were fown
our author met with one inflance in which the fmall and cultivated as other turnips; the beafls were put to
ones were left by a very good hufbandman on the them on the 12th of April, and continued feeding
ground, both to increafe in fize, and to throw out upon them till the n th of May. The cattle fed for
tops in the fpring ; it being obfervable, that a fmall this fpace of time were, 12 Scotch bullocks weighing
turnip fends up a top nearly equal to one whofe bulb 40 flone each; eight homebreds, two years old ; fif-
is larger. There is one inconvenience, however, ari- teen cows full-fizcd; 40 fheep ; 18 horfes ; befides 40
fing from this praftice, the plough is prevented from flore hogs and pigs, which lived upon the broken
entering upon the foil until late in the fpring ; wljich, pieces and offal without any other allowance for the
upon fome foils, is an unfurmountable objeftion ; tho’ whole four weeks. The whole value of the plant; ex¬
it may be very proper upon land which will bring good clufive of the feeding of the pigs, amounted, according;
barley with one ploughing after turnips. to our author’s calculation, to L. 18 ; and he fays that:
I Method of ^■ar^ia^ relates the following fimple method, by the farmers would willingly give this fum in the fpring
I prefervir.g wh*ct1 a Norfolk farmer preferved turnips through a for feeding as many cattle; “ becaufe it enables thenu
I turnips,. confiderable part of the'winter feafon. Having cut to Cave the young fhooting grafs (which is fo frequently.
inj[jir.edi
x=o
I Snow
3 fledge de-
I fcnbed.
76t> H U S B A
Turnip- injured by the tread of the cattle in the frofty nights)
™°ted until it gets to fuch a length and thicknefs as to be
. a a^f* afterwards but little affe&ed by the fummer’s drought.
Befides this, the tops or leaves are in the fpi*ing much
more abundant, and much better food than thofe of
the common turnip, as already obferved ; and they con¬
tinue in full perfection after all the common turnips
104 are rotten or worthlefs.
Difadvan- The difadvantages attending the cultivation of turnip
tages at- roote(j cabbages are, that they require a great deal
the cuftiva- of time an(^ Pa‘ns t0 take t^em UP out t^e ground»
tion of this if they are to be carried off the field; and if fed where
plant they grow, it requires almoft an equal labour to take
up the pieces left by the cattle. A great deal of earth
is alfo taken up along with the root; and the fubftance
of the latter is fo firm and folid, that they mull be cut
in two in order to enable the cattle.*® eat them. To
obviate fome of thefe objections, it will be proper to
fow the plants on rich and very light land ; and as
they are longer in coming to the hoe than the common
turnip, it will be proper to fow them about the begin-
ning of June.
Why every In another experiment upon this plant by the fame
farmer gentleman, the cabbages held out during the long and
ought to fevere froll of 1788 without the leaft injury, though
cultivate jt jeftr0yC(j three-fourths of all the common turnips in
t is p ant. neighbourhood. On the 21ft of April 17891 the
average produce of an acre was found to be fomewhat
more than 24-!- tons, though the tops had not fprout-
ed above three inches. Confidering the precarioufnefs
of turnips and other crops, Sir Thomas is deciiively of
opinion, that all farmers ought to have as many turnip-
rooted cabbages as would afford and enfure them a full
provifion for their cattle for about three or four weeks
during the latter part of the fpring. This quantity he
reckons fufficient, as the confumptbn, particularly when
drawn and carried off the land, is attended with more
trouble and expence than that of common turnips,
efpecially if the foil be wet and heavy. In another
letter, dated May 3. 1790, Sir Thomas Beevor once
more fets forth the advantages of having a crop of thefe
vegetables during the fpring-feafon. “ In conlequence
(fays he) of the very cold weather we have had here,
the grafs is but juft fpringing: as the turnips are wholly
eaten up, it occafions much diftrefs among the farmers
for want of fome green vegetable food for their fheep
and cattle; whereas, by the affiftance of my turnip-
rooted cabbages, I have abundance of the beft and
moft nutritive food that can be found them.” He then
proceeds to recommend their culture “ for the fup-
port of almoft all live ftock for the three laft weeks
of April, or firft week of May, when the grafs ihoots
late.”
In the 4th volume of the Tranfa&ions of the So¬
ciety for encouraging Arts, Mr Robins, who received
a premium for railing the greateft quantity of this
plant, informs us, that the foil on which it grew was
■ajlone braijh, inclining to fand, not worth more than
1 os. per acre ; the preparation the fame as for turnips.
The manure was a compoft of earth and dung, which
he finds to anlwer better than dung. The feed was
fown about the beginning of April on a clean fpot of
ground; and he commonly ufes an old pafture where
the Iheep-fold has been in the winter, after taking away
the dung, and digging it very (hallow; “ as the roots
N° 159.
N D R Y.
Part I.
of the young plants (fays he) might foon reach the furnip-
dung or falls, which muft confequently be left, in or- rooted
der to force them out of the fly’s way.” Thefe in- Cahh^e-
fe&s, our author obferves, are extremely fond of the ' ' *
turnip-rooted cabbage ; much more fo, he believes,
than of common turnips. About the middle of June
they (hould be planted out upon one-bout ridges raifed
by a double plough made for the purpofe. Seven thou-
fand plants are fufficient for one acre j but if only fix
are ufed, the roots will be the larger. |
To determine how many (beep might be kept upon Number of
an acre of turnip-rooted cabbage, our author (hut up fheep fed by
200 ewes with their lambs upon a piece of poor pafture- an acre if
land of no great extent; the whole not exceeding tenturmP f00t
acres. One ton was found fufficient for keeping them6 a*
in fufficient health for a day. On giving them a larger8
piece of ground to run over, though it had been eat
all winter and late in the fpring ; yet with this tri¬
fling affiftance 13 tons of turnip-cabbage were made to
ferve 18 days; at the end of which the ewes and lambs
were found very much improved, which could not
have been expe&ed from four acres of turnips in the
month of April, the time that thefe were fed.
From fome trials made on the turnip-rooted cabbage
at Cullen Houfe in the north of Scotland, it appears menta at
that the plant is adapted to the climate of every partCulIen-
of our ifland. The firft trial was made in the year houfe.
1784. The feeds were fown about the middle of
March in garden-ground properly prepared. The cab¬
bages were tranfplanted about the middle of March
that year into a dry light foil, well cleaned and dung¬
ed with rotten cow-dung, in rows three feet diftant
from each other, and at the diftance of 20 inches in
the rows. They were kept very clean, and the earth
was hoed up to the roots of the plants; by which
means they were probably prevented from attaining
the hardnefs they would have ©therwife arrived at;
though, after all, it was neceffary to cut the roots in
two before the (heep could eat them. When thus
cut, the animals eat them greedily, and even preferred
them to every other food. The roots continued good
for at leaft a month after the common turnips were
unfit for ufe : fome of them weighed from eight to
ten pounds, and a few of them more. Other trials
have fince been made; and it now appears that the
plant will thrive very well with the ordinary culture
of turnips in the open fields, and in the ufual manner
of fowing broad-caft. From a comparative trial made
by the earl of Fife upon this root with fome others,
the quantities produced upon 100 fquare yards of
ground were as follows:
Common turnips - 92 4
Turnip-rooted cabbage - 88 o
Carrots - - 95 0
Root of fcarcity - - VJ o
The turnip-rooted cabbage was planted in lines 20
inches afunder ; the common turnips fown broad-caft,
and hand-weeded, fo that they came up very thick,
being not more than three or four inches afunder when
full grown. Two cows were fed for fix weeks with
the turnips, two with the turnip-rooted cabbage, and
two with the root of fcarcity for an equal time : the
two fed with turnips gave moft milk, and thofe
with the root of fcarcity the leaft. His lord flu'p ob¬
ferves,
Sea.X. HUSBANDRY. 76c
Swedifti ferves, however, that carrots thrive better on his farm
Turnip, than any other crop : that his horfes had been fed on
them at the rate of two pecks a day, with no corn,
and little more than half the ufual quantity of hay.
“ They were kept at work every day from feven to
eight hours, and were never in better order.”
Sect. IX. Swedifh Turnip.
108 The ruta baga, or Swedifh turnip, is a plant from
Of the Ru- which great expeftations have been formed. It is faid
^ a^a‘ to be hardier than the common turnip, and of greater
fweetnefs and folidity. It alfo preferves its frefhnefs
and fucculence till a very late period of its growth,
even after it has produced feed ; on account of which
property it has been recommended to the notice of
farmers as an excellent kind of fucculent food for do-
meftic animals in the fpring of the year, when common
turnips and moft other winter crops have failed, and
before grafs got up to furnifh an abundant bite for
feeding beads. This peculiarity, fo valuable, yet fo
lingular as to have led many at firft to doubt the faft,
4 cYlt Bee feems to he fufficiently afcertained by experiment. Dr
vol. iii. p! J- Anderfon f in particular informs us, that it “ begins
291. to fend out its flower-ftems in the fpring, nearly about the
fame time with the common turnip; but that the root,
in confequence of that change of ftate, fuffers very
little alteration. I continued to ufe thefe turnips at
my table every day till towards the middle of May ;
and had I never gone into the garden myfelf, I fhould
not even then have fufpefted, from the tafte or appear¬
ance of the bulb kfelf, that it had been (hot at all.
The ftems, however, at the feafon I gave over ufing
them, were from four to five feet high, and in full
flower. I fliould have continued the experiment longer,
had not the quantity I had left for that purpofe been
exhaufted, and a few only left for feed.
“ This experiment, however, fully proves, that this
kind of turnip may be employed as a fucculent food
for cattle till the middle of May at leaft, in an ordi¬
nary year; and I have not the fmalleft doubt but it
will continue perfectly good for that purpofe till the
end of May in any feafon ; at which time grafs and
other fpring-crops can eafily be had for bringing beafts
forward in flefti. I can therefore, without hefitation,
recommend this plant to the farmer as a moft valuable
fpring feeding for cattle and ftieep; and for this pur¬
pofe, I think no wife farmer fliould be without a pro¬
portion of this kind of turnip to fucceed the other
forts after they fail. The profitable method of con-
fuming it, where it is to be kept very late, is, I am
convinced, to cut off the tops with a fcythe or fickle
when from one foot to eighteen inches high, to induce
it to fend out frefh ftems, that will continue foft and
fucculent to the end; whereas, without this procefs,
the ftems would become fticky and ufelefs.
“ I cannot, however, recommend this kind of turnip,
from what I have yet feen, as a general crop; becaufe
I think it propable, that unlefs in particular circum-
ftances, the common field-turnips grow to a much
larger fize, and afford upon the whole a more weighty
crop. Thefe, there, ftiould ftill continue to be culti¬
vated for winter ufe, the other being referved only for
fpring confumption.
“ Experiments are ftill wanting to afcertain with cer¬
tainty the peculiar foil and culture that beft agree with
V<jl. VIII. Part II.
this plant ; but from the few obfervations I have hi- Turnip-
therto had an opportunity of making upon it, it feems Cabbage.^
to me probable, that it thrives better, and grows to a '*
larger fize on damp clayey foil, than on light fandy
land. But I would not wiflt to be underftood as here
fpeaking pofitively ; I merely throw it out as a hint for
future obfervation : on fpungy foil it profpers.
“ Though the ufes of this as a garden plant are of
much fmaller confequence than thofe above-fpecified,
it may not be improper to remark, that its leaves form
a very fweet kind of greens at any time ; and merely
for the fake of the experiment, I caufed fome of thefe
to be picked off the ftems of the plants coming to
feed, on the 4th of June, the king’s birth-day, which,
on being readied, were found perfe&ly fweet, without
the fmalleft tendency to bitternefs, which moft, if not
all other kinds of greens that have been hitherto cul¬
tivated are known to acquire after their ftems are con-
fiderably advanced ; no family, therefore, can ever be
at a lofs for greens when they have any of this plant
in feed.
“ A root of this kind of turnip was taken up this
day (June 15th) ; the feed ftalks were firm and woody,
the pods full formed, and in fome of them the feeds
were nearly ripe. The root, however, was as foft
and fucculeut as at any former period of its growth $
nor was the fkin, as I expefted, hard or woody. It
was made ready and1 brought to the table : fome per-
fons there thought the tafte as good, if not better, than
at any former period of its growth ; but I myfelf,
perhaps through prejudice, thought it had not quite
fo high a reliflx as in winter : At any rate, however,
there can be no doubt, that if ever it could be necef-
fary, it might, even now, be employed very properly
as a feeding for cattle.”
Sect. X. Turnip-Cabbage.
This plant is as yet but little known. The feed is
faid to have been brought from the Cape of Good
Hope by Mr Haftings, where it is very common as
well as in Holland. It has alfo had an exiftence in
Britain for many years, though not generally known.
It has a much greater affinity to the cabbage than to
the turnip ; and is very hardy, bearing the winter as
well, if not better, than common brocoli, and may
therefore be confidered as a valuable acquifition to the
kitchen-garden as well as for cattle. The beft time l°9
for lowing it for the garden is the end of May or be- cultivation,
ginning of June, though none of the plants have ever *
been obferved to run to feed though fown ever fo
early. Even though fown in Auguft at the cauliflower
feafon, the greater part flood throughout the follow¬
ing fummer, and did not feed till the fecond fpring.
The plants require nearly the fame management with
brocoli as to diftance, tranfplanting, See. and are ufu-
ally moft efteemed when young, [and about the fize of
a moderate garden turnip ; thofe fown in June will
continue all winter. The bulb muft be (tripped clean
of its thick fibrous rind ; after which it may be ufed as
a common turnip. The crown or fprout is very good,
but t fpecially in the fpring, when they begin to run to
feed. Mr Broughton, from whofe account in the
Bath Papers, vol. v. this article is taken, thinks that
the turnip-cabbage is more nutritious than the common
turnip. The larged bulb he meafured was 23 inches
5 C circuniv
^62 H U S B A
Cabbage, oircumftrence ; but the thicknefs of the rind is fo
tjj' ' 1 great, that fome farmers imagined that the bulb would
be too hard for (beep. The objection, however, was
obviated by Mr Broughton, who gave fome of the
oldeft and tougheft bulbs to his (hetp, and found that
they not only penetrated through the rind, but even
devoured the greateft pait of it.
Sect. XL Cabbage.
Cabbage has been recommended by long experi¬
ence as an excellent food for cattle ; it ufes as part of
human food are alfo well known. In a paper already
quoted from thofe of the Bath Society, Scotch cab¬
bages are compared, as to their utility in feeding cattle,
with turnips, turnip-rooted cabbage, and carrots. In
this trial the cabbages Hand next in value to the car¬
rots; and they are recommended as not liable to be af-
fedled by frotl, if they be of the true flat-topped firm
Quantity k'n<L Fifty-four tons have been railed upon an acre
railed on of ground not worth more than 12 {hillings. There
an acre, is like-wife an advantage attending the feeding of cattle
tftc. with cabbages, viz. that their dung is more in propor¬
tion than when fed with turnips or with hay; the for¬
mer going off more by urine, and the latter having too
little moillure. They alfo impoverifti the ground
much lefs than grain. Mr Billingfley accounts 46 tons
per acre a greater crop than he ever read of; but Mr
Vagg, in the 4th volume of Bath Papers, gives an ac¬
count of a crop for which he received a premium from
the Society, which was much fuperior to that of Mr
Billingfley. Its extent was 12 acres ; the produce of
the word was 42, and of the beft 68 tons. They were
manured with a compoft of lime, weeds, and earth,
that lay under the hedges round the field, and a layer
of dung, all mixed and turned together. About 25
cart-loads of this were fpread upon an acre with the
ufual ploughing given to a common fummer-fallow; but
this, he fays, “ admitting fuch crop to exhauft the
manure in fome degree by its growth, an ample refto-
ration will be made by its refufe ploughed in, and by
the {lining and cleaning of the ground. The whole
expence of an acre, exclufive of the rent, according to
Mr Vagg’s calculation, amounts to L. x : 14 : 1, only
four ounces of feed being requifite for an acre. The
12 acres, producing as above mentioned, would feed 45
oxen, and upwards of 60 fheep, for three months; im¬
proving them as much as the grafs in the beft months
of the year, May, June, and July. He recommends
{owing the feed about the middle of Auguft, and tranf-
planting the young cabbages where they may be Ihel-
tered from the froft; and to the negleA of this he
afcribes the partial failure, or at leaft inferiority of one
part of his ground in the crop juft mentioned, the
young plants not being removed till near midfummer,
and then in fo dry a time, that they were almoft
fcorched up.
In the Farmer’s Magazine, vol. ii. p.. 217. we have
feveral pertinent remarks upon the culture of this ufe-
©f w”ter ^ P^ant> particularly with regard to watering. “ It
ing cab- is a ruk‘ (fays this correfpondent). never to water the
bages. plants, let the feafon be as dry as it may ; infilling
that it is entirely ufelefs. If the land is in fine tilth
and well dunged, this may be right, as the expence
mull be confidcrable; but it is probable, in very dry
icafons, when the' new, fet giants have nothing bat a.
N D R Y. Parti.
burning fun on them, that watering would feve vaft Parfmps. 1
numbers, and might very well anfwer the expence, if ' "■**
a pond is near, and the work done with a water-cart.’*
He takes notice alfo of another ufe of cabbages, which
has not met with the attention it merits, •viz. the
planting of lands where turnips have failed. A late
fown crop of thefe feldom turns to any account; but
cabbages planted on the ground without any ploughing
would prove very beneficial for fheep late in the fpring';
in all probability (unlefs on light, fandy, or limeftone
foils) of greater value than the turnips, had they fuc-
ceeded.
Mr Marfhall obferves, that in the Midland diftridt, a its t
valuable fort of large green cabbage “ is propagated, Cabbage •
if not raifed, by Mr Bakevvell, who is not more cele- ^
brated for his breed of rams than for his breed of cab- iang dif. ^
bages. Great care is obferved here in railing the feed, tridl.
being careful to fuller no other variety of the braflica
tribe to blow near feed-cabbages; by which means
they are kept true to their kind. To this end, it is
faid, that fome plant them in a piece of wheat; a good
method, provided the feed in that fituation can be pre-
ferved from birds.”
The advantage of having large cabbages is that of xn
being able to plant them wide enough from each other, Diftance aj
to admit of their being cleaned with the plough, and yetwhi£|? tt,ie^
to afford a full crop. The proper diftance depends in”i^.ej
fome meafure on the natural fize of the fpecies andV
the ftrength of the foil; the thinner they Hand, the
larger they will grow : but our author is of opinion,
that cabbages, as well as turnips, are frequently fet
out too thin. Four feet by two and an half, accord¬
ing to Mr Marlhall, are a full diftance for large cab¬
bages on a rich foil.
Sect. XII. Par/nips.
These, though little ufed in Britain, are highly ,
efteemed in France and fome of our neighbouring An elce{_
iftands as food for cattle. In Brittany particularly, It nt food
they are thought to be little inferior in this refpedl tof°r cattle*
wheat ; and cows fed with them are faid to give as
much milk, and of as good quality, as in the fummer-
months. It is alfo very much commended for fwine
which rear young pigs, and for fattening the fwine
themfelves. The author of this paper alfo recom¬
mends a method of determining the nutritive qualities-
of plants by the quantity of mucilage they contain ;
which may be known by boiling them in water, and
then evaporating the deco&ion : the parfnip, he fup-
pofes, would yield a greater quantity of mucilage than
either carrots or potatoes.
“To cultivate this root (fays Mr Hazard) fo as to BatS Pa-
make it advantageous to the farmer, it will be right to/5*", vol.iv$.
fow the feed in the autumn immediately after it isp
ripe ; by which means the plants will appear early the j^r Ha¬
following fpring, and get ftrong before the weeds can Zard’- me- '
rife to injure them. Neither the feeds nor young tf -d of cuU
plants are ever materially injured by frofts ; on which uvation*
account, as well as many others, the autumn is prefer¬
able to the fpring fowing. The beft foil for them is a
rich deep loam, and next to this fand. They will
thrive well in a black gritty foil, but not in llone-
bralh, gravel, or clay ; and they are always larged in
the deeped earth. If the foil be proper, they do not
require much manure. Mr Hazard obtained a very
Sea. XII.
HUSBANDRY,
75J
Parfnips, good crop for three years upon the feme piece of They are equal, if not fuperior, in fattening pigs, as Parfups.
l***^—-1 ground without ufing any;' but when he laid on about they make their flefh whiter, and the animals themfdves v—
40 cart loads of fand per acre upon a ftiff loam, and
ploughed it in, he found it anfwer very’well; whence he
concludes, that a mixture of foils may be proper for
this root. The feed may be fown in drills at about
1 8 inches diftance from one another, that the plants
may be the more conveniently hand or horfe hoed ;
and they will be more luxuriant if they undergo a fe*
cond hoeing, and are carefully earthed, fo as not to
cover the leaves. Such as have not ground to fpare,
or cannot get it in proper condition in autumn, may
at that time fow a plot in their garden, and tranfplant
from thence in the latter end of April, or early in the
month of May following. The plants muft be care¬
fully drawn, and the ground well piilverifed by harrow¬
ing and rolling ; after which a furrow Ihould be open¬
ed with the plough about fix or eight inches deep, in
which the plants Ihould be regularly laid at the diftance
of about ten inches from each other, taking care not
to let the root be bent, but for the plant to Hand per¬
pendicular after the earth is clofed about it, which
ought to be done immediately by means of perfons
who ftiould for this purpofe follow the planter with a
hoe. Another furrow muft be opened about x 8 inches
are more fond of thefe roots than of carrots. Horfes
eat them greedily when clean walked and fiiced among
bran, and thrive very well upon them; and black cattle
are faid likewife to approve of them.
The foregoing are the principal vegetables which
have as yet been recommended, or which experience
has determined to be proper, to be raifed as food for
men or for cattle.
One or two other plants may be juft noticed, which
have lately fallen under the obfervation of thofe who
apply themfelves to the ftudy of hulbandry, viz. the f
root of fcarcity, and what are called mowing callage!, mowing
Concerning the latter, no experiments have yet been cabbage,
made to determine fufficiently their properties and va¬
lue. They are mentioned in the Bath Papers f by f Vo'-
Sir Joht^Beevor, who had a fmall parcel of feed fent P-
him ; which he fowed in fpring, and feveral plants were
produced. Some of thefe were cut down three times,
and grew into heads again fo fpeedily, “ that (fays
he) had I had leifure to have attended to them, I
doubt not but that the cuttings might have been re¬
peated 5 but as there is never on my farm any want of
from the former, in the fame dire&ion, and planted as frelh vegetable food for cattle in the fummer, unlefs I
before; and fo on in like manner until all the plants
are depofited, or the field be completely cropped:
and when the weeds appear, hoeing will be neceffary,
can find them continue to vegetate in like manner du¬
ring the winter (which mine have not done) or very
early in the fpring, I think they will not prove to me,
and it will afterwards be proper to earth them ; but if or any one under the like circumftances, an objeft of
the leaves of the plants be covered with earth, the
roots will be injured. Parfnips ought not to be plant¬
ed by dibbling, as the ground thus becomes fo bound,
as feldom to admit the fmall lateral fibres with which
thefe roots abound to fix in the earth, by which they
are prevented from expanding themfelves, and never
attain a proper fize. When circumftances are proper'
ly attended to, there is little doubt that a crop of parf-
nips would anfwer much better than a crop of carrots.
much value.—As to the root of fcarcity, we have no¬
thing to add to what has been faid on it under Agri Rw* of
culture, n° 52. Notwithftanding a great number ot^31-^3
experiments, it ftill appears uncertain whether it be
really ufeful or not.
With regard to Graffs, the moft ufeful fpecies have Qraffes.
been deferibed under the article Grass, and the cul¬
tivation of them fo fully explained under Agricul-
tURE, as to require no further enlargement here.
Part II. Cultivation of Vegetables more properly Articles of Commerce.
THESE in general are fuch as cannot be ufed for
food; and are principally flax, hemp, rape, hops,
and timber of various kinds ; and of each of thefe we
fhall treat particularly in the following fedtions.
Sect. I. Of Flax and Hemp.
This plant is cultivated not only with a view to the
common purpofes of making linen, but for the fake of
its feed alfo ; and thus forms a moft; extenfive article of
commerce, all the oil ufed by painters, at lead for
common purpofes, being extracted from this feed. The
Linfeed Ca^e wh*ch retna>n8 after the extra&ion of the oil is
cake lin *n ^ome places uftd as a manure, and in others fold for
feed’itfelf, fattening of cattle. In the Vale of Gloucefter, MrMar-
and linfeed- (hall informs ms that it is, next to hay, the main ar-
uf?d for tide of ftall-fatting ; though the price is now be-
5attk.lng come fo great, that it probably now leaves little or no
profit to the confumer, having within a few years ri-
fen from three guineas to fix and fix and an half, and
the lowed price J?dng five guineas per ton ; and even
this is lower than it was lately, lienee fome indivi¬
duals have been induced to try the effeft of linfeed it¬
felf boiled to a jelly, and mixed with flour, bran, or
chaff, with good fuccefs, as Mr Marftiall has been in-
foimed; and even the oil itfelf has been tried for the
fame purpofe in Hetefordftlire. Though this plant is
in univeifal culture over the whole kingdom, yet it
appears by the vaft quantity imported, that by far too si0
little ground is employed in that way. As Mr Mar-Culture of
fhall takes notice of its culture only in the county of Sax in ,
Yorkfhire, it probably does not make any great part of
the hufbandry of the other countries of which he
treats ; and even in Yorkfhire he tells us, that its cul¬
tivation is confined to a few diftri&s. The kind culti¬
vated there is that called “ blea line,” or the blue or
lead coloured flax, and this requires a rich dry foil for
its cultivation. A deep, fat, fandy loam is perhaps
the only foil on which it can be cultivated with advan¬
tage. If fown upon old corn-land, it ought to be well
cleaned from weeds, and rendered perfectly friable by a
fummer-fallow. Manure is feldom or ever fet on for a
line crop ; and the foil procefs confifts generally of a
Angle plowing. The feed-time is the month of May,
but much depends on the ftate of the foil at the time
of fowing. “ It fhould neither be wet nor dry; and
the furface ought to be made as fine as that of a gar¬
den bed. Not a clod of the fize of an egg fhould re-
5 C 2 maiii
764
HUSBANDRY.
Part 15.
Flax and
Hemp.
Ill
His re¬
marks on
iflax crops.
Mr Bart¬
ley’s expe¬
riments.
main unbroken.” Two bulhels of feed are ufually
fown upon an acre s the furface, after being harrowed,
is fometimes raked with garden or hay-rakes ; and the
operation would be ftill more complete if the clods and
other obftruftions, which cannot be eafily removed,
were drawn into the interfurrows. A light hand-
roller ufed between the final raking and harrowing
would much affift this operation. The chief requifite
during the time of vegetation is weeding, which ought
to be performed with the utmoll care ; arid for this
reafon it is particularly requifite that the ground
Should be previoufly cleanfed as well as poflible, other-
wife the expence of weeding becomes too great to be
borne, or the crop muft be confiderably injured. It
is an irreparable injury, if, through a dry feafon, the
plants come up in two crops ; or if by accident or
mifmanagament they be too thin. The goodnefs of
the crop depends on its running up with a Angle ftalk
without branches: for wherever it ramifies, there the
length of the line terminates ; and this ramification is
the confequence of its having too much room at the
root, or getting above the plants which furround it.
The branches are never of any ufe, being unavoidably
worked off in dreeing; and the ftem itfelf, unlefs it
bear a due proportion to the length of the crop, is
likewife worked off among the refufe. This ramifica¬
tion of the flax will readily be occafioned by clods on
the ground when fown. A fecond crop is very feldom
attended with any profit; for being overgrown with
the fpreading plants of the firft crop, it remains weak
and fliort, and at pulling time is left to rot upon the
land.
Flax is injured not only by drought but by froft,
and is fometimes attacked, even when got five or fix
inches high, by a fmall white flug, which ftrips off the
leaves to the top, and the ftalks bending with their
weight are thus fometimes drawn into the ground.
Hence, if the crop does not promife fair at weeding
time, our author advifes not to beftow further labour
and expence upon it. A crop of turnips or rape will
generally pay much better than fuch a crop of flax.
The time of fiax-harveft in Yorkfhire is generally in the
latter end of July or beginning of Auguft.
On the whole, our author remarks, that “ the good¬
nefs of the crop depends in fome meafure upon its
length ; and this upon its evennefs and clofenefs upon
the ground. Three feet high is a good length, and
the thicknefs of a crow’s quill a good thicknefs. A
fine ftalk affords more line and fewer fhivers than a
thick one. A tall thick fet crop is therefore defi-
rable. But unlefs the land be good, a thick crop can¬
not attain a fufficient length of ftem. Hence the fol¬
ly of fowing flax on land which is unfit for it. Ne-
verthelefs, with a fuitable foil, a fufficiency of feed
evenly diftributed, and a favourable feafon, flax may
turn out a very profitable crop. The flax-crop, how¬
ever, has its difadvantages : it interferes with harveft,
and is generally believed to be a great exhaufter of the
foil, efpecially when its feed is fuftered to ripen. Its
cultivation ought therefore to be confined to rich grafs-
land diftri&s, where harveft is a fecondary objeft, and
where its exhauftion may be rather favourable than
hurtful to fucceeding arable crops, by checking the
too great ranknefs of rich frefh broken ground.
In the 5th volume of Bath-Papers, Mr Bartley, near
Briftol, gives an account of the expences and produce
of five acres of flax cultivated on a rich loamy fand. Flax and
The total expence was 42 I. 13 s. 4d. the produce was , HemP- t
ten packs of flax at 5 1. 5 s. value 521. ios. 3; ^
bufhels of linfeed at 5 s. value 81. 15 s. the net profit
therefore was 18 1. its. 8 d. or 41. x 3 s. 4 d. per acre.
This gentleman is of opinion that flax-growers ought
to make it their ftaple article, and coniider the other
parts of their farm as in fubferviency to it.
In the 2d volume of Bath-Papers, a Dorfetlhire Reniarks
gentleman, who writes on the culture of hemp and flax, on aDorfet
gives an account fomewhat different from that of Mr Ad1"6 gen* :
Marfhall. Inftead of exhaujling crops, he maintainst eaiaa*
that they are both ameliorating crops, if cut without
feeding ; and as the beft crops of both are railed from
foreign feed, he is of opinion that there is little occa-
fion for raifing it in this country. A crop of hemp,
he informs us, prepares the land for flax, and is there¬
fore clear gain to the farmer. “ That thefe plants
impoverilh the foil,” he repeats, “ is a mere vulgar
notion, devoid of all truth.—The beft hiftorical rela¬
tions, and the verbal accounts of honeft ingenious
planters, concur in declaring it to be a vain prejudice,
unfupported by any authority ; and that thefe crops
really meliorate and improve the foil.” He is like- pj3”a|1(j
wife of opinion, that the growth of hemp and flax is hemp may
not necelfarily confined to rich foils, but that they may be cultiva-
be cultivated with profit alfo upon poor fandy ground, if ted upon
a little expence be laid out in manuring it. “ Spal- as rich
ding-moor in Lincolnftiire is a barren fand ; and yet
with proper care and culture it. produces the beft hemp
in England, and in large quantities. In the ifle of
Afholme, in the fame county, equal quantities are pro¬
duced ; for the culture and management of it is the
principal employ of the inhabitants; and, according
to Leland, it was fo in the reign of Henry VIII. In
Marlhland the foil is a clay or ftrong warp, thrown
up by the river Ouze, and of fuch a quality, that it
cracks with the heat of the fun, till a hand may be put
into the chinks; yet if it be once covered with the
hemp or flax before the heats come on, the^ground
will not crack that fummer. When the land is fandy,
they firft fow it with barley, and the following fpring
they manure the ftubble with horfe or cow dung, and
plough it under. Then they fow their hemp or flax,
and harrow it in with a light harrow, having fhort teeth.
A good crop deftroys all the weeds, and makes it a
fine fallow for flax in the fpring. As foon as the flax
is pulled, they prepare the ground for wheat. Lime,
marl, and the mud of ponds, is an excellent compoft
for hemp-lands.” 113
Our author takes notice of the vaft quantity of flax Vaft quan-
and hemp, not lefs than 11,000 tons imported in the
year 1763 into Britain ; and complains that it is not fmportec?
raifed in the ifland, which he thinks might be done, into Bri-
though it would require 60,000 acres for the purpofe. tain.
He obferves, that the greater part of thofe rich marfliy
lands lying to the weft of Mendip hills are very proper
for the cultivation of hemp and flax ; and if laid out in
this manner could not fail of turning out highly advan¬
tageous both to the landholders and the public at large.
“ The vaft quantities of hemp and flax (fays he) which
have been raifed on lands of the fame kind in Lincoln-
flvire marlhes, and the fens of the Ifle of Ely and Hun¬
tingdon-fliire, are a full proof of the truth of my af-
fertion. Many hundreds of acres in the above men¬
tioned places, which, for pafturage or grafing, were
Sea. II. H U S B
Cole'See^. not worth more than 20 or 25 /hillings per acre, have
''“■“■’Y""—"' been readily let at 4I. the firft year, 3I. the fecond, and
2I. the third. The reafon of this fuppofed declining
value of land, in proportion to the number of years
fown with flax, is, that it is ufual with them to feed
it for the purpofe of making oil, that being the prin¬
cipal caufe of the land being thereby, impoverifhed.
Sect. II. Rape orGole Seed.
This, as well as linfeed, is cultivated for the pur¬
pofe of making oil, and will grow almoft any where.
Bath Pa- Mr Hazard informs us, that in the north of England
pers} vol. iv. tfoe farmers pare and burn their pafture lands, and then
fow them with rape after one ploughing; the crop
commonly Handing for feed, which will bring from 251.
to 30I. per laft (80 buihels.) Poor clay, or ftone-
Advantage brafli land, will frequently produce from 12 to 16 or
of cultiva- 18 bufhels per acre, and almoft any frelh or virgin
feed rape* eart^ w1^ yIeld one plent‘ful croP > that many in
ee ' the northern counties have been raifed, by cultivating
this feed, from poverty to the greateft affluence. The
feed is ripe in July or the beginning of Auguft ; and
the threftung of it out is condufted with the greateft
mirth and jollity.
cutting: The rape being fully ripe, is firft cut with fickles, and
and thrafh- then laid thin.upon thegroundto dry; and when in pro-
>ng tf6 n Per condition for threlhing, the neighbours are invited,
ec ■ who readily contribute their affiftance. The threftiing
is performed on a large cloth in the middle of the field,
and the feed put into facks and carried home. It does
not admit of being carried from the field in the pod in
order to be threfhed at home, and therefore the ope¬
ration is always performed in the field; and by the
number of afliftants procured on this occafion, a field
of 20 acres is frequently threihed out in one day. The
ftraw is burnt for the fake of its alkali, the afties be¬
ing faid to equal the beft kind of thofe imported from
abroad.
of 'a8. The proper time for fowing rape is the month of
owin£ June 5 anti the land Ihould, previous to the fowing,
be twice well ploughed. About two pounds of feed
are fufficient for an acre ; and, according to our au¬
thor, it ftiould be call upon the ground with only the
thumb and two fore fingers ; for if it be caft with all
the fingers, it will come up in patches. If the plants
come up too thick, a pair of light harrows ihould be
drawn along the field length-ways and crofs-ways ; by
which means the plants willbe equally thinned; andwhen
the plants which the harrows have pulled up are wither¬
ed, the ground fhould be rolled. A few days after
the plants may be fet out with a hoe, allowing 16 or
18 inches diftance betwixt every two plants.
Tranfplant- Mr Hazard ftrongjy recommends the tranfplanting
ing recom- of rape, having experienced the good effe&s of it him-
jmended. felf, A rood of ground, fown in June, will produce
as many plants as are fufficient for 10 acres ; which
may be planted out upon ground that has previoufly
borne a crop of wheat, provided the wheat be harvefted
by the middle of. Auguft. One ploughing will be
fufficient for thefe plants; the beft of which (hould be
fcledled from the feed-plot, and planted in rows two
T feet afunder and 16 inches apart in the rows. As rape
Sheep may i® an excellent food for ffleep, they may be allowed to
be fed in feed upon it in the fpring ; or the leaves might be ga-
»he fprirg thered, and given to oxen or young cattle: frelh
A N D R Y. 765
leaves would fprout again from the fame ftalks, which Coriand er-
in like manner might be fed off by ewes and lambs in Seed> &c»i
time enough to plough the land for a crop of barley " "u~'
and oats. Planting rape in the beginning of July,
however, would be moft advantageous for the crop it-
felf, as the leaves might then be fed off in the autumn,
and npw ones would appear in the fpring. Our author
difeorhmends the practice -of fowing rape with turnips,
as the crops injure one another. “ Thofe who look
for an immediate profit (fays he), will undoubtedly
cultivate rape for feed ; but perhaps it may anfwer
better in the end to feed it with ffleep : the fat ones
might cull it over firft, and afterwards the lean or
ftore-lheep might follow them, and be folded thereon :
if this is done in autumn feafon, the land will be in good
heart to carry a crop of wheat; or where the rape is
fed off in the fpring, a crop of barley might follow.
In either cafe rape is profitable to the cultivator; and
when it is planted, and well earthed round the
ftems, it will endure the fevereft winter ; but the fame
cannot be advanced in favour of that which is fowa
broadcaft.
Sect. III. Coriander Seed.
This is ufed in large quantities by diftillers, drug-
gifts, and confectioners, and might be a confiderable
objeCt to fuch farmers as live in the neighbourhood of
great towns ; but the price is very variable, viz. from
16s. to 42s. per cwt. In the 4th volume of Bath Pa- 131
pers, Mr Bartley gives an account of an experiment Wr Barfri-
made on this feed, which proved very fuccefsful. Ten
peaches of good fandy loam were fovvn with coriander
on the 23d of March 1783. Three pounds of feed
were fufficient for this fpot; and the whole expence a-
mounted only toys. tod. The produce was 87 pounds
of feed, which, valued at 3d. yielded a profit of
15s. lid. or 15 1. 18s. 4d. per acre. He afterwards
made feveral other experiments on a larger fcale; but
none of the crops turned out fo well though all of
them afforded a good profit.
Sect. IV. Canary Seed.
This is cultivated in large quantity in the Ifle of
Thanet,where it is faid they have frequently 20 bufflels
to an acre. Mr Bartley, in the month of March 1783,
fowed half an acre of ground, the foil a mixture of
loam and clay, but had only eight bulhels and an
half, or 17 buffiels per acre. With this produce, how¬
ever, he had a profit of 4I. 2s. 3d. per acre.
Sect. V. Woad.
The ufe of this in dyeing is well known, and the
confumption is fo great, that the railing of the plant
might undoubtedly be an objeCt to an hulbandman-,
provided he could get it properly manufactured for the
dyers, and could overcome their prejudices. At pre*
fent, the growing of this plant is in a manner monopo¬
lized by fome people in particular places, particularly
at Keynfham near Briftol in England. Mr Bartley 13s
informs us, that in a converfation he had with thefe
growers, the latter afferted, that the growth of woad tedtU
was peculiar to their foil and fituation. The foil about
this place is a blackilh heavy mould, with a coafider--
ab.le
766 H U S B A
Hops. able proportion of. clay ; but works freely : that of
Brilhngton, where Mr Bartley refides, an hazal, Tan¬
dy loam : neverthelefs, having fowed half an acre of
this foil with woad-feed, it throve fo well, that he ne¬
ver faw a better crop at Keynfham. Having no ap<-
paratus, however) or knowledge of the manufadture*
he luffered it to run to feed, learning only from the
experiment, that woad is very eafily cultivated, and
that the only difficulty is the preparing it for the
market.
Sect. VI. Hops.
Hops tor- The ufes of thefe, as an ingredient in ntalt-liquors,
hid by a<a are well known. Formerly, however, they were fup-
of parlia- p0fed to poffefs fuch deleterious qualities, that the ufe
aient. 0f t}jein wag forbid by a£t of parliament in the reign
of James VI. But though this ad was never repeal¬
ed, it does not appear that much regard was ever paid
to it, as the ufe of hops has Hill continued, and is
found not to be attended with any bad effeds on the
human conftitution. The only queftion, therefore, is,
How far the raifing a crop of them may be profitable to
an hulhandman ? and indeed this feems to be very
doubtful.
f Annals of Mr Arthur Young, in a fortnight’s tour through
Agriculture, Kent and Effex,informs us f that at Caftle Hedingham
v°l. u. jjg wag toj(j ky a jdr Rogers, who had a confiderable
Expence of bop plantation, that four acres of hop-ground coft him
cultivating upwards of-izol. and that the ufual expences of lay-
them at jng out an acre 0f groUnd in this way amounted to
Caftle Hed- gy a Calculation 0f the expences of an acre
E in Kent, it appeared that the money funk to plant an
acre there amounted to Jal. 8s. 6d.; that the annual
expence was 23I. and the profit no more than
il. 8s. id. In another place, he was informed by a
Mr Potter, who cultivated great quantities of hops,
that if it were not for fome extraordinary crops which
,35 occurred now and then, nobody would plant them. In
Effex. Effix, the expences of an hop-plantation are Hill great¬
er than thofe we have yet mentioned 5 an acre many
years ago requiring 751. to lay it out on hops, and
now not lefs than 100I. the annual expence being
eftimated at 31I. is. while the produce commonly
does not exceed 32I.
In the neighbourhood of Stow-market in this
county, Mr Young informs us, there are about 200
acres planted with hops, but “ 18 or 20 are grubbed
up within two years, owing to the badnefs of the
times.” Here they are planted on a black loofe moor,
very wet and boggy ; and the more wet the better for
the crop, efpecially if the gravel, which conftitutes
the bottom, be not more than three feet from the fur-
face. In preparing the ground for hops, it is formed
into beds 16 feet wide, feparated from each other by
trenches. In thefe beds they make holes fix feet a^
funder, and about 12 inches diameter, three rows up¬
on a bed. Into each hole they put about half a peck
of very rotten dung or rich compoft ; fcatter earth up¬
on it, and plant feven fets in each ; drawing earth
enough to them afterwards to form fomething of an
hillock. A hop garden, Mr Young informs us, “ will
laft aim oft for ever, by renewing the hills that fail, to
the amount of about a fcore annually; but it is rec'
koned better to grub up and new-plant it every 20
or 25 years ”
In this volume of the Annals, Mr Young informs
N D R Y. Partir.
us, that “ one profit of hop-land is that of breaking it Cultivation
up. Mr Potter grubbed up one garden, which fail- , ot f'U!r- ,
ing, he ploughed and foweif barley, the crop great; j ^
then mazagan beans, two acres of which produced 16 Profit of
quarters and five bufliels. He then fowed it with breaking
wheat, which produced 13 quarters and four bufhels “P ^°P’
and an half; but fince that time the crops have not
been greater than common. The fame gentleman has
had 10 quarters of oats after wheat.” In the ninth
volume of the fame work, however, we have an ac¬
count of an experiment by Mr Le Bland of Sitting-
bourn in Kent, of grubbing up 12 acres of hop-
ground, which was not attended with any remarkable
fuccefs. Part of the hops were grubbed up in the
year 1781, and mazagan beans fown in their ftead; but
by reafon of the feed being bad, and the dry fummer,
the crop turned out very indifferent. Next year the
remainder of the hops were grubbed up, and the whole
12 acres fown with wheat; but ftill the crop turned
out very bad, owing to the wet fumtner of that year.
It was next planted with potatoes, which turned
out well; and ever fince that time the crops have
been good. This gentleman informs us, that the per-
fon who had the hop-ground above mentioned did not
lofe lefs by it than 1500I.
The culture of hops feems to be confined in a great Culture o!:
meafute to the foutherii counties of England ; for Mr110?8 *n
Marfhall mentions it as a matter of furprife, that in Norfolk
Norfolk he faw a “ tolerably large hop garden.” The' e 6C
proprietor informed him, that three or four years be¬
fore there had been 10 acres of hops in the parifh
(Biowfield) where he refided ; which was more than
could be colledted in all the reft of the county ; but at
that time there were not above five ; and the culture
was daily declining, as the crops, owirtg to the low
price of the commodity, did not defray the expence.
From all this it appears, that hops are perhaps the
moft uncertain and precarious crop on which the huf-
bandman can beftow his labour. Mr Young is of opi¬
nion, that fome improvement in the culture is neceffa-
ry ; but he does not mention any, excepting that of
planting them in efpaliers* This method was recom¬
mended both by Mr Rogers and Mr Potter above-
mentioned. The former took the hint from obferving,
that a plant which had been blown down, and after¬
wards (hot out horizontally, always produced a great¬
er quantity than thofe which grew upright He alfo
remarks, that hops which are late picked carry more
next year than fuch as are picked early; for which
reafon he recommends the late picking. The only rea¬
fon for picking early is, that the hops appear much
more beautiful than the others.
Sect. VIL Cultivation of Fruit.
In Herefordffiire and Gloucefterfhire the cultivation
of fruit for the purpofe of making a liquor from the
juice, forms a principal part of their hulbandry. In
Devonlhire alfo confiderable quantities of this kind of
liqubr are made, though much lefs than in the two coun¬
ties above-mentioned.
The fruits cultivated in Herefordfilire and Gloucef- Fruits culj
terfttire are, the apple, the pear, and the cherry, FromOvated in
the two firft are made the liquors named cyder and per-
ry ; but though it is probable that a liquor of fome va- ojouedteri
lue might be made from cherries alfo, it does not ap-ftii,c.
pear
•Sea. VII.
H
i pear to have ever been attempted,
marks, that nature has furniftied only
U S B A N D R Y. 767
Mr Marfhall re- roots fhould be taken off, and the longer fide rootlets CuMvation
fpecies of fhortened. The young trees'fiiould then be planted in
J pears and apples, vi%. the common crab of the woods rows three feet afunder, and from 15 to 18 inches dif-
and hedges, and the wild pear, which is likewife pretty tant in the row>« ; taking care not to cramp the roots,
V9- .common. The varieties of thefe fruits are entirely ar-
but to lead them evenly and horizontally among the
mould. If they be intended merely for flocks to
I fruits en-°f t'tic*al, being produced not by feed, but by a certain , ,
itirely artid-mode of culture; whence it is the bufinefs of thofe be grafted, they may remain in thisfituation until they
« cial. who wnfti to improve fruit therefore, to catch at fupe- be large enough to be planted out; though, in ftrift
rior accidental varieties; and having railed them by management, they ought to be re-transplanted two
years before their being transferred into the orchard,
“ in frefli but unmanured double-dug ground, a quin¬
cunx four feet apart every way.” In this fecond
es of fruit altogether perma- tranfplantation, as well as in the firft, the branches of
on depends much upon ma- the root ought not to be left too long, but to be flior-
ives (fays he) when they can tened in fuch a manner as to induce them to form a
1 cannot be no longer be propagated with fuccefs. All the old globular root, fufficiently fmall to be removed with the
I made per- frujts which railed the fame of the liquors of this coun- plant; yet fufficiently large to give it firmnefs and vi-
try are now loit, or fo far on the decline as to be
deemed irrecoverable. The redjlreak is given up ; the
celebrated Jiir-apple is going off _; and the fquajh-pt
cultivation to the higheft perfection of which they
capable, to keep them in that ftate by artificial propa¬
gation. Mr Marfhall, however, obferves, that it is im
poffible to make varieti
nent, though .their durat
nagement. “ A time arr
a mancnt.
gour in the plantation.
Having proceeded in this manner with the feed-bed, Method oC
ceitDraieuywuy/jpc is, 6v,...6 v..., —w , our author gives the following directions. “ SeleCtcj)oo!!n2
which has probably furnifhed this country with more from among the feedlings the plants whofe wood andthe*>antS
champaign than was ever imported into it, can no long- leaves wear the moft apple-like appearance. Tranfplant
er be got to flourifh : the flocks canker, and are unpro- thefe into a rich deep foil in a genial fituation, letting
duCtive. In Yorkfhire fimilar circumftances have ta- them remain in this nurfery until they begin to bear,
ken place : feveral old fruits which were produ&ive With the feeds of the faireft, richeft, and bell flavour-
within my own recollection are loft ; the flocks can- ed fruit repeat this procefs; and at the fame time, or
kered, and the trees would no longer come to bear.” in due feafon, engraft the wood which produced this
Our author controverts the common notion among fruit on that of the richell, fweeteft, beft-flavoured
orchard-men, that the decline of the old fruits is owing apple : repeating this operation, and transferring the
to a want of frefh grafts from abroad, particularly from fubjed under improvement from one tree and fort to
Normandy, from whence it is fuppofed that apples another, as richnefs, flavour^or firmnefs may require ;
w'ere originally imported into this country. Mr Mar- continuing this double mode of improvement until the
fhall, however, thinks, that thefe original kinds have defired fruit be obtained. There has, no doubt, been a
been long fince loft, and that the numerous varieties of period when the improvement of the apple and pear
which we are now poffeffed were raifed from feed in was attended to in this country ; and fhould not the
this country. He alfo informs us, that at Ledbury he fame fpirit of improvement revive, it is probable that
was flrown a Normandy apple-tree, which, with many the country will, in a courfe-of years, be left deftitute
others of the fame kind, had been imported immedi- of valuable kinds of thefe two fpecies of fruit; which,
ately from France. He found it, however, to be no though they may in fome degree be deemed obje&s of
other than the Ikter/nveet, which he had feen growing luxury, long cuftom feems to have ranked among the
as a neglefted wilding in an Englifh hedge.
The procefs of raifing new varieties of apples.
neceffaries oflife.”
In the fourth volume of Bath Papers, Mr GrimwoodMr Grim-
Mr Mar- cording to Mr Marfhall, is fimple and eafy. “ Ele£t fuppofes the degeneracy of apples to be rather imagi- wood’8 0P**"
fhall’a di- £fayS he) am0ng the native fpecies individuals of the nary than real. He fays, that the evil complained of^enwacy*
raifing new higheft flavour ; fow the feeds in a highly enriched ' “ is not a real decline in the quality of the fruit, but in0f
varieties of feed-bed. When new varieties,
I fruit.
old ones, are the obje&s, it may perhaps be eligible \
ufe a frame or ftove ; but where the prefervation of the
r the improvement of the tree ; owing either to want of health, the feafon,
foil, mode of planting, or the flock they are grafted
1, being too often raifed from the feed of apples in the
ID Of the
lilj nurft ry
yi} ground.
ordinary varieties only is wanted, an ordinary loamy fame place or county.—I have not a doubt in my o
foil will be fufficient. At any rate, it ought to be per- mind, but that the trees which are grafted on the flocks
fedily clean at leaft from root weeds, and Ihould be raifed from the apple pips are more tender than thofe
double dug from a foot to 18 inches deep.—The fur- grafted on the real crab-flock ; and the feafons in this
face being levelled and raked fine, the feeds ought to country have, for many years pall, been unfavourable
be fcattered on about an inch afundtr, and covered for fruits, which add much to the fuppofed degeneracy
about half an inch deep with fome oi the fineft. mould of the apple. It is my opinion, that if planters of or-
previoufly raked off the bed for that purpofe. During chards would procure the trees grafted on real crab-
fummer the young plants ftrould be kept perfcftiy free flocks from a diftant country, they would find their
from weeds, and may be taken up for tranfplantation account in fo doing much overbalance the extra ex-
the enfuing winter; or if not very thick in the feed- pence of charge and carriage.
bed, they may remain in it till the fecond winter. In the fame volume, Mr Edmund Gillingwater af-
14a The nurfery ground ought alfo to be enriched, and figns as a reafon for the degeneracy of apples the water’s opt.
double dug to the depth of 14 inches at leafl ; though mixture of various farina, from the orchards beingnf
preferable. The leedling plants ought to too near each other. lo confequence of this no¬
tion, he alfo thinks that the old and bell kinds of
apple-trees are not loft, but only corrupted from being
be forted agreeably to the ftrength of their roots, that
they may rife evenly together. The top or. downward
768
Cultiva-
'tlOtl.. &c.
■of fruit-
trees.
, H U S B A
Cultivation planted too near bad neighbours : “ Remove them (fays!,
, of fruit. , tQ a fItuat;on where they are not expofed to this
’ v inconvenience, and they will immediately recover their
former excellency.” This theory, however, is not fup-
ported by a fingle experiment.
146 In this volume alfo Mr Richard Samuel exprefles his
Mr Samu- concern at the “ prefent neglcft of orchards, where the
--F—old trees are decaying, without proper provifion being
thod of re- made for the fucceeding age : for if a farmer plants
covering frelh trees (which does not frequently happen), there
the.belt js feldomj any care taken to propagate the better forts,
rwt‘ as his grafts are ufually taken promifcuoufly from any
ordinary kind moll eafily procured in the neighbour¬
hood.” His remedy is to colledt grafts from the beft
trees ; by which means he fuppofes that the fuperior
kinds of fruit would foon be recovered. To a care of
this kind he attributes the Superiority of the fruit in the
neighbourhood of great towns to that in other places.1
With regard to the method of cultivating fruit-
trees, it is only neceflary to add, that while they re¬
main in the nurfery, the Intervals betwixt them may be
occupied by fuch kitchen-ftuff as will not crowd or
overfhadow the plants; keeping the rows in the mean
time perfedlly free from weeds. In pruning them, the
leader (hould be particularly attended to. If it ihoot
double, the weaker of the contending branches fhould
be taken off; but if the leader be loft, and not eafily
recoverable, the plant {hould be cut down to within a
hand’s breadth of the foil, and a frelh ftem trained.
The undermoft boughs (hould be taken oxfby degrees,
going over the plants every winter; but taking care to
preferve heads of fufficient magnitude not to draw the
iiems up too tall, which would make them feeble in the
lower part. The ftems in Herefordlhire are trained to
fix feet high; but our author prefers feven, or even
half a rod in height. A tall ftemmed tree is much
lefs injurious to what grows below it than a low-head¬
ed one, which is itfelf in danger of being hurt, at the
fame time that it hurts the crop under it. The thick-
nefs of the ftem ought to be in proportion to its
heigtrt; for which reafon a tall (lock ought to remain
longer in the nurfery than a low one. The ufual fize
at which they are planted out in Herefordftiire is from
four to fix inches girt at three feet high ; which fize,
with proper management, they will reach in feven or
eight years. The price of thefe (locks in Hereford-
fhire is 1 8d. each. Our author met with one inftance
of crabftocks being gathered in the woods with a good
profpedl of fuccefs.
*48 In Herefordlhire it is common to have the ground
Method of 0f the orcbards in tillage, and in Gloucefterflrire in
the^round grafs ; which Mr Marfiiall fuppofes to be owing to the
of orchards difference betwixt the foil of the two counties ; that
in Here- of Herefordlhire being generally arable, and Gloucef-
fordflure ter gr3fs ]and. Trees, however, are very dellruftive,
cefterihire. 1101 onty to a cr0P corn» but to clover and turnips;
though tillage is favourable to fruit-trees in general,
efpecially when young. In grafs grounds their pro-
grefs is comparatively (low, for want of the earth be¬
ing ftirred about them, andby being injured by the cattle,
efpecially when low-headed and drooping. After they
begin to bear, cattle ought by all means to be kept
away from them, as they not only deftroy all the fruit
within their reach, but the fruit itfelf is dangerous to
the cattle, being apt to (lick in their throats and choak
160.
N B R Y. rPartir.
them. Thefe inconveniences may be avoided, by eat- Cultivation 1
ing the fruit grounds bare before the gathering fea-;ot f‘uit- . 1
fon, and keeping the boughs out of the way of the v 1
cattle : but Mr Marfhall is of opinion, that it is wrong
to plant orchards in grafs land. “ Let them (fays he)
lay their old orchards to grafs : and if they plant, break
up their young orchards to arable. This will be chan¬
ging the courfe of hufbandry, and be at once beneficial
to the land and the trees.
Our author complains very much of the indolent Indolence
and carelefs method in which the Herefordftiire and 0* the far-
Gloucefterftiire farmers manage their orchards. The
natural enemies of fruit-trees (he fays) are, 1. A re-complained'
dundancy of wood. 2. The mifletoe. 3. Mofs. of.
4. Spring frofts. 5. Blights. 6. Infefts. 7. An ex¬
cels of fruit. 8. Old age. ISO
1. A redundancy of wood is prejudicial, by reafon ofExcefaof
the barren branches depriving thofe which bear fruit W0‘jcl haw
of the nouriftiment which ought to belong to them.reme<iie<**
A multitude of branches alfo give the winds fuch an
additional power over the tree, that it is in perpetual
danger of being overthrown by them : trees are like-
wife thus injured by the damps and want of circulation
of air, fo that only the outer branches are capable of
bringing fruit to maturity. “ It is no uncommon
fight (fays he) to fee trees in this diftrift, with two
or three tires of boughs preffing down hard upon one
another, with their twigs fo intimately interwoven,
that even when the leaves are off, a fmall bird can
fcarcely creep in among them. ^
2. The miftetoe in this country is a great enemy to MUletoc
the apple-tree. It is eafily pulled out with hooks in how de-
frofty weather, when, being brittle, it readily breaks offltroi’e^‘
from the branches. It likewife may be applied to a
profitable purpofe, (heep being as fond of it as of ivy. ^
3. Mofs can only be got the better of by induftry Md*.
in clearing the trees of it; and in Kent there are
people who make it their profefiion to do fo. 153
4. Spring-frofts, efpecially when they fuddenly fuc- Spring
ceed rain, are great enemies to fruit-trees ; dry frofts ^ro^8*
only keep back the bloftbms for fome time. Art can
give no farther affiftance in this cafe than to keep the
trees in a healthy and vigorous (late, fo as to enable
them to throw out a ftrength of bud and bloffom; and
by keeping them thin of wood, to give them an op¬
portunity of drying quickly before the froft fet in.
5. Blight is a term, as applied to fruit-trees, which Blights an
Mr Marftiall thinks is not underftood. Two bearinguncertam
years, he remarks, feldom come together; and he is or e
opinion, that it is the mere exhaufting of the trees by
the quantity of fruit which they have carried one
year, that prevents them from bearing any the next.
The only thing therefore that can be done in this cafe
is, to keep the trees in as healthy and vigorous a date
as poflible. r55
6- Infefts deftroy not only the bloffoms and leaves, of
but fome of them alfo the fruit, efpecially pears. In ^eft-oying
the year 1783 much fruit was deftroyed by wafps. wafps.
Mr Marftiall advifes to fet a price upon the female
wafps in the fpring ; by which thefe mifchievous in-
fefts would erhaps be exterminated, or at lead great¬
ly leffened. 156
7. An excefs of fruit (lints the growth of young of an ex¬
trees, and renders all in general barren for two or three cefs of
years; while in many cafes the branches are broken frUlt■
7 6 off
3'Sea.vm.
HUSBANDRY.
769
off by the weight of the fruit; and in one cafe Mr remembered, however, that though the trees them- Timber-
J Marfhall mentions, that an entire tree had funk under felves do not come to pesfedtion in a fliorter time, the , trCr~c' ,
value of the ground will always increafe in proportion v "T"
to their age. Thus, fays one author upon this fub- I^1 »
jedt, “ we have fome knowledge of a gentleman now
living, who during his lifetime has made plantations, planting,
which in all probability will be worth to his fon as
8. Though it is impoffible to prevent the effedts of much as his whole eftate, handfome as it is. Suppofing
old age, yet by proper management the natural life of that thofe plantations have been made 50 or 60 years.
fs burthen. To prevent as much as poffible the bad
effedts of an excefs of fruit, Mr Marfhall recommends
“ to graft in the boughs,” and when fully grown, to
thin the bearing branches; thus endeavouring, like the
gardener, to grow fruit every year.”
K Duration ‘‘ ~ .... ,
8 fruit-tre  
1 lengthened, fruit-trees may be confiderably protradfed. The moil
I hIio-iMp mPiling ic tf’v tfrrafY AnnUfi nf nPtiVP r*raVl in
eligible method is to graft flocks of the native crab in
the boughs. The decline of the tree is preceded by a
gradual decline of fruitfulnefs, which long takes place
before the tree manifefts any fign of decay. During
this decline of fruitfulnefs, there is a certain period
when the produce of a tree will no longer pay for the
ground it occupies, and beyond this period it ought
and that in the courfe of 20 or 3c more they will be
worth L. 50,000; may we not fay, that at prefent they
arc worth fome 20,000 1. dr 30,000 1. ? Mr Pavier,
in the 4th volume of Bath Papers, computes the value
of 50 acres of oak timber in too years to be L. 12,100,
which is nearly 50 s. annually per acre; and if we con-
fider that this is continually accumulating without
any of that expence or rifle to which annual crops are
by no means to be allowed to ftand. In the Vale of fubjedf, it is probable that timber-planting may be ac-
Gloucefter, however, our author faw an inftance of counted one of the molt profitable articles in hnfban-
fome healthy bearing apple-trees, which then had the
fecond tops to the fame items. The former tops ha¬
ving been worn out, were cut off, and the flumps faw-
grafted. Our author obferves, that the pear-tree is
much longer lived than the apple, and ought never to .
i;8 be planted in the fame ground. He concludes with which either in grafs or corn can repay the trouble of
f TvTr Mar- the following general obfervation : “ Thus confidering cultivation with a good annual crop.
I’Sr vat ion" ^ru‘ttree8 as a croP *n ^u^an^ry» 6enera^ manaffe' ’
I ©n the cul- appears to be this : Plant upon a recently bro¬
il ^ture of tim-ten-up worn-out fward. Keep the foil under a ftate
dry. Evelyn calculates the profit of 1000 acres of
oak-land in 150 years, at no lefs than L. 670,000 ;
but this is moft probably an exaggeration. At any
rate, however, it would be improper to occupy, efpe-
cially with timber of fuch flow growth, the grounds
161
& ifcer-ti
of arable management, until the trees be well grown
then lay it down to grafs, and let it remain in fward
until the trees be removed, and their roots be decayed
when it will again require a courfe of arable manage¬
ment.”
Sect. VIII. Of Timber-Trees.
The importance and value of thefe is fo well known,
In the fourth volume of the Bath Papers, Mr Wag- Planting
ftaffe recommends planting as an auxiliary to cultiva- melioratea
tipn. He brings an inftance of the fuccefs of Sir Wil-the
liam Jeningham, who made trial of “ the moft unpro-
mifing ground perhaps that any fuccefsful planter has
hitherto attempted.” His method was to plant beech
trees at proper diftances among Scotch firs, upon
otherwife barren heaths. “ Thefe trees (fays Mr Wag-
ftaffe), in a foil perhaps without clay or loam, with the
heathy fod trenched into its broken ftrata of fand or
gravel, under the prote&ion of the firs, have laid hold,
though flovvly, of the foil; and accelerated by the fu-
-that it is fuperfluous to fay any thing on that fubjedt perior growth of the firs, have proportionally rifen.
at prefent: notwithftanding this acknowledged value,
however, the growth of timber is fo flow, and the re-
until they wanted an enlargement of fpace for growth
when the firs were cut clown.” J-le next proceeds to
turns for planting fo diftant, that it is generally fup- obferve, that when the firs are felled, their roots decay
pofed for a long time to be a pofitive lofs, or at leaft in the ground ; and thus furnifh by that decay a new
to be attended with no profit. This matter, however,
I t?9 when properly confidered, will appear in another light.
(I Different There are four diftindt fpecies of woodlands ; viz.
■ 'kinds of woodS) timber-groves, coppices, and woody waftes.
woo an ?. WOCKjs are a C0He<ct;0n Df timber-trees and under¬
wood ; the timber groves contain timber-trees without
any underwood ; and the coppices are colledtions of
underwood alone. All thefe turn out to advantage
fupport to the foil on which the beeches grow : by
which means the latter receive an additional vigour, as
well as an enlargement of fpace and freer air ; the firs
themfelves, though cut down before they arrived at
their full growth, being alfo applicable to many valu¬
able purpofes.
In the 6th volume of Annals of Agriculture, we Culture of
find the culture of trees recommended by Mr Harries: umber-
fooner or later, according to the quick or flow growth and he informs us, that the larch is the quickeft grow-trees re‘,
of the trees, find the htiiiition nr the nlaep with t-Koil iir-,/~*»sr» conimen
of the trees, and the fituation of the place with refpedl
to certain local advantages. Thus in fome places un¬
derwood is of great confequence, as for rails, hoops,
ftakes, fuel, &c. and by reafon of the quicknefs of its
er and the moft valuable of all the refinous timber- e<j by Mr"
trees; but unlefs there be pretty good room allowed Harris,
for the branches to ftretch out on the lower part of
the trunk, it will not arrive at any confiderable fize ;
growth it may be accounted the moft. profitable of all and this obfervation, he fays, holds good of all pyra-
-- -- ” r midaltrees. Scotch firs may be planted between them,
T wha' r,an'plantations. An ofier-bed will yield a return of pro-
B toonelt *' t^ie fecond or-third year, and a coppice in 15
• brmg ii:
retu-n <
M profit.
and pulled out after they begin to obftru& the growth
or 20 years ; while a plantation of oaks will not arrive of the larch. Some of thefe larches he had feen plant-
at perfe&ion in lefs than a century. This laft period
is fo long, that it may not unreafonably be fupppfed
ed about 30 years before, which at five feet distance
from the ground meafured from few feet to five feet
likely to deter people from making fuch plantations of inches in circumference. The moft barren grounds,
this kind, as few are willing to take any trouble for he fays, would anfwer or thefe trees, but better foil
what they are never to feg in perfe&ion. It muft be is required for the oaks. In this paper he takes no-
Vol. VIII. Tart II. * *5D tice
77°
Timber-
164
Ipcreafe of
oafe-ueej.
1^5
increafe of
trees in the
Marquis
of l«anf-
downe’s
plantation.
166
Of under-
Wood, &e.
H U S B A
tice of the leaves of one of his plantations of oaks ha¬
ving been almoft entirely deftroyed by infe&s; in con-
fequence of which they did not increafe in bulk as
ufual: but another which had nearly efcaped thefe ra¬
vages, incrcafed at an average one inch in circumfe¬
rence. “ A tree four feet round (fays he), that has
timber 20 feet in length, gains by this growth a folid
foot of timber annually, worth one Ihilling at lead,
and pays 5 per cent, for Handing. It increafes more
as the tree gets frfcm five to fix feet round. I have a
reafonable hope to infer from my inquiry, that I have
in my groves 3000 oaks that pay me one fhilling each
per annum, or L. 150 a year. My poplars have gain¬
ed in circumference near two inches, and a Worcefter
and witch elm as much. I have lately been inform¬
ed, that the fmooth cut of a holly-tree, that meafures
20 inches and upwards round, is worth to the cabinet¬
makers zs. and 6d. per foot.
The following table {hows the increafe of trees in
21 years from their firft planting. It was taken from
the marquis of Lanfdowne’s plantation, begun in the
year 1765, and the calculation made on the 15th of
July 1786. It is about fix acres in extent, the foil
partly a fwampy meadow upon a gravelly bottom.
The meafures were taken at five feet above the furface
of the ground ; the fraall firs having been occafionally
drawn for polls and rails, as well as rafters for cottages;
and when peeled of the bark, will Hand well for feven
years.
Height in Circumference
Feet. in Feet. Inch,
Lombardy poplar - 60 to 80 48
Arbeal - - 50 to 70 46
Plane - - 50 to 60 36
Acacia - - 50 to 60 24
Elm - - - 40 to 60 36
Ghefnut - - 30 to 50 29
Weymouth pines - 30 to 50 2 5
Cluder ditto - 30 to 50 25
Scotch fir - - 30 to 50 2 10
Spruce ditto - 30 to 50 22
Larch - - 501060 3 10
From this table it appears, that planting of timber-
trees, where the return can be waited for during the
fpace of 20 years, will undoubtedly repay the original
profits of planting, as well as the intereft of the money
laid out ; which is the better worth the attention of a
proprietor of land, that the ground on which they grow
may be fuppofed good for very little elfe. From a
comparative table of the growth of oak, a(h, and
elm timber, given in the nth volume of the Annals
of Agriculture, it appears that the oak is by much the
floweft grower of the three.
With refpeA to the growth of under-wood, which
in feme cafes is very valuable, it is to be remarked,
that in order to have an annual fall of it, the whole
quantity of ground, whatever its extent may be, ought
to be divided into annual Sowings. The exaft num¬
ber of fowings muft be regulated by the ufes to which
it is intended to be put. Thus if, as in Surrey, Hakes,
edders, and- hoops are faleable, there ought to be
eight or ten annual fowings ; 01 if, as in Kent, hop-
poles are demanded, 14 or 15 will be required ; and
if, as in Yorkfhire, rails "be wanted, or, as in Glou-
etHerfbire, cordwood be raoft marketable, 18 or 20
N D R Y. Part II.
fowings will be neceflary to produce a fucceflion of Timber-
annual falls. Thus the bufinefs, by being divided, treC5,
will be rendered lefs burthenfome : a certain proper-' v   *
tion being every year to be done, a regular fet of hands
will, in proper feafon, be employed ; and by begin¬
ning upon a fmall fcale, the errors of the firH year will
be corredled in the pra&ice of the fecond, and thofe
of the fecond in that of the third. The produce of
the intervals will fall into regular courfe ; and when
the whole is completed, the falls will follow each other
in regular fucceffion. The greateH objedlion to this
method of fowing woodlands is the extraordinary
trouble in fencing : but this obje&ion does not hold if
the fowings lies at a diHance from one another; on the
contrary, if they lie together, or in plots, the entire
plot may be inclofed at once ; and if it contain a num¬
ber of fowings, fome fubdivifions will be neceflary,
and the annual fowings of thefe fubdivifions may be
fenced off with hurdles, or fome other temporary con¬
trivance ; but if the adjoining land be kept under the
plough, little temporary fencing will be neceffary. It
muff be obferved, however, that in raifing a woodland
from feeds, it is not only neceffary to defend the young
plants againfl cattle and (beep, but againff hares
and rabbits alfo: fo that a clofe fence of fome kind
is abfolutely neceffary. See the articles Fence and
Hedge.
With regard to the preparation of the ground for
raifing timber, it may be obferved, that if the foil be of
a Hiff clayey nature, it (hould receive a whole year’s fal¬
low as for wheat; if light, a crop of turnips may
be taken ; but at all events it muff be made perfe&ly
clean before the tree feeds be foon, particularly from
perennial root weeds ; as, after the feeds are fown,
the opportunity of performing this neceffary bufinefs
is in a great meafure lofl. If the fituation be moiff,
the foil ffiould be gathered into wide lands, fufficiently
round to let the water run off from the furface, but
not high. The time of fowing is either the month of
O&ober or March; and the method as follows: “ TkeMethod cf
land being in fine order, and the feafon favourable, thefowing,
whole (hould be fown with corn or pulfe adapted to
the feafon of fowing: if in autumn, wheat or rye
may be the crop ; but if in fpring, beans or oats.
Whichever of thefe three fpecies be adopted, the quan¬
tity of feed ought to be lefs than ufual, in order to
give a free admiflion of air, and prevent the crop
from lodging. The fovving of the grain being com¬
pleted, that of the tree-feeds muff be immediately fet
about. Thefe ate to be put in drills acrofa the land ;
acorns and nuts {hould be dibbled in, but keys and
berries fcattered in trenches or drills drawn with the
corner of a hoe, in the manner that gardeners fovv their
peafe. The diHance might be a quarter of a iiatute
rod, or four feet and one inch and an half. A land
chain {hould be ufed in fetting out the drills, as not
being liable to be lengthened or ffiortened by the..
weather. It is readily divided into rods ; and the
quarters may be eafily marked.
The fpecies of under-wood to be fown muff be
determined by the confumpt of it in the neighbour¬
hood of the plantation. Thus, if Hakes, hoops, &c.
be in requeff, the oak, hazel, and a!h, are effeerned
as under-wood. Where charcoal is wanted for iron:
forges, beech is the prevailing underwood. The oak,
box.
Sea. VIII.
Timber- box, birch, kc. are all in requeft in different countries,
^ trfe,‘ , and the choice mud be determined by the prevailing
'v~ demand. As the keys of the afh fometimes lie two
or even three years in the ground, it will be proper to
have the places where they are fown diftinguilhtd by
fome particular marks, to prevent them from being
difturbed by the plough after harveft ; as a few beans
fcattered along with them, if the crop be oats; or oats,
if the crop be beans. The crop (hould be reaped, not
mown, at harveft time, and be carried off as faft as pof-
fible. Between harveft and winter, a pair of furrows
fhould be laid back to back in the middle of each in¬
terval, for meliorating the next year’s crop, and laying
the feedling plants dry ; while the ftubble of the un¬
ploughed ground on each fide of the drills will keep
them warm during the winter. The next year’s crop
may be potatoes, cabbages, turnips, or if the firft
was corn, this may be beans ; if the firft was beans,
this may be wheat drilled. In the fpring of the third
year the drills which rofe the firft year muft be looked
over, and the vacancies filled up from thofe parts
which are thickert ; but the drills of the afh fhould be
let alone till the fourth year. The whole fhould after¬
wards be looked over from time to time ; and this,
with cultivating the intervals, and keeping the drills
free from weeds, will be all that is necefiary until the
tops of the plants begin to interfere.
The crops may be continued for feveral years; and
if they only pay for the expences, they will ftill be of
confiderable advantage by keeping the ground ftirred,
and preferving the plants from hares and rabbits.
Even after the crops are difcontinued, the ground
ought ftill to be ftirred, alternately throwing the
771
mould to the roots of the plants, and gathering it la to Tiatber-
a ridge in the middle of the interval. The heft me- tree°‘ .
thod of doing this is to fplit the ground at the ap- — *
proach of winter in order to throw it up to the trees
on both Tides; this will preferve the roots from froft:
gather it again in the fpring, which will check the
weeds, and give a frefh fupply of air : fplit again at
mid-fummer, to preferve the plants from drought:
gather, if neceffary, in autumn, and fplit as before at
the approach of winter. The fpring and mid-fummer
ploughings fhould be continued as long as a plough
can pafs between the plants.
Whenever the oaks intended for timber are in dan¬
ger of being drawn up too fiender for their height, it
will be necefiary to cut off all the reft at the height
of about an handbreadth above the ground ; and
thofe defigned to ftand muft now be planted at
about two rods diftant from each other, and as nearly
a quincunx as pofiible. The fecond cutting muft be
determined by the demand there is for the under-*
wood ; with only this provifo, that the timber ftands
be not too much crowded by it; for rather than this
fhould be the cafe, the coppice fhould be cut, though
the wood may not have reached its moft profitable
ftate. What is here faid of the method of rearing
oak-trees in woods, is in a great meafure applicable to
that of raifing other trees in timber-gioves. The
fpecies moft ufually raifed in thefe are the afh, elm,
beech, larch, fpruce fir, Weyrnouth pine, poplar,
willow, alder, chefnut, walnut, and cherry. The three
laft are ufed as fubftitutes for the oak and beech, and
thel'e two for the mahogany.
HUSBANDRY.
Part III. Of the Cattle proper to be employed in Farivi-Work ; Rearing and
Management of them. Of Hogs, Poultry, &c. Management of Bees. Of
the Dairy. Making of Fruit-Liquors. Of Manures.
Sect. I. Of the Cattle proper to be employed.
As great part of the ftock of an hufbandman mull
always confift of cattle, and one of his principal ex¬
pences in the maintenance of them, this part of his bufi-
nefs is certainly to be looked upon as one of the moll
important of the whole. The cattle belonging to a
farm may be divided into two claffes, vix. fuch-as are
intended for work, and fuch as are defigned for fale.
The former are now principally horfes, the oxen for¬
merly employed being fallen into difufe, though it does
j68 not yet certainly appear that the reafons for the ex-
JVIr Ke- change are fatisfaiftory. In the fecond volume of Bath
dinpton’s Papers, we have account of a comparative experiment
ment on th.e ut*lity of horfes and oxen in hufbandry by Mr
the com- Kedington near Bury in Suffolk, in which the prefe-
parative rence is decifively given to oxen. He informs us, that
horfe* and 3t ^ t‘rne ^ began the experiment (in 1779), he was
«xen.8 ^ almoft certain that there was not an ox worked in
the whole county ; finding, however, the expence of
horfes very great, he purchafed a fingle pair of oxen,
but found much difficulty in breaking them, as the
workmen were fo much prejudiced againft them, that
they would not take the proper pains. At laft he
met with a labourer who undertook the tafk; and the
oxen “ foon became as tra&able and as handy, both
at ploughing and carting, as any horfes.” On this he
determined to part with all his cart-horfes; and by the
time he wrote his letter, which was in 1781, he had
not a fingle horfe, nor any more than fix oxen ; which
inconfiderable number performed with eafe all the work
of his farm (confifting of upwards of 100 acres of
arable land and 60 of pafture and wood), befides the
ftatute duty on the highways, timber and corn, cart¬
ing, harrowing, rolling, and every part of rural bu-
finefs. They are conftantly fhoed; their harnefs is
the fame as that of horfes (excepting the neceffary al¬
terations for difference of fize and lhape); they are
driven with bridles and bits in their mouths, anfwer-
ing to the fame words of the ploughman and carter
as horfe? will do. A fingle man holds the plough, and
drives a pair of oxen with reins: and Our author in¬
forms us, that they will plough an acre of ground in
lefs than eight hours time ; he is of opinion that they
would do it in feven. The intervals of a fmall plan¬
tation, in which the trees are fet in rows ten feet afun-
der, are ploughed by a fingle ox with a light plough,
and he is driven by the man who holds it. The oxen
go in a cart either fingle, or one, two, or three, ac¬
cording to the load. Four oxen will draw 80 buffiels
of barley or oats in a waggon with eafe j and if good
5 D 2 of
772
Cattle to be of their kind, will travel
emi»loyed., joaj Qne ox w;]j (jraw fcufheig ;n a Ught cart,
which our author thinks is the heft carriage of any.
Reafoiu fir Gn the whole, he prefers oxen to horfes for the follow-
jireferring ing reafons.
i. They are kept at much lefs expence, never eating
meal or corn of any kind. In winter they are fed
with ftraw, turnips, carrots, or cabbages; or inftead
of the three lali, they have each a peck of bran per
day while kept conftantly at work. In the fpring
horfes.
HUSBANDRY. PartUL
faft as horfes with the fame of 200,000 years keep of a growing horfe which at Cattle to 6e
the low ellimate of Hve pounds a-year, amounts to a etnPld)'c^* I*
million annually. On the contrary, fuppofing the bu-'
finefs of hufbandry to be done folely by cattle, and a millioni, i
admitting that oxen may be fatted with the fame ex- annually j
penditure of vegetable produce as that which old horfes loft hy
50,000 horfes dying, 50,000 oxen, of no more than
52 Hone each, are annually flaughtered 5 it is evident*
that a quantity of beef nearly equal t» what the city
they eat hay ; and if working harder than ufual in of London confumes would be annually brought into
feed-time, they have bran belides. When the vetches the market; or, in other words, 100,000 additional
are lit for mowing, they get them only in the liable.
After the'day’s work in fummer they have a fmall
bundle of hay, and Hand in the liable till they cool;
after which they are turned into the pailure. Our au¬
thor is of opinion, that an ox may be maintained in
condition, for the fame conllant work as an horfe, for
at leaft 4I. lefs annually.
2. After a horfe is feven years old, his value de¬
clines every y^ear; and when lame, blind, or very old,
he is fcarce worth any thing ; but an ox, in any of
thefe fituations, may be fatted, and fold for even more
than the firll purchafe; and will always be fat fooner
after work than before.
3. Oxen are lefs liable to difeafes than horfes.
4. Horfes are frequently liable to be fpoiled by fer-
vants riding them without their mailer’s knowledge,
which is not the cafe with oxen.
5. A general ufe of oxen would make beef plenti¬
ful, and confequently all other meat; which would be
a national benefit. «
Mr Kedington concludes his paper with acknow-
inhabitants might be fupplied with one pound of ani-
nval food a-day each ; and this, without confuming one
additional blade of grafs. “ I am- far from expefting
(fays Mr Marlhall), that cattle will, in> a ihnrt (pace
of time, become the univerial bealts of draft in huf.
bandry ; nor will I contend, that under the prefent*
circumilances of the ifland they ought in llricl pro¬
priety to be ufed. But i know that cattle, under¬
proper management, and kept to a proper age, are !
equal to every work of-hufbandry, in moll if not all
fituations : And I am certain, that a much greater,
proportion than there is at prefent might be worked-
with eonfiderable advantage, not to the community
only, but to the owners and occupiers of lands. If,
only one of the 50,000 carcafes now loll annually tor
the community could be reclaimed, the faving would;
beanobjea.” _ I?v |
In Norfolk, our author informs us that horfes are>No oxen
the only bealls of labour ; and that there is not per- uledin
haps one ox worked throughout the whole county. N01!0"* ■
ox worked throughc
 j —.  6-—    -— r-r~  It is the fame in the Yale of. Glouceller,. though:oxen. _
Ihoeing ledging, that there is one inconvenience attending the are ufed in the adjoining counties. Formerly fome objedliun.,;*
cn' ufe of oxen, viz. that it is difficult to flioe them ; tho’ oxen were worked in it double ; but they were found to them in . J
even this, he thinks, is owing rather to the unlkilful- to poach the land too much,: and were therefore givend^6 Val® °^1
up. Even when worked fingle, the fame objeaion isGlouc' eri*>i
made : but, fays Mr Marfhall, “ in this I fufpedl there
is a fpice of obftinaey in the old way; a want of a
due portion of the fpirit of improvement ; a kind of.
indolence. It might not perhaps be .too fevere to fay
of the Vale farmers, that they would rather be eaten
up by their horfes than Hep out of the beaten traft
to avoid them.” Shoeing oxen with whole Ihoes,. in
n*
IVTr Mar-
fhall’s cal¬
culations.
nefs of the fmiths who have not been accuftomed to
ffioe thefe animals, than to any real difficulty. He con¬
fines them in a pound while the operation is performing.
Mr Marlhall, in his Rural Economy of the Midland
counties, Ihows the advantage of employing oxen in
preference to horfes from the mere article of expencc,
which, according to his calculation, is enormous on the
part of the horfes. He begins with eftimating the
number of fquare miles contained in the kingdom of our author’s opinion, might remedy the evil complained
England; and this ke fuppofes to be 30,000 of culti¬
vated ground. Suppofing the work of hulbandry to
be done by horfes only, and each fquare mile to em¬
ploy 20 horfes, which is about 3 to 100 acres, the
whole number ufed throughout Britain would be
600,000; from which dedudting one fixth for the num¬
ber of oxen employed at prefent, the number of horfes
juft now employed will be 500,000. Admitting that
each horCe works ten years, the number of farm-horfes
of; but “ if not, let thofe (fays he) who are ad¬
vocates for oxen calculate the comparative difference
in 'wear and keep, and thofe who- are their, enemies
eftimatethe comparative mifehiefs of trading; and thus
decide upon their value. as.Ueafts of labour in the Vale.”
In the Cotfwold oxen are worked as well as horfes ; Ufe . in tha
but the latter, our author fears, arc ftill in the pro- Cotfwold.. |
portion of two to one :. he has the fatisfaftion to find,
however, that the former are coming into more gene-
'75 .
which die annually are no fewer than 50,000 5 each of ral ufe. They are worked in harnefs ; the collar and
which requires full four years keep before he is fit for
work. Horfes indeed are broke in at three, fqme at
two, years old, but they are, or ought to be, indulged
in keep and work till they are fix ; fo that the coft
of rearing and keeping may be laid at full four ordi¬
nary years. For all this confumption of vegetable pro¬
harnefs being ufed as for horfes, not. reverfed, as in
moft cafes they are for oxen. “ They appear (fays our
author.) to be perfe£lly handy, and work, either at
plough or cart, in a manner which fliows, that although
horfes may be in fome cafes convenient) and in moft ca¬
fes pleafurabk to tfoe driver, they are by no means necef-
176'
duce he returns not the community a fingle article of yiiry, to.hufbandry. A convenience, ufed in this .counr Moveablfr
food, clothing, or commerce ; even his Ikin for eco¬
nomical purpofes being barely worth the taking off.
By working horfes in the affairs of hufbandry, there¬
fore, “ the community is lofing annually the amount
try is a moveable harnefs-hou/e, with a fledge bottom, harnefe-
which is drawn from place to place as occafion may rerhou e*
quire. Thus no labour is loft either by the oxen o»
their drivers.
In
s declih
Sin York- '
flihire.
•ISea.I. H U S B
wk Gat fie to be In Yorkshire oxen are ftill ufed, though in much
7 employed. f€vver numbers than formerly ; but our author does not
"t-" iy ^ ‘rnag*I,e to be any decifive argument again!! their
’’Whv the utility. The Yorkihire plough was formerly of fuch
ufe of oxen an un wieldy conftrd&ion, that four or fix oxen, in
'g yokes,, led.by two horfes,.. were abfolutely requiiite to
draw it; but the improvements in the eonilruction of
the plough have of late been fo great, that two horfes
are found to be fufficient for the purpofe ; fo that as
Yorkihire has all along been famous for its breed of
horfes, we are not to wonder at the prefent difufe of
oxen. Even in carriages they are now much difufed j
but Mr Marfhall afiigns as a reafon for- this,, that the
roads were formerly deep in winter, and foft to the
hoof in fummer ; but now they are univerfally a cauie-
way of hard limeftones, which hurt the feet of oxen
even when Ihod. Thus it even appears matter of iur-
prife to our author that fo many oxen are employed
in this county p and the employment of them at all is
to him a. convincing argument of their utility as beafts
of draught. The timber carriers Hill continue to ufe
them, even though their employment be folely upon
the road. They find them not only able to (land
working every day provided their feet do not fail them,
but to bear long hours better than horfes going in the
fame pallure. An ox in a good pafture foon fills his
H ,7a belly, and lies down to reft ; but an horfe can fcarce
I Superiority fatisfy his hunger in a fhort fummer’s night. Oxen are
i horits” t0 a^° con^^ere^ as much fuperior at a difficult pull to
! horfes; but this he is willing to fuppofe arifes from
their ufing half-bred hunters in Yorklhire, and not the
true breed of cart horfes. “ But what (fays he) are
thorough-bred cart-horfes ?- Why, a fpecies of ftrong,
heavy, fiuggilh animals, adapted, folely to the purpofc
of draughtand according to the prefent law of the
country, cannot, without an annual expence, which
nobody beftows upon them, be ufed for any other pur?
pofe. This fpecies of beafts of draught coft at four
years old from zol. to 30 1.; they will, with ex¬
travagant keep, extraordinary care, and attendance,
and much good luck, continue to labour eight or ten
years ; and may then generally be fold for five (hil¬
lings a-head. If we hack no other fpeoies of animals
adapted to the purpofes of draught in the ifland, cart-
harfes would be very valuable, they being much fu¬
perior to the breed of faddle-horfes for the purpofe of
draught. But it appears evident, that were only a
Small (hare of the attention paid to the breeding of
draught oxen which is now- beftowed on the breeding
of.cart-horfes, animals equally powerful, more adlive,
lefs coftly, equally adapted to the purpofes of huffian-
dry if harnelled with equal judgment, lefs expenfive in
keep and attendance, much, more durable, and infi¬
nitely more valuable. after they have finilhed their la¬
bours, might be produced. A (leer, like a colt, ought
to be familiarized to harnefs at two or three years old,
but ftiould never be fubjedted to hard.labour until, he
be five years old; from which age, until he be 15,.or
perhaps 20,,he may he confidered as in his prime as a
beaft of draught. An ox which I worked feveral
years in Surrey, might at 17 or 18 years of age have
challenged for ftfength, agility, and (agacity, the belt
bred, cart-horfe in the kingdom.”
A N D R Y. 773
gECT. If. Of different Kinds of Horfes, and the Different
Methods of Breeding, Rearing, and Feeding them. Torres*
The midland counties of England have for fome ' "f
time been celebrated on account of their breed of the Account e£
black cart-horfe ; though Mr Marfliall is of opinion that the black
this kind are unprofitable as beafts of draught in huf-cart horfe^
bandry. The prefent improvement in the breed took
its rife from fix Zealand mares fent over by the late
Eord Chefterlield .during his embaffy at the Hague.
Thefe mares being lodged at his lordlhip’s feat at Bret-
by in Derbyfhlre, the breed of horfes thus became -
improved in that county, and for fome time it took-..
the lead for the fpecies of thefe animals. As the iuw
proved breed pafi'td into Leicefterffiire, however,,
through fome unknown, circumltances, it became dill
more improved, and Leicefter has for fome time taken
the lead. It is now found, however, that the very
large horfes formerly, bred in this diftrift are much lefs 180
ufeful than fuch a« are of a fmaller lize. Mr Marfhall Horfe* bo -
deferibes in magnificent terms one of thefe large horfes, jy^Bake-
a ftallion belonging to Mr Bake well named K ( a), well dcfcrL:
which, he fays, was the handfomeft horfe he ever faw.bed.
“ He was (fays he) the fancied war-horfe of the
German painters ; who, in the luxuriance of imagi¬
nation, never perhaps excelled the natural grandeur of
this horfe. A man of moderate fize feemed to (brink
behind his fore end, which rofe fo perfectly upright,
his ears flood (as Mr Bakewell fays every horfe’s ears >
ought to (land) perpendicularly over his fore feet. It
may be faid, with little latitude, that in grandeur and
fymmetry of form, viewed as a pi&urable objedl, he
exceeded as far th« horfe which this fuperior breeder
had the honour of (bowing to his Majefty, and which.,
was afterwards (hown publicly at London, as that horfe
does the meaneft of the breed.” A more ufeful horfe,
bred alfo by Mr Bakewell, however, is deferibed as
having “ a thick carcafe, his back (hort and ftraight,
and his legs (hort and clean : as ftrong as an ox, yet .
adlive as a poney ; equally fuitable for a cart or a light¬
er carriage.”
The ftallions in this county are bred either by far¬
mers or by perfons whofe bufinefs it is to breed them, ,
and who therefore have the name of breeders.. Thefe •
laft either cover with them themfelves, or let .them out .
to others for the feafon, or fell.them altogether to ftal-
lion-men who travel , about with, them ,to different rgT
places.—The prices given for them .are. from .50 to Prices oi-^
200 guineas by purchafe ; from 40. to, 80 or a hun-.ftallions*.-.
dred by the feafon or from .half a guinea to two gui-.
neas by the mare. The mares are moftly kept by the
farmers, and.are worked until mear the times of foal¬
ing, and moderately afterwards while they fuckle : the
belt time for foaling, is fuppofed to be the month of
March or April ; and the time of weaning that of
November.—The price of foals (fays.Mr Marlhall), .
for the laft ten years, has been from five to ten pounds
or guineas ; for yearlings, 10,to 15 or 20 ; for two-
year-olds, 15 to 25 or 3Q ; for fix-year-olds,, from 25 Tg2
to 40 guineas.”—Our author acknowledges that this Mr Mar .
breed of horfes,.confidered abftradledly in the light iafrall’s ob----
which they appear here, are evidently a profitable.fpe-,^^^1*
cies of live ftock, and as.far as there is a market foBjng hoffes*^
fix-years-old horfes of this breed, it.is profitable, to a-
griculture^
(a) Mr Bakewdl diftinguifhes alibis horfes, bulls, and rams, by the letters of the alphabet*.
774 H U S B A
Different griculcure. <£ But (fayj he) viewing the bufmefs of
horfes°f agr'culture *n general, not one occupier in ten can
i --r—‘ partake of the profit; and being kept in agriculture
after they have reached that profitable age, they be¬
come indifputably one of its heavieft burdens. For
fcefides a cefifation of improvement of four or five gui¬
neas a year, a decline in value of as much yearly takes
place. Even the brood-mares, after they have paffed
that age, may, unkfs they be of a very fuperior qua¬
lity, be deemed unprofitable to the farmer.'*
Our author complains that the ancient breed of Nor¬
folk horfes is almoft entirely worn out. They were
fmall, brown-muzzled, and light-boned; but they
could endure very heavy work with little food : two
of them were found quite equal to the plough in the
foil of that county, which is not deep. The prefent
breed is produced by a crofs with the large one of Lin-
Suffolk and colnihire and Leicefierfhire already mentioned. He
Gloucefter approves of the Suffolk breed, which (he fays) are a
breeds. «< half-horfe half hog race of animals, but better a-
dapted to the Norfolk hulbandry than the Leicefter-
fhire breed; their principal fault, in his opinion, is a
fiatnefs of the rib. —In the Vale of Gloucefter moft
farmers rear their own plough-horfes, breeding of
horfes not being prattifed. They are of a very ufeful
kind, the colour moftly black, inclinable to tan co¬
lour, ftiort and thick in the barrel, and low on their
legs. The price of a fix-year-old horfe from 25I. to
35I. Some cart horfes are bred in Cotfwold hills;
the mares are worked till the time of foaling, but
not while they fuckle ; and the foals are weaned early,
jgj while there is plenty of grain upon the ground.
Yorkihirc Yorklhire, which has been long celebrated for it s breed
horfes. 0f horfes, ftill ftands foremoft in that refpett among
the Englilh counties. It is principally remarkable for
the breed of faddle-horfes, which cannot be reared in
Norfolk, though many attempts have been made for
that purpofe. Yorklhire ftallions are frequently fent
into Norfolk ; but though the foals may be handfome
when young, they lofe their beauty when old. In
Yorklhire, on the other hand, though the foal be ever
fo unpromifing, it acquires beauty, ftrength, and afti-
vity as it grows up. Mr Marlhall fuppofes that from
five to ten thoufand horfes are annually bred up be¬
tween the eaftern Morelands and the Humber.
“ Thirty years ago (fays Mr Marlhall), ftrong
faddle-horfes, fit for the road only, were bred in the
Vale ; but now the prevailing breed is the falhionable
coach-horfe, or a tall, ftrong, and over-fized hunter ;
and the Ihows of ftallions in 1787 were flat and fpi-
ritlefs in comparifon with thofe of 1783.” The black
cart-horfe, an objeft of Mr Marfhall’s peculiar aver-
fion, is alfo coming into the Vale.
In the breeding of horfes he complains greatly of
the negligence of the Yorklhire people, the mares
being almoft totally negledted; though in the brute
creation almoft every thing depends upon the female.
With regard to the general maintenance of horfes,
we have already mentioned in this article, and that of
Agriculture, feveral kinds of food upon which ex¬
periments have been made with a view to determine
the moft profitable mode of keeping them. Perhaps,
however, the moft certain method of afcertaining this
matter is by obferving the pra&ice of thofe counties
where horfes are moft ia ufe. Mr Marlhall recommends
3
183
Norfolk
breed de-
N D R Y. Parc ILL
the Norfolk management of horfes as the cheapeft me- Different-
thod of feeding them pra&ifed any where ; which, of
however, he feems willing to afcribe in a great mea- ■ °r e?‘ .
fure to the excellency of their breed. In the winter 186
months, when little work is to be done, their only Norfolk
rack-meat is barley-ftraw ; a referve of clover-hay be- trianaos*
ing ufually made againft: the hurry of feed-time. A j^fes re !
buftrel of corn in the moft bufy feafon is computed to commend-
be an ample allowance for each horfe, and in more
leifure times a much lefs quantity fuffices. Oats and
fometimes barley, when the latter is cheap and unfale-
able, are given ; but in this cafe the barley is generally
malted, i. e. lleeped and afterwards fpread abroad for
a few days, until it begin to vegetate, at which time
it is given to the horfes, when it is fuppofed to be lefs
heating than in its natural Hate. Chaff is univerfally
mixed with horfe corn : the great quantities of corn
grown in this country afford in general a fufficiency
of natural chaff; fo that cut chaff is not much in ufe :
the chaff, or rather the awns of barley, which in fome
places are thrown as ufelefs to the dunghil, are here
in good efteem as provender. Oat-chaff is defervedly «
confidered as being of much inferior quality. —It may This me-
here be remarked, that this method of keeping horfes thod f ff-
which Mr Maffhall approves of in the Norfolk far- f°'ved in
mers, is pradtifed, and probably has been fo from time™*"*
immemorial, in many places of the north of Scotland;
and is found abundantly fufficient to enable them to
go through the labour required. In fummer they are
in Norfolk kept out all night, generally in clover leys,
and in fummer their keep is generally clover only, a
few tares excepted. jg*
In the fourth volume of the Annals of Agriculture, Calcula-
Mr Young gives an account of the expence of keep-
ing horfea ; which, notwithftanding the vaft numbersj^p^gVof.
kept in the ifland, feems ftill to be very indeterminate, fcs,
as the informations he received varied no lefs than from
L. 8 to L. 25 a-year. From accounts kept on his own
farm of the expence of horfes kept for no other pur¬
pofe than that of agriculture, he ftated them as fol¬
lows :
£■
1763 Six horfes coft per horfe
1764. Seven do. - - 8
1765 Eight do. - - 14
1766 Sii do. - - 12
Average on the whole L. 11 : 12 : 3.
By accounts received from Northmims in Hereford-
fliire, the expences flood as follows :
.r. d.
13 o
10 11
6 6
18 9
1768 Expence per horfe
1769
£■
20
d
'5 * $
1770 - - * - 14 14 2
i77‘ - - - 15 *3 3
1772 - - . 18 4 o
1773 - - - 15 11 8
1774 - * - *4 4 5
1775 * " * *9 0 5
1776 - - - 16 14 5
Average L. 16 : 13: 1.
On thefe difcordant accounts Mr Young obferves,
undoubtedly with juftice, that many of the extra ex¬
penses depend on the extravagance of the fervants $
while fome of the apparent favings depend either on
their careleffnefs, or Jlealing provender to their beafts
privately,
Sea. in.
HUSBANDRY.
Rtaring privately, which will frequently be done. He con-
bla.ck eludes, however, as follows : “ The more exadlly the
. can f‘ , expence of horfes is examined into, the more advan-
* tageous will the ufe of oxen be found. Every day’s
experience convinces me more and more of this. If
horfes kept for ufe alone, and not for {how, have pro¬
ved thus expenfive to me, what mnft be the expence to
thofe farmers who make their fat (leek teams an object
of vanity ? It is eaiier conceived than calculated.
Sect. III. Of the Breeding and Rearing of Black
Cattle.
These are reared for the two different purpofes, viz.
work, and fattening for {laughter. For the former
189 purpofe, Mr Marfliall remarks, that it is obvioufly ne-
fcreedde*** ce^arf to Procure a breed without horns. This he
fjrable f0’r thinks would be no difadvantage, as horn, though for-
work. merly an article of fome requeft, is now of very little
value. The horns are quite ufelefs to cattle in their
domeftic ftate, though nature has beftowed them upon
them as weapons of defence in their wild {late ; and
our author is of opinion that it would be quite prac¬
ticable to produce a hornlefe breed of black cattle as
well as of fheep, which laft has been done by atten¬
tion and perfeverance ; and there are now many horn-
lefs breeds of thefe creatures in Britain. Nay, he in¬
fills, that there aie already three or four breeds of
hornlefs cattle in the ifland; or that there are many
kinds of which numbers of individuals are hornlefs,
and from thefe by proper care and attention a breed
might be formed. The firll ftep is to feledl females;
and having obferved their imperfeSions, to endeavaur
tp0 to correft them by a well chofen male.
Properties The other properties of a perfe& breed of black cat-
requifite in tie for the purpofes of the dairy as well as others,
bkek eat- OUgiltj according to Mr Marfhal!, to be as follows.
1. The head fmall and clean, to leffen the quantity of
offal. 2. The neck thin and clean, to lighten the fore¬
end, as well as to leffen the collar, and make it fit
clofe and eafy to the animal in work. 3. The car-
cafe large, the cheft deep, and the bofom broad, with
the ribs Handing out full from the fpine ; to give
ftrength of frame and conftitution, and to admit of
the inteftines being lodged within the ribs. 4. The
(boulders fhould be light of bone, and rounded off at
the lower point, that the collar may be eafy, but
broad to give flrength ; and well covered with fkfh
for the greater cafe of draught, as well as to furnifii
a defired point in fatting cattle. 5. The back ought
to be wide and level throughout; the quarters long
the thighs thin, and Handing narrow at the round
bone ; the udder large when full, but thin and loofe
when empty, to hold the greater quantity of milk ;
with large dug-veins to fill it, and long elallic teats
for drawing it off with greater eafe. 6. The legs
(below the knee and hock) ftraight, and of a middle
length ; their bone, in general, light and clean from
flefhinefs, but with the joints and finews of a mode¬
rate fize, for tire purpofes of ftrength and aftivity.
7. The flefh ought to be mellow in the ftate of fleftii-
nefs, and firm in the ftate of fatnefs. 8. The hide
mellow, and of a middle thicknefs, though in our
author’s opinion this is a point not yet well deter¬
mined..
775
As the milk of cows is always an article of great Rearing
importance, it becomes an objedt tothe hu{bandman,if black
pofiible, to prevent the wafteof that ufeful fluid, which . ^ ' .
in the common way of rearing calves is unavoidable. 191
A method of bringing up thefe young animals at lefs Of rearing
expence is propofed by the Duke of Northumberland. ^|tv^*ut
His plan is to make (kimmed milk anfwer the purpofe
of that which is newly drawn from the teat; and ^nnais 0f
which, he fuppofes, might anfwer the purpofe at one jgriculiurtf,
third of the expence of new' milk. The articles to be vol. i.
added to the fkimmed milk are treacle and the com- P- 296’
mon linfeed oil cake ground very fine, and almoft to
an impalpable powder, the quantities of each being fo
fmall, that to make 32 gallons would coft only 6 d.
befides the fkimmed milk. It mixes very readily
and almoft intimately with the milk, making it more
rich and mucilaginous, without giving it any difagree-
able tafte. The receipt for making it is as follows.
Take one gallon of {kimmed milk, and to about a
pint of it add half an ounce of treacle, ftirring it un¬
til it is well mixed; then take one ounce of linfeed
oil-cake finely pulverifed, and with the hand let itffall
gradually in very fmall quantities into the milk, ftir¬
ring it in the mean time with a fpoon or ladle until it
be throughly incorporated ; then let the mixture be
put into the other part of the milk, and the whole be
made nearly as warm as new milk when it is firft taken
from the cow, and in that (late it is fit for ufe. The
quantity of the oil cake powrder may be increafed from
time to time as occafion requires, and as the calf be¬
comes inured to its flavour. On this fubjeft Mr I92
Young remarks, that in rearing calves, there are two MrYoung^
objects of great importance. 1. To bring them up experi-
without any milk at all; and, 2. To make {kimmedment9,
milk Snfwer the purpofe of fuch as is newly milked or
fucked from the cow. In confequence of premiums
offered by the London Society, many attempts have
been made to accomplilh thefe defirable purpofes;
and Mr Budel of Wanborough in Surrey was rewarded
for an account of his method. This was no other
than to give the creatures a gruel made of ground bar¬
ley and oats. Mr Young, however, who tried this
method with two calves, affures us that both of them
died, though he afterwards put them upon milk when-
they were found not to thrive. When in Ireland he
had an opportunity of purchafing calves at three days
old from 2od. to 3s. each; by which he was induced
to repeat the experiment many times over. This he
did in different ways, having colledled various receipts.
In confequence of thefe he tried hay tea, bean-meal
mixed with wheat-flour, barley and oats ground
nearly, but not exa&ly. in Mr Budd’s method ; but the
principal one was flax-feed boiled into a jelly, and
mixed with w-arm water ; this being recommended
more than all the reft. The refult of all thefe trials
was, that out of 30 calves only three or four were
reared ; thefe few were brought up with barley and
oatmeal, and a very fmall quantity of flax-feed jelly ;
one only excepted, which at the defire off his coach¬
man was brought up, on a mixture of two-thirds of
{kimmed milk and one third of water, with a fmall
addition of flax jelly well diffolved.
The fecond objeft, viz. that of improving {kimmed
milk, according to the plan of the Duke of Northum¬
berland, Teems to be the more pra&icable of the two,
Mr*
‘"Norfolk
method,
■ J&C,
H U S B A
Mr Young informs us, that it has anfweredwell with
him for two feafons ; and two farmers to whom he
j communicated it gave likewife a favourable report.
In the third volume of the fame work, we are in¬
formed that the Cornwall farmers ufe the following
method in rearing their calves. “ They are taken
from the cow from the fourth to the lixth day; after
which they have raw milk from fix to ten or 14 days.
After this they feed them with fcalded -ikimmed milk
and gruel made of (helled oats, from three quarts to
* four being given in the morning, and the fame in the
evening. The . common family broth -is thought to
.be as good or ^better than the gruel, the favour of the
fait being fuppofed to ftrengthen their bowels. The
•proportion of gruel or broth is about one third'of the
milk given them. A little fine hay-is-fet before them,
which they foon begin to eat.
’s .In thelfifth. volume of Batin Papers, we have an ac¬
count by Mr Crook of a remarkably fuccefsful experi¬
ment on rearing calves without any m-ilk at all. This
gentleman, in 1787, weaned 17 calves; in 178-8, 23 ;
and in 1789, 15. In-1787, he bought three facks of
linfeed, value L. 2,.5s. which lafted the whole three
years. One quart of it was put to fix quarts of water;
.which, by boiling 1 o minutes, was reduced to a jelly :
the calves were fed with this mixed with>a fmall quan¬
tity of tea, made by fteeping the beft hay in boiling
water. By the ufe of this food three times-a day, he
fays that his calves throve better than thofe of his
neighbours which were reared with milk.—Thefe un¬
natural kinds of food, however, are in many cafes apt
to produce a loofenefs, which in the end proves fatal
to the calves. In Cornwall they remedy this fometimes
by giving acorns as an aftringent; fometimes by a cor¬
dial ufed for the human fpecies, of which opium is the
bafis.
In Norfolk, the calves are reared with milk and tur¬
nips; fometimes with oats and bran mixed among the
latter. Winter calves are allowed more milk than
.fummer-ones; but they are univerfally allowed new
■ milk, or even to fuck.—In the midland counties bull-
calves are allowed to remain at the teat until they be
fix, nine, or twelve months old, letting them run
either with their dams or with cows of lefs value
bought on purpofe. Each cow is generally allowed
one male or two female calves. Thus they grow very
fall, and become furprifingly vigorous. The method
of the dairy-men is to let the calves fuck for a week or
a fortnight according to their ftrength ; next they have
new milk in pails for a few meals; after that new and
dkimmed milk mixed ; then (kimmed milk alone, or
porridge made with milk, water, ground oats, .&c.
fometimes with oil-cake, See. until cheefe-making com¬
mences; after which they have whey-porridge, or fweet
whey in the field, being carefully Ijoufed in the night
until the warm weather come in.
With regard to the method of fattening cattle, tur-
■ nips are coming into general ufe throughout Britain.
In Norfolk no other method is thought of. The ge¬
neral rule is, to allow them to eat their turnips in the
field while the weather remains moderately warm, but
to give them under cover when it becomes wet or very
cold. In this refpeft, however, there is a confiderable
difference with regard to the manner in which the cattle
have been brought up ; for fuch as have been accuf*
NJ 160.
N T> R Y. Part. Til.
tomed to a fevere climate will ftand the winter in the Rearing
field much better than thofe which have been brought a?d fftten-
t rt 1 -r • i-i • rr , /• . , IlOCTS.
up under (belter. It is likewife afferted by fome, with ,‘ng
a great deal of probability, that the fle(h of cattle fat¬
ted under cover is lefs agreeable than that of fuch as
are allowed to remain in the open air.
Sect. IV. -Of the Rearing and Fattening of Hogs.
The praflice of keeping thefe animals is fo general,
efpecrally in England, that one fhould think the profit
attending it would be abfolutely indifputable ; and this
the more efpecially when it is confidered how little
nicety they have in their choice of food. From fuch
experiments, however, as have been made, the matter
appears to be at leaf! very doubtful, unlefs in particu- V?’
lar circumftances. In the firft volume of Annals of^e^ure’*
Agriculture, we have an experiment by Mr Mure ofn,ents.
feeding hogs with the clufter-potato and carrots; by
which it appeared, that the profit on large hogs was
much greater than on fmall ones ; the latter eating al-
moft as much as the former, without yielding a pro¬
portionable xncreafe of flelh. The gain was counted
by weighing the large and fmall ones alive ; and it was
found, that from November 10th to January 5th, they
had gained in the following proportion,:
2p large hogs, - - - L. 1 3 6
20 fmall, - - - - 078
2 (lag hogs, - - - -1178
On being finilhed with peafe, however, it appeared,
that there was not any real profit at laft ; for the ac¬
counts ftood ultimately as follow:
Dr.
Value of hogs at
putting up,
33 coomb peafe.
L.44
Cr.
42 hogs fold
fat at L 95 o C
at 14s.
2 do. 2 bulhels
barley, at 14s. * 15 o
56 days attend¬
ance of one
man, at i4d. 3 5 4
950 buflxels of
carrots, and
598 of pota¬
toes, at 3-rd.
bulhel, - 2 2 15 '8
L. 95 o o L.95 o P
In fome experiments by Mr Young, related in the
fame volume, he fucceeded dill worfe, not being able
to clear bis exper.ces. Hts'firft experiment was attended
with a lofs of one guinea jfxrr hog ; the fecond, with a
lofs of 1 is. 8d-; the third, of only 3s. In thefe three
the hogs were fed with peafe; given whole in the two
.firft, but ground into meal in the laft. The fourth ex¬
periment, in which the hog was fed with Jerufalem ar¬
tichokes, was attended with no lofs; but another, in
which peafe were again tried, was attended with a lofs
of 48. Other experiments were tried with peafe,
which turning out likewife unfavourable, barley was
tried ground along with peafe and beans. This was
attended with a fmall profit, counting nothing for
the trouble of feeding-the animals. The expences on
two hogs were L. 14 : 13 : 10J, the value L. 15,
2 ns.
N
ASea.V. H TJ S E
Sheep, &c, i (a. 344* f° that there was a balance in his favour of
• 17s. 4-4-d. In another experiment, in which the hog-g
were fed with peafe and barley ground, the beans be¬
ing omitted as ufelefa, there was a profit of 1 zs. 3d.
upon an expence of L. 20 : 15 19; which our author
fuppofes would pay the attendance. In this experi¬
ment the peafe and barley meal were mixed into a liquid
like cream, and allowed to remain in that ftate for
three weeks, till it became four. This was attended
in two other inftances with profit, and in a third with
k>fs : however, Mr Young is of opinion, that the prac¬
tice will ft ill be found advantageous on account of the
quantity of dung raifed ; and that the farmer can thus
ufe his peafe and barley at home without carrying them
to market.
Mr Marfhall remarks, that in the Midland diftrkft,
oats are preferred to barley as a food both for young
pigs and breeding fows- It is alfo fuppofed that young
pigs require warm meat to make them grow quickly.
Barley-meal and potatoes are ufed in fattening them ;
beans and peafe being generally difufed.—In this di-
ftrift it is common to keep two or three pigs in the fty
along with the old hogs to be fatted. This is dene
that there may be no wafte ; as the young pigs lick
out the trough clean when the old ones are ferveet. Mr
MarfhalL obferv.es, that in' a confined place the old ones
are apt to lord it to® much over the little ones for
which reafon he would have a feparate apartment af-
figned to them, with a d'oor fo fmall that the large fwine
fhould not be able to get into it.
Sect. V. Sheep.
See the article Pasturage.
Sect. VI. Rabbits.
In particular fituations thefe animals may be kept
to-advantage, as they multiply exceedingly, and require
no trouble in bringing up. A confidtrable number of
them are kept in Norfolk, where many parts, confid¬
ing of barren hills or heaths, are proper for their re¬
ception. They delight in the fides of fandy hills,
which are geneially unproductive when tilled; but
level ground is improper for them. Mr Mar (hall is of
opinion,, that there are few fandy or other loofe-foiled
hills which would not pay better in rabbit warrens than
any thing elfe- “ The hide of a bullock (fays he)
is not worth more than.^th of his carcafe } the (kin
of a (beep may, in foil wool, be worth from a (ixth to
; a tenth of its careafe ; but the fur of a rabbit is
worth twice the whole value of the carcafe ; therefore
fuppofirrg a rabbit to confume a quantity of food in
proportion to its carcafe, it is, on the principle offered,
a fpecies of flock nearly three times as valuable as ei¬
ther cattle or (beep. Rabbit warrens ought to be in-
clofed with a done or fed wall 5 and at fheir firft
flocking, it will be needfary to form burrows to them
until they have time to make them to themfclves.
Bering the gound horizontally with a large augre is
perhaps the bed method that can be pra&ifed. Eagles,
kite#,, and other birds of prey, as well as cats, weafels,
and pole-cats, are great enemies of rabbits. The Nor¬
folk warreners catch the birds by traps placed on the
tops of dumps of trees or artificial hillocks of a coni-
Vol. VIII. Part II.
luable than
black cattle’
'or (beep.
Method of
deftroying
birds of
prey.
A N D R Y. 777
cal form, on which they naturally alight.-—Traps alfo Poultry,&c.
feem to be th-. Vrdy method of'getting rid of the other
enemies; though thus the rabbits themfelves are in
danger of being caught.'
Sect. VII. Poultry.
Though thefe make apart of every hufbandman’s
dock, the keeping of great numbers of them will never
be found attended with any advantage ; as it is certain
they never will pay for the grain neceflary to fudain
them, if that grain muft be bought. On a farm, there¬
fore, they are only ufeful to pick up what would other-
wife be wafted -r and even thus we can only count them
profitable at certain times of the year ; and their num¬
ber muft always be regulated by the fize of the farm.
—In Norfolk a great number of turkies are bred, of a 201
fize and quality fuperior to thofe in other parts. Mr®rea*num'
Marfhall accounts for their number in the following
manner: “ It is underftood in general, that to rearinNorfolk,
turkies with fuccefs, it is neceflary that a male bird
fhould be kept upon the fpot to impregnate the eggs
fingly ; but the good houfewives of this country know,
that a daily intercourfe is unncceflary ; and that if the
hen be fent to a neighbouring cock previous to the
feafon of exclufion, one add of impregnation is fufficient
for one brood'. Thus relieved from the expence and
difagreeablenefs of keeping a male bird, molt little far¬
mers, and many cottagers, rear turkies. This accounts
for their number; and the fpecies and the food they are
fatted with (which, I believe, is wholly buck) account
for their fuperior fize and1 quality.,r
In fome fituations, particularly in the neighbourhood' Poultry
of great towns, it might perhaps be an objeft to rear will not
confiderable numbers of poultry, even though fonte parttflrivc when
of the farm- (hould be cultivated merely for their fob- con^aed'
fiftence. It muit, however, be remembered', that poul-
' try cannot bear confinement. They are fpofled-, not
only by being kept in s houfe, but even in a yard and
its environs; f°r which reafon Mr Young informs us,
that Lord Clarendon conftantly ftiifts his poultry
through different parts of the park in which they are
kept. In Norfolk it is euftomary to put young goilings
upon green wheat.
Sect. VIII. Bees.
These may be-confidered as of confiderable impor¬
tance in hufbandty, on account of the unlimited de¬
mand there is for honey and wax, and. the little ex-
pence at which it is obtained.: It is not, however, to
be expected, that in all fituations the honey produced
will either be in equal quantity or of equal quality. Difference
This depends on the quantity and quality of the-flowers anYan"
in the neighbourhood to which the bees have accefs. quality of
Thus the honey of Norfolk is of inferior quality to that honey,
produced in other parts ; owing, as fome have fuppofed,
to the bees feeding upon the flowers of buck-wheat,
which grows in' great quantity throughout the county.
Mr Marfhall, however, aferibes its peculiar tafte to the
heaths and moorifh places in Norfolk, to which the bees
refort, and which feems to be a natural produd of the
Norfolk foil. He does not however affert, that the
buck can have no effeft upon it; he owns that the
buck-flowers are lufeious and difagreeable to many
5 E people j
778 HUSBANDRY. PartllL
Bees, &c. people, though thofe of beans are equally fo to others ; the making of butter and cheefe from it, it may de- Man
* J but wifties that their imparting any bad quality to ho- fervedly be accounted as important a part of hufbandry
ney may be doubted, until poiitive proof be brought to as any ; and accordingly feveral treatifes have been
the
the contrary.
The Morelands and Vale of Yorkfhire are remark-
written exprefsly upon the fubjedt.
In the fifth volume of Bath Papers, the fubjedt feems Dr Ander-
able for the quantities of honey they produce ; but it is to be confidered in as accurate and fcientific a manner f°n’s opi-
of an inferior quality, owing, as Mr Marlhall fuppofcs, by Dr Anderfon as by any perfon who has treated thisj^0118
matter; at leaft as far as regards the making of butter.
to the heath. He obferves, that in the hives fituated
between the heaths and cultivated country, there is a The requifites for manufadturing this valuable commo-
remarkable difference between the vernal and autumnal dity, according to him, are the following :
combs. The former, gathered entirely from the mea-
I. To have cows of a good quality. In tluVwe are to
attend more to the quantity of cream which the milk
of a cow yields, than to the abfolute quantity of milk ;
and this may commonly be judged of from the thick-
nefs of it. The fmall Alderney cows (he fays) afford
the richeft milk hitherto known ; though there are
many individuals of different kinds which afford much
dows, pafture- lands, trees, and cultivated crops,
a manner as white as fnow ; the latter brown, and tl
honey rather like melted rofin than the pure limp
804 confiftence of the former.—In the winter of 1782,
Mortality remarkable mortality took place among the bees of thi
among bees ; vaft numbers of hives perifhing gradually, tho’
counted
for.
probability, from a want of what is called lee-bread,
and which the bees colledt from the farina of the flow¬
ers, as they do the honey and wax from the ne&arium all other kinds the Doftor determines grafs to be the
and piftillum. The farina cannot be obtained until the beft ; and that grafs which fprings up fpontaneoufly on
anther* are burfl by the fun, which, in theverycold rainy rich dry foils to be the beft of all. He is of opinion,
feafon of 1782, could not be expe&ed, as the influence however, that there is no virtue in oldpaftures, as many
of the fun was not only very fmall, but the farina, when
once collefted, was liable to be wafhed away by the
* plenty of honey remained. The phenomenon appeared richer milk than others; and thefe ought carefully to be
unaccountable ; but Mr Marfhall explains it with fome fought after, that a good breed may be eftablifhed.
2. To make the cows yield a large quantity of milk.
For this purpofe they muft have plenty of food ; and of
fuppofe, more than in new ones; and he affures us, that
he has feen much richer butter made from the milk of
rains. Hence, while the bread which the bees had cows fed upon hay from clover and rye-grafs in the
collefted in fmall quantity lafted, they continued to houfe, than fuch as had liberty to range in old paftures.
live ; but when this was exhaufted, they gradually pe- He thinks, however, that the cows fhould be permitted
rifhed one after another ; for it is now univerfally al- to pafture at pleafure during the mornings and
lowed, that without bee-bread the life of thefe infe&s ings, but at noon Ihould be taken into a houfe, and fup-
cannot be fuftained, even though they have plenty of plied with frefti food. If abundantly fed, they ftiould
honey.
be milked three times a day; and as great care (hould be
In a paper on the fubjett of bees by Mr John Keys, taken that this operation be properly performed, only
/«v,vol. 5. the farina is fuppofed to be ufeful for nourifliing the confidential perfons ihould be employed. He fuppofes
Mr Key’s
obferva-
tions.
young brood, and the honey for the fupport of the old that a cow well fed, will give as much milk each
ones : hence, according to the quantity of farina to be
procured the ftock of bees is limited. In the place
where he refided at the time his letter was wrote (near
Pembroke), no more than eight hives could be kept by
a Angle perfon with propriety ; but at Chefliunt in
Herefordfhire, where he refided before, he could keep
12 or 14. In his opinion, none but the good firft
fwarms ought to be preferved; the after-fwarms fliould
be returned to the ftock, by which means the increafe
time when milked thrice, as when milked only twice.
3. The qualities of the milk itfelf. Thefe are reduced
by our author to the following aphorifms. 1. Of the
milk drawn from a cow at any time, that which comes
fitft is always thinneft, and continues to increafe in
thicknefs to the very laft drop. This, as well as all
the fucceeding ones, are' proved by experiment; and fo
great is the importance of attending to it, that “ the
perfon who, by bad milking of his cows, lofes but
of honey would be much greater. “ An incorporated half a pint of his milk, lofes, in fa£t, as much cream as
ftock (he fays) will gather more honey than three
four Angle ones.” Hives of half a bulhel meafure
ought to weigh 20 pounds at leaft, and larger hives in
proportion ; and they ought not to be above two years
of age. He laments it as a national lofs, that great
would be afforded by fix or eight pints at the begin¬
ning, and Lofes befides that part of the cream which a-
lone can give richnefs and high flavour to his butter.”
2. When milk throws up cream to the furface, that
portion which rifes firft will be thicker, and of better
part of the prime fwarms are fuffered to efcape, from quality, as well as in greater quantity, than that which
an erroneous opinion about figns and hours of fwarm- rifes in a fecond equal portion of time. 3. Thick
ing; “ whereas nothing lefs than a con/fo/tf watching, milk throws up a fmaller quantity of cream to the
from feven to four, can prevent this lofs, but which the furface than fuch as is thinner ; but that cream is of
peafantry will not comply with.” Mr Keys has in vain
attempted to find an eafy method of fwarming them ar-
tificially.—For the general method of managing bees,
fee the articles Apis and Bee.
a richer quality. If water be added to that thick
milk, it will afford a confiderably greater quantity of
cream than before, but its quality is at the fame time
greatly debafed. 4. Milk when carried in veffels to
any diftance, fo as to fuller confiderable agitation, ne¬
ver throws up cream fo rich, nor in fuch quantity, as
if the fame had been put into the milk-pans without
As this includes not only the proper method of pre- any agitation. From thefe aphorifms, the following
ferving milk in a wholefome and uncorrupted ftate, but corollaries are deducible. 1. The cows ought always
Sect. IX. Of the Management of the Dairy.
Sea. IX. H
Manage- to‘be milked as near the dairy
U S B A N D R
poffible. 2. The fummer and warm in
Y.
winter ; To that an equal tem-
ment of the milk of different cows (hguld be kept by themfelves, perature may be preferved throughout the year.
. a^iry’ i that the good cows may be diftinguifhed from the bad. ought alfo to be dry, fo as to admit of being kept ^
3. For butter of a very fine quality, the firft drawn fweet and clean at all times. A feparate building
milk ought always to be kept feparate from the laft. fhould be eredted for the purpofe, near a cool fpring
s07 Our author now commends the method ufed by or running water, where the cows may have eafy ac-
Method the Highlanders of Scotland, where every cow is al- cefs to it, and where it is not liable to be incommo-
followed lowed to fuckle her own calf. The calves are kept in ded by ftagnant water. The apartment where the
lands an 'nc^°fure t^ the time of milking, when they are milk ftands Ihould be well thatched, have thick walls,
Scotland. aH°wed to come to the door. Each calf there is al- and a ventilator in the top for admitting a free circu-
lowed to fuck its dam as long as the milk-maid lationofair. There Ihould alfo be an apartment with
pleafes ; when it is driven away, and the woman milks a fire-place and cauldron, for the purpofe offcaldingand
the remainder. Thus they obtain only a fmall quan- cleaning the veffels. The Do&or is of opinion, that the
tity of milk, but of exceeding good quality ; and to temperature of from 50 to 55 degrees is the moil pro-
this praftice Dr Anderfon aferibeg the richnefs of the per for feparating the cream from the milk, and by
Highland butter, which is ufually attributed to the old proper means this might eafily be kept up, or nearly
grafs in the remote glens of the Highlands. In places fo, both fummer and winter. a,o
where this praftice cannot be economically followed. The utenfils of the dairy fhould be all made of Wooden
the Doftor recommends to keep the milk which comes wood, in preference either to lead, copper, or even utcn^*8Prc*
firft, and that which comes laft, feparate from each o- caft iron. Thefe metals are all very eafily foluble in ^r^othcr
ther. The former might be fold fweet, or made into acids ; the folutions of the two firft highly poifonous ; kind,
cheefe. Another ufe our author mentions, viz. and though the latter is innocent, the tafte of it might
208 “ Take common fkimmed milk when it begins to render the produfts highly difagreeable. The cream-
Ufeful pre- turn four ; put it into an upright churn or barrel with ing difhes, when properly cleaned, fweet, and cool,
fweetmftL one its en<ls out’ or any ot,ier conven*ent veffel 5 ought to be filled with the milk as food as it is drawn
* heat fome water, and pour it into a tub that is large from the cow, having been firft carefully {trained
enough to contain with eafe the veffel in which the through a cloth, or clofe ftrainer made of hair or
milk was put. Set the veffel containing the milk into wire: the Dodtorprefers filver wire to every other. The
the hot water, and let it remain there for the fpace creaming difhes ought never to exceed three inches
of one night. In the morning it will be found that in depth ; but they may be fo broad as to contain a
the milk hath feparated into two parts; a thick cream- gallon or a gallon and an half; when filled they ought
like fubftance which occupies the upper part of the to be put on the {helves of the milk-houfe, and remain
veffel, and a thin, ferous, watery part that remains there until the cream be fully feparated. If the
in the bottom : draw off the thin part (called here fineft butter be intended, the milk ought not to Hand
•uiigg), by opening a ftop-cock placed for that purpofe above fix or eight hours, but for ordinary butter it
clofe above the bottom, and referve the cream for ufe. may ftand twelve hours or more ; yet if the dairy be
Not much lefs than the half of the milk is thus con- very large, a fufficient quantity of cream will be fepa-
verted into a fort of cream, which when well made feems. rated in two, three, or four hours, for making the beft
to be as rich and fat as real cream itfelf, and is only butter. It is then to be taken off as nicely aspofiible
diftinguifhable from that by its fournefs. It is eaten by a {kimming-diflr, without lifting any of the milk ;
with fugar, and efteemed a great delicacy ; and ufual- and immediately after put into a veffel by itfelf, until a
ly fells at double the price of unfitimmed milk.” proper quantity for churning be collefted. A firm,
4. Befides feparating the firft from the laft drawn milk, neat, wooden barrel feems well adapted for this pur-
it will be neceffary alfo to take nothing but the cream pofe, open at one end, and having a lid fitted to clofe
firft feparated from the beft milk. The remainder of, it. A cock or fpigot ought to be fixed near the bot-
the milk may be employed either in making cheefes, tom, to draw off any thin or ferous part which may
or allowed to throw up cream for butter of an inferior drain from the cream; the infide of the opening fliould
quality. 5. Hence it is plain, that butter of the very be covered with a bit of fine filver wire gauze, in or-
beft quality, could be made only in a dairy of confi- der to keep back the cream while the fetum is allow-
derable extent, as only a fmall portion of the milk of ed to pafs; and the barrel ftiould be inclined a little
each cow could be fet apart for it. 6. Hence it ap- on its Hand, to allow the whole to run off. jri
pears that butter and cheefe can be made in a con- The Dodlor contradi&s the opinion that very fine Cream
fiftency with one another ; the beft of the milk being butter cannot be obtained, except from cream that isou^ht to
fet apart for the former, and the word for the latter, not above a day old. On the contrary, he infills that keP5
But as perhaps no perfon would choofe to give fuch it is only in very few cafes that even tolerably good be
a price for the very beft butter as would indemnify butter can be obtained from cream that is not above macie ;nt0
the farmer for his trouble and expence, it may be fuf- one day old. The feparation of bujter from cream butter,
ficient to take only the firft drawn half of the milk for only takes place after the cream has attained a cer-
cheefe, and ufe the remainder for butter; and the tain degree of acidity. If it be agitated before that
cream of this, even though allowed to ftand till it acidity has begun to take place, no butter can be ob-
begins to turn - four, will always yield butter of a tained, and the agitation muft be continued till the
much fuperior quality to that produced in the ordinary time that the fournefs is produced ; after which the
manner. butter begins to form. “ In fummer, while the'
.409 ^ Our author now proceeds to enumerate the proper- climature is warm, the heating may be, without very
feribed e" a ^mry. The milk-houfe ought to be cool in much difficulty, continued until the acidity be pm-
5 E 2 duced,
7§
HUSBANDRY.
Part Iir.
Manage- ducfd, fo that butter may be got: but in this cafe covered with a piece of linen, and over that a piece of iWanage.
nie!1:)ta°rf,the the procefs is long and tedious; and the butter is for wet parchment; or in defeat of this laft, fine linenment £A,ie‘l
i ' . the moft part of a foft coufiftence, and tough and that has been dipped in melted butter, exadtly fitted n’'*”
gluey to the touch. If this procefs be attempted to the edges of the veffel all round, in order to exclude
during the cold weather in winter, butter can fcarcely the air as much as poffible. When quite full, the callc
be in any way obtained, unlefs by the application of is to be covered in like manner, and a little melted
fpme great degree of heat, which fometimes affiils in butter put round the edges, in order to fill up effec-
producing a very inferior kind of butter, white, hard, tually every cranny, and totally to exclude the air.
and brittle, and almofl unfit for any culinary purpofe “ If all this (fays the Dodfcot) be carefully done, the
whatever. The judicious farmer, therefore, will not butter may be kept perfedbly found in this climate for
attempt to imitate this practice, but will allow his many years. How many years I cannot tell; but I
cream to remain in the vefl’tl appropriated for keeping have feen it two years old, and in every refpedl as
it, until it has acquired the proper degree of acidity, fweet and found as when only a month old. It de-
There is no rule for determining how long it is to be ferves to be remarked, that butter cured in this man
kept; but our author is of opinion that a very great ner does not tafte well till it has ftood at leaf! a fort
latitude is allowable in this cafe ; and that if no ferous night after being fahed ; but after that period is elap
matter be allowed to lodge among the cream, it may fed, it eats with a rich marrowy taite that no other but
be kept good for making butter a great many weeks. ' ter ever acquires ; and it taftes fo little fait, that a per-
sta The churn in which butter is made likewife admits Con who had been accurtomed to eat butter cured with
Of the of confiderable diverfity ; but our author prefers the common fait only, would not imagine it had got one-
churn. old'-falhioned upright churn to all others, on account fourth part of-the fait necefiary to preferve it.” Our
of its being more eafily cleaned. The labour, when author is of opinion, that ftrong brine may be ufeful
the cream is prdperly prepared, he thinks, very trifling, to pour upon the furface during the time it is ufing,
Much greater nicety, he fays, is required in the pro- in order the more effeftually to preferve it from the
cefs of churning than moft people are aware of; as air, and to avoid rancidity. iig
a few hafty and irregular ftrokes will render butter -As butter contains a quantity of mucilaginous mat-'1'0 prePare
bad, which otherwife would have been of the fined ter much more putrefcible than the pure oily part, our
quality^ After the procefs is over, the whole ought author recommends the purifying it from this muci-warm tli-
to be feparated from the milk, and put into a clean lage,!by melting in a conical veffel, in which the muci-mates,
difti; the infide of which, if made of wood, ought to lage will fall to the bottom ; the pure oily part fwim-
be well rubbed with common fait, to prevent the but- ming at top. This will be ufeful when butter is to be
ter from adhering to it. The butter fiioukl be preffed fent a long voyage to warm climates, as the pure part
and worked with a fiat wooden laddie or Ikimming will keep much better than when mixed with the 11<s
difh, having a firort handle, fo as to force out all the other. He propofes another method of preferving fre/erv€^
milk that was lodged in the cavities of the mafs. This* butter, vi%. by mixing it with honey, which is very J °ne5r'
operation requires a confiderable degree of ttrength antifeptic, and mixes intimately with the butter. Thus
as well as dexterity ; but our author condemns the
beating up of the butter with the hand as “ an indeli¬
cate and barbarous praftice.” In like manner he
mixed, it eats very pleafantly, and may perhaps be
fuccefsfully uied with a medicinal intention.
Butter
ought not
to be put
intowater.
Compofi-
The other grand objedf of the dairy is cheefe-Making of
condemns the employing df .cold water in this opera- making, which in fome counties of England becomestheefe.
tion, to wq//j the butter as it is called. Thus, he fays, a very confiderable article. In this the fame precau-
the quality of it is debafed in an aftonifhing degree, tion is to be obferved as with regard to butter; viz.
If it is too foft, it may be put into fmall veffels, and the milk ought not to be agitated by carrying to any
thefe allowed to fwim in a tub of cold water; but the diftance ; nor ought the cows to be violently driven
water ought never to touchithe butter. The beating before they are milked, which reduces the milk almoft
Ihould be continued till the milk be thoroughly fepa- to the fame ftate as if agitated in a barrel or churn,
rated, but not till the butter become tough and gluey; To this caufe Mr Twamley, who has written a treatife
and after this is completely done, it is next to be fait- upon dairy management, attributes the great difficulty
ed. The veffel into which it is to be put mull be fometimes met with in making the milk coagulate;
well feafoned with boiling water feveral times poured four or five hours'being fometimes neceflary inHead of
into it ; the infide is to be rubbed over with common one (the ufual time employed); and even after all, the
fait, and a little melted butter poured into the cavity curd will be of fuch a foft nature, that the cheefe will
between the bottom and fides, fo as to make it even fwell, puff up, and rent in innumerable places without
with the bottom ; and it is then fit for receiving the ever coming to that folid confiftence which ut ought
butter. Inftead of common fait alone, the Doftor re- to have. As this frequently happens in cortfequenee
commends the following compofition. “ Take of fu- of , heat, Mr Twamley advifes to mix a little cold
for " gar one part, of nitre one part, and of the beft Spanifh fpring-water with the milk. It is a bad pra&ice to
preferving great fait two parts. Beat the whole into a fine pow-
butter. (jerj m;x them well together, and put them by for ufe.
One ounce of this is to be thoroughly mixed with a
pound of butter as foon as it is freed from the milk,
and then immediately put into the veffel defigned to
hold it; after which it muff be preffed fo clofe as to
leave no air-holes; the furface is to be fmoothed and
5
put in more rennet when the curd appeals difficult to
be formed ; for this, after having once formed the curd
by the ufe of a certain quantity, will diffolve it again
by the addition of more. ai8
The moft common defeats of cheefe are its appear-
ing when cut full of fmall holes called eyes ; its puffing cheefe.
up, cracking, and pouring out quantities of thin ferous
liquor;
Sea. IX.
HUSBANDRY.
:8i
Manage liquor; becoming afterwards rotten and full of mag- when it may remain a day or two; after which it Manage¬
ment of o’ g0t8 tlj0fe places from which the liquor ilfued. AH (hould be [trained again'.and put into a bottle, where ifnieilt the
. ^ ! this, according to our author, proceeds from the for- well corked it will keep good for twelve months or , Da'ry' ,
mation of a fubftance called by him Jlip curd, a kind of more ; it will fmell like a perfume, and a fmall quan- v
half coagulum, incapable of a thorough union with the tity of it wiU turn the milk and give the cheefe -
true curd, and which when broken into very fmall bits
produces eyes; but if in larger pieces, occafions thofe
rents and cracks in the cheefe already mentioned:; for
though this kind of curd retains its coagulated nature
for fome time, it always fooner or later diffolves into
a ferous liquid. This kind of curd may be produced,
i. By uling .the milk too hot. 2. By bad runnet.
3. By not allowing the curd a proper time to form.
plealing flavour.” He adds, that if the veil or maw
be faked and dried for a week or two near the fire, it
will do for the purpofe again almoft as well as before. Particulars
In the making of cheefe, fuppofing the runnet to r j ke ob-
be of a good quality, the following particulars mu(tfc! ved
be obferved: t. The proper degree of heat. Tbis^^f °£
ought to be what is called milk-warm, or “ a few
degrees removed from coolnefs,” according to Mr
The firfl; of thefe is remedied by the ufe of cold water, Twamley ; confiderably below the heat of milk taken
which our author fays is fo far from being detrimental from the cow. If too hot, it may be reduced to
to the quality of the cheefe, that it really promotes a proper temperature by cold water, as already
the affion of the runnet upon the milk. The fecond, mentioned. 2. The time allowed for the runnet
vix. a knowledge of good from bad runnet, can only .to take effect. This, our author obferves, ought
be acquired by long practice, and no particular direc- never to be lefs than an hour and a half. The procefs
tions can be given, farther than that the utmoft care
muft be taken that it have no putrid tendency, nor
any rancidity from too great heat in drying. The
only rule Tat can be given for its preparation is to
take out the maw of a calf which has fed entirely upon
may be accelerated, particularly by putting fait to the
milk before the runnet is added. Mr Twamley ad-
vifes two handfuls to ten or twelve cows milk; but he
affures us, that no bad confequence can follow from
the curd being formed ever fo foon ; as it then only
milk; after it is cold, fwill it a little in water; rub it becomes more folid and fit for making cheefe of a pro-
well with fait; then fill ft with the fame, and after- per quality. 3. To prevent any difficulty in fepara-
wards cover it. Some cut them open and fpread them ting the curd from the whey, prepare a long cheefe
in fait, putting them in layers above one another, let- knife from lath ; one edge being fharpened to cut-the
ting them continue in the brine they produce, fome- curd acrofs from top to bottom in the tub, croffing it
times ftirrfng or turning them for four, fix, or nine with lines checkerwife ; by which means the whey
months ; after which they are opened to dry, ftretch-
ed out upon flicks or fplints. They may be ufed im¬
mediately after being dried, though it is reckoned heft
to keep them till they be a year old before they are
ufed. The befl method of making the runnet from
the [kins, according to our author, is the following:
“ Take pure fpring-water, in quantity proportioned
to the runnet you intend to make ; it is thought heft
by fome two flans to a gallon of water; boil the wa¬
ter, which makes it fafter or more pure; make it
with fait into brine that will fwim an egg; then let it
Hand till the heat is gone off to about the heat of a nature, that no breaking is neceffary : they have
blood-warm ; .then put your maw-flan in, either cut to cut it in flice-s, put it into the vat, and work it
rifes through the vacancies made by the knife, and the
curd finks with much more eafe. A fieve, has alfo
been ufed with fuccefs, in order to feparate the whey
perfe£tly from the curd. 4. Having got the curd all
firm at the bottom of the tub, take the whey from it;
let it fiand a quarter of an hour to drain before you
put it into the vat to break it. If any bits of flip-curd
fwim among the whey, pour it all off together rather
than put it among the cheefe, for the reafons already
given. Some dairy-women allow the curd to ftand
for two hours ; by which time it is become of fo fi’ rrv
   - - - ly
fll
in pieces or whole ; the former I fhould imagine beft by fqueezing thoroughly to make it fit clofe ; then
or mofl convenient; letting it fteep 24 hours, after put it into the prefs. Our.author, however, approves
which it will be fit for ufe. Such quantity as is more of the method of breaking the curd, as lefs apt
judged neceffary mull then be put into the milk; about
a tea.cupful being neceffary for ten cows milk; though
in this refpeft very particular directions cannot be
given.”
In the Bath Papers, Mr Hazard gives the following
receipt for making runnet. “ When the maw-fldn is
well prepared and fit for the purpofe, three pints or
two quarts of feft water, clean and fweet, fhould be
mixed with fait, wherein ffiould be put fweet brier,
rofe-leaves-and flowers, cinamon mace, cloves, mace,
to make the cheefe hard and horny. 5. When the
whey is of a white colour, it is a certain lign that the
curd has not fubfided ; but if the method juft now laid
down be followed, the whey will always be of a greea
colour; indeed this colour of the whey is always a cer¬
tain criterion af the curd having been properlyinanaged.
6. The beft method of preventing cheefe from heaving,
is to avoid making the runnet too ftrong, to take care
that it be Clean, and not tainted ; to be certain that the
curd is fully come, and not to ftir it before the air has
and in ftiort almoft every fort of fpice and aromatic had time to efcape ; a quantity of air being always dif-
that can be procured ; and if thefe are put into
quarts of water, they mull boil gently till the liquor
is reduced to three pints, and care ffiould be taken that
this liquid is not fmoked ; it {hould be {trained clear
from the fpices, See. and when found not to be warm¬
er than milk from the cow, it {hould be poured upon
the veil or maw; a lepion may then be fliced into it,
charged in this as in many other chemical proceffes.
7. Cheefe is very apt to fplit in confequence of being
“ failed within,” efpecially when the vat is about half
filled. In this cafe the curd, though feparated only in
a fmall degree by the fait, never clofes or joins as it
ought to do. Mr Twamley prefers faking in the milk
greatly to this method. 8. Dry cracks in cheefe are
before
J$2 H U S B A
Fruit Li- generally produced by keeping curd from one meal to
quors. another, and letting the firdjbecome too ftiff and hard
' ‘ v before it is mixed with the other. 9. Curdly or
wrinkle-coated cheefe is caufed by four milk. Cheefe
made of cold milk is apt to be hard, or to break and
fly before the knife. 10. Such coated cheefe. is caufed
by being made too cold, as cheefe that is made in win¬
ter or late in autumn is apt to be, unlefs laid in a warm
room after it is made.
Different Cheefe is of very different quality, according to the
kinds of milk from which it is made : Thus, in Gloucefterlhire,
cheefe. what is called the fecond ®r two-meal cheefe, is made
from one meal of new milk and one of fkimmed or old
milk, having the cream taken away. Skimmed cheefe,
or Jlet milk cheefe, is made entirely from Ikimmed milk,
the cream having been taken off to make butter. It
goes by the name of Suffolk-cheefe, and is much ufed at
fea ; being lefs liable to be affefted by the heat of warm
climates than the other kinds. A great deal of differ¬
ence, however, is to be obferved in the quality of it,
which our author fuppofes to arife chiefly from greater
care being taken in fome places than in others.
Slip coat or foft cheefe is made entirely of flip-curd,
and diffolves into a kind of creamy liquor; which is a
demonftration of the nature of this curd as already
mentioned. It is commonly computed, that as much
milk is required to make one pound of butter as two
of cheefe ; and even more where the land is poor, and
the paftures afford but little cream.—For further parti¬
culars with regard to thefe two commodities, fee the
articles Butter and Cheese.
Sect. X. Making of Fruit-Liquors.
These, as obje&s of Britifh hufbandry, are prin¬
cipally two, Cyder and Perry; the manufacturing of
which forms a capital branch in our fruit-counties,
and of which the improvement muff be conlideted
as of great importance to the public, but particu¬
larly fo to the inhabitants of thofe diftrirfts where thefc
liquors conftitute their common beverage.
Excellence Cyder and perry, when genuine and in high per-
of cyder and feftion, are excellent vinous liquors, and are cer-
perry. tainly far more wholefome than many others which
at prefent are in much higher eftimation. When
the muff is prepared from the choiceft fruit, and un¬
dergoes the exaft degree of vinous fermentation re-
quifite to its perfe&ion, the acid and the fweet are
fo admirably blended with the aqueous, oily, and fpi-
ritous principles, and the whole fo imbued with the
grateful flavour of the rinds, and the agreeable aro¬
matic bitter of the kernels, that it affumes a new cha¬
racter ; grows lively, fparkling, and exhilarating ; and
when completely mellowed by time, the liquor becomes
at once highly delicious to the palate, and congenial
to the conftitution ; fuperior in every refpedt to molt
other Englifh wines, and perhaps not inferior to many
f 'Rath Pa- of the beft foreign wines. Such (fays Dr Fothergill f )
fers, vol. v. WOuld it be pronounced by all competent judges, were
P- 343- jt not for the popular prejudice annexed to it as a cheap
home-brewed fquor, and confequently within the reach
of the vulgar. To compare fuch a liquor with the
foreign fiery fophifticated mixtures often imported un¬
der the name of wines, would be to degrade it; for
N D R Y. Panlll.
it certainly furpaffes them in flavour and pleafantnefs, Fruit-Li¬
as much as it excels them in wholefomenefs and cheap- <lUQrs
nefs. But rarely do we meet with perry or cyder of v
this fuperior quality. For what is generally fold by
dealers and inn-keepers is a poor, meagre, vapid li¬
quor, prone to the acetous fermentation, and of courfe 424
very injurious to the conftitution. Is it not very mor- Art of ma-
tifying, after the experience of fo many centuries, kin£them
that the art of preparing thofe ancient Britifti liquors u^r*
ftiould ftill be fo imperfedly underftood as yet to feem to derftood.
be in its very infancy ?—That throughout the princi¬
pal cyder diftrifts, the pra&ice flrould ftill reft on the
moft vague indeterminate principles, and that the ex¬
cellence of the liquor flrould depend rather on a lucky
random hit, than on good management! Yet fuch ap¬
pears to be really the cafe even among the moft expe¬
rienced cyder-makers of Herefordftrire and Gloucef-
terftrire.
Mr Marfliall, that nice obferver of rural affairs, in
his late tour * through thofe counties (exprefsly nn-* Rural E-
dertaken for the purpofe of inquiry on this fubjecl),«/ Glou-
informs us, that fcarcely two of thefe profeffional ar-
tifts are agreed as to the management of fome of the*1'
moft effential parts of the procefs. That palpable er- Errors
rors are committed as to the time and manner of ga- pointed
thering the fruit—in laying it up—in negle&ing toout'
feparate the unfound—and to grind properly the rinds
and kernels, &c. That the method of conducing
the vinous fermentation, the moft critical part of the
operation, and which ftamps the future value of the
liquor, is by no means afeertained: While fome pro¬
mote the fermentation in a fpacious open vat, others
reprefs it by inclofing the liquor in a hogftiead, or
ftrive to prevent it altogether. That no determinate
point of temperature is regarded, and that the ufe of
the thermometer is unknown or negledled. That they
are as little confiftent as to the time of racking off;
and whether this ought to be done only once, or five
or fix times repeated. That for fining down the li¬
quor, many have recourfe to that odious article,
bullock’s blood, when the intention might be much
better anfwered by whites of eggs or ifinglafs. And,
finally, that the capricious tafte of particular cu-
ftomers is generally confulted, rather than the real
excellence of the liquor ; and confequently that a
very imperfedl liquor is often vended, which tends to
reduce the price, to difgrace the vender, and to bring
the ufe of cyder and perry into difrepute.
The art of making vinous liquors is a curious che¬
mical procefs; and its fuccefs chiefly depends on a dex¬
terous management of the vinous fermentation, be-
fides a clofe attention to fundry minute circumftances,
the theory of which is perhaps not yet fully underftood
by the ableft chemifts. Can we longer wonder then that
fo many errors ftiould be committed by illiterate cyder-
makers, totally unverfed in the firft principles of the
chemical art ? Some few, indeed, more enlighteaed
than their brethren, and lefs bigotted to their own
opinions, by dint of obfervation ftrike out improve¬
ments, and produce every now and then a liquor of
fuperior quality, though perhaps far ftiort of excel¬
lence, yet ftill fufiicient to Ihow what might poffibly
be accomplilhed by a feries of new experiments con¬
duced on philofophical principles. This might lead
to
ISea. X,
l Fruit Li- to fuccefiive improvements, till at length our Engltih
| quor?. fruit-liquor8 might be carried to a pitch of perfection
^'t^erto unknown, by which the demand, both at
Means of home and abroad, w'ould foon be enlarged, the prices
improve- augmented according to the quality, the value of
V ment. eftates increafed, and the health and fpeprority of
|-3i* thefe counties proportionably advanced. This might
alfo help to point out a method of correcting the
imperfections of thefe liquors ; and of meliorating
thefe of a weak meagre quality, by fafer and more
effectual means than are now praCtifed: and though
nothing can fully compenfate the defeCt of fun-
fhine in maturing the faccharine juices in unfavour¬
able feafons, yet probably fuch liquor might, with¬
out the dangerous and expenfive method of boiling in
a copper veffel, admit of confiderable improvement by
the addition of barm or other fuitable ferment, as yet
unknown in the praCtice of the cyder diftriCts ; or
perhaps rather by a portion of rich muft, or fome
wholefome fweet, as honey, fugar-candy, or even me-
laffes, added in due proportion, previous to the fermen-
| f Hopfon', tation. In faCt, it appears from a late publicationf, that
Cbmijlry. the Germans are known to meliorate their thin harfh
wines by an addition of concentrated muft, not by
evaporation, but by freezing. By this fimple procefs
they are made to emulate good French wines; a prac¬
tice worthy of imitation, especially in the northern cli¬
mates.
Cyder, as is well known, is made from apples, and
Perry from pears only. The general method of prepa¬
ring both thefe liquors is very much the fame; and under
the article Cyder a defcription is given of the way in
which thofe fruits are gathered, ground, andpreffed. The
mill is not effentially different from that of a common
Defcriptiontanner 8 ^or grin<i*n& bark. It confifts of a mill-
of a cyder- ft°ne fr°m two and an half to four feet and an half in
mill and diameter, running on its edge in a circular ftone trough,
miil-houfe. from nine to twelve inches in thicknefs, and from one
to two tuns in weight. The bottom of the trough in
which this ftone runs is fomewhat wider than the
thicknefs of the ftone itfelf; the inner fide of the groove
rifes perpendicularly, but the outer fpreads in fuch a
manner as to make the top of the trough fix or eight
inches wider than the bottom; by which means there
is room for the ftone to run freely, and likewife for
putting in the fruit, and flirting it up while grinding.
The bed of ,a middle-fized mill is about 9 feet, fome
10, and fome 12; the whole being compofed of two,
three, or four ftones cramped together, and finifhed
after being cramped in this manner. The beft ftones
are found in the foreft of Dean; generally a dark, red-
difh gritflone, not calcareous; for if it were of a calcare¬
ous quality, the acid juice of the fruits would afl; upon
it and fpoil the liquor: a clean-grained grindflone
grit is the fitteft for the purpofe. The runner is mo¬
ved by means of an axle palling through the centre,
with a long arm reaching without the bed of the mill,
for a horfe to draw by ; on the other fide is a fhorter
arm palling through the centre of the ftone, as repre-
fented in the figure. An iron bolt, with a large head,
pafles through an eye, in the lower part of the fwivel
on which the flone turns, into the end of the inner
arm of the axis; and thus the double motion of it is ob-
783
tained, and the ftone kept perfe&ly upright. There Fruit Li-
ought alfo to be fixed on the inner arm of the axis, <llI0rs-
about a foot from the runner, a cogged wheel work- J""v
ing in a circle of cogs, fixed upon the bed of the mill.
The ufe of thefe is to prevent the runner from Aiding,
which it is apt to do when the mill is full; it likewife
makes the work more eafy for the horfe. Thefe
wheels ought to be made with great exaftnefs. Mr
Marfhall obferves, that it is an error to make the horfe
draw by traces : “ The a&ing point of draught (fays
he), the horfe’s fhoulder, ought, for various reafons, to
be applied immediately at the end of the arm of the
axis ; not two or three yards before it ; perhaps of a
fmall mill, near one fourth of its circumference.”
The building in which the mill is inclofed ought to be
of fuch a fize, that the horfe may have a path of three
feet wide betwixt the mill and the walls; fo that a
middling-fized mill, with its horfe-path, takes up a
fpace of 14 or 15 feet every way. The whole dimen-
fions of the mill-houfe, according to our author, to
render it any way convenient, are 24 feet by 20 : it
ought to have a floor thrown over it at the height of
feven feet; with a door in the middle of the front,
and a window oppofite, with the mill on one fide
and the prefs on the other fide of the window. The
latter muft be as near the mill as convenience will al¬
low, for the more eafy conveying the ground fruit
from the one to the other. The prefs, of which the
principle will be underftood from the figure, has its bed
or bottom about five feet fquare. This ought to be
made entirely either of wood or ftone ; the pra&ice
of covering it with lead being now univerfally known
to be pernicious. It has a channel cut a few inches
within its outer edges, to catch the liquor as it is ex-
preffed, and convey it to a lip formed by a proje&ion
on that fide of the bed oppofite to the mill ; having
under it a ftone trough or wooden veflel, funk with¬
in the ground, when the bed is fixed low', to receive it.
The prefs is worked with levers of different lengths ;
firft a ftiort, and then a moderately long one, both
worked by hand ; and laftly, a bar eight or nine feet
long worked by a capftane or windlafs. The expence
of fitting up a mill-houfe is not very great. Mr
Marlhall computes it from 20I. to 25I. and, on
a fmall fcale, from 10I. to 15I. though much depend*
on the diftance and carriage of the ftone : when once
fitted up, it will laft many years.
The making of the fruit-liquors under confidera-
tion requires an attention to the following parti¬
culars. I. The fruit. II. The grinding. III. Prcf-
fing. IV. Fermenting. V. Correcting. VI. Laying
up. VII. Bottling; each of which heads is fubdi-
vided into feveral others.
I. In the management of the fruit, the following par- M a4S
ticulars are to be confidered. mentofth»
1. The time of gathering; which varies according fruit,
to the nature of the fruit. The early pears are fit
for the mill in September ; but few apples are
ready for gathering before Michaelmas; though, by
reafon of accidental circumftances, they are frequently
manufactured before that time. For fale cyder,
and keeping drink, they are fuffered to hang upon
the trees till fully ripe; and the middle of Octo¬
ber
HUSBANDRY.
784 H U S B A N D R Y. Part III..
Fruit W her Is generally lookfd upon to be a-proper time for ga- having acquired fuch a degree of mellownefs, and »U- •Fruit JUU
q001-• , thering the (lire-apple. The criterion of a due degree texture fuch a degree of tendernefs, as to yield to mo- quors,
_ v ofripenefs ie the frnit falling from the tree: and'to fprce derate preffure. Thus, when the knuckle or the end of““V—
it away before that time, in Mr Marshall's opinion, is the thi}mb can with moderate exertion be forced into
robbing it of Some of its moft valuable particles. “The the pulp of the fruit, it is deemed in a fit Hate for
harveiling of fruit (fays he) is widely different in this grinding.”
refpeft from the harvefting of grain ; which has the en- 4. Preparation for the mill. The proper manage-
tire plant to feed it after its Separation from the foil; ment of the fruit is to keep the ripe and unripe fruit fe-
while fruit, after it is fevered from the tree, is cut off parate from each other: but this cannot be done with-
from all poffibility of a further fupply of noutufhmerit ; out a confiderable degree of labour ; for as by number-
and although it may have reached its wonted fize,Tome lefs accidents the ripe and unripe fruits are frequently
of its more effential particles are undoubtedly kft he- 'confounded together, there cannot be any effedual me-
hind in the tree.” Sometimes, however, the fruits thod of feparating them except by hand ; and Mr Mar-
which are late in ripening are apt to hang on the tree fhall is of opinion, that this is one of the grand fecrets
until fpoiled by frofts ; though weak watery fruits feeTu of cyder-making, peculiar to thofe who excel in the
to be moil injured in this manner: and Mr Marfhall re- bufinefs ; and he is furprifed that it fhould not before
la tea an iullance of very fine liquor being made from this time have come into common practice,
golden pippins, after the fruit had been frozen as hard
as ice.
2. The method of gathering. This, i
129
Method of
gathering
5. Mixing fruits for liquor. Our author feems to
doubt the propriety of this pra&ice and informs us,
generally that the finer liquors are made from feledt fruits; and
pra£lifedr, is diredly contrary to the principle laid down he hints that it might be more proper to mix liquors
by Mr MaWhall, viz- beating them down with long after they are made, than to put together the crude
flender poles. An evident difadvantage of this method fruits.
is, that the fruit is of unequal ripenefs ; for the apples
on the fame trees will differ many days, perhaps even
weeks, in their time of coming to perfe&ion ; whence
II. Grinding, and management of the fruit when Grinding,
ground.
For the greater convenience of putting the
fome part of the richnefs and flavour of the fruit will be fruit into the mill, every mill-houfe fhould have a
effectually and irremediably Cut off. Nor is this the fruit-chamber over it, with a trap-door to lower the
only evil to be dreaded} for as every thing depends on fruit down into the mill. The befl manner in which
the fermentation it has to undergo, if this be interrupt- this can be accomplifhed, is to have the valve over the
ed, or rendered complex by a mixture of ripe and un- bed of the mill, and furnifhed with a cloth fpout or
ripe fruits, and the liquor be not in the firll inftance tunnel reaching down to the trough in which the ftone
fufficiently purged from its feculencies, it is difficult to moves. No ftraw is ufed in the lofts, but fometimes
clear the liquor afterwards. The former defedt the cy- the fruit is turned. In Herefordfhire, it is generally
der makers attempt to remedy by a mixture of brown believed, that grinding the rind and feeds of the fruit as
fugar and brandy, and the latter by bullock’s blood and well as the flefhy part to a pulp, is neceffary towards
brim ftone ; but neither of thefe can be expedfted to an- the perfedion of the cyder ; whence it is neceffary, that
fwer the purpofe very effeftually. The beft method of every kind of pains fhould be taken to perform the
avoiding the inconveniences arifing from an unequal grinding in the moft perfedl manner. Mr Marfhall
ripening of the fruit is to go over the trees twice, once complains, that the cyder-mills are fo imperfe&ly finifti-
with a hook, when the fruit begins to fall fpontane- ed by the workmen, that for the firft ffty years they
oufly ; the fecond time, when the latter are fnfficiently cannot perform their work in a proper manner. Inftead
ripened, or when the winter is likely to fet in, when of being nicely fitted to one another with the fquare
230
Maturing
it, &c.
and chiifel, they are hewn over with a rough tool in fuch
carelefs manner, that horfe-beans might lie in fafety
the trees are to be cleared with the poles above-mem
tioned. .
3. Maturing, the gathered fruit. This is ufually done in their cavities. Some even imagine this to be an ad
by making it into heaps, as is mentioned under the ar- vantage, as if the fruit was more effedlually and com-
ticle Cyder : but Mr Marfhall entirely difapproves of pletely broken by rough than fmooth ftones. Some
the practice ; becaufe, when the whole are laid in a ufe fluted rollers of iron ; but thefe will be corroded by
heap together, the ripeft fruit will begin to rot before the juice, and thus the liquor might be tinged. Smooth
the other has arrived at that degree of artificial ripenefc rollers will not lay hold of the fruit fufficiently to force
which it is capable of acquiring. “ The due degree it through.
of maturation of fruit for liquor (he obferves) is a fub- Another improvement requifite in the cyder-mills is
jefi: about which men, even in this diftrift, differ much to prevent the matter in the trough from rifing before
in their ideas. The prevailing pra&ice of gathering the ftone in the laft ftage of grinding, and a method
into heaps until the ripeft begin to rot, is wafting the of ftirring it up in the trough more eff. Aually than
beft of the fruit, and is by no means an accurate crite- can be done at prefent. To remedy the form :; of
rion. Some fhake the fruit, and judge by the rattling thefe defers, it might perhaps be proper to grind the
of the kernels; others cut through the middle, and fruit .firfUB- the null to a certain degrrv ,rr? i ;>rn put it
judge by their blacknefs ; but none of thefe appear to between two fmooth rollers to finifti the operation in
be a proper teft. It is not the ftate of the kernels but the moft pesfeCl manner. It « an . or to gr'mf too
of the flefh ; not of a few individuals, but of the greater much at once
part of the prime-fruit, which renders the colledive bo
dy fit or unfit to be fent to the mill. The moft ra. „ w
tional teft of the ripenefs of the fruit, is that of the flelh our author had once an opportunity of feeing a mill
N° 160.
this clogs up the mill, and vents
it from going eafily. The ufual quantity for a middle-
fized mill is a bag containing four corn bufhels : hut
, , 0   ~c r.. - ,-ti
15e&.X. H IT S B A
Fruit-Li- in whicli only half a bag was put; and thus the work
quors. feemed to go on more eafily as well as more quickly
r——J tiian when more was .put in at once. The quantity-
put in at one time is to be taken out when ground.
The ufual quantity of fruit ground in a day is as much
as will make three hogflieads of .perry or two of cy¬
der.
2. Management of the ground-fruit. Here Mr
'Marlhall condemns in very ftrong terms the prarSHce
of prefling the pulp of the fruit as foon as the grinding
is finifhed; becaufe thus neither the rind nor feeds
have time to communicate their virtues to the liquor.
In order to extraft thefe -virtues in the moft proper
manner, fome allow the ground-fruit to lie 24 hours
or more after grinding, and even regrind it, in order
to have in the moft perfeft manner the flavour and
virtues of the feeds and rind.
Trcffimr HI. Preffing the fruit, and management of the re-
&c. Jiduum. This is-done by folding up the ground-fruit
in pieces of hair-doth, and piling them up above one
another in a fquare frame or mould, and then pulling
down the prefs upon them, which fqueezes out the
• juice, and forms the matter into thin and almoft dry
-cakes. The firft runnings come off foul and muddy;
but the laft, efpecially in perry, will be as clear and
fine as if filtered thro’ paper. It is common to throw
away the refiduum as ufelefs; fometimes it is made ufe of
when dry as fuel; fometimes the pigs will eat it, efpe¬
cially when not thoroughly fqueezed; and fometimes
it is ground a fecond time with water, and fqueezed
for an inferior kind of liquor ufed for the family.
Mr Marlhall advifes to continue the preffure as long as
a drop can be drawn. “ It is found (fays he), that
even by breaking the cakes of refufe with the hands
only gives the prefs frelh power over it; for though it
has been preffed to the laft drop, a gallon or more of
additional liquor may be got by this means. Re¬
grinding them has a ftill greater effeft: In this ftate of
the materials the mill gains a degree of power over the
more rigid paits of the fruit, which in the firft grind¬
ing it could not reach. If the face of the runner and
the bottom of the trough were dfeffed with a broad
chiffel, and made true to each other, and a moderate
quantity of refiduum ground at once, fcarcely a kernel
could efcape unbroken, or a drop of liquor remain un¬
drawn.”
But though the whole virtue of the fruit cannot be
-extradted without grinding it very fine, fome incon¬
venience attends this pradtice, as part of the pulp
thus gets through the hair cloth, and may perhaps be
injurious to the fubfequent fermentation. This, how¬
ever, may be in a great meafure remedied by ftraining
the firft runnings through a fieve. The whole fhould
alfo be allowed to fettle in a calk, and drawn off
into a frelh veffel previous to the commencement of
the fermentation. The reduced fruit ought to remain
fome time between the grinding and prefling, that the
liquor may have an opportunity of forming an extradl
with the rind and kernels: but this muff not be pulh-
ed too far, as in that cafe the colour of the cyder
would be hurt; and the moft judicious managers objedl
to the pulp remaining longer than 12 hours without
preffure. “ Hence (fays our author), upon the whole,
the moft eligible management in this ftage of the art
appears to be this: Grind one prefsful a-day ; prefs
r Von. VIII. Part II.
DRY. 785
and regtind the refiduum in the evening ; infufe the Fruit-Li-
reduced matter all night among part of the firft run- 1luors- ,
nings; and in the morning re-prefs while the next
prefsful is grinding. 233
IV. Fermentation. The common pradf ice is to have Fermenta-
the liquor turned; that is, put into calks or hog-tl0n'
fheads immediately from the prefs, and to fill them
quite full: but it is undoubtedly more proper to leave
fome fpace empty to be filled up afterwards. No ac¬
curate experiment has been made with regard to the
temperature of the air proper to be kept up in the
place where the fermentation goes on. Froft is pre¬
judicial : but when the procefs ufually commences,
that is about the middle of Odlober, the liquor is put
into airy lhades, where the warmth is fcarce greater
than in the open atmofphere 3 nay, they are frequent¬
ly expofed to the open air without any covering farther
than a piece of tile or flat ftone over the bung-hole,
propped up by a wooden pin on one fide to caufe the
rain water run off. In a complete manufadtory of
fruit-liquor, the fermenting room Ihould be under the
fame roof with the mill-houfe ; a continuation of the
prefs-room, or at leaft opening into it, with windows
or doors on every fide, to give a free admiflion of air
into it; fufficierit defences againft froft; fruit-lofts
over it, and vaults underneath for laying up the liquors
after fermentation ; with fmall holes in the crown of
the arch to admit a leathern pipe, for the purpofe of
conveying the liquors occafionally from the one to the
other.
In making of fruit-liquors, no ferment is ufed as
in making of beer; though, from Mr Marlhall’s ac¬
count of the matter, it leems far from being unne-
ceffary. Owing to this omiflion, the time of the com¬
mencement of the fermentation is entirely uncertain.
It takes place fometimes in one, two, or three days }
fometimes not till a week or month after turning :
but it has been obferved, that liquor which has bteen
agitated in a carriage, though taken immediately from
the prefs, will fometimes pafs almoft immediately into
a ftate of fermentation. - The continuance of the fer¬
mentation is no lefs uncertain than the commencement
of it.. Liquors, when much agitated, will go through it
perhaps in one day ; but when allowed to remain at
reft, the fermentation commonly goes on two or three
days, and fometimes five or fix. The fermenting li¬
quor, however, puts on a different appearance accord¬
ing to circumftances. When produced from fruits
properly matured, it generally throws up a thick fcum
refembling that of malt liquor, and of a thicknefs pro¬
portioned to the fpecies and ripenefs of the fruit;
the riper the fruit, the more fcum being thrown up.
Perry gives but little fcum, and cyder will fometimes
alfo do the fame; fometimes it is intentionally pre¬
vented from doing it.
After having remained fome time in the fermenting
veffel, the liquor is racked or drawn off from the lees
and put into frefh cafks. In this part of the opera¬
tion alfo Mr Marlhall complains greatly of the little
attention that is paid to the liquor. The ordinary
time for racking perry is before it has done hilling, or
fometimes when it begins to emit fixed air in plenty.
The only intention of the-operation is to free the li¬
quor from its faeces by a cock placed at a little diftance
from the bottom.; after which the remainder is to be
5 F filtered
*34
Different
kinds of
cyder, dif¬
ferently
fermented.
H U S B A
filtered through a canvas or flannel bag. This filtered
liquor differs from the reft in having an higher colour;
having no longer any tendency to ferment, but on the
contrary checking the fermentation of that which is
racked off; and if it lofes its brightnefs, it is no lon¬
ger eafily recovered.—A frefh fermentation ufually
commences after racking; and if it become violent, a
frefh racking is neceffary in order to check it; in con-
fequence of which the fame liquor will perhaps be
racked five or fix times: but if only a fmall degree of
fermentation takes place, which is called fretting, it is
allowedUo remain in the fame cafk ; though even here
the degree of fermentation which requires racking is
by no means determined. Mr Marfhall informs us that
the beft manufa&urers, however, repeat the racking*
until the liquor will lie quiet, or nearly fo ; and if it
be found impra&icable to accomplifh this by the ordi¬
nary method of fermentation, recourfe muft be had to
fumigation with fulphur, which is called Jiumming the
calks. For this fumigation, it is neceffary to have
matches made of thick linen-cloth about ten inches
long, and an inch broad, thickly coated with brim-
ftone for about eight inches of their length. The calk
is then properly feafoned, and every vent except the
bung-hole tightly flopped ; a match kindled ; lowered
down into the calk, and held by the end undipped
until it be well lighted and the bung be driven in j
thus fufpending the lighted match within the calk.
Having burnt as long as the contained air will fupply
the fire, the match dies, the bung is raifed, the rem-
sant of the match drawn out, and the cafk fuffered to
remain before the liquor be put into it for two or three
hours, more or lefs according to the degree of power
the fulphur ought to have. The liquor retains a fmell
of the fulphureous acid ; but this goes off in a Ihort
time, and no bad effeft is ever obferved to follow.
In fome places the liquor is left to ferment in open
calks, where it Hands till the firft fermentation be
pretty well over ; after which the froft or yeaft col¬
lected upon the furface is taken off, it being fuppofed
that it is this yeaft mixing with the clear liquor which
caufesit to fret after racking. The fermentation being
totally ceafed, and the lees fubfided, the liquor is
racked off into a frefh calk, and the lees filtered as
above dire&ed. Our author mentions a way of fer¬
menting fruit-liquors in broad lhallow vats, not lefs
than five feet in diameter, and little more than two
feet deep ; each vat containing about two hogfheads.
In thefe the liquor remains until it has done rifing, or
till the fermentation has nearly ceafed, when it is racked
off without flamming, the critical jun&ure being
caught before the yeaft fall; the whole finking gradu¬
ally together as the liquor is drawn off. In this prac¬
tice alfo the liquor is feldom drawn off a fecond time.
Cyder is made of three different kinds, viz. rough*,
fweet, and of a middle richnefs. The firft: kind being
ufually deftined for fervants, is made with very little
ceremony. “ If it is but %eyder (fays Mr Marlhall),
and has body enough to keep, no matter for the rich¬
nefs and flavour. The rougher it is, the further it
will go, and the more acceptable cuftom has rendered
it not only to the workmen but to their mailers. A
palate accuftomed to fweet cyder would judge the rough
cyder of the farm-houfes to be a mixture of vinegar and
water, with a little diffolved alum to give it rough-
N DRY. ParcIII.
nefs.” The method of producing this auftere liquor Fruit-Li-
is to grind them in a crude under-ripe ftate, and fub- quors.
jeft the liquor to a full fermentation For the
fweet liquor, make choice of the fweeter fruits : ma¬
ture them fully; and check the fermentation of the
liquor.—To produce liquors of a middle richnefs,
the nature of the fruit, as well as the feafon in
which ic is matured, muft be confidered. The fruits
to be made choice of are fuch as yield juices capable
of affording a fufficiency both of richnefs and ftrength;.
though much depends upon proper management. Open
vats, in our author’s opinion, are preferable to clofe
veffels: but if calks be ufed at all, they ought to be
very large, and not filled ; nor ought they to lie upon
their Tides, but to be fet on their ends with their heads
out, and to be filled only to fuch an height as will
produce the requifite degree of fermentation : but in
whatever way the liquor be put to ferment, Mr Mar¬
lhall is of opinion that the operation ought to be al¬
lowed to go on freely for the firft time; though after
being racked off, any fecond fermentation ought to be
prevented as much as poffible. ^
V. CorreRing, provincially called doBoring. The Of corredr-
imperfedlions which art attempts to fupply in thefe li- ing or doc-
quors are, i. Want of ftrength ; 2. Want of richnefs..[?rin& thc
3. Want of flavour. 4. Want of colour and bright-lltluors'
nefs.
The want of ftrength is fupplied by brandy or any
other fpirit in fufficient quantity to prevent the ace¬
tous fermentation. The want of richnefs is fupplied
by what are generally termed fioeets, but prepared in
a manner which our author fays has never fallen un¬
der his notice. To fupply the want of flavour, an in-
fufion of hops is fometimes added, which is faid to
communicate an agreeable bitter, and at the fame time
a fragrance ; whence it becomes a fubftitute for the
juices of the rind and kernels thrown away to the pigs
and poultry, or other otherwife wafted. The want of
colour is fometimes fupplied by elder berries, but
more generally by burnt fugar, which gives the de-
fired colour, and a degree of bitter which is very much
liked. The fugar is prepared either by burning it on
a falamander, and fuffering it to drop, as it melts, in¬
to water; or by boiling it over the fire (in which cafe
brown fugar is to be ufed), until it acquire an agreeable
bitter ; then pouring in boiling water in the proportion-
of a gallon to two lb. of fugar, and ftir until the li¬
quor become uniform. A pint of this preparation will
colour a hogfliead of cyder. B-rightnefs is obtained by
a mixture of the blood of bullocks or Iheep ; that of
fwinc being rejected, though it does not appear to be
more unfit for the purpofe than either of the other
two. The only thing neceffary to be done here is to
ftir the blood well as it is drawn from the animal, to-
prevent the parts from feparating ; and it ought to be
ftirred “^both ways, for a quarter of an hour.” The
liquor, however, is not always in a proper condition for
being refined with this ingredient ^on which account a-
little of it ought frequently to be tried in a vial. A
quart or lefs will be fufficient for a hogfhead. After
the blood is poured in, the liquor fhould be violently
agitated, to mix the whole intimately together. This
is done by a flick flit into four, and inferted into the
bung-hole ; working it brifkly about in the liquor un¬
til the whole be thoroughly mixed. In about 24 hours
thc
SeA. X. H U S B A
Fruit- Li- the blood will be fubfided, and the liquor ought in •
^ tluors- , ftantly to be racked off; as by remaining upon the
Y " blood even for two or three days, it will receive a
taint not eafily to be got rid of. It is remarkable that
this refinement with the blood carries down not only
the faces, but the colour alfo ; rendering the liquor,
though ever fo highly coloured before, almoft as lim¬
pid as water. Ifinglafs and eggs are fometimes made
ufe of in fining cyder as well as wine.
Of laying VI. rTht laying up or (hutting up the cyder in clofe
up, or calk- caiks, according to Mr Marlhall, is as little underllood
ibg- as any of the reft of the parts; the bungs being
commonly put in at fome certain time, or in fome par¬
ticular month, without any regard to the ftate the li¬
quor it felf is in. “ The only criterion (fays he) I
have met with for judging the critical time of laying
up, is when a fine white cream-like matter firft begins
to form upon the furface. But this may be too late ;
it is probably a fymptom at leaft of the acetous fermen¬
tation, which if it take place in any degree muft be inju¬
rious. Yet if the calks be bunged tight, fome crite¬
rion is neceffary ; otherwife, if the vinous fermenta¬
tion have not yet finally ceafed, or fliould recommence,
the calks will be endangered, and the liquor injured.
Hence, in the pra&ice of the moft cautious manager
whofe pra&ice I have had an opportunity of obferving,
the bungs are firft driven in lightly, when the liquor
is fine, and the vinous fermentation is judged to be
over ; and fome time afterward, when all danger is
paft, to fill up the calks, and drive the bungs fecurely
with a rag, and rofin them over at top. Moft farmers
are of opinion, that after the liquor is done ferment¬
ing, it ought to have fomething to feed upon ; that is,
to prevent it from running into the acetous fermenta¬
tion. For this purpofe fome put in parched beans,
others egg-lhells, fome mutton fuet, &c. Mr Mar-
ihall does not doubt that fomething may be ufeful;
and thinks that ilinglafs may be as proper as any thing
*37 that can be got.
Bottling. VII. Bottling. This depends greatly on the qua¬
lity of the liquors themfelves. Good cyder can feldom
be bottled with propriety under a year old ; fometimes
not till two. The proper time is when it has acquired
the utmoft degree of richnefs and flavour in the calks ;
and this it will preferve for many years in bottles. It
ought to be quite fine at the time of bottling ; or if
not fo naturally, ought to be fined artificially with
ifinglafe and eggs.
138
Of cyder-
ltn.
The liquor, called cyderkin, purre, or perkin, is
made of the murk or grofs matter remaining after the
■cyder is prelfed out. To make this liquor, the murk
is put into a large vat, with a proper quantity of boiled
water, which has ftood till it be cold again : if half the
quantity of water be ufed that there was of cyder, it
will be good ; if the quantities be equal, the cyderkin
will be fmall. The whole is left to infufe 48 hours,
and then well preffed : what is fqueezed out by the
prefs is immediately tunned up and Hopped ; it is fit
to drink in a few days. It clarifies of itfelf, and ferves
in families inftead of fmall beer. It will keep, if boil¬
ed, after preffure, with a convenient quantity of
kops.
We muft not conclude this fe&ion without parti¬
cular notice of the liquor called cyder wine, which is
N D R Y. 737
made from the juice of apples taken from the prefs Fruit-Li»
and lotted, and which being kept three or four years <1U0T>- t
is faid to referable Rhenilh. The method of pre- '
paring this wine, as communicated by Dr Rufh ofofcyder-
America, where it is much praftifed, confifts in wine, ac-
evaporating in a brewing copper the frelh apple-juicfe coril!nP jo
till half of it be coniumed. The remainder is then *
immediately conveyed into a wooden cooler, and af- P
ter wards is put into a proper calk, with an addi¬
tion of yeaft, and fermented in the ordinary way. The
procefs is evidently borrowed from what has long
been pra&ifed on the recent juice of the grape, under
the term of vin cult, or boiled wine, not only i:t*Italy,
but alfo in the iflands of the Archipelago, from time
immemorial.
This procefs has lately become an objeft of imitation
in the cyder counties, and particularly in the weft of
England, where it is reported that many hundred hogs¬
heads of this wine have already been made ; and as it
is faid to betray no fign of aa impregnation of copper
by the ufual chemical tefts, it is confidered as perfeft-
ly wholefome, and is accordingly drunk without ap-
prehenfion by the common people. Others, however,
fufpeft its innocence ; whence it appeared an objeft
of no fmall moment to determine in fo doubtful a mat¬
ter, whether or not the liquor acquires any noxious
quality from the copper in which it is boiled.—With
this view Dr Fothergillf made a variety of experiments; j. ^atf> Pd,
and the refult feemed to afford a ftrong prefumptionVoi. v.
that the cyder wine does contain a minute impregna- P- 339*
tion of copper ; not very confiderable indeed, but yet
fufficient, in the Doctor’s opinion, to put the public
on their guard concerning a liquor that comes in fo
very “ queltionable a lhape.”
It is a curious chemical faft, he obferves, if it be
really true, that acid liquors, while kept boiling in
copper velfels, acquire little or no impregnation from
the metal, but prefently begin to ad upon it when
left to Hand in the cold. Can this be owing to the
agitation occafioned by boiling, or the expulfion of
the aerial acid ? Atmofpheric air powerfully corrodes
copper, probably through the intervention of the aerial
or rather nitrous acid, for both are now acknowledged
to be prefent in the atmofphere. But the latter is
doubtlefs a much ftronger menftruum of copper than
the former.
In the prefent procefs the liquor is properly direded
to be palTed into a wooden cooler as foon as the boil¬
ing is completed. But as all acids, and even common
water, acquire an impregnation and unpleafant tafte,
from Handing in copper vefiels in the cold, why may
not the acid juice of apples ad in fome degree on the
copper before the boiling commences ? Add to this,
that brewing coppers, without far more care and at¬
tention than is generally bellowed on them in keeping
them clean, are extremely apt to contrad verdegris,
(a rank poifon), as appears from the blue or green
ftreaks very vilible when thefe velfels are minutely exa¬
mined. Should the unfermented juice be thought in¬
capable of ading on the copper either in a cold or
boiling ftate, yet no one will venture to deny its
power of walhing off or diffolving verdegris already
formed on the internal furface of the veffel. Sup-
pofe only one-eighth part of a grain of verdegris
to be contained in a bottle of this wine, a quantity
that may elude the ordinary tefts, and that a bottle
5 F 2 Ihould
HUSBAND
' U!HLj ^10U^ daily by a perfon without produ- jeft of debate
R Y.
Part TIH.
, . . . „ Germany. In America, this fubftance Manures.j
cing any violent fymptom or internal uneafinefs ; feems to have met with more fuccefs than in any other ' 
yet what perfon in his fenfes would knowingly chufe country. In the fifth volume of Bath Papers, Mr
to hazard the experiment of determining how long he Kirkpatrick, of the IHe.of Wight, who had himfelf vi-
could continue even this quantity of a flow poifon in fited Nortli America,, informs us, that it is much ufed
his daily beverage with impunity? And yet it is to in the United States, on account of its cheapnefs and
be feared the experiment is but too- often unthink- efficacy ; though, from what.is told in the fame place*
ingly made, not only with cyder-wine, but alfo with we muft undoubtedly be led to fuppofe, that its efficacy
many of the foreign wines prepared by a fimilar pro- muft be very great before it can be intided to cheapncfsi
cefs. For the grape juice, when evaporated in a cop- In the firft place, it is brought from the bills in the
per veffel, under the denomination of mno cotio or neighbourhood of Paris to Havre de Grace, and from
boiled wine, cannot but acquire an equal if not yet thence exported to America ; which of itfelf muft oc*
ftronger impregnation of the metal, than the juice ofap- cafion a confiderable expence, though the plafter were
pies, feeing that verdegris itfelf is manufa&ured merely originally given gratis. In the next place, it muft ba
by the application of the acid hulks of grapes to plates powdered in a ftamping mill, and the finer it is powder-
of copper. ed fo much the better. In the third place, it muft be
Independent of the danger of any metallic impreg- fawn- over the ground to be manured with it. The.
nation, the Do&or thinks it may be juftly queftioned quantity for grafs is fix bulhels to an acre. It ought
how far the procefs of preparing boiled wines is necef- to be fown on dry ground in a wet day ; and its efficacy
fary or reconcileable to reafon or economy. The is faid to laft from feven to twelve years. It operates
evaporation of the muft by long boiling not only oc- entirely as a top dreffing.
cafions an unneceflary wafle of both liquor and fuel, In the i oth volume of Annals of Agriculture, wa
but alfo diffipates certain effential principles, without have fome extra&s from a treatife by Mr Povvel, prefi-
which the liquor can never undergo a complete fer- dent of the Philadelphia Society for encouraging Agri¬
mentation, and without a complete fermentation there culture, upon the fubjeA of gypfum as a manure; of
can be no perfecft wine. Hence the boiled wines-are the efficacy of which he gives the following inftancesi
generally crude, heavy, and flat, liable to produce in- t. In O&ober 1786, plafter of Paris was. fown in a
digeftion, flatulency, and diarrhoea. If the evapora- rainy day upon wheat-ftubble without any previous cul-
tion be performed haftily, the liquor contra&s a burnt ture. The crop of wheat had fcarce been worth reap-
empyreumatic tafte, as in the prefent inftance ; if flow- ing, and no kind of grafs feed had been fown upon the
ly, the greater is the danger of a metallic impregna- ground ; neverthelefs, in the month of June it was co-
tion. For the procefs may be prefumed to be gene- vered with a thick mat of white clover, clean and even,
rally performed in. a veflel of brafs or copper, as few . from fix to eight inches in height. A piece.of grotmd
families poflefs any other that is fufficiently capacious, adjoining to this white clover was alfo fown with gyp»
Nor can a veflel of caft-iron, though perfectly fafe, fom, and exhibited a fine appearance of white and red
be properly recommended for this purpofe, as it would clover mixed with fpear-grafs. Some wet ground fown
probably communicate a chalybeate tafte and dark at the fame time was not in the leaft improved.—This
colour to the liquor. At all events, brafs and copper anecdote relts entirely on the veracity of an anonymous
veffels ought to be entirely baniftied from this and farmer. 2. Eight bufhels of plafter of Paris fpread
every other culinary procefe. upon two acres and an half of wheat-ftubble ground,,.
which the fpring. before had been fowed with about two
Sect. XI. On Manures, and the bejt Methods of col- pounds of red clover-feed to the acre for pallure, yield-..
lefting them. cd five tons of hay by the middle; of June. A fmall
piece of ground of fimilar quality, but without any pla*
We have deferred treating on thefe to the laft part* fter, produced only one ton and an half in the fame.
.1.   r-ii J -•   — Jefs quantity from proportion.—Mr Powel concludes in favour of the ef->
■ ' lefts of the plafter upon arable as well as grafs land.——
as they are in faft derived in more
every operation in hulbandry, though they are undoubt¬
edly the foundation of the whole ; for no method yet Other accounts to the fame purpofe have been pub-i
propofed for making a foil fertile without manure ha* lilhed; but it does not appear to have been tried in this
ever been properly afcertained to be fuccefsful. The country. i4t
mode in which they operate has been fo fully explained With regard to the other kinds of manure commonly of the mortr
under the article Agriculture, that nothing farther -in ufe in this country, their efficacy is well known ; the.wnimon
Cf ^ pfam feems neceflkI7 to be added in this place. Of late, only difficulty is to procure them in fufficient quantity.vkinds of
as a’ina- however, a new manure has been introduced into fome —In fuch lands as lie near the fea, fea-weeds offer an.maBUrc*
nme. countries, the operation of which cannot fo well be ex. unlimited quantity of excellent manure. In the neigh-,
plained upon the principles there laid down. This is bourhood of rivers, the weeds with which they abound.-
Gypfum. In the eighth volume of the Annals of Agri¬
culture we are informed, that it is commonly ufed as ■
offer likewife an excellent manure in plenty. Oil-cake,
malt-coombs, the refufe of flaughter-houfes, &c. all are.
manure in Switzerland. In the 10th volume of the excellent where they can be got: but the fituations
feme work, Sir Richard Sutton gives fome account of which afford thefe are comparatively few ; fo that in moft
a experiment made with it on his eftate; but in fuch
an inaccurate manner, that nothing could be determi¬
ned. “ The appearance in general (fays he), I think,
cafes the farmer muft depend much on his own ingenuity
and induftry for raifing a fufficient quantity of dung to
anfwer his purpofes; and the method* taken for this.
was rather againft the benefit of the plafter, though not purpofe vary according to the fituation of different pla-
decidedly fo.,, He tells us, that its virtues were a fob- ces, or according to the fancy of the hufbandmaa.
ESefl.XI. HUSBANDRY.
' Manuref. In all countries where chalk, marie, or lime are to be
ufeci in
^Norfolk.
had, they are certainly to be employed in their proper
departments ; but beiides thefe, dung, properly fo called,
mixed with earth or putrid animal and vegetable fub-
ftances, conftitutes a principal part of the manure. In
Norfolk, Mr Marlhall tells US, that the quality of dung
is attended to with greater precifion than in moft other
diftri&s. Town-muck, as it is called, is held in moft
eflimation ; and the large towns Norwich and Yar¬
mouth fupply the neighbouring country. As Yar-
mouth, however, is a maritime place, and otherwife
in a manner furrounded by marfhes, ftraw is of courfe
a fcarce and dear article j whence, inftead of littering
their horfcs with it, they ufe fand. As the bed becomes
foiled or wet, frefh fand is put on, until the whole is in
a manner faturated with urine and dung, when it is
cleared away, andf reckoned muck of fuch excellent
quality, that it is ent for from a very great diftance.
With regard to other kinds of dung, that from horfes
fed upon hay and corn is looked upon to be the belt;
that of fatting cattle the next ; while the dung of lean
cattle, particularly of cows, is fuppofed to be greatly
inferior, even though turnips make part of their food.
The dung of cattle kept on firaw alone is looked upon
to be of little or no value ; while the muck from trod¬
den ftraw is by fome thought to be better than that
from the ftraw which is eaten by'the lean-flock.—Com-
pofts of dung with earth or marie are very generally
ufed.
IntheMid- In the midland counties of England, Mr Marfhall
knd di- informs, the cores of horns crufhed in a mill have
” been ufed as manure ; though he knows not with what
fuccefs. His only objection is the difficulty of redu¬
cing them *o powder. Dung is extremely dear in Nor¬
folk ; half a guinea being commonly given for a wag¬
gon-load driven by five horfes. Great quantities of
lime and marie are found in this diftrift.—With regard
to the method of raifing dung in general, perhaps the
obfervations of Mr Marfhall upon the management of
the Yorkfhire farmers may be equally fatisfafiory with
344 ai>y thing that has yet been publifhed on the fubjeA.
Mr Mar- “ The general pra&ice (fays he) is to pile the
Jtoll’sdirec- dung on the higheft part of the yard ; or, which is
♦,«,« for . jefs judjcjOUSj i;e fcattered about on the
fide of a flope, as it were for the purpofe of diffipating
its virtues. The urine which does not mix with the
dung is almoft invariably led off ’the neareft way to the*
common fewer, as if it were thought a nuifance to the
premifes. That which mixes with the dung is of courfe
carried to the midden, affifts in the general diffipa-
tion. A yard of dung, nine-tenths of which are ftraw,
will difeharge, even in dry weather, fome of its mere
441 ,
789
fluid particles; and in rainy weather, is, not with (landing Manures.^
the ftraw, liable to be wafhed away if expofed on a ri- —v-**®
fing ground. But how much more liable to wafte is a
mixture of dung and urine, with barely a fufficiency ot
ftraw to keep them together ? In dry weather the na¬
tural oozing is confiderable; and in a wet feafon every
fhower of rain wafhes it away in quantities.—The Nor*
folk method of bottoming the dung-yard with mould
is here indifpenfably neceffary to common good ma¬
nagement. There is no better manure for grafs-land*
than mould faturated with the oozings of a dunghill:
it gets down quicker among the grafs, and has gene¬
rally a more viiible effedt than the dung itfelf. Under
this management the arable land would have the felf-
fame dung it bow has; while the grafs land would have
an annual fupply of riches, which now run wafte in the
fewers and rivulets.—But before a dung-yard can with
propriety be bottomed with mould, the bottom of the
yard itfelf ought to be properly formed. A part of it
fituated conveniently for carriages to come at, and low
enough to receive the entire drainings of the liable,
cattle ftalls, and hog flies, fhould be hollowed out iff
the manner of an artificial drinking-pool, with a rim
fomewhat rifing, and with covered drains laid into it
from the various fources-of liquid manure. During the
fummer months, at leifure times, and embracing oppor¬
tunities of back-carriage, fill the hollow nearly full with
mould ; fuch as the icowerings of ditches, the (hovel-
lings ^f roads, the maiden earth of lanes and wafte cor*
ners, the coping of (tone-quarries, &c. &c. leaving the
furface fbmewhat dirtied ; and within this dilh fet the
dung-pile, carefully keeping up a rim of mould round
the bafe of the pile higher than the adjoining furface of
the yard ; equally to prevent extraneous matter from
finding its way into the refervoirs, and to prevent the
efcape of that which falls within its circuit.,> 24j:
In the firft volume of theAnnals of Agriculture;MrYoung”a*
Mr Young, from a theory that phlogifton is the foodexPeri"
of plants, made feveral experiments upon charcoal as a ehareoaT
manure } but the refults were not fufficiently favourable *
to induce a trial of it in the large way. It muft be re*
membered, that though phlogillon is very probably the
true vegetable food* yet it is pblogiiton volatilized, as in
putrid animal and vegetable fubftances, not in its fixed
ftate as in. charcoal, which can have any etfeifl. See
Agriculture, Part I. Se£l. i. et feq.
A very advantageous method of manuring grafs-
lands, when there is an opportunity, is that of over¬
flowing them with water, which is moftly pradlifed
with low flat grounds. For an account- of the heft
methods in ufe for this purpqfe, fee the article Mea¬
dow.
H 1 U S
Virgilian Husbandry, a term ufed by authors to ex-'
prefs that fort of hufbandry, the precepts of which are
fo beautifully delivered in Virgil’s Georgies. The htif-
bandry in England is Virgilian in general, as is feen
by the method of paring and burning the furface, of
raftering or crofs-ploughing, and of the care in deftroy-
ing weeds, upon the fame principle, and by much the
fame means. Iff thofe parts of England along the
H U S
fouthern coaft, where the Romans principally inhabr-
ted, not only the pradlice, but the expreffions, are in
many refpedts the fame with thofe of the ancient Romans,
many of the terms ufed by the ploughmen being of La¬
tin origin, and the fame with thofe ufed by thole people
on the like occafions. And on a ftridl obfervation,
more of Virgil’s hulbandry is at this time pra&ifed in
England than in Italy itfelf. This change in the Ita-
taliao. -i
HUS l 790 1 HUS
taHan huftandry is, however, much more to the cre¬
dit of that people, than the retaining the Virgilian
fcheme is to ours.
Tull, who has eftablifhed a new method of hulban-
dry, obferves, that it is upon the whole fo contradic¬
tory to this old plan, that it may be called the anti-
Virgilian hujbandry ; and adds, that no practice can be
worfe than the Virgilian.
HUSK, the fame with what botanifts call the calyx
or cup of a flower. See Calyx.
HUSO, in ichthyology. Se^ Accipenser.
HUSS (John). See Hussites.
HUSSARS, are the national cavalry of Hungary
and Croatia, Their regimentals confift in a rough
furred cap, adorned with a cock’s feather (the officers
either an eagle’s or a heron’s) ; a doublet, with a pair
■of breeches to which the ftockings are faftened, and
yellow or red boots: befides, they occafionally wear a
fhort upper waiflcoat edged with furs, and five rows
of round metal buttons ; and in bad weather, a cloak.
Their arms are a fabre, carbine, and pillols. They
are irregular troops : hence, before beginning an at¬
tack, they lay themfelves fo flat on the necks of their
horfes, that it is hardly poffible to difcern their force ;
but being come within piftol-fhot of the enemy, they
raife themfelves with fuch furprifing quicknefs, and
begin the fight with fuch vivacity on every fide, that,
nnlefs the enemy is accuftomed to their method of
engaging, it is very difficult for troops to preferve
their order. When a retreat is neceffary, their horfes
have fo much fire, and are fo indefatigable, their equi¬
page fo light, and themfelves fuch excellent horfemen,
that no other cavalry can pretend to follow them.
They leap over ditches, and fwim over rivers, with
furprifing facility. They never encamp, and confe
quently are not burdened with any camp-equipage,
faving a kettle and a hatchet to every fix men. They
always lie in the woods, out houfes, or villages, in the
front of the army. The emperor, queen of Hungary,
and king of Pruffia, have the greateft number of troops
under this name in their fervice.
HUSSITES, fn ecclefiaftical hiflory, a party of re¬
formers, the followers of John Hufs
John Hufs, from whom the Huffites take their
pame, was born in a little village in Bohemia, called
Hufs, and lived at Prague in the higheft reputation,
both on account of the fanflity of his manners and the
purity of his doftrine. He was diftinguifhed by his
uncommon erudition and eloquence, and performed
nt the fame time the funftions of profeffor of divinity
in the univerfity, and of ordinary pallor in the church
of that city. He adopted the fentiments of Wickliff,
and the Waldenfes; and in the year 1407 began openly
to oppofe and preach againft divers errors in doftrine,
as well as corruptions in point of difcipline, then reign¬
ing in the church. Hufs likewife endeavoured to the
utmoft of his power to withdraw the univerfity of
Prague from the jurifdiction of Gregory XII. whom
the kingdom of Bohemia had hitherto acknowledged
as the true and lawful head of the church. This oc-
cafioned a violent quarrel between the incenfed arch-
bilhop of Prague and the zealous reformer, which the
latter inflamed and augmented from day to day, by his
pathetic exclamations againft the court of Rome, and
the corruptions that prevailed among the facerdotal or¬
der.
There were other circumftances that contributed to
inflame the refentment of the clergy againft him. He
adopted the philofophical opinions of the realifts, and
vehemently cppofed and even perfecuted the nomina-
lills, whofe number and influence were confiderable in
the univerfity of Prague. He alfo multiplied the num¬
ber of his enemies in the year 1408, by procuring,
through his great credit, a fentence in favour of the
Bohemians, who difputed with the Germans concern¬
ing the number of fuffrages which their refpe&ive na¬
tions were intitled to in all matters that were carried
by election in this univerfity. In confcquence of a de¬
cree obtained in favour of the former, which reftored
them to their conftitutional right of three fuffrages,
ufurped by the latter, the Germans withdrew from
Prague, and, in the year 1409, founded a new aca¬
demy at Leipfick. This event no fooner happened,
than Hufs began to inveigh with greater freedom than
he had before done againft the vices and corruptions of
the clergy, and to recommend, in a public manner, the
writings and opinions of Wickliffe, as far as they re¬
lated to the papal hierarchy, the defpotifm of the court
of Rome, and the corruption of the clergy. Hence
an accufation was brought againft him, in the year
1410, before the tribunal of John XXIII.-by whom
he was folemnly expelled from the communion of the
church. Notwithftanding this fentence of excommuni¬
cation, he proceeded to expofe the Romifh church
with a fortitude and zeal that "were almoft univerfally
applauded.
This eminent man, whofe piety was equally fincere
and fervent, though his. zeal was perhaps too violent,
and his prudence not always circumfpedf, was fum-
moned to appear before the council of Conitance. Se¬
cured, as he apprehended, from the rage of his ene¬
mies by the fafe conduft granted him by the emperor
Sigifmund, for his journey to Conftance, his refidence
in that place, and his return to his own country, John
Hufs obeyed the order of the council, and appeared
before it to demonftrate his innocence, and to prove
that the charge of his having deferted the church of
Rome was entirely groundlcfs. However, his enemies
fo far prevailed, that by the moft fcandalous breach of
public faith, he was call into prifon, declared a here¬
tic becaufe he refufed to plead guilty againft the dic¬
tates of his confcience, in obedience to the council,
and burnt alive in 1415 ; a punilhment which he en¬
dured with unparalleled magnanimity and refignation.
The fame unhappy fate was borne by Jerome of
Prague, his intimate companion, who attended the
council, in order to fupport his perfecuted friend. Je¬
rome, indeed, was terrified into temporary fubmiffion;
but he afterwards refumed his fortitude, and main¬
tained the opinions, which he Had for a while defert¬
ed through fear, in the flames iii which he expired ia
1416.
The difciples of Hufs adhered fo their mailer’s doc¬
trine after his death with a zeal which broke out in¬
to an open war, that was carried on with the moft fa-
vage and unparalleled barbarity. John Zilka, a Bo¬
hemian knight, in 1420, put himfelf at the head of
the Huffites, who were now become a very confiderable
party.
HufBte*,
HUT [ 791 ] HUT
Huftings party, and threw off the defpotic yoke of Sigifmund,
Hutchefon w^° treate^ t^eir brethren in the moft barbarous
> t ‘ manner- Ziflca was fucceeded by Procopius, in the
year 1424. The afts of barbarity that were commit¬
ted on both fides were (hocking and horrible beyond
expreffion : for notwithftanding the irreconcileable op-
pofition between the religious fentiments of the con¬
tending parties, they both agreed in this one horrible
. principle, that it was innocent and lawful to perfecute
and extirpate with fire and fword the enemies of the
trae religion ; and fuch they reciprocally appeared to
each other. Thefe commotions in a great meafure fub-
fided, by the interference of the council of Bafil, in the
year 1433.
The Hufiitcs, who were divided into two parties, viz.
the Calixtines and Taborites, fpread over all Bohemia
and Hungary, and even Silefia and Poland ; and there
are fome remains of them ftill fubfifting in all thofe
parts.
HUSTINGS (from the Saxon word Hujlinge, i. e.
concilium, or curia), a court held in Guild-hall before
the lord-mayor and aldermen of London, and reckoned
the fupreme court of the city. Here deeds may be
inrolled, outlawries fued out, and replevins and writs
of error determined. In this court alfo is the election
of aldermen, of the four members of parliament for
the city, See. This court is very ancient, as appears
by the laws of Edward the Confeffor. Some other
cities have likewife had a court bearing the fame name,
as Winchefler, York, Sec.
HUSUM, a town of Denmark, in the duchy of
Slefwick, and capital of a bailiwick of the fame name,
with a ftrong citadel, and a veryhandfome church. It
Is feated near the river Ow, on the German Sea ; and
is fubjed to the dukes of Holftein-Gottorp. E. Long.
9. 5. N. Lat. 54. 55.
HUTCHESON (Dr Francis), a very elegant wri¬
ter and excellent philofopher, was the fon of a diffent-
ing minifter in the north of Ireland, and was born on
the 8th of Auguft 1694. He early difeovered a fu-
perior capacity; and having gone through a fchool-
education, began his courfe of philofophy at an aca¬
demy, whence he removed to the univerfity of Glaf-
gow, where he applied himfelf to all the parts of lite¬
rature, in w’hich his progrefs was fuitable to his un¬
common abilities.
He then returned to Ireland ; and entering into the
minifiry, was juft about to be fettled in a fmall con¬
gregation of diffenters in the north of Ireland, when
fome gentlemen about Dublin, who knew his great
abilities and virtues, invited him to take up a private
academy there. He complied with the invitation, and
met with much fuccefs. He had been fixed but a
fhort time in Dublin, when his fingular merits and
accomplifhments made him generally known; and his
acquaintance was fought by men of all ranks, who
had any tafte for literature, or any regard for learned
men. The late lord vifeount Molefworth is faid to
have taken great pleafure in his converfation, and to
have affifted him with his criticifms and obfervations
upon his “ Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty and Vir¬
tue,” before it came abroad. He received the fame
favour from Dr Synge, lord biftiop of Elphin, with
whom he alfo lived in great friendlhip. The firft edi¬
tion of this performance came abroad without the au¬
thor’s name, but the merit of it would not fuffer him HutcRefon;,
to be long concealed. Such was the reputation of the ,Hutchinfo?
work, and the ideas it had raifed of the author, that v'"
lord Granville, who was then lord lieutenant of Ire¬
land, font his private fecretary to inquire at the book-
feller’s for the author; and when he could not learn
his name, he left a letter to be conveyed to him : in
confequence of which he foon became acquainted with
his excellency, and was treated by him, all the time
he continued in his government, with diftinguiflied
marks of familiarity and efteem.
From this time his acquaintance began to be ftill
more courted by men of dittinftion either for ftation
or literature in Ireland. Archbifliop King, the au¬
thor of the celebrated book De origine mali, held him
in great efteem ; and the friendftiip of that prelate was
of great ufe to him in fereening him from two feveral
attempts made to profecute him, for daring to take
upon him the education of youth, without having qua¬
lified himfelf by fubferibing the ecclefiaftical canons,,
and obtaining a licence from the bi(hop. He had
alfo a large (hare in the efteem of the primate Bolter,
who through his influence made a donation to the
univerfity of Glafgow of a yearly fund for an exhibi¬
tioner to be bred to any of the learned profeffions.
A few years after his “ Inquiry into the Ideas of
Beauty and Virtue,” his “ Treatife on the Pallions”
was publifhed: both thefe works have been often re¬
printed ; and always admired, both for the fentimenc
and language, even by thofe who have not affented to
the philofophy of them, nor allowed it to have any
foundation in nature. About this time he wrote fome
philofophical papers, accounting for laughter, in a dif¬
ferent way from Hobbes, and more honourable to hu¬
man nature : which papers were publilhed in the col-
lection called Hibernicus,s Letters.
After he had taught in a private academy at Dub¬
lin for feven or eight years with great reputation and
fuccefs, he was called, in the year 1729, to Scotland,
to be a profeflbr of philofophy in the univerlity of
Glafgow. Several young gentlemen- came along with
him {from the academy, and his high reputation drew
many more thither both from England and Ireland.
Here he fpent the remainder of his life in a manner
highly honourable to himfelf and ornamental to the
univerfity of which he was a member. His whole
time was divided between his ftudies-and the duties of
his office; except what he allotted to friendftiip and
fociety. A firm conftitution and a pretty uniform
ftate of good health, except foJrie few flight attacks
of the gout, feemed to promife a longer life; yet he
did not exceed the 53d year of his age. He was mar¬
ried, foon after his fettlement in Dublin, to Mrs Mary
Wilfon, a gentleman’s daughter in the county of Lang¬
ford; by whom he left behind him one fon, Francis
Hutchefon, do&or of medicine. By this gentleman
was publilhed, from the original manufeript of his fa¬
ther, “ A fyftem of Moral Philofophy, in three books,
by Francis Hutchefon, LL. D. at Glafgow, 1755,”
in two volumes, 410.
HUTCHINSON (John), a philofophical writer,,
whofe notions have made no inconfiderable noife in
the world, was born in 1674. He ferved the duke oF
Somerfet in the capacity of fteward ; and in the courfe
of his travels from place to place employed himfelf in
3 coL
H U Y [ 7Q2 ] H U tc
.Uuxing colk&mg fofiils : we are told, that the large and noble Colbert, being informed of his merit, fettled a confi- Huyfum.
Hu- n< C0He&i°n bequeathed by J)r Woodward to the uni- derable penfion upon him to engage him to fix at Pa-
r - 'i verfity of Cambridge was aftually made by him, and ris; to which Mr Huygens confented, and {laid there
even unfairly obtained from him. When he left the from the year 1666 to 1681, where he was admitted
duke’s fervice to indulge his ftudies with more free- a member of the Academy of Sciences. He loved a
dom, the duke, then mailer of the horfe to George I. quiet and ftudious manner of life, and frequently re¬
made him his riding furveyor, a kind of-finecure place tired into the country to avoid interruption, but did
of 200I. a year with a good houfe in the Meufe. Jn not contrail that morofenefs which is fo frequently the
1724 he pUblifhed the firfl: part of Mofcs’s Principia, -effeil of folitude and retirement. He was the firft whp
in which he ridiculed Dr Woodward’s Natural Hiftory Bifcovered Saturn’s ring, and a third fatellite belong-
bf the Earth, and exploded the dcitrine of gravita- ing to that planet, which had hitherto efcaped the eyes
tion eftablilhed -in Newton’s Principia: in 1727, he of aftronomers. Pie difcovered the means of render-
publifhed the fecond part of Mofes’s Principia, con- ing clocks exaft, by applying the pendulum, and ren-
taining the principles of the Scripture Philofophy. dering all its vibrations equal by the cycloid. He
From this time to his death, he publilhed a volume brought telefcopes to perfeilion, made many other
every year or two, which, with the MSS. he left be- ufeful difeoverits, and died at the Hague in 1695. He
hind, were publifhed in 1748, in 12 vols 8vo. On was the author of feveral excellent works. The prin-
the Monday before his death. Dr Mead urged him cipal of thefe are contained in two colletSlions; the firft
to be bled ; faying pleafantlyy “ 1 will fpon fend you of which was printed at Leyden in 1682, in quarto,
to Mtrfes,” meaning to his ftudies.: but Mr Hutchin- under the title of Opera varia.; and the fecond at Am-
fon taking it in the literal fenfe, anfwered in a mut- fterdam in 1728, in two volumes quarto, intitled Ope-
tering tone, “ I believe, Doctor, you willand was ra reliqua.
fo difpleafed, that he difmifled him for another phy- HUYSUM, the name of feveral Dutch painters ;
fician; but died in a few days after, Auguft 28. 1737. the moft celebrated of whom was John, whofe fub-
: Singular as his notions are, they are not without fome je£ts were flowers, fruit, and landfcapes. Accor-
defenders, who have obtained the appellation of Hut- ding to Mr Pilkington, this illuftrious painter hath
cjiinfonians. The reader may find a diftindt and com- furpaffed all who have ever painted in that ftyle ; and
prehenfive account of the Hutchinfonian fyftem in a his works excite as much furprife by their finiihing as
book intitled, Thoughts concerning Religion, &c. printed they excite admiration by their truth. He was born
at Edinburgh 1743 ; and in a letter to a biihop, an- at Amfterdam in 1682, and was a difciple of Julius
nexed to it, firft printed in 1732. van Huyfum his father. He fet out in his profeflion
HUXING of pike, among filhermen, a particular with a moft commendable principle, not fo much to
method of catching that filh. paint for the acquifition of money as of fame; and
' For this purpofe, they take 30 or 40 as large blad- therefore he did not aim at expedition, but at deli-
. ders as can be got; blow them up, and tie them clofe cacy, and, if poffible, to arrive at perfedlion in his
and ftrong ; and at the mouth of each tie a line, longer art. Having attentively ftudied the pictures of Mig-
or Ihorter according to the depth of the water. At non, and all other artifts of dillinftion who had paint-
the end of the line is faftened an armed hook, artfully ed in his own ftyle, he tried which manner would
baited ; and thus they are put into the water with the fooneft lead him to imitate the lightnefs and fingu-
advantage of the wind, that they may gently move up lar beauties of each flower, frwit, or plant, and then
and down the pond. When a mailer pike has ftruck fixed on a manner peculiar to himfelf, which feems
himfelf, it affords great entertainment to fee him bounce almoft inimitable. His pictures are finilhed with
about in the water with a bladder faftened to him ; at inconceivable truth; for he painted every thing after
Jail, when they perceive him almoft fpent, they take nature-; and was fo Angularly exa6l, as to watch even
him up. the hour of the day in which his model appeared in
HUY, a town of the Netherlands, in the bifhopric its greateft perfe&ion. By the judicious he was ac-
of Liege, and capital of Condrafs. It is advanta- counted to paint with greater freedom than Mignon
geoufly feated on the river Maefe4 over which there is or Brueghel; with more tendernefs and nature than
abridge. E Long. 10. 22. N. Lat. 52. 31. Mario da Fiori, Michael Angelo di Campidoglio, or
HUYGENS (Chriftian), one of the greateft ma- Segers ; with more mellownefs than De Heem; and
therAaticians and altronomers of the 17th century, was greater force of colouring than Baptift. His reputa-
the fon of Conftantine Huygens, lord of Zuylichem, tion rofe to fuch a height at lall, that he fixed immo-
who.had ferved three fuccelTive princes of Orange in derate prices on his works; 'fo that none but princes,
the quality of fecretary ; and was born at the Hague, or thofe of princely fortunes, could pretend to become
in 1629. He difcovered from his infancy an extraor- purchafers. ‘Six of his paintings were fold at a public •
denary fondnefs for the mathematics; in a little time fale in Holland for prices that were almoft incredible,
made a great .progrefs in them ; and perfedled himfelf One of them, a flower piece, for fourteen hundred and
in thofe ftudies under the famous profelTor Schooten, fifty guilders ; a fruit piece for a thoufand and five
at Leyden. In 1649, he went to Holftein and Den- guilders; and the fmaller pitlures for nine hundred,
mark, in the retinue of Henry count ofNaflau; and The vaft fums which van Huyfum received for his
was extremely defirpus of-going to Sweden, in order works, caufed him to redouble his endeavours to ex-
to fee Des Cartes, but the count’s Ihort flay in Den- cel; no perfon was admitted into his room while he
mark would not permit him. He travelled into France was painting, not even his brothers; and his method,
and England ; was, in 1663, made a member of the of mixing the tints, and preferving the luftre of hisi
Koyal Society; and, upon his return, into, France, M. colours, was an impenetrable fecret, which he never
N°i6o. z f would
H Y A L 793 1 H Y A
Huyfum. would difclofe. Yet this conduct is certainly not to
hia honour, but rather an argument of a low mind,
fearful of being equalled or furpafled. From the fame
principle, he would never take any difciples, except
one lady, named Haverman ; and he grew envious and
jealous even of her merit. By feveral domeftic difquiets
his temper became changed ; he grew morofe, fretful,
and apt to withdraw himfelf from fociety. He had
many enviers of his fame, which has ever been the
fevere Jot of the moil deferving in all profeffions ; but
he continued to work, and his reputation never dimi-
nilhed. It is univerfally agreed that he has excelled
all who have painted fruit and flowers before him, by
the confefled fuperiority of his touch, by the delicacy
of his pencil, and by an amazing manner of finiihing;
nor does it appear probable that any future artift will
become his competitor. The care which he took to
purify his oils and prepare his colours, and the various
experiments he made to difcover the moft; luftrous and
durable, are inftances of extraordinary care and induf-
try as well as capacity. From having obferved fome
of his works that were perfe&ly flnifhed, fome only
half finifhed, and others only begun, the principles by
which he conduced himfelf may perhaps be difcove-
rable. His cloths were prepared with the greateft;
care, and primed with white, with all poffible purity,
to prevent his colours from being obfcured, as he laid
them on very lightly. He glazed all other colours
except the clear and tranfparent, not omitting even
the white ones, till he found the exaft tone of the co¬
lour ; and over that he flniflied the forms, the lights,
the Ihadows, and the reflections, which are all execu¬
ted with precifion and warmth, without drynefs or
negligence. The greateft truth, united with the great-
eft brilliancy, and a velvet foftnefs on the furfacc of
his objeCts, are vifible in every part of his compofi-
tions ; and as to his touch, it looks like the pencil of
nature. Whenever he reprefented flo -ers placed in
vafes, he always painted thofe vafes rf . fome elegant
model, and the bas-relief is as exquititely finiflied as
any of the other parts. Through the whole he (hows
a delicate compoflticn, a fine harmony, and a moft
happy effeCt of light and fliadow. Thofe pictures
which he painted on a clear ground are preferred to
others of his hand, as having greater luftre, and as
they demanded more care and exaCtnefs in the finifti-
ing ; yet there are fome on a darkiih ground, in which
appears rather mere force and harmony. It is obfer¬
ved of him, that in the grouping of his flowers, he
generally defigned thofe which were brighteft in the
.centre, and gradually decreafed the force of his colour
from the centre to the extremities. The birds nefts
and their eggs, the feathers, infeCts, and drops of dew,
are expreffed with the utmoft truth, fo as even to de¬
ceive the fpeftatOr. And yet, after all this merited and
juft praife, it cannot but be confeffed, that fometimes his
fruits appear like wax @r ivory, without that peculiar
foftnefs and warmth, which is conftantly obfervable in
nature. Befide his merit as a flower painter, he alfo paint¬
ed landfcapes with great applaufe. They are well com-
pofed; and although he had never feen Rome,he adorned
his feenes with the noble remains of ancient magnifi¬
cence which are in that city. His pictures in that
ftyle are well coloured, and every tree is diftinguiihed
by a touch that is proper for the leafing. The grounds
Voi.VIII. Part II.
are well broken, and difpofed with tafte and judgment; Huzzoor,
the figures are defigned in the manner of Ijaireffe, ,tyac'nt*u,
highly finiflied, and touched with a great deal of fpi-
rit ; and through the whole compofition, the feene
reprefents Italy, in the trees, the clouds, and the
Ikies. He died in 1749, aged 67.
HUZZOOR, a Hindollan word fignifying Thepre-
fence ; applied, by way of eminence, to the Mogul's
court. According to polite ufage, it is now applied
to the prefence of every Nabob or great man.
Hvzzoor Neves; the fecretary who refides at
court, and keeps copies of all frmavns, records, or
letters.
HYACINTH, in natural hiftory, a genus of pel¬
lucid gems, whofe colour is red with an admixture of
yellow.
The hyacinth, though lefs ftriking to the eye than
any other red gem, is not without its beauty in the
fineft fpecimens. It is found of various fizes, from that
of a pin’s head to the third of an inch in diameter.
They are harder than quartz-cryftals; franfparent, and
formed into prifms pointed at both ends. Thefe points
are always regular with regard to the number of facets;
being four on each facet, but the latter feldom: thefides-
of the main body are alfo very uncertain, in regard both
to their number and fhape; being found of four, five, fix,
feven, and fometimes of eight fides ; fometimes being
fo compreffed as almoft to refemble the face of a
fpherical facetted garnet. Sometimes they are of a
dodecaedral form like the garnet, but with more
obtufe angles. The fpecific gravity of the hyacinth,
according to Dutans, is 2.631 ; but Rome de L’ifle
fays that Brifon found it to be 3.6873. ancl the
European hyacinths to be 3.760.
The hyacinth, as well as all other gems, is divided
into oriental and occidental; the former being very
hard and brilliant, fo that they are frequently ranked
among the topazes ; but when foft, they are fuppofed
to belong to the garnet kind, as mentioned under that
article. The hyacinths, however, may generally be
diftinguifhed from the garnets by lofing their colour in
the fire, becoming white, and not melting. There is
a kind of a yellow-brown hyacinth, relembling the
colour of honey, wdrich is diftinguiihed from the reft
by the remarkable property of not being ele&rical,
and being likewife inferior in hardnefs.
Our jewellers allow all thofe gems to be hyacinths
or jacinths that are of a due hardnefs with the mixed
colour above mentioned ; and as they arc of very dif¬
ferent beauty and value in their feveral degrees and
mixture of colours, they divide them into four kinds;
three of which they call hyacinths, but the fourth, very
improperly, a n/iy. 1. When the ftone is in its moft
perfeft ftate, and of a pure and bright flame-colour,
neither the red nor the yellow prevailing, in this ftatc
they call it hyacintha la belle. 2. When it has an over¬
proportion of the red, and that of a dufkier colour
than the fine high red in the former, and the yellow
that appears in a faint degree in it is not a fine,
bright, and clear, but a dulky brownifh yellow, then
they call it the fajfron hyacinth. 3. Such ftones as are
of a dead whitilh yellow, with a very fmall proportion
of red in them, they call amber-hyacinths. And, 4,
When the ftone is of a fine deep red, blended with a
dulky and very deep yellow, they call it a rubaceUe.
5 G But
H Y A [ 794 ] H Y B
Hyacimhii s But tKDUgh the over proportion of a flrong red In
Hyacinthia.thi9g
em has made people refer it to the clafs of rubies,
, T its evident mixture of yellow ftipws that it truly be¬
longs to the hyacinth..
The hyacinth la belle is found both in the Eaft and
Weft Indies. The oriental is. the harder, but the
American is often equal to it in colour. The
rubacelle is found only in the Eaft Indies, and is ge¬
nerally brought over among the rubies; but it is of
little value : the other varieties are found in Silefia and
Bohemia.
HYACINTHUS, hyacinth, in botany: A genus
of the monogynia order, belonging to the hexandria
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
under the i oth order, Coronaria. The corolla is cam-
panulated, and there are three melliferous pores at the
top of the germen. There are fix fpecies ; of which
the moft remarkable is the prientalis, or eaftern
hyacinth. Of this there are a great number of
varieties, amounting to fome hundreds, each of which
differs from the reft in fome refpefk or other. This
plant hath a large, purplifh, bulbous root, fending up
feveral narrow ereft leaves eight or ten inches long ;
the flower ftalk is upright, robuft, and futculent, from
IO to 15 inches in height; adorned upward with ma¬
ny large funnel or bell fliaped flowers, fwelling at the
bafe, and cut half way into fix parts; colle&ed into a
large pyramidal fpike of different colours in the varie¬
ties ; flowering in April or May.
Thefe plants are cultivated with the greateft fuccefs
in Hclland, from whence great numbers are annually
imported into Britain. Each variety is by the florifts
diftinguifhed either by the name of the place where
firft r»ffed, or the perfon who raifed them, or the
npmes of illuflrious perfonages, as of kings, generals,
poets, and celebrated ancient hiftorians, gods, god-
deffes, &e. They are fold by all the feed-dealers.
The prices are from threepence per root to five or ten
pounds or more ; and fome varieties are in fuch high
eftcem among the florifts, that 20/. or 30/. will be given
for a Angle bulb. They are hardy, and will profper
any where, though the fine kinds require a little fhel-
ter during the winter. They may be propagated ei¬
ther by feeds or off-fets, from the roots.
The properties of a good oriental hyacinth are, a
Item perfeftly upright, of moderate length, and fo
ftrong and well-proportioned that it will fuftain the
weight of the florets without bending: the florets
fhould be large, fwelling below, expanded above, and
numerous, 1 o or 15 at leaft, but are often 20 or 30
in number; and fhould be placed equally round the
item, the pedicles on which they grow longer below
than above, diminifhing gradually in length upward
in fuch a manner as to reprefent a pyramid, and each
pedicle fufficiently ftrong to fupport the florets with¬
out drooping. The curious in thefe plants are care¬
ful never to plant the fine forts two years together in
the fame bed of earth ; for, by planting them every
year in a frefh bed, the beauty of the flowers is greatly
improved.
HYACINTHIA, in antiquity, feafts held at Spar¬
ta, in honour of Apollo, and in commemoration of his
favourite Hyacinth.
Tfiis Hyacinth was the fon of Amyclas king of
Sparta, and was beloved both by Apollo and Zephy-
rus. The youth (bowing moft inclination to the for- Hya*v
mer, his rival grew jealous; and, to be revenged, one H
day as Apollo was playing at the difeus, i. e. quoits, , H>,1)l3• f
with Hyacinth, Zephyrus turned the dire&ion of a
quoit which Apollo had pitched full upon the head of
the unhappy Hyacinth, who fell down dead. Apollo
then transformed him into a flower of the fame name j
and as a farther token of refpett, they fay, command¬
ed this feaft. The Hyacinthia lafted three days ; the
firft and third whereof were employed in bewailing the
death of Hyacinth, and the fecond in feafting and re¬
joicing.
HYADES, in aftronomy, are feven ftars in the
bull’s head, famous among the poets for the bringing
of rain. Whence their name t«jv, from the Greek
v£‘» “to rain.” The principal of them is in the left
eye, by the Arabs called aldebaran.
The poets feign them the daughters of Atlas and
Pleone. Their brother Hyas being torn to pieces by
a lionefs, they wept his death with fuch vehemence,
that the gods, in compaflion to them, tranflated them
into heaven, and placed them in the bull’s forehead,
where they continue to weep ; this conftellation being
fuppofed to prefage rain. Others reprefent the Hyades
as Bacchus’s nurfes ; and the fame with the Dodonides,
who fearing the refeatment of Juno, and flying from
the cruelty of king Lycurgus, were tranflated by
Jupiter into ^eaven.
HYALNA, in zoology, fee Cants.
HYiENIUS lapis, in natural hiftory, the name of
a ftone faid to be found in the eyes of the hyaena.
Pliny tells us, that thofe creatures were in old times
hunted and deftroyed for the fake of thefe ftones, and
that it was fuppofed they gave a man the gift of pro¬
phecy by being put under his tongue.
HYBERNACULUM, in botany, winter-quar*.
ters ; defined by Linnaeus to be part of the plant
which defends the embryo herb from injuries du¬
ring the feverities of the winter. See Bulb and
Gemma.
HYBLA (anc.geog.), or Megara ; whichlaft nam«
it took from the Megareans, who led thither a co¬
lony ; called alfo Hybla Parva, and Galeotis. In Stra¬
bo’s time Megara was extinft, but the name Hybla re¬
mained on account of its excellent honey named from
it. It was fituated on the eaft coaft of Sicily, between
Syracufe and the Leontines. Galeota, and Megarenfes%
the names of the people, who were of a prophetic fpi-
rit, being the defendants of Galeus the fon of Apol¬
lo. Hybheus the epithet.—The HybUi cobles, fmall e-
minences at the fpiings of the Alabus near this place,
were famous for their variety of flowers, efpecially
thyme; the honey gathered from which was by the
ancients reckoned the beftin the world, excepting that
of Hymettus in Attica. By the moderns it was call¬
ed Mel Pajjr, for the fame reafon, namely, on account
of its excellent honey, and extraordinary fertility, till
it was overwhelmed by the lava of oEtna ; and having
then become totally barren, its name was changed td-
Mai Pafli. In a fecond eruption, by- a fhower of a(he«
from the mountain, it foon reaffumed its ancient beau¬
ty and fertility, and for many years was called Bel
Pqjji: and lalt of all, in the year 1669, it was again
laid under an ocean of fire, and reduced to the moft
wretched fterility j fince which time it is again known
H Y D [ 795 ] H Y D
by the appellation of Mai Paft. However, the lava Anne Hyde, the lord chancellor’s eldeft daughter, but
its courfe over this beautiful country has left fevetal carefully concealed the amour both from the king and *■
Jf. Iflarifta nr Ki'llnrta ntit fnffir.Vnr tn ft,-,™ .-i.n- ii- jt vvas by a promife of marriage, how-
j little iflands or hillocks, juft fufficient to (how what it chancellor,
formerly was. Thefe make a lingular appearance in ever, that he had gained upon her, he
all the bloom of the-naoft luxuriant-vegetation, fur-
rounded and rendered aimoft inacceffible by large fields
of black >and rugged lava.
HrBLA-Major, (anc. geog.), was fituated in the
trail lying between mount VEtna and the river Syme-
thus. In Paufanias’s time defolate.
Htbla-Minor, or Her<ea, (anc. geog ), an inland
town of Sicily, fituated between the rivers Oanus and
Herminius; now Ragusa.
afterwards
induced to fulfil his engagement, and the ceremony
was performed after the reftoration. Upon the reftora-
tion, her father was chqfen chancellor of tke univerfity
of Oxford; and foon after created baron Hindon, in
Wiltfhire, vifcount Cornbury in Oxfordfhire, and earl
of Clarendon in Wiltlhire ; and on the death of Henry
lord Falkland, was made lord lieutenant of Oxford-
Ihire. He took care neither to load the king’s prero¬
gative, nor encroach upon the liberties of the people *
HYBRIDA plant a, a monftrous produ&ion of and therefore would not fet afide the petition of right,
two different fpecies of plants, analogous to a mule nor endeavour to raife the ftar-chamber or high-com-
among animals. The feeds of hybrid plants will not miflion courts again : nor did he attempt to repeal the
propagate.
HYBRISTICA, (of injury), in antiquity, a fo-
lemn feaft held among the Greeks, with facrifices and
other ceremonies ; at which the men attended in the ap¬
parel of women, and the women in that of men, to do
bill for triennial parliaments; and when he might have
obtained two millions for a Handing revenue, he alked
but one million two hundred thoufand pounds per an¬
num, which he thought would (till put the king upon
the neceffity of having reconrfe to his parliament. In
honour to Venus in quality either of a god or agoddefs, this juft conduct he is faid to have been influenced by.
or both. Or, according to the account given by others, the following incident, which happened fome years be
the hybriftica was a feaft celebrated at Argos, wherein fore. When he firll began to grow eminent in the law*
the women, being dreffed like men, infulted their huf- he went down to vifit his father in Wiltihire ; who, one
bands, and treated them with all marks of fuperiority, day as they were walking in the fields together, ob-
in memory of the Argian dames having anciently de- ferved to him, that men of his profeffion were apt to
fended their country with Angular courage againft Cleo- ftretch the prerogative too far, and to injure liberty ;
menes |nd Demaratus. , but charged him, if ever he came tb^any eminence in
Plutarch fpeaks of this feaft in his treatife of the his profeffion, never to facrifice the laws and liberty of
great a&ions of women. The name, he obferves, fig- his country to his own intereft or the will of his prince:
nifies infamy ; which is well accommodated to the oc- he repeated his advice twice ; and immediately falling
into a fit of an apoplexy, died in a few hours: and this
circumftance had a lading influence upon him. In 1662,
he oppofed a propqfal for the king’s marriage whh the
infanta of Portugal, and the fale of Dunkirk : how
ever, the following year, articles of high treafon were
exhibited againft him by the earl of Briftol; but they
were rejefted by the houfe of lords. In 1664, he op¬
pofed the war with Holland. In Auguft 1667, he
was removed from his poft of lord chancellor; and in
November following impeached of high treafon and
other crimes and mifdemeanors by the houfe of com¬
mons : upon which he retired into France, when a
bill was pailed for banifhing him from the king’s do¬
minions. See Britain, n° 211, 217. He refided at
Rouen in Normandy ; and dying there in r674, his
body was brought to England and interred in Weft-
minfter-abbsy. He wrote, 1. A hiftory of the re¬
bellion, 3 vols folio, and 6 vols: oftavo; a fecond part
of which was lately bequeathed to the public, by his
lordfhip’s defeendant the late lord Hyde and Cornbury.
2. A letter to the duke of York, and another to the
duchefs of York, upon occafion of their embracing the
Romiih religion. 3. An anfwer to Hobbes’s Levia¬
than. 4. A hifto-y of the rebellion and civil wars ia
Ireland, oftavo ; and fome other works.
The reverend Mr Granger, in his’Biographical Hi¬
ftory of England, obferves, that “ the virtue of the
earl of Clarendon was of too ftubborn a nature for the
age of Charles II. Could he have been content (fays
he) to have enflaved millions, he might have been
more a monarch than an unprincely king. But he
did not only look upon himfelf as the guardian of the
laws and liberties of his country, but had alfo a pride
5 G .2 in
cafion, wherein the women ftrutted about in men’
deaths, while the men were obliged to dangle in pet¬
ticoats.
HYDATIDES, in medicine, little tranfparent
veficles or bladders full of water, fometimes found
folitary, and fometimes in clufters, upon the liver and
various other parts, efpecially in hydropical cafes.
HYDATOSCOPIA, called alfo hydromancy, a
kind of divination or method of foretelling future
events by water.
HYDE (Edward), earl of Clarendon, and lord high
chancellor of England, was defeended from an ancient
family in Chefhire, and born at Dinton near Hindon,
in Wiltlhire, in 1608. He was entered of Magdalen-
hall, Oxford, where, in 1625, he took the degree of
A. B. and afterwards ftudied the law in the Middle-
Temple. In the parliament which begun at Weft-
minfter April 10. 1640, he ferved for Wotton-Baffet
in Wiltlhire. But that parliament being foon after
diffolved, he was chofen for Saltalh in Cornwall in the
long parliament. His abilities were much taken no¬
tice of, and he was employed in feveral committees to
examine into divers grievances ; but at laft being dif-
fatisfied with the proceedings in the parliament, he re¬
tired to the king, and was made chancellor of the ex¬
chequer, a privy-coupfellor, and knight. Upon the
declining of the king’s caufe, he went to France,
where, after the death of king Charles I. he was fworn
of the privy council to Charles II. In 1649, he and
the lord Cottington were fent ambaffadors extraordi¬
nary into Spain, and> in 1657 he was conftituted lord
high chancellor of England. The year before the re¬
storation, the duke of York fell in love with Mrs
4
H Y D [ 796 ] H Y D
Hyde, in his nature that was above vice ; and chofe rather to great a progrefs ; but his mind was fo eiigrofled by hi*' Hydtmm
——V—be a viftim himftif, than to facrifice his integrity. He beloved ftudies, that he is faid to have been but ill H ^
had only one part to a£t, which was that of an honeft qualified to appear to any advantage in common con- ; 1
man. His enemies allowed themfelves a much greater verfation. Of all his learned works (the very cata-
latitude; they loaded him with calumnies, blamed him logue of which* as obferved by iVnth. Wood, is a
even for their own errors and mifconduft, and helped curiofity), his Religio Veterum Perfarum is the mod.
to ruin him by fuch buffooneries as he defpifed. He celebrated. Dr Gregory Sharpe, the late learned
was a much greater, perhaps a much happier, man, and ingenious mailer of the Temple, has colle&ed
alone and in exile, th*an Charles the Second upon his feveral of his pieces formerly printed, and republifh-
throne.” ed them, with fome additional differtations, and his
And the following charafter of this nobleman is gi- life prefixed, in two elegant volumes quarto. This
ven by Mr Walpole. “ Sir Edward Hyde (fays he), great man died on the 18th of February, 1702. A-
who oppoftd an arbitrary court, and embraced the par- mong his other works are, 1. A Latin tranflation of
ty of an affli&ed one, muff be allowed to have a&ed Ulug Beig’s obfervations on the longitude and latitude
confcientioufly. A better proof was his behaviour on of the fixed liars; and, 2. A catalogue of the printed
the reftoration, when the torrent of an infatuated na- books in the Bodleian library.
tion intreated the king and his minifter to be abfolute. HYDNUM, in botany : A genus of the natural or-
Had Clarendon fought nothing but power, his power der of fungi, belonging to the cryptogarrvia clafs of
had never ceafed. A corrupted court and a blinded plants. The fungus is echinated or prickly on the un¬
populace were lefs the caufes of the chancellor’s fall, der fide. One of the fpecies, named the Imlricaium,
than an ungrateful king, who could not pardon his is a native of Britain, and is found in woods. It
lordfhip’s having refufed to accept for him the flavery hath a convex hat, tiled, flanding on a fmooth pii-
of his country. Like juftice herfelf, he held the ba- lar, of a pale fltfh-colour, with white prickles. It
lance between the neceffary power of the fupreme ma- is eaten in Italy, and is faid to be of a very delicate
giftrate and the interells of the people. This never- tafte.
dying obligation his cotemporaries were taught to HYDRA, in fabulous hiftory, a ferpent in the
overlook and clamour againft, till they removed the marfh of Lerna, in Peloponnefus, reprefented by the
only man, who, if he could, would have corre&ed his poets with many heads, one of which being cut off,
mafter’s evil government. Almofl every virtue of a another immediately fucceeded in its place, unlefs the
minifter made his chara&er venerable. As an hifto- wound was inftantly cauteiized. Hercules aftacked
rian, he feems more exceptionable. His majetty and elo- this monfter; and having, caufed lolaus to hew down
quence, his power of painting charaflers, his know- wood for flaming brands, as he cut off the heads he
ledge of his lubjeft, rank him in the firft clafs of wri- applied the brands to the wounds, by which means he
ters ; yet he has both great and little faults. Of the deilroyed the Hydra.
latter, his ftories of ghofts and omens are not to be de- This hydra with many heads is faid to have been on-
feiided. His capital fault is his whole work being a ly a multitude of ferpents, which infefted the marfhes
laboured juftification of king Charles. If he relates of Lerna near Mycene, and which feemed to multiply
faults, fome palliating epithet always Hides in ; and he as they were deftroyed. Hercules, with the affillance
has the art of breaking his darkeft fhades with gleams of his companions, cleared the country of them, by
of light that take off all impreffion of horror. One burning the reeds in which they lodged,
may prononnce on my lord Clarendon, in his double Hydra, in altronomy, a foufhern conftellation, con-
capacity of ftatefman and hiftorian, that he a&ed for filling of a number of ftars, imagined to reprefent a
liberty, but wrote far prerogative.” water ferpent. The ftars in Hydra, in Ptolemy’s ca-
Hyde (Dr Thomas), profeffor of Arabic at Ox- talogue, are twenty feven ; in Tycho’s, nineteen; in
ford, and one of the moft learned writers of the 17th Hevelius’s, thirty-one.
century, was born in 1636 ; and ftudied firft at Cam- Hydra, in zoology ; a genus of the order of zoo¬
bridge, and afterwards at Oxford. Before he was 18 phyta, belonging to the clafs of vermes. There are
years of age, he was fent from Cambridge to London to feveral fpecies, known by the general name of polypes,
aflift Mr Brian Walton in the great work of the Poly- See Polype; and AntMALCULE, n° 24. &feq.
glot Bible; and about that period undertook to Iran- HYDRAGOGUES, among phyficians, remedies
fcribe the Perfian Pentateuch out of the Hebrew cha- which evacute a large quantity of water in dropfies.
rafters, which archbilhop Ulher, who well knew the The word is formed of uJwp water, and to draw
difficulty of the undertaking, pronounced to be an im- or lead; but the application of the term proceeds up-
poffible talk to a native Perfian. After he had happi- on a miftaken fuppofition, that every purgative had
ly fucceeded in this, he affifted in correfting feveral fome particular humour which it would evacuate, and
parts oV Mr Walton’s work, for which he was perfeft- which could not be evacuated by any other. It is
ly qualified. He was made archdeacon of Gloucefter, now, however, difcovered, that all ftrong purgatives
canon of Chrift-church, head keeper of the Bodleian will prove hydragogues, if given in large quantity, or
library, and profeffor both of Hebrew and Arabic, in in weak conllitutions. The principal medicines re-
the univerfity of Oxford. He was interpreter and fe- commended as hydragogues, are the j.uice of elder, the
cretary of the Oriental languages, during the reigns of root of iris, foldanella, mechoacan, jalap, &c.
Charles II. James II. and William III.; and was HYDRANGEA, in botany: A genus of the di-
perftftly qualified to fill this poll, as he could converfe gynia order, belonging to the decandria clafs of plants;,
in tl e languages which he underftood. There never and in the natural method ranking under the 13th or-
vas an Englilhman in Lis fit nation of life who made fo der, Succulent a. The capfulc is bilocular, birollrated,
6 and
H Y D
Hydraftii and cut round, or parting horizontally.
one fpecies, vi-z. the arborefcens, a native of North A-
merica, from whence it hath lately been brought to
j Europe, and is preferved in gardens, more for the fake
of variety than beauty. It rites about three feet high ;
and hath many foft pithy ftalks, garnifhed with two
oblong heart-ihaped leaves placed oppofite. The flow¬
ers are produced at the top of the italks in a corym-
bus. They are white, compofed of five petals with
ten fiamina furrounding the flyle. It is eafily pro¬
pagated by parting the roots; the beft time for which
is the end of October. The plants thrive beft in a
moift foil, and require to be fheltered from fevtre
frofts.
HYDRASTIS, in botany: A genus of the poly-
gatnia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. There is neither calyx nor nec-
tarium ; there are three petals; and the berry is com¬
pofed of monofpermous acini.
HYDRARGYRUM, a name given to mercury, or
quickfilver. The word is formed of agua,
t 797 I H Y D
There is but the rot in ftieep. The leaves have central leaf-ftalks, Hydrogra<
with about five flowers in a rundle; the petals are of
a reddilh white. Hrdrome!
HYDROGRAPHY, the art of meafuring and de* l——v——i
fcribing the fea, rivers, canali, lakes, ftc.—With re¬
gard to the fea, it gives an account of its tides, coun¬
ter-tides, foundings, bays, gulphs, creeks, &c. ; as
alfo of the rocks, Ihelves, fands, ftiallows, promonto¬
ries, harbours; the diftance and bearing of one port
from another; with every thing that is remarkable,
whether out at fea or on the coaft.
HYDROLEA, in botany : A genus of the digy-
nia order, belonging to the pentandria clafs of plants ;
and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which
the order is doubtful. The calyx is pentaphyllous;
the corolla rotaceous; the filaments at the bafe are
cordate; the capfule is bilocular and bivalved.
HYDROMANCY, a method of divination by wa¬
ter, pra&ifed by the ancients. See Divination, n° 7.
HYDROMEL, honey diluted in nearly an equal
weight of water. When this liquor has not ferment¬
ed, it is called Jimple hydromel; and when it has un-
ter,” and *t>yvgo<t argentum, “ filverq. d. water of dergone the fpirituous fermentation, it is called thevi*
Jilver, on account of its refembling liquid or melted nous hydromd or mead.
filver. * Honey, like all faccharine fubftances, vegetable or
HYDRAULICS, the fcience of the motion of animal, is fufcep^ble of fermentation in general, and
fluids,'and the conftruftion of all kinds of inftruments particularly .of the fpirituous fermentation. To in-
and machines relating thereto. See Hydrostatics, duce this fermentatioi., nothing is neceflary but to di-
fed. iv. lute it fufficiently in wa^r, 3nd to leave this liquor
HYDRENTEROCELE, in furgery, a fpecies of expofed to a convenient c^ree 0f heat. To make
hernia, wherein the inteftines defcend into the fcro-
tum, together with a quantity of water.
HYDROCELE, in furgery, denotes any hernia
arifing from water; but is particularly ufed for fuch a
pne of the fcrotum, which fometimes grows to the
fize of one’s head, without pain, but exceedingly trou-
blefome to the patient. See Surgery.
HYDROCEPHALUS, a preternatural diftenfion
good vinous hydromel or me^ the whitcft, pureft,
and beft-tafted honey muft be chiTen . an(] this mu(h
be put into a kettle with more than ;ts weight of wa¬
ter : a part of this liquor muft be evapoMted hy boil¬
ing, and the liquor fcummed, till its ct*ii",ftence
fuch that a frefti egg ftiall be fupported upon :,s fur_
face without finking more than half its thicknels wa
the liquor; then the liquor is to be ftrained and pour-
pf the head to an uncommon fize by a ftagnation and ed through a funnel into a barrel: this barrel, which
extravafation of the lymph; which, when colleded in ought to be nearly full, muft be expofed to a heat as
the infide of the cranium, is then termed internal; as equable as is poffible, from 20 to 27 or 28 degrees of
that colle&ed on the outfide is termed external. See Mr Reaumur’s thermometer, taking care . that the
(the Index fubjoined to) Medicine. bung-hole be llightly covered, but not clofed. The
HYDROCHARIS, the little water-lily: A phenomena of the fpirituous fermentation will appear
genus of the anneandria order, belonging to the dioecia in this liquor, and will fubfift during two or three
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking under months, according to the degree of heat; after which
the firft order, Palma. The fpatha of the male is di- they will diminifh and ceafe. During this fermenta-
phyllous; the calyx trifid; the corolla tripetalous; the tion, the barrel muft be filled up occafionally with,
three interior filaments ftyliferous. The female calyx more of the fame kind of liquor of honey, fome of
trifid; the corolla tripetalous; the ftyles fix; the cap- which ought to be kept apart on purpofe to replace
fule has fix cells, and is polyfpermous inferior. There the liquor which flows out of the barrel in froth,
is only one fpecies, a native of Britain, growing in flow When the fermentation ceafes, and the liquor has be-
ftreams and wet ditches. It hath kidney-lhaped leaves, come very vinous, the barrel is then to be put in a
thick, fmooth, and of a biownifli green colour, with cellar and well clofed. A year afterwards the mead
white bloflbms. There is a variety with double flowers will be fit to be put into bottles.
«f a very fweet fmell. The vinous hydromel or mead is an agreeable kind
HYDROCOTYLE, water-navelwort: A ge- of wine : neverthelefs it retains long a tafte of honey,
uus of the digynia order, belonging to the pentandria which is unpleafing to fome perfons ; but this tafte it
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
dcr the 45 th order, Umhellata. The umbel is fimple;
the involucrum tetraphyllous; the petals entire ; the
feeds are half round and compreffed. There are feve-
ral fpecies, none of which are ever cultivated in gar¬
dens. One of them, a native of Britain', growing in
tnarfhy g^punds, is fuppof^d by the farmers to occafion
is faid to lofe entirely by being kept a very long time.
The fpirituous fermentation of honey, as alfo that
of fugar, and of the moft of vinous liquors, when it
is very faccbarine, is generally more difficultly effedled*
requires more heat, and continues longer than that of
ordinary wines made from the juice of grapes; and
thefe vinous liquors always- preferve a faccharine tafte,
which
H Y D f 798 ] H Y D
■ Hyiinm'.e- which ihows that a part only of them is become fpiri-
1 ' tuous.
HYDROMETER, an inflrument to meafure the
gravity, denfity, velocity, force, &c. of water and other
. fluids. See Hydrostatics, n° 13.
Though, this inftrument is incapable of determining
the fpecific gravity of liqilors with perfeft accuracy,
yet in the way of publfc bufinefs it has undoubtedly
the advantage of every other, on account of the eafe
and expedition with which it can be ufed ; and for
this reafon it has been adopted by government, in or¬
der to determine the ftrength of fpirittious liquors.
PhU.*Tra>fX)* Blagden, who was lately employed to make expe-
vol. 80. riments on this fubjeft, is of opinion, that glafs is the
P- 342- moft proper material for the conftruftion of an hy¬
drometer. Its fenfibility depends on the fize of its
ftem. In. the old areometers the ftem was made fo
.darge, that the volume of water difplaced between it*
.leaft and greateft immerfions was equal to the whole
■difference of fpecific gravity between water and alco¬
hol, or perhaps more ; whence its fcale of divifiors
.muft be very fmall, and could not give the fpecific
gravity with much accuracy. On this account weights
were introduced, by means of which the ftem could be
made fmaller; each weight affording a new' commence¬
ment of its fcale j fo that the fize of the divifions on a
given length was doubled, tripled, *£c. as one or more
weights were employed, the diameter of the ftem being
leffened in the fubduplicate p-oportion of the increafed
length of the divifions. * his method, however, in
our author’s opinion, h*® been carried to excefs ; and
the following is rcrjmmenJed as a proper meaa be¬
twixt thefe extre*le8» to determine the fpecific gravi¬
ty of fpiritur**8 liquors to three places of decimals.
In this method the weight of water is fuppofed to
be un>V» or 1 any number of cyphers annexed:
««,.ie whole compafs of numbers, therefore, from rec¬
tified fpirit to water, at 60 degrees of heat, would be
the difference between 825, the weight of re&ified
fpirit, and 1000 .the weight of water, which is tyy.
To make allowance for the .lighteft fpirit and heavkft
water, however, at all the common temperatures, the
difference may be fuppofed uzo. The ftem might
fhow every twenty of thefe divifions, and thus ten
weights would be fufficient for the whole. Hence the
inconvenience of fhifting the weights, which has always
been complained of, would in a great meafure be a-
voided : as people verfant in that bufinefs would fel-
dom err fo far as to the whole amount of the difference
previous to making any trial. Hence alfo the ftem
may be made fmall enough, and the fcale graduated fo
nicely as to make the inftrument fufficiently accu¬
rate.
According to this arrangement, it would be proper
to have the weights adapted to the hydrometer mark¬
ed with the different fpecific gravities which they are
intended to indicate ; Zero on the top of the ftem
without a weight being fuppofed to mean 800, and
•20 at the bottom to fignify 820, which number the
•firft weight would carry ; the fucceflive weights being
marked, 840, 860, &c.; and the divifion on the ftem
cut by the fluid under trial, would be a number always
to be added to that on the weight; the firm of the two
(bowing the true fpecific gravity. The weights Ihould
Undoubtedly be made to apply on the top of the
ftem, fo as never to come in contaft with the iiqtihtfj Hydronk
and in ufing the hydrometer, its ftem (hould always be Pha!es,
preffed down lower than the point at which it will ul- ^ydr°*
timarely reft, that by being wetted it may occafion'tio . *- “t"es' /
refiftance to the fluid. The inftrument itfelf (hould
be of as regular a (hape and with as few inequalities as
poffible, that all impediments to its motions may be
avoided.
HYDROMPHALUS, in medicine and furgery,
a tumor in the navel, arifing from a collection of
water.
HYDROPHANES.OculusMundi, or LapisMu-
tabilis, a kind of precious ftone highly efteemed among
the ancients, but little known to the moderns till
Mr Boyle made his obfervations upon it. Its fpecific
gravity is about 2.048; its colour of an opaque whitifh
brown ; it is not foluble in acids nor affected by alka¬
lies, but is eafily cut. and polilhed. Sometimes it gives
fire with fteel, fometimes not. It is infufible pet'fe;
but when urged by a blow-pipe, changes to'a brownifh
brittle fubftance. It is found in beds over the opals
in Hungary, Silefia, and Saxony, and over the chal¬
cedonies and agates in Iceland. Tbefe (tones in‘gene¬
ral are either of a yellowifti green, milky grey, dr of a
yellow like that of amber.
The moft remarkable property of this ftone is, that
it becomes tranfparent by mere infufion in any aque¬
ous fluid ; but gradually refumes its opacity when dry.
There are three of thefe (tones in the Britifh mufeum
at London ; the largeft of them about the fize of a
cherry ftone, but of an oval form. It is opaque and
coloured like a common yellow pCa; it may be fcratch-
•ed, though not without difficulty, by a common knife,
notwithftanding which it feems td leave a mark upon
glafs. It does not ferment with nitrous acid. When
it has lain fome hours in water, it becomes transpa¬
rent, and of a yellow amber colour. The change be¬
gins foon after the immerfion, and at one end in form
of a little fpot; but in a fmall one of the fame kind,
the tranfparency begins round the edges. By degrees
the fpot increafes, until the whole ftone becomes uni¬
formly clear throughout: when out of the water it
lofes its tranfparency, firft at one end, and then gradu¬
ally over the remainder, until the whole has become
opaque; which change happens in lefs time than it takes
to become tranfparent. This change is not entirely
peculiar to the hydrophanes. Bergman informs us,
that fome tteatitea produce the fame effeA; and
M. Magellan, that the cruft of chalcedonies and agates
frequently produce tlie fame appearance.
Meffrs Bruckman and Veltheim were the firft who
particularly inquired into the nature of this ftonei and
inveftigated its properties, manydf which were brought
to light by their endeavours. Their account is to the '
following purpofe. As foon as the ftone is put into
water, it exhales .a mufty fmell, feveral air-bubbles a-
rife, and it becomes gradually tranfparent. Some of
the ftones become colourless as foon as they are tho¬
roughly tranfparent, others have a more or lefs deep
yellow colour ; fome acquire a beautiful niby colour;
and, laftly, others gain a, fine colour of mother-of-pearl,
or of a bhiiflt opal. Whatever bq the colour of the
liquor in which the hydrophants*5a immerfed, it gains
only its ufual degree of tranfparency with the colour
peculiar to it. When we look at it in its maift ftate.
H Y D [ 799 1 H Y D
Hydro- we perceive a luminous point, varying its fituation as
jhobia the pofition of the eye is altered. This luminousjjoint
H 'dro- *s not’ accord'ng t0 Mr Brockman, the immediate
phyilax. image of the fun, but a refle&ion of that inaage re-
Y——^ frafted in the fubftanceof the ftoneitfelf, a phenomenon
which probably gave rifr to the name of oculus mundi.
Mr Bruckman left a piece of this ftone weighing 35
grains feven hours in water, the fpace requifite to make
it perfe&ly tranfparent ; and in that time he found
that it had gained three grains in weight. The
hydrophanes becomes much fooner tranfparent when
put into hot water; and the fame happens if it be
dipped in a very dilute acid, or rather a very dilute
folution of alkali. When dipped in oil of vitriol, it
becomes very quickly tranfparent, and will continue
fo, on account of the ftrong attraftion of that acid for
moifture, which takes as much from the atmofphere as
is nectffary to keep the ftone tranfparent; but its opa¬
city will return if it be dipped in an alkaline liquor
and afterwards dried.
HYDROPHOBIA, an averfion or dread of water:
a terrible fymptom of the rabies canina; and which has
likewife been found to take in violent inflammations of
th(j ftomach and in hyfteric fits. See Mepicjne-
Jndex.
HYDROPHYLACIA, a word ufed by Kircher
and fome others who have written in thc'fame fyftem,
to exprefs thofe great refervoirs of water vrbich he
places in the Alps and other mountains for the fuppiy
of rivers which run through the feveral lower coun¬
tries. This he makes to be one of the great ufes of
mountains in the economy of the univerfe.
HYDROPHYLLAX, in botany: A genus of the
monogynia order, belonging to the tetrandia clafs of Hydro¬
plants. The calyx is tetrapartite ; the corolla funnel- l,hJjiuni
Shaped ; the fruit two-edged and one feeded. Hydro-
HYDROPHYLLUM, water-leaf: A genus of fcope.
the monogynia order, belonging to the pentandria-—v '■l" f
clafs of plants; and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. The co¬
rolla is campanulated, with five melliferous longitudi¬
nal ftria on the infide ; the ftigma is bifid ; the cap-
fula globofe and bivalved. There is only one fpecies,
•v'rz. the Virginianum, or water-leaf of Morinus, It
grows naturally in Canada and many other parts of
America on moilt fpongy ground. The root is com-
pofed of many ftrong fleftiy fibres, from which arife
many leaves with foot-ftalks five or fix inches long,
jagged into three, five, or feven lobes, almoft to the
midrib, indented on their edges. The flowers are pro¬
duced in loofe clutters hanging downward, are bell-
fliaped, and of a dirty white colour. It may be pro¬
pagated by parting the roots; w hich ought to be done
in autumn, that the plants may be well rooted before
fpring, otherwife they will require a great deal of
water.
HYDROPS, in medicine, the fame with Dropsy.
HYDROSCOPE, an inftrument anciently ufed for
the meafuring of time.
The hydrofcope wa& n kind of water-clock, confift-
ing of a cylindrical tube, A/iical at bottom : the cy¬
linder was graduated, or marked out with divifions,
to which the top of the water becoming fucceflively
contiguous, as it trickled out at the vertex of the
cone, pointed out the hour. See Hydrostatics,
fea. vi.
END OF THE EIGHT H VOLUME..
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES or VOL. VIII.
Plate '
CCXXII. to face
CCXXIII.
CCXXIV.
ccxxv.
CCXXVI.
Part I.
p^.t ir.
Plate
CCXXVIL
CCXXVIII.
Page
28
116
197
201
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441
445
Part II.
Plate
CCXXIX. to face
CCXXX.
CCXXXI.
CCXXXII.
CCXXXIIJ
CCXXIV. - . .
CCXXXV.
CCXXXVI
CCXXXVII. (Hiftorical Chart referred to
p. 561, col. 1.)
Page
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